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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Prehistory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Ancient Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Greece_and_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Greece_and_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Ancient Greece and Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greece_and_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Medieval Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Oceania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Modernity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mine_development_and_life_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mine_development_and_life_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Mine development and life cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mine_development_and_life_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Artisanal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artisanal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Artisanal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artisanal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surface" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Surface</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_wall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_wall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>High wall</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_wall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Underground_mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Underground_mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Underground mining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Underground_mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Machines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Machines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Machines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Machines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Processing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Environmental effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Environmental effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Environmental_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Environmental regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Waste</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Industry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Industry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Industry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Corporate_classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corporate_classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Corporate classifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corporate_classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation_and_governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation_and_governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Regulation and governance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_and_governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_Bank" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_Bank"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>World Bank</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_Bank-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Human rights</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_rights-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human rights subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Child_labor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Child_labor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Child labor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Child_labor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indigenous_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indigenous_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Indigenous peoples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indigenous_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Records" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Records"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Records</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Records-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metal_reserves_and_recycling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metal_reserves_and_recycling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Metal reserves and recycling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metal_reserves_and_recycling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mining</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 86 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-86" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">86 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mynbou" title="Mynbou – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mynbou" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergbau" title="Bergbau – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Bergbau" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86" title="تعدين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تعدين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miner%C3%ADa" title="Minería – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Minería" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miner%C3%ADa" title="Minería – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Minería" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99d%C9%99n" title="Mədən – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mədən" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%A8" title="খনন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="খনন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%B2ng-gia%CC%8Dp" title="Khòng-gia̍p – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khòng-gia̍p" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%83_%D1%8D%D1%88%D0%B5" title="Тау эше – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Тау эше" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Горная справа – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Горная справа" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Горная справа – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Горная справа" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudarstvo" title="Rudarstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rudarstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mengleuz" title="Mengleuz – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Mengleuz" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineria" title="Mineria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mineria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%9B%C5%BEba" title="Těžba – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Těžba" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwyngloddio" title="Mwyngloddio – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Mwyngloddio" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining" title="Mining – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Mining" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minedrift" title="Minedrift – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Minedrift" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="تامنجميت – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تامنجميت" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergbau" title="Bergbau – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bergbau" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaevandamine" title="Kaevandamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kaevandamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Μεταλλευτική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεταλλευτική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miner%C3%ADa" title="Minería – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Minería" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minado" title="Minado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Minado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meatzaritza" title="Meatzaritza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Meatzaritza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%86%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="معدن‌کاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="معدن‌کاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_mini%C3%A8re" title="Exploitation minière – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Exploitation minière" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mianad%C3%B3ireacht" title="Mianadóireacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Mianadóireacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minar%C3%ADa" title="Minaría – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Minaría" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%91%EC%97%85" title="광업 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="광업" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakar_ma%27adinai" title="Hakar ma'adinai – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Hakar ma'adinai" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AE" title="Հանքային գործ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հանքային գործ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A8" title="खनन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खनन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudarstvo" title="Rudarstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rudarstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertambangan" title="Pertambangan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pertambangan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMayini" title="IMayini – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="IMayini" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1mavinnsla" title="Námavinnsla – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Námavinnsla" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrazione_mineraria" title="Estrazione mineraria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Estrazione mineraria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94" title="כרייה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כרייה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%A3%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%86" title="ಗಣಿಗಾರಿಕೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಗಣಿಗಾರಿಕೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balweyth" title="Balweyth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Balweyth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uchimbaji_madini" title="Uchimbaji madini – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uchimbaji madini" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_(jizman)" title="Min (jizman) – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Min (jizman)" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalleutice" title="Metalleutice – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Metalleutice" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalnr%C5%ABpniec%C4%ABba" title="Kalnrūpniecība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kalnrūpniecība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biergbau" title="Biergbau – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Biergbau" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalnakasyba" title="Kalnakasyba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kalnakasyba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mienboew" title="Mienboew – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Mienboew" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A1ny%C3%A1szat" title="Bányászat – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bányászat" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Рударство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Рударство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="ഖനനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഖനനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perlombongan" title="Perlombongan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perlombongan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BD%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mijnbouw" title="Mijnbouw – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mijnbouw" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%89%B1%E6%A5%AD" title="鉱業 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="鉱業" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruvedrift" title="Gruvedrift – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gruvedrift" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruvedrift" title="Gruvedrift – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gruvedrift" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kon_sanoati" title="Kon sanoati – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kon sanoati" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80" title="ਖਾਣਕਾਰੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਖਾਣਕਾਰੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="د کانونو استخراج – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د کانونو استخراج" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainin" title="Mainin – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Mainin" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B3rnictwo" title="Górnictwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Górnictwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minera%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Mineração – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mineração" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minerit" title="Minerit – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Minerit" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Горное дело – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Горное дело" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xehetaria" title="Xehetaria – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Xehetaria" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining" title="Mining – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mining" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban%C3%ADctvo" title="Baníctvo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Baníctvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudarstvo" title="Rudarstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rudarstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Рударство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рударство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudarstvo" title="Rudarstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rudarstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertambangan" title="Pertambangan – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Pertambangan" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaivannaistoiminta" title="Kaivannaistoiminta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kaivannaistoiminta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruvdrift" title="Gruvdrift – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gruvdrift" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagmimina" title="Pagmimina – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagmimina" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="சுரங்கத் தொழில் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சுரங்கத் தொழில்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%88" title="การทำเหมืองแร่ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การทำเหมืองแร่" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Underground mining" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Underground_soft-rock_mining" title="Underground soft-rock mining">Underground soft-rock mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Underground_hard-rock_mining" title="Underground hard-rock mining">Underground hard-rock mining</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Mining_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Mining (disambiguation)">Mining (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulphur_Mining_at_Kawah_Ijen_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Person stabbing a yellow mineral block" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sulphur_Mining_at_Kawah_Ijen_3.jpg/330px-Sulphur_Mining_at_Kawah_Ijen_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sulphur_Mining_at_Kawah_Ijen_3.jpg/495px-Sulphur_Mining_at_Kawah_Ijen_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sulphur_Mining_at_Kawah_Ijen_3.jpg/660px-Sulphur_Mining_at_Kawah_Ijen_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Mining of <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">deposit</a> at the edge of <a href="/wiki/Ijen" title="Ijen">Ijen</a>'s crater lake, Indonesia</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Mining</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">extraction</a> of valuable geological materials and minerals from the surface of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. Mining is required to obtain most materials that cannot be grown through <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural processes</a>, or feasibly created <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">artificially</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">laboratory</a> or factory. <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">Ores</a> recovered by mining include <a href="/wiki/Metal#Extraction" title="Metal">metals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">oil shale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalk_mining" title="Chalk mining">chalk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dimension_stone" title="Dimension stone">dimension stone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rock_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock salt">rock salt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potash" title="Potash">potash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a>. The ore must be a rock or <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> that contains valuable constituent, can be extracted or mined and sold for profit.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">non-renewable resource</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>, or even <a href="/wiki/Fossil_water" title="Fossil water">water</a>. </p><p>Modern mining processes involve <a href="/wiki/Prospecting" title="Prospecting">prospecting</a> for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and final <a href="/wiki/Mine_reclamation" title="Mine reclamation">reclamation</a> or restoration of the land after the mine is closed.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mining materials are often obtained from ore bodies, <a href="/wiki/Lode" title="Lode">lodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vein_(geology)" title="Vein (geology)">veins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">seams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quartz_reef_mining" title="Quartz reef mining">reefs</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Placer_deposit" title="Placer deposit">placer deposits</a>. The exploitation of these deposits for <a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">raw materials</a> is dependent on investment, labor, energy, refining, and transportation cost. </p><p>Mining operations can create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the world's nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact; however, the outsized role of mining in generating business for often rural, remote or economically depressed communities means that governments often fail to fully enforce such regulations. <a href="/wiki/Mine_safety" title="Mine safety">Work safety</a> has long been a concern as well, and where enforced, modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines. Unregulated, poorly regulated or <a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">illegal mining</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/Developing_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing economies">developing economies</a>, frequently contributes to local <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> violations and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_conflict" title="Environmental conflict">environmental conflicts</a>. Mining can also perpetuate political instability through <a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">resource conflicts</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the beginning of civilization, people have used <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">stone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> and, later, <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> found close to the Earth's surface. These were used to make early tools and weapons; for example, high quality <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">flint</a> found in northern <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> was used to create <a href="/wiki/Flint_(tool)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flint (tool)">flint tools</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a> mines have been found in <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a> areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by <a href="/wiki/Shaft_sinking" title="Shaft sinking">shafts</a> and galleries. The mines at <a href="/wiki/Grimes_Graves" class="mw-redirect" title="Grimes Graves">Grimes Graves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Krzemionki" title="Krzemionki">Krzemionki</a> are especially famous, and like most other flint mines, are <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> in origin (c. 4000–3000 BC). Other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the <a href="/wiki/Greenschist" title="Greenschist">greenstone</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a> based in the <a href="/wiki/English_Lake_District" class="mw-redirect" title="English Lake District">English Lake District</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KloproggePonceLoomis2020_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KloproggePonceLoomis2020-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the <a href="/wiki/Ngwenya_Mine" title="Ngwenya Mine">Ngwenya Mine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Eswatini_(Swaziland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eswatini (Swaziland)">Eswatini (Swaziland)</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> shows to be about 43,000 years old. At this site <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> humans mined <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a> to make the red <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigment</a> <a href="/wiki/Ochre" title="Ochre">ochre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mines of a similar age in <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> are believed to be sites where <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a> may have mined flint for weapons and tools.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Egypt">Ancient Egypt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malachite,_Zaire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Malachite%2C_Zaire.jpg/250px-Malachite%2C_Zaire.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Malachite%2C_Zaire.jpg/375px-Malachite%2C_Zaire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Malachite%2C_Zaire.jpg/500px-Malachite%2C_Zaire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1344" /></a><figcaption>Malachite</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptians</a> mined <a href="/wiki/Malachite" title="Malachite">malachite</a> at <a href="/wiki/Maadi" title="Maadi">Maadi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At first, <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a> used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Maghareh" title="Wadi Maghareh">Wadi Maghareh</a> in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quarries for <a href="/wiki/Turquoise" title="Turquoise">turquoise</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> were also found at <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Hammamat" title="Wadi Hammamat">Wadi Hammamat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tura,_Egypt" title="Tura, Egypt">Tura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a> and various other <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubian</a> sites on the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a> and at <a href="/wiki/Timna_Valley" title="Timna Valley">Timna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quarries for <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> were found at the Umm el-Sawwan site; gypsum was used to make funerary items for private tombs. Other minerals mined in Egypt from the Old Kingdom (2649-2134 BC) until the Roman Period (30 BC-AD 395) including <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Travertine" title="Travertine">travertine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gneiss" title="Gneiss">gneiss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">galena</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amethyst" title="Amethyst">amethyst</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining in Egypt">Mining in Egypt</a> occurred in the earliest dynasties. The <a href="/wiki/Nubia#Kerma" title="Nubia">gold mines of Nubia</a> were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> author <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, who mentions <a href="/wiki/Fire-setting" title="Fire-setting">fire-setting</a> as one method used to break down the hard rock holding the <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known mining maps.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust known as the dry and wet attachment processes.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greece_and_Rome">Ancient Greece and Rome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient Greece and Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Roman_Britain" title="Mining in Roman Britain">Mining in Roman Britain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dolaucothimap4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Dolaucothimap4.jpg/300px-Dolaucothimap4.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="356" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Dolaucothimap4.jpg/450px-Dolaucothimap4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Dolaucothimap4.jpg/600px-Dolaucothimap4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="687" data-file-height="815" /></a><figcaption>Ancient Roman development of the <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi_Gold_Mines" title="Dolaucothi Gold Mines">Dolaucothi Gold Mines</a>, Wales</figcaption></figure> <p>Mining in Europe has a very long history. Examples include the silver mines of <a href="/wiki/Laurium" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurium">Laurium</a>, which helped support the Greek <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>. Although they had over 20,000 <a href="/wiki/Slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Slaves">slaves</a> working them, their technology was essentially identical to their <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> predecessors.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At other mines, such as on the island of <a href="/wiki/Thasos" title="Thasos">Thassos</a>, marble was quarried by the <a href="/wiki/Paros" title="Paros">Parians</a> after they arrived in the 7th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The marble was shipped away and was later found by <a href="/wiki/Archaeologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologists">archaeologists</a> to have been used in buildings including the tomb of Amphipolis. <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>, the father of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, captured the gold mines of Mount Pangeo in 357 BC to fund his military campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also captured gold mines in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Macedonia_and_Thrace" title="Eastern Macedonia and Thrace">Thrace</a> for minting coinage, eventually producing 26 <a href="/wiki/Ton" title="Ton">tons</a> per year. </p><p>However, it was the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> who developed large-scale mining methods, especially the use of large volumes of water brought to the minehead by numerous <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(watercourse)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueduct (watercourse)">aqueducts</a>. The water was used for a variety of purposes, including removing overburden and rock debris, called <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_mining" title="Hydraulic mining">hydraulic mining</a>, as well as washing <a href="/wiki/Comminution" title="Comminution">comminuted</a>, or crushed, ores and driving simple machinery. </p><p>The Romans used hydraulic mining methods on a large scale to prospect for the <a href="/wiki/Vein_(geology)" title="Vein (geology)">veins</a> of ore, especially using a now-obsolete form of mining known as <a href="/wiki/Hushing" title="Hushing">hushing</a>. They built numerous <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(watercourse)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueduct (watercourse)">aqueducts</a> to supply water to the minehead, where the water was stored in large <a href="/wiki/Reservoirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservoirs">reservoirs</a> and tanks. When a full tank was opened, the flood of water <a href="/wiki/Sluice" title="Sluice">sluiced</a> away the <a href="/wiki/Overburden" title="Overburden">overburden</a> to expose the <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a> underneath and any gold-bearing veins. The rock was then worked by <a href="/wiki/Fire-setting" title="Fire-setting">fire-setting</a> to heat the rock, which would be quenched with a stream of water. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Thermal_shock" title="Thermal shock">thermal shock</a> cracked the rock, enabling it to be removed by further streams of water from the overhead tanks. The Roman miners used similar methods to work <a href="/wiki/Cassiterite" title="Cassiterite">cassiterite</a> deposits in <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> ore in the <a href="/wiki/Pennines" title="Pennines">Pennines</a>. </p><p>Sluicing methods were developed by the Romans in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> in 25 AD to exploit large <a href="/wiki/Alluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Alluvial">alluvial</a> gold deposits, the largest site being at <a href="/wiki/Las_Medulas" class="mw-redirect" title="Las Medulas">Las Medulas</a>, where seven long aqueducts tapped local rivers and sluiced the deposits. The Romans also exploited the silver present in the <a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">argentiferous galena</a> in the mines of <a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Spain" title="Cartagena, Spain">Cartagena</a> (<i>Cartago Nova</i>), <a href="/wiki/Linares,_Ja%C3%A9n" title="Linares, Jaén">Linares</a> (<i>Castulo</i>), <a href="/wiki/Plasenzuela" title="Plasenzuela">Plasenzuela</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azuaga" title="Azuaga">Azuaga</a>, among many others.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> was one of the most important mining regions, but all regions of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> were exploited. In <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> the natives had mined minerals for <a href="/wiki/Millennia" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennia">millennia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but after the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest</a>, the scale of the operations increased dramatically, as the Romans needed <a href="/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia">Britannia</a>'s resources, especially <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>. </p><p>Roman techniques were not limited to surface mining. They followed the ore veins underground once opencast mining was no longer feasible. At <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolaucothi">Dolaucothi</a> they <a href="/wiki/Stoping" title="Stoping">stoped</a> out the veins and drove <a href="/wiki/Adit" title="Adit">adits</a> through bare rock to drain the stopes. The same adits were also used to ventilate the workings, especially important when <a href="/wiki/Fire-setting" title="Fire-setting">fire-setting</a> was used. At other parts of the site, they penetrated the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> and dewatered the mines using several kinds of machines, especially <a href="/wiki/Reverse_overshot_water-wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse overshot water-wheel">reverse overshot water-wheels</a>. These were used extensively in the <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> mines at <a href="/wiki/Rio_Tinto_(river)" title="Rio Tinto (river)">Rio Tinto</a> in Spain, where one sequence comprised 16 such wheels arranged in pairs, and lifting water about 24 metres (79 ft). They were worked as treadmills with miners standing on the top slats. Many examples of such devices have been found in old Roman mines and some examples are now preserved in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum of Wales">National Museum of Wales</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Europe">Medieval Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Medieval Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mining_and_metallurgy_in_medieval_Europe" title="Mining and metallurgy in medieval Europe">Mining and metallurgy in medieval Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georgius_Agricola.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg/170px-Georgius_Agricola.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg/255px-Georgius_Agricola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Agricola, author of <i><a href="/wiki/De_Re_Metallica" class="mw-redirect" title="De Re Metallica">De Re Metallica</a></i></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gallery_medieval_silver_mine_Germany_southern_Black_Forest_12th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Gallery_medieval_silver_mine_Germany_southern_Black_Forest_12th_century.jpg/170px-Gallery_medieval_silver_mine_Germany_southern_Black_Forest_12th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Gallery_medieval_silver_mine_Germany_southern_Black_Forest_12th_century.jpg/255px-Gallery_medieval_silver_mine_Germany_southern_Black_Forest_12th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Gallery_medieval_silver_mine_Germany_southern_Black_Forest_12th_century.jpg/340px-Gallery_medieval_silver_mine_Germany_southern_Black_Forest_12th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Gallery, 12th to 13th century, Germany</figcaption></figure> <p>Mining as an industry underwent dramatic changes in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval Europe</a>. The mining industry in the early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> was mainly focused on the extraction of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>. Other <a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">precious metals</a> were also used, mainly for gilding or coinage. Initially, many metals were obtained through <a href="/wiki/Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">open-pit mining</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> was primarily extracted from shallow depths, rather than through deep mine shafts. Around the <a href="/wiki/14th_century" title="14th century">14th century</a>, the growing use of <a href="/wiki/Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons">weapons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armour" title="Armour">armour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stirrup" title="Stirrup">stirrups</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Horseshoe" title="Horseshoe">horseshoes</a> greatly increased the demand for iron. Medieval <a href="/wiki/Knights" class="mw-redirect" title="Knights">knights</a>, for example, were often laden with up to 100 pounds (45 kg) of plate or <a href="/wiki/Chain_mail" title="Chain mail">chain link armour</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/Sword" title="Sword">swords</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lances" class="mw-redirect" title="Lances">lances</a> and other weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The overwhelming dependency on iron for military purposes spurred iron production and extraction processes. </p><p>The silver crisis of 1465 occurred when all mines had reached depths at which the shafts could no longer be pumped dry with the available technology.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although an increased use of <a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">banknotes</a>, credit and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> <a href="/wiki/Coins" class="mw-redirect" title="Coins">coins</a> during this period did decrease the value of, and dependence on, <a href="/wiki/Precious_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Precious metals">precious metals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> still remained vital to the story of medieval mining. </p><p>Due to differences in the social structure of society, the increasing extraction of mineral deposits spread from <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">central Europe</a> to England in the mid-sixteenth century. On the continent, mineral deposits belonged to the crown, and this regalian right was stoutly maintained. But in England, royal mining rights were restricted to <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> (of which England had virtually no deposits) by a judicial decision of 1568 and a law in 1688. <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> had <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> ores. <a href="/wiki/Landlords" class="mw-redirect" title="Landlords">Landlords</a> who owned the base metals and coal under their estates then had a strong inducement to extract these metals or to lease the deposits and collect royalties from mine operators. English, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> combined to finance extraction and <a href="/wiki/Refining" title="Refining">refining</a>. Hundreds of German <a href="/wiki/Technicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Technicians">technicians</a> and skilled workers were brought over; in 1642 a colony of 4,000 foreigners was mining and smelting copper at <a href="/wiki/Keswick,_Cumbria" title="Keswick, Cumbria">Keswick</a> in the northwestern mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Use of water power in the form of <a href="/wiki/Water_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Water mill">water mills</a> was extensive. The water mills were employed in crushing ore, raising ore from shafts, and ventilating galleries by powering giant <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gun_powder" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun powder">Black powder</a> was first used in mining in <a href="/wiki/Bansk%C3%A1_%C5%A0tiavnica" title="Banská Štiavnica">Selmecbánya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Bansk%C3%A1_%C5%A0tiavnica" title="Banská Štiavnica">Banská Štiavnica</a>, Slovakia) in 1627.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black powder allowed blasting of rock and earth to loosen and reveal ore veins. Blasting was much faster than <a href="/wiki/Fire-setting" title="Fire-setting">fire-setting</a> and allowed the mining of previously impenetrable metals and ores.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1762, one of the world's first mining academies was established in the same town there. </p><p>The widespread adoption of agricultural innovations such as the iron <a href="/wiki/Plowshare" title="Plowshare">plowshare</a>, as well as the growing use of metal as a building material, was also a driving force in the tremendous growth of the iron industry during this period. Inventions like the <a href="/wiki/Arrastra" title="Arrastra">arrastra</a> were often used by the Spanish to pulverize ore after being mined. This device was powered by animals and used the same principles used for grain <a href="/wiki/Threshing" title="Threshing">threshing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of the knowledge of medieval mining techniques comes from books such as <a href="/wiki/Biringuccio" class="mw-redirect" title="Biringuccio">Biringuccio</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/De_la_pirotechnia" title="De la pirotechnia">De la pirotechnia</a></i> and probably most importantly from <a href="/wiki/Georg_Agricola" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Agricola">Georg Agricola</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/De_re_metallica" title="De re metallica">De re metallica</a></i> (1556). These books detail many different mining methods used in German and Saxon mines. A prime issue in medieval mines, which <a href="/wiki/Georgius_Agricola" title="Georgius Agricola">Agricola</a> explains in detail, was the removal of water from mining shafts. As miners dug deeper to access new veins, flooding became a very real obstacle. The mining industry became dramatically more efficient and prosperous with the invention of mechanically- and animal-driven pumps. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Iron_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Iron metallurgy in Africa">Iron metallurgy in Africa</a> dates back over four thousand years. Gold became an important commodity for Africa during the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_gold_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-Saharan gold trade">trans-Saharan gold trade</a> from the 7th century to the 14th century. Gold was often traded to Mediterranean economies that demanded gold and could supply <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a>, even though much of Africa was abundant with salt due to the mines and resources in the <a href="/wiki/Sahara_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara desert">Sahara desert</a>. The trading of gold for salt was mostly used to promote trade between the different economies.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the <a href="/wiki/Great_Trek" title="Great Trek">Great Trek</a> in the 19th century, after, gold and diamond mining in <a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_South_Africa" title="Mining industry of South Africa">Southern Africa</a> has had major political and economic impacts. The <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a> is the largest producer of diamonds in Africa, with an estimated 12 million carats in 2019. Other types of mining reserves in Africa include <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bauxite" title="Bauxite">bauxite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a>, coal, and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Oceania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gold and coal mining started in Australia and New Zealand in the 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Nickel_mining_in_New_Caledonia" title="Nickel mining in New Caledonia">Nickel</a> has become important in the economy of <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a>, in 1934, the Emperor Gold Mining Company Ltd. established operations at <a href="/wiki/Vatukoula" title="Vatukoula">Vatukoula</a>, followed in 1935 by the Loloma Gold Mines, N.L., and then by Fiji Mines Development Ltd. (aka Dolphin Mines Ltd.). These developments ushered in a “mining boom”, with gold production rising more than a hundred-fold, from 931.4 oz in 1934 to 107,788.5 oz in 1939, an order of magnitude then comparable to the combined output of New Zealand and Australia's eastern states.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americas">Americas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg/220px-Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg/330px-Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg/440px-Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="938" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> mining in the upper <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> region of the U.S., 1865</figcaption></figure><p> During prehistoric times, early Americans mined large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> along <a href="/wiki/Lake_Superior" title="Lake Superior">Lake Superior</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Keweenaw_Peninsula" title="Keweenaw Peninsula">Keweenaw Peninsula</a> and in nearby <a href="/wiki/Isle_Royale" title="Isle Royale">Isle Royale</a>; metallic copper was still present near the surface in colonial times.<sup id="cite_ref-Lankton91_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lankton91-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-west70_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west70-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ricard32_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ricard32-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indigenous peoples used Lake Superior copper from at least 5,000 years ago;<sup id="cite_ref-Lankton91_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lankton91-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> copper tools, arrowheads, and other <a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">artifacts</a> that were part of an extensive native trade-network have been discovered. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">flint</a>, and other minerals were mined, worked, and traded.<sup id="cite_ref-west70_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west70-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early French explorers who encountered the sites<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> made no use of the metals due to the difficulties of transporting them,<sup id="cite_ref-west70_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west70-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the copper was eventually<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (April 2021)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> traded throughout the continent along major river routes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI_sepia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI_sepia.jpg/220px-TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI_sepia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI_sepia.jpg/330px-TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI_sepia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI_sepia.jpg/440px-TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI_sepia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1661" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Miners" class="mw-redirect" title="Miners">Miners</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Tamarack_mine" title="Tamarack mine">Tamarack Mine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Copper_Country" title="Copper Country">Copper Country</a>, Michigan, U.S., in 1905</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mining_factory_-_DPLA_-_cc85a73449447a67878caac4f19a23d2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Mining_factory_-_DPLA_-_cc85a73449447a67878caac4f19a23d2.jpg/220px-Mining_factory_-_DPLA_-_cc85a73449447a67878caac4f19a23d2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Mining_factory_-_DPLA_-_cc85a73449447a67878caac4f19a23d2.jpg/330px-Mining_factory_-_DPLA_-_cc85a73449447a67878caac4f19a23d2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Mining_factory_-_DPLA_-_cc85a73449447a67878caac4f19a23d2.jpg/440px-Mining_factory_-_DPLA_-_cc85a73449447a67878caac4f19a23d2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="606" /></a><figcaption>Mining factory, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1880–1885. Photographs of the American West, Boston Public Library</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early colonial history of the Americas, "native gold and silver was quickly expropriated and sent back to Spain in fleets of gold- and silver-laden galleons",<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the gold and silver originating mostly from mines in Central and South America. <a href="/wiki/Turquoise" title="Turquoise">Turquoise</a> dated at 700 AD was mined in <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">pre-Columbian</a> America; in the Cerillos Mining District in <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, an estimate of "about 15,000 tons of rock had been removed from Mt. Chalchihuitl using <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a> before 1700."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1727 Louis Denys (Denis) (1675–1741), sieur de La Ronde – brother of <a href="/wiki/Simon-Pierre_Denys_de_Bonaventure" title="Simon-Pierre Denys de Bonaventure">Simon-Pierre Denys de Bonaventure</a> and the son-in-law of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9-Louis_Chartier_de_Lotbini%C3%A8re" title="René-Louis Chartier de Lotbinière">René Chartier</a> – took command of <a href="/wiki/La_Pointe,_Wisconsin" title="La Pointe, Wisconsin">Fort La Pointe</a> at <a href="/wiki/Chequamegon_Bay" title="Chequamegon Bay">Chequamegon Bay</a>; where natives informed him of an island of copper. La Ronde obtained permission from the French crown to operate mines in 1733, becoming "the first practical miner on Lake Superior"; seven years later, mining was halted by an outbreak between <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chippewa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chippewa">Chippewa</a> tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining in the United States</a> became widespread in the 19th century, and the United States Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/General_Mining_Act_of_1872" title="General Mining Act of 1872">General Mining Act of 1872</a> to encourage mining of federal lands.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a> in the mid-19th century, mining for minerals and precious metals, along with <a href="/wiki/Ranching" class="mw-redirect" title="Ranching">ranching</a>, became a driving factor in the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Westward_Expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Westward Expansion">Westward Expansion</a> to the Pacific coast. With the exploration of the West, mining camps sprang up and "expressed a distinctive spirit, an enduring legacy to the new nation"; Gold Rushers would experience the same problems as the Land Rushers of the transient West that preceded them.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aided by railroads, many people traveled West for work opportunities in mining. Western cities such as <a href="/wiki/Denver,_Colorado" class="mw-redirect" title="Denver, Colorado">Denver</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sacramento,_California" title="Sacramento, California">Sacramento</a> originated as mining towns.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When new areas were explored, it was usually the gold (<a href="/wiki/Placer_gold" class="mw-redirect" title="Placer gold">placer</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Lode_gold" class="mw-redirect" title="Lode gold">lode</a>) and then silver that were taken into possession and extracted first. Other metals would often wait for railroads or canals, as coarse gold dust and nuggets do not require smelting and are easy to identify and transport.<sup id="cite_ref-Ricard32_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ricard32-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernity">Modernity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Modernity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_showing_miners%E2%80%99_clothes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/View_showing_miners%E2%80%99_clothes.jpg/220px-View_showing_miners%E2%80%99_clothes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/View_showing_miners%E2%80%99_clothes.jpg/330px-View_showing_miners%E2%80%99_clothes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/View_showing_miners%E2%80%99_clothes.jpg/440px-View_showing_miners%E2%80%99_clothes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="808" /></a><figcaption>View showing miners' clothes suspended by pulleys, also wash basins and ventilation system, Kirkland Lake, Ontario, 1936</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early 20th century, the gold and silver rush to the western United States also stimulated mining for coal as well as <a href="/wiki/Base_metal" title="Base metal">base metals</a> such as copper, lead, and iron. Areas in modern Montana, Utah, Arizona, and later Alaska became predominant suppliers of copper to the world, which was increasingly demanding copper for electrical and household goods.<sup id="cite_ref-miller_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miller-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Canada's mining industry grew more slowly than did the United States due to limitations in transportation, capital, and U.S. competition; Ontario was the major producer of the early 20th century with nickel, copper, and gold.<sup id="cite_ref-miller_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miller-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, Australia experienced the <a href="/wiki/Australian_gold_rushes" title="Australian gold rushes">Australian gold rushes</a> and by the 1850s was producing 40% of the world's gold, followed by the establishment of large mines such as the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Morgan_Mine" title="Mount Morgan Mine">Mount Morgan Mine</a>, which ran for nearly a hundred years, <a href="/wiki/Broken_Hill_ore_deposit" title="Broken Hill ore deposit">Broken Hill ore deposit</a> (one of the largest zinc-lead ore deposits), and the iron ore mines at <a href="/wiki/Iron_Knob" title="Iron Knob">Iron Knob</a>. After declines in production, another boom in mining occurred in the 1960s. In the early 21st century, Australia remains a major world mineral producer.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the 21st century begins, a globalized <a href="#Industry">mining industry</a> of large multinational corporations has arisen. <a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">Peak minerals</a> and <a href="#Environmental_effects">environmental impacts</a> have also become a concern. Different elements, particularly <a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_mineral" title="Rare-earth mineral">rare-earth minerals</a>, have begun to increase in demand as a result of new technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-Geosciences_LibreTexts-2017_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geosciences_LibreTexts-2017-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, 8.5 billion metric tons of coal were extracted from the Earth's crust. However, as the global economy transitions away from fossil fuels and toward a more sustainable future, the demand for metals is set to skyrocket. Between 2022 and 2050, an estimated 7 billion metric tons of metals will need to be extracted. Steel will account for the largest portion of this total at 5 billion tons, followed by aluminum at 950 million tons, copper at 650 million tons, graphite at 170 million tons, nickel at 100 million tons, and other metals. Notably, the energy expenditure required to extract these metals will soon surpass that of coal mining, highlighting the growing importance of sustainable metal extraction practices.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mine_development_and_life_cycle">Mine development and life cycle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mine development and life cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Mining" title="Special:EditPage/Mining">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cut_and_fill_schematic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Cut_and_fill_schematic.png/330px-Cut_and_fill_schematic.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Cut_and_fill_schematic.png/495px-Cut_and_fill_schematic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Cut_and_fill_schematic.png/660px-Cut_and_fill_schematic.png 2x" data-file-width="1045" data-file-height="518" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of a <a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(hard_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (hard rock)">cut and fill mining operation in hard rock</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The process of mining from discovery of an ore body through extraction of minerals and finally to returning the land to its natural state consists of several distinct steps. The first is discovery of the ore body, which is carried out through <a href="/wiki/Prospecting" title="Prospecting">prospecting</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mineral_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineral exploration">exploration</a> to find and then define the extent, location and value of the ore body. This leads to a mathematical <a href="/wiki/Mineral_resource_classification" title="Mineral resource classification">resource estimation</a> to estimate the size and <a href="/wiki/Ore_grade" class="mw-redirect" title="Ore grade">grade</a> of the deposit.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This estimation is used to conduct a pre-feasibility study to determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit. This identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. The next step is to conduct a <a href="/wiki/Mining_feasibility_study" title="Mining feasibility study">feasibility study</a> to evaluate the financial viability, the technical and financial risks, and the robustness of the project.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This is when the mining company makes the decision whether to develop the mine or to walk away from the project. This includes mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the deposit, the <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> and ore recoverability, marketability and payability of the ore concentrates, engineering concerns, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements, and an analysis of the proposed mine from the initial excavation all the way through to reclamation. The proportion of a deposit that is economically recoverable is dependent on the <a href="/wiki/Enrichment_factor" title="Enrichment factor">enrichment factor</a> of the ore in the area.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>To gain access to the mineral deposit within an area it is often necessary to mine through or remove <a href="/wiki/Overburden" title="Overburden">waste material</a> which is not of immediate interest to the miner. The total movement of ore and waste constitutes the mining process. Often more waste than ore is mined during the life of a mine, depending on the nature and location of the ore body. Waste removal and placement is a major cost to the mining operator, so a detailed characterization of the waste material forms an essential part of the geological exploration program for a mining operation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Once the analysis determines a given ore body is worth recovering, development begins to create access to the ore body. The mine buildings and processing plants are built, and any necessary equipment is obtained. The operation of the mine to recover the ore begins and continues as long as the company operating the mine finds it economical to do so. Once all the ore that the mine can produce profitably is recovered, <a href="/wiki/Land_rehabilitation" title="Land rehabilitation">reclamation</a> can begin, to make the land used by the mine suitable for future use.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Technical and economic challenges notwithstanding, successful mine development must also address human factors. Working conditions are paramount to success, especially with regard to exposures to dusts, radiation, noise, explosives hazards, and vibration, as well as illumination standards. Mining today increasingly must address environmental and community impacts, including psychological and sociological dimensions. Thus, mining educator <a href="/wiki/Frank_T._M._White" title="Frank T. M. White">Frank T. M. White</a> (1909–1971), broadened the focus to the “total environment of mining”, including reference to community development around mining, and how mining is portrayed to an urban society, which depends on the industry, although seemingly unaware of this dependency. He stated, “[I]n the past, mining engineers have not been called upon to study the psychological, sociological and personal problems of their own industry – aspects that nowadays are assuming tremendous importance. The mining engineer must rapidly expand his knowledge and his influence into these newer fields.”<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SL500_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/SL500_01.jpg/220px-SL500_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/SL500_01.jpg/330px-SL500_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/SL500_01.jpg/440px-SL500_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Underground <a href="/wiki/Longwall_mining" title="Longwall mining">longwall mining</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Mining techniques can be divided into two common <a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">excavation</a> types: <a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">surface mining</a> and <a href="#Underground_mining">sub-surface (underground) mining</a>. Today, surface mining is much more common, and produces, for example, 85% of minerals (excluding petroleum and natural gas) in the United States, including 98% of metallic ores.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Targets are divided into two general categories of materials: <i>placer deposits</i>, consisting of valuable minerals contained within river gravels, beach sands, and other <a href="/wiki/Alluvium" title="Alluvium">unconsolidated materials</a>; and <i>lode deposits</i>, where valuable minerals are found in veins, in layers, or in mineral grains generally distributed throughout a mass of actual rock. Both types of ore deposit, placer or lode, are mined by both surface and underground methods.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Some mining, including much of the rare earth elements and <a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">uranium mining</a>, is done by less-common methods, such as <a href="/wiki/In-situ_leach" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ leach">in-situ leaching</a>: this technique involves digging neither at the surface nor underground. The extraction of target minerals by this technique requires that they be soluble, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Potash" title="Potash">potash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_sulfate" title="Sodium sulfate">sodium sulfate</a>, which dissolve in water. Some minerals, such as copper minerals and <a href="/wiki/Uranium_oxide" title="Uranium oxide">uranium oxide</a>, require acid or carbonate solutions to dissolve.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><big>Explosives in Mining</big></b> </p><p>Explosives have been used in <a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">surface mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Underground_hard-rock_mining" title="Underground hard-rock mining">sub-surface mining</a> to blast out rock and ore intended for processing. The most common explosive used in mining is <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate" title="Ammonium nitrate">ammonium nitrate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bajpayee-2004_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bajpayee-2004-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1870 and 1920, in Queensland Australia, an increase in mining accidents lead to more safety measures surrounding the use of explosives for mining.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States of America, between 1990 and 1999, about 22.3 billion kilograms of explosives were used in mining quarrying and other industries; Moreover "<a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">coal mining</a> used 66.4%, nonmetal mining and quarrying 13.5%, metal mining 10.4%, <a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">construction</a> 7.1%, and all other users 2.6%".<sup id="cite_ref-Bajpayee-2004_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bajpayee-2004-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artisanal">Artisanal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Artisanal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Artisanal_mining" title="Artisanal mining">Artisanal mining</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artisanal_mining&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artisanal_gold_Dodoma001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Artisanal_gold_Dodoma001.jpg/170px-Artisanal_gold_Dodoma001.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Artisanal_gold_Dodoma001.jpg/255px-Artisanal_gold_Dodoma001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Artisanal_gold_Dodoma001.jpg/340px-Artisanal_gold_Dodoma001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1295" data-file-height="2184" /></a><figcaption>Artisanal gold mines near Dodoma, Tanzania. Makeshift sails lead fresh air underground.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Artisanal_mining" title="Artisanal mining">Artisanal and small-scale mining</a> (ASM) is a blanket term for a type of subsistence mining involving a <a href="/wiki/Miner" title="Miner">miner</a> who may or may not be officially employed by a <a href="/wiki/List_of_mining_companies" title="List of mining companies">mining company</a> but works independently, mining minerals using their own resources, usually by hand.<sup id="cite_ref-Artisanal_mining_:03_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artisanal_mining_:03-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While there is no completely coherent definition for ASM, artisanal mining generally includes miners who are not officially employed by a mining company and use their own resources to mine. As such, they are part of an <a href="/wiki/Informal_economy" title="Informal economy">informal economy</a>. ASM also includes, in small-scale mining, enterprises or individuals that employ workers for mining, but who generally still use similar manually-intensive methods as artisanal miners (such as working with hand tools). In addition, ASM can be characterized as distinct from large-scale mining (LSM) by less efficient extraction of pure <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a>, lower wages, decreased occupational safety, benefits, and health standards for miners, and a lack of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_mining" title="Environmental impact of mining">environmental protection</a> measures.<sup id="cite_ref-Artisanal_mining_:42_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artisanal_mining_:42-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Artisanal miners often undertake the activity of mining seasonally. For example, <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">crops</a> are planted in the <a href="/wiki/Rainy_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainy season">rainy season</a>, and mining is pursued in the <a href="/wiki/Dry_season" title="Dry season">dry season</a>. However, they also frequently travel to mining areas and work year-round. There are four broad types of ASM:<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Permanent artisanal mining</li> <li>Seasonal (annually migrating during idle agriculture periods)</li> <li>Rush-type (massive migration, pulled often by commodity price jumps)</li> <li>Shock-push (poverty-driven, following conflict or natural disasters).</li></ol> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artisanal_mine_interior_near_Lows_Creek_Mpumalanga_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Artisanal_mine_interior_near_Lows_Creek_Mpumalanga_01.jpg/220px-Artisanal_mine_interior_near_Lows_Creek_Mpumalanga_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Artisanal_mine_interior_near_Lows_Creek_Mpumalanga_01.jpg/330px-Artisanal_mine_interior_near_Lows_Creek_Mpumalanga_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Artisanal_mine_interior_near_Lows_Creek_Mpumalanga_01.jpg/440px-Artisanal_mine_interior_near_Lows_Creek_Mpumalanga_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Interior of an artisanal mine near Low's Creek, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. The human figures, exploring this mine, show the scale of tunnels driven entirely with hand tools (two-kilogram (4.4 lb) hammer and hand-forged scrap-steel chisel).</figcaption></figure> ASM is an important socio-economic sector for the rural poor in many developing nations, many of whom have few other options for supporting their families. Over 90% of the world's mining workforce are engaged in ASM, with an estimated 40.5 million people directly engaged in ASM, from over 80 countries in the <a href="/wiki/Global_south" class="mw-redirect" title="Global south">global south</a>. More than 150 million people indirectly depend on ASM for their livelihood. 70–80% of small-scale miners are informal, and approximately 30% are women, although this ranges in certain countries and commodities from 5% to 80%.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surface">Surface</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Surface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a> is done by removing surface vegetation, dirt, and bedrock to reach buried ore deposits. Techniques of surface mining include: <a href="/wiki/Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">open-pit mining</a>, which is the recovery of materials from an open pit in the ground; <a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">quarrying</a>, identical to open-pit mining except that it refers to sand, stone and clay; <a href="/wiki/Strip_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Strip mining">strip mining</a>, which consists of stripping surface layers off to reveal ore underneath; and <a href="/wiki/Mountaintop_removal_mining" title="Mountaintop removal mining">mountaintop removal</a>, commonly associated with coal mining, which involves taking the top of a mountain off to reach ore deposits at depth. Most placer deposits, because they are shallowly buried, are mined by surface methods. Finally, <a href="/wiki/Landfill_mining" title="Landfill mining">landfill mining</a> involves sites where <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfills</a> are excavated and processed.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Landfill mining has been thought of as a long-term solution to <a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">methane emissions</a> and local pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:1008px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tagebau_Garzweiler_Panorama_2005.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Garzweiler surface mine, Germany"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Tagebau_Garzweiler_Panorama_2005.jpg/1000px-Tagebau_Garzweiler_Panorama_2005.jpg" decoding="async" width="1000" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Tagebau_Garzweiler_Panorama_2005.jpg/1500px-Tagebau_Garzweiler_Panorama_2005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Tagebau_Garzweiler_Panorama_2005.jpg/2000px-Tagebau_Garzweiler_Panorama_2005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12000" data-file-height="1370" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Tagebau_Garzweiler_Panorama_2005.jpg" title="File:Tagebau Garzweiler Panorama 2005.jpg"> </a></div><a href="/wiki/Garzweiler_surface_mine" title="Garzweiler surface mine">Garzweiler surface mine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_wall">High wall</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: High wall"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mega_HIghwall_Mining_ADDCAR_16.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mega_HIghwall_Mining_ADDCAR_16.jpg/220px-Mega_HIghwall_Mining_ADDCAR_16.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mega_HIghwall_Mining_ADDCAR_16.jpg/330px-Mega_HIghwall_Mining_ADDCAR_16.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mega_HIghwall_Mining_ADDCAR_16.jpg/440px-Mega_HIghwall_Mining_ADDCAR_16.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2317" data-file-height="1439" /></a><figcaption>Coalburg Seam highwall mining at ADDCAR 16 Logan County WV</figcaption></figure> <p>High wall mining, which evolved from auger mining, is another form of surface mining. In high wall mining, the remaining part of a coal seam previously exploited by other surface-mining techniques has too much overburden to be removed but can still be profitably exploited from the side of the artificial cliff made by previous mining.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A typical cycle alternates sumping, which undercuts the seam, and shearing, which raises and lowers the cutter-head boom to cut the entire height of the coal seam. As the coal recovery cycle continues, the cutter-head is progressively launched further into the coal seam. High wall mining can produce thousands of tons of coal in contour-strip operations with narrow benches, previously mined areas, trench mine applications and steep-dip seams.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Myslowice_kopalnia_Myslowice_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Myslowice_kopalnia_Myslowice_07.jpg/170px-Myslowice_kopalnia_Myslowice_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Myslowice_kopalnia_Myslowice_07.jpg/255px-Myslowice_kopalnia_Myslowice_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Myslowice_kopalnia_Myslowice_07.jpg/340px-Myslowice_kopalnia_Myslowice_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mys%C5%82owice" title="Mysłowice">Mysłowice</a> coal mine shaft tower, <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesian_Coal_Basin" title="Upper Silesian Coal Basin">Upper Silesian Coal Basin</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Underground_mining">Underground mining</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Underground mining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Underground_Mining"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(hard_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (hard rock)">Underground mining (hard rock)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(soft_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (soft rock)">Underground mining (soft rock)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kilianstollen_Zug.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Kilianstollen_Zug.jpg/220px-Kilianstollen_Zug.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Kilianstollen_Zug.jpg/330px-Kilianstollen_Zug.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Kilianstollen_Zug.jpg/440px-Kilianstollen_Zug.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mantrip" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantrip">Mantrip</a> used for transporting miners within an underground mine</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caterpillar_Highwall_Mine_HW300.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Caterpillar_Highwall_Mine_HW300.jpg/220px-Caterpillar_Highwall_Mine_HW300.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Caterpillar_Highwall_Mine_HW300.jpg/330px-Caterpillar_Highwall_Mine_HW300.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Caterpillar_Highwall_Mine_HW300.jpg/440px-Caterpillar_Highwall_Mine_HW300.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Caterpillar Highwall Miner HW300 – Technology Bridging Underground and Open Pit Mining</figcaption></figure> <p>Sub-surface mining consists of digging tunnels or shafts into the earth to reach buried ore deposits. Ore, for processing, and waste rock, for disposal, are brought to the surface through the tunnels and shafts. Sub-surface mining can be classified by the type of access shafts used, and the extraction method or the technique used to reach the mineral deposit. <a href="/wiki/Drift_mining" title="Drift mining">Drift mining</a> uses horizontal access tunnels, <a href="/wiki/Slope_mining" title="Slope mining">slope mining</a> uses diagonally sloping access shafts, and <a href="/wiki/Shaft_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaft mining">shaft mining</a> uses vertical access shafts. Mining in <a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(hard_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (hard rock)">hard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(soft_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (soft rock)">soft</a> rock formations requires different techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other methods include <a href="/wiki/Shrinkage_stope_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrinkage stope mining">shrinkage stope mining</a>, which is mining upward, creating a sloping underground room, <a href="/wiki/Long_wall_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Long wall mining">long wall mining</a>, which is grinding a long ore surface underground, and <a href="/wiki/Room_and_pillar" class="mw-redirect" title="Room and pillar">room and pillar</a> mining, which is removing ore from rooms while leaving pillars in place to support the roof of the room. Room and pillar mining often leads to <a href="/wiki/Retreat_mining" title="Retreat mining">retreat mining</a>, in which supporting pillars are removed as miners retreat, allowing the room to cave in, thereby loosening more ore. Additional sub-surface mining methods include <a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(hard_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (hard rock)">hard rock mining</a>, bore hole mining, drift and fill mining, long hole slope mining, sub level caving, and <a href="/wiki/Block_caving" class="mw-redirect" title="Block caving">block caving</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Machines">Machines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Machines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bagger-garzweiler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bagger-garzweiler.jpg/300px-Bagger-garzweiler.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bagger-garzweiler.jpg/450px-Bagger-garzweiler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bagger-garzweiler.jpg/600px-Bagger-garzweiler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5075" data-file-height="1490" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bagger_288" title="Bagger 288">Bagger 288</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Bucket-wheel_excavator" title="Bucket-wheel excavator">bucket-wheel excavator</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Strip_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Strip mining">strip mining</a>. It is also one of the largest land vehicles of all time.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coal_Haul_Truck_at_North_Antelope_Rochelle.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Coal_Haul_Truck_at_North_Antelope_Rochelle.png/220px-Coal_Haul_Truck_at_North_Antelope_Rochelle.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Coal_Haul_Truck_at_North_Antelope_Rochelle.png/330px-Coal_Haul_Truck_at_North_Antelope_Rochelle.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Coal_Haul_Truck_at_North_Antelope_Rochelle.png/440px-Coal_Haul_Truck_at_North_Antelope_Rochelle.png 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>A Bucyrus Erie 2570 dragline and <a href="/wiki/Caterpillar_797" title="Caterpillar 797">CAT 797</a> haul truck at the North Antelope Rochelle opencut coal mine</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Heavy_machinery" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy machinery">Heavy machinery</a> is used in mining to explore and develop sites, to remove and stockpile overburden, to break and remove rocks of various hardness and toughness, to process the ore, and to carry out reclamation projects after the mine is closed. Bulldozers, drills, explosives and trucks are all necessary for excavating the land. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Placer_mining" title="Placer mining">placer mining</a>, unconsolidated gravel, or <a href="/wiki/Alluvium" title="Alluvium">alluvium</a>, is fed into machinery consisting of a hopper and a shaking screen or <a href="/wiki/Trommel" class="mw-redirect" title="Trommel">trommel</a> which frees the desired minerals from the waste gravel. The minerals are then concentrated using <a href="/wiki/Sluices" class="mw-redirect" title="Sluices">sluices</a> or jigs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Large <a href="/wiki/Diamond_drilling" class="mw-redirect" title="Diamond drilling">drills</a> are used to sink shafts, excavate stopes, and obtain samples for analysis. <a href="/wiki/Tram" title="Tram">Trams</a> are used to transport miners, minerals and waste. Lifts carry miners into and out of mines, and move rock and ore out, and machinery in and out, of underground mines. Huge trucks, shovels and cranes are employed in surface mining to move large quantities of overburden and ore. Processing plants use large crushers, mills, reactors, roasters and other equipment to consolidate the mineral-rich material and extract the desired compounds and metals from the ore.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Processing">Processing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mineral_processing" title="Mineral processing">Mineral processing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">Extractive metallurgy</a></div> <p>Once the mineral is extracted, it is often then processed. The science of <a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">extractive metallurgy</a> is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the extraction of valuable metals from their ores, especially through chemical or mechanical means.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mineral_processing" title="Mineral processing">Mineral processing</a> (or mineral dressing) is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the mechanical means of crushing, grinding, and washing that enable the separation (extractive metallurgy) of valuable metals or minerals from their <a href="/wiki/Gangue" title="Gangue">gangue</a> (waste material). Processing of placer ore material consists of gravity-dependent methods of separation, such as <a href="/wiki/Sluice" title="Sluice">sluice</a> boxes. Only minor shaking or washing may be necessary to disaggregate (unclump) the sands or gravels before processing. Processing of ore from a lode mine, whether it is a surface or subsurface mine, requires that the rock ore be crushed and pulverized before extraction of the valuable minerals begins. After lode ore is crushed, recovery of the valuable minerals is done by one, or a combination of several, mechanical and chemical techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since most metals are present in ores as oxides or sulfides, the metal needs to be <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduced</a> to its metallic form. This can be accomplished through chemical means such as <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> or through electrolytic reduction, as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>. <a href="/wiki/Geometallurgy" title="Geometallurgy">Geometallurgy</a> combines the geologic sciences with extractive metallurgy and mining.<sup id="cite_ref-Geosciences_LibreTexts-2017_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geosciences_LibreTexts-2017-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2018, led by Chemistry and Biochemistry professor Bradley D. Smith, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a> researchers "invented a new class of molecules whose shape and size enable them to capture and contain precious metal ions," reported in a study published by the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Journal of the American Chemical Society">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a>. The new method "converts gold-containing ore into <a href="/wiki/Chloroauric_acid" title="Chloroauric acid">chloroauric acid</a> and extracts it using an industrial solvent. The container molecules are able to selectively separate the gold from the solvent without the use of water stripping." The newly developed molecules can eliminate water stripping, whereas mining traditionally "relies on a 125-year-old method that treats gold-containing ore with large quantities of poisonous <a href="/wiki/Sodium_cyanide" title="Sodium cyanide">sodium cyanide</a>... this new process has a milder environmental impact and that, besides gold, it can be used for capturing other metals such as platinum and palladium," and could also be used in urban mining processes that remove precious metals from wastewater streams.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_effects">Environmental effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Environmental effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_mining" title="Environmental impact of mining">Environmental impact of mining</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_mining&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_mining" title="Environmental impact of mining">Environmental impact of mining</a> can occur at local, regional, and global scales through direct and indirect mining practices. Mining can cause <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">sinkholes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">loss of biodiversity</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">contamination of soil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">groundwater</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> by chemicals emitted from mining processes. These processes also affect the atmosphere through carbon emissions which contributes to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some mining methods (<a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> mining, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate_mineral" title="Phosphate mineral">phosphate</a> mining, <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> mining, <a href="/wiki/Mountaintop_removal_mining" title="Mountaintop removal mining">mountaintop removal mining</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a> mining) may have such significant environmental and public health effects that mining companies in some countries are required to follow strict environmental and rehabilitation codes to ensure that the mined area returns to its original state. Mining can provide various advantages to societies, yet it can also spark conflicts, particularly regarding land use both above and below the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mining operations remain rigorous and intrusive, often resulting in significant environmental impacts on local ecosystems and broader implications for planetary environmental health.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To accommodate mines and associated infrastructure, land is cleared extensively, consuming significant energy and water resources, emitting air pollutants, and producing <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous waste</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> According to The World Counts page "The amount of resources mined from Earth is up from 39.3 billion tons in 2002. A 55 percent increase in less than 20 years. This puts Earth's natural resources under heavy pressure. We are already extracting 75 percent more than Earth can sustain in the long run."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_regulation">Environmental regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Environmental regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iron_hydroxide_precipitate_in_stream.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Iron_hydroxide_precipitate_in_stream.jpg/170px-Iron_hydroxide_precipitate_in_stream.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Iron_hydroxide_precipitate_in_stream.jpg/255px-Iron_hydroxide_precipitate_in_stream.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Iron_hydroxide_precipitate_in_stream.jpg/340px-Iron_hydroxide_precipitate_in_stream.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="971" /></a><figcaption>Iron hydroxide precipitate stains a stream receiving acid drainage from surface coal mining.</figcaption></figure> <p>Countries with strongly enforced mining regulations commonly require <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">environmental impact assessment</a>, development of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental management">environmental management</a> plans, and <a href="/wiki/Mine_closure_planning" title="Mine closure planning">mine closure planning</a> prior beginning mine operations. <a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Environmental monitoring</a> during operation and after closure may also be required. Government regulations may not be well enforced, especially in the developing world.<sup id="cite_ref-Geosciences_LibreTexts-2017_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geosciences_LibreTexts-2017-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For major mining companies and any company seeking international financing, there are a number of other mechanisms to enforce environmental standards. These generally relate to financing standards such as the <a href="/wiki/Equator_Principles" title="Equator Principles">Equator Principles</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Finance_Corporation" title="International Finance Corporation">IFC</a> environmental standards, and criteria for <a href="/wiki/Socially_responsible_investing" title="Socially responsible investing">Socially responsible investing</a>. Mining companies have used this oversight from the financial sector to argue for some level of <a href="/wiki/Industry_self-regulation" title="Industry self-regulation">industry self-regulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RocksHardPlaces_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RocksHardPlaces-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1992, a Draft Code of Conduct for Transnational Corporations was proposed at the <a href="/wiki/Earth_Summit_(1992)" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth Summit (1992)">Rio Earth Summit</a> by the UN Centre for Transnational Corporations (UNCTC), but the Business Council for Sustainable Development (BCSD) together with the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) argued successfully for self-regulation instead.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This was followed by the Global Mining Initiative which was begun by nine of the largest metals and mining companies and which led to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/International_Council_on_Mining_and_Metals" title="International Council on Mining and Metals">International Council on Mining and Metals</a>, whose purpose was to "act as a catalyst" in an effort to improve social and environmental performance in the mining and metals industry internationally.<sup id="cite_ref-RocksHardPlaces_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RocksHardPlaces-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mining industry has provided funding to various conservation groups, some of which have been working with conservation agendas that are at odds with an emerging acceptance of the rights of indigenous people – particularly the right to make land-use decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certification of <a href="/wiki/Mineral_industry_of_Peru" title="Mineral industry of Peru">mines with good practices</a> occurs through the <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> (ISO). For example, <a href="/wiki/ISO_9000" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 9000">ISO 9000</a> and <a href="/wiki/ISO_14001" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 14001">ISO 14001</a>, which certify an "auditable environmental management system", involve short inspections, although they have been accused of lacking rigor.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-RocksHardPlaces_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RocksHardPlaces-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 183–84">: 183–84 </span></sup> Certification is also available through <a href="/wiki/Ceres_(organization)" title="Ceres (organization)">Ceres</a>' <a href="/wiki/Global_Reporting_Initiative" title="Global Reporting Initiative">Global Reporting Initiative</a>, but these reports are voluntary and unverified. Miscellaneous other certification programs exist for various projects, typically through nonprofit groups.<sup id="cite_ref-RocksHardPlaces_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RocksHardPlaces-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 185–86">: 185–86 </span></sup> </p><p>The purpose of a 2012 EPS PEAKS paper<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was to provide evidence on policies managing <a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">ecological costs</a> and maximize <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">socio-economic</a> benefits of mining using host country regulatory initiatives. It found existing literature suggesting donors encourage developing countries to: </p> <ul><li>Make the environment-poverty link and introduce cutting-edge wealth measures and <a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">natural capital</a> accounts.</li> <li>Reform old taxes in line with more recent financial innovation, engage directly with the companies, enact land use and impact assessments, and incorporate specialized support and standards agencies.</li> <li>Set in play transparency and community participation initiatives using the wealth accrued.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Waste">Waste</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Waste"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Tailings</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Teghut_Mine_-_waste_rock_storage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Teghut_Mine_-_waste_rock_storage.jpg/220px-Teghut_Mine_-_waste_rock_storage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Teghut_Mine_-_waste_rock_storage.jpg/330px-Teghut_Mine_-_waste_rock_storage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Teghut_Mine_-_waste_rock_storage.jpg/440px-Teghut_Mine_-_waste_rock_storage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption> Location of waste rock storage (center) at Teghut (village) Copper-Molybdenum Mine in <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>'s northern Lori province</figcaption></figure> <p>Ore mills generate large amounts of waste, called <a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">tailings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, 99 tons of waste is generated per ton of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, with even higher ratios in <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold mining</a> – because only 5.3 g of gold is extracted per ton of ore, a ton of gold produces 200,000 tons of tailings.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (As time goes on and richer deposits are exhausted – and technology improves – this number is going down to .5 g and less.) These tailings can be toxic. Tailings, which are usually produced as a <a href="/wiki/Slurry" title="Slurry">slurry</a>, are most commonly dumped into ponds made from naturally existing valleys.<sup id="cite_ref-EPADesignDams_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPADesignDams-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ponds are secured by impoundments (<a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dams</a> or <a href="/wiki/Embankment_dam" title="Embankment dam">embankment dams</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-EPADesignDams_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPADesignDams-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2000 it was estimated that 3,500 tailings impoundments existed, and that every year, 2 to 5 major <a href="/wiki/Tailings_dam_failure" title="Tailings dam failure">failures</a> and 35 minor failures occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-StewardDams_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StewardDams-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Marcopper_mining_disaster" title="Marcopper mining disaster">Marcopper mining disaster</a> at least 2 million tons of tailings were released into a local river.<sup id="cite_ref-StewardDams_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StewardDams-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2015, <a href="/wiki/Barrick_Gold" title="Barrick Gold">Barrick Gold</a> Corporation spilled over 1 million liters of <a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">cyanide</a> into a total of five rivers in Argentina near their <a href="/wiki/Veladero_mine" title="Veladero mine">Veladero mine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2007 in central Finland, the Talvivaara Terrafame polymetal mine's waste effluent and leaks of saline mine water have resulted in ecological collapse of a nearby lake.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subaqueous tailings disposal is another option.<sup id="cite_ref-EPADesignDams_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPADesignDams-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mining industry has argued that submarine tailings disposal (STD), which disposes of tailings in the sea, is ideal because it avoids the risks of tailings ponds. The practice is illegal in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, but it is used in the developing world.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The waste is classified as either sterile or mineralized, with acid generating potential, and the movement and storage of this material form a major part of the mine planning process. When the mineralised package is determined by an economic cut-off, the near-grade mineralised waste is usually dumped separately with view to later treatment should market conditions change and it becomes economically viable. <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a> design parameters are used in the design of the waste dumps, and special conditions apply to high-rainfall areas and to seismically active areas. Waste dump designs must meet all regulatory requirements of the country in whose jurisdiction the mine is located. It is also common practice to rehabilitate dumps to an internationally acceptable standard, which in some cases means that higher standards than the local regulatory standard are applied.<sup id="cite_ref-StewardDams_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StewardDams-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industry">Industry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main pages: <a href="/wiki/List_of_mines" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mines">List of mines</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_mining_companies" title="List of mining companies">List of mining companies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Mining_companies" title="Category:Mining companies">Category:Mining companies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Category:Mining_industry_by_country" title="Category:Mining industry by country">Category:Mining industry by country</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siilinj%C3%A4rvi_S%C3%A4rkij%C3%A4rvi_pit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Siilinj%C3%A4rvi_S%C3%A4rkij%C3%A4rvi_pit.jpg/220px-Siilinj%C3%A4rvi_S%C3%A4rkij%C3%A4rvi_pit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Siilinj%C3%A4rvi_S%C3%A4rkij%C3%A4rvi_pit.jpg/330px-Siilinj%C3%A4rvi_S%C3%A4rkij%C3%A4rvi_pit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Siilinj%C3%A4rvi_S%C3%A4rkij%C3%A4rvi_pit.jpg/440px-Siilinj%C3%A4rvi_S%C3%A4rkij%C3%A4rvi_pit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4240" data-file-height="2649" /></a><figcaption>The Särkijärvi pit of the <a href="/wiki/Siilinj%C3%A4rvi_carbonatite" title="Siilinjärvi carbonatite">apatite mine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Siilinj%C3%A4rvi" title="Siilinjärvi">Siilinjärvi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Mining exists in many countries. <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> is the headquarters for large miners such as <a href="/wiki/Anglo_American_plc" title="Anglo American plc">Anglo American</a>, <a href="/wiki/BHP" title="BHP">BHP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rio_Tinto_(corporation)" title="Rio Tinto (corporation)">Rio Tinto</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NAIndustryProfile_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAIndustryProfile-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US mining industry is also large, but it is dominated by extraction of coal and other nonmetal minerals (e.g., rock and sand), and various regulations have worked to reduce the significance of mining in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-NAIndustryProfile_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAIndustryProfile-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2007, the total <a href="/wiki/Market_capitalization" title="Market capitalization">market capitalization</a> of mining companies was reported at US$962 billion, which compares to a total global market cap of publicly traded companies of about US$50 trillion in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2002, Chile and Peru were reportedly the major mining countries of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Mineral_industry_of_Africa" title="Mineral industry of Africa">mineral industry of Africa</a> includes the mining of various minerals; it produces relatively little of the industrial metals <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, but according to one estimate has as a percent of world reserves 40% of <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, 60% of <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, and 90% of the world's <a href="/wiki/Platinum_group" title="Platinum group">platinum group</a> metals.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mining_in_India" title="Mining in India">Mining in India</a> is a significant part of that country's economy. In the developed world, <a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Australia" title="Mining in Australia">mining in Australia</a>, with BHP founded and headquartered in the country, and mining in Canada are particularly significant. For <a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth mineral">rare earth minerals</a> mining, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> reportedly controlled 95% of production in 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bingham_Canyon_April_2005.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Bingham_Canyon_April_2005.jpg/220px-Bingham_Canyon_April_2005.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Bingham_Canyon_April_2005.jpg/330px-Bingham_Canyon_April_2005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Bingham_Canyon_April_2005.jpg/440px-Bingham_Canyon_April_2005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bingham_Canyon_Mine" title="Bingham Canyon Mine">Bingham Canyon Mine</a> of Rio Tinto's subsidiary, Kennecott Utah Copper</figcaption></figure> <p>While exploration and mining can be conducted by individual entrepreneurs or small businesses, most modern-day mines are large enterprises requiring large amounts of capital to establish. Consequently, the mining sector of the industry is dominated by large, often multinational, companies, most of them <a href="/wiki/Publicly_listed" class="mw-redirect" title="Publicly listed">publicly listed</a>. It can be argued that what is referred to as the 'mining industry' is actually two sectors, one specializing in exploration for new resources and the other in mining those resources. The exploration sector is typically made up of individuals and small mineral resource companies, called "juniors", which are dependent on <a href="/wiki/Venture_capital" title="Venture capital">venture capital</a>. The mining sector is made up of large multinational companies that are sustained by production from their mining operations. Various other industries such as equipment manufacture, environmental testing, and metallurgy analysis rely on, and support, the mining industry throughout the world. Canadian stock exchanges have a particular focus on mining companies, particularly junior exploration companies through Toronto's <a href="/wiki/TSX_Venture_Exchange" title="TSX Venture Exchange">TSX Venture Exchange</a>; Canadian companies raise capital on these exchanges and then invest the money in exploration globally.<sup id="cite_ref-NAIndustryProfile_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAIndustryProfile-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have argued that below juniors there exists a substantial sector of illegitimate companies primarily focused on manipulating stock prices.<sup id="cite_ref-NAIndustryProfile_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAIndustryProfile-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mining operations can be grouped into five major categories in terms of their respective resources. These are <a href="/wiki/Extraction_of_petroleum" title="Extraction of petroleum">oil and gas extraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">coal mining</a>, metal ore mining, nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying, and mining support activities.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of all of these categories, <a href="/wiki/Oil_and_gas_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil and gas extraction">oil and gas extraction</a> remains one of the largest in terms of its global economic importance. Prospecting potential mining sites, a vital area of concern for the mining industry, is now done using sophisticated new technologies such as seismic prospecting and <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote-sensing satellites</a>. Mining is heavily affected by the prices of the <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodity</a> minerals, which are often volatile. The <a href="/wiki/2000s_commodities_boom" title="2000s commodities boom">2000s commodities boom</a> ("commodities supercycle") increased the prices of commodities, driving aggressive mining. In addition, the price of gold increased dramatically in the 2000s, which increased <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold mining</a>; for example, one study found that conversion of forest in the Amazon increased six-fold from the period 2003–2006 (292 ha/yr) to the period 2006–2009 (1,915 ha/yr), largely due to artisanal mining.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corporate_classifications">Corporate classifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Corporate classifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mining companies can be classified based on their size and financial capabilities: </p> <ul><li><i>Major</i> companies are considered to have an adjusted annual mining-related revenue of more than US$500 million, with the financial capability to develop a major mine on its own.</li> <li><i>Intermediate</i> companies have at least $50 million in annual revenue but less than $500 million.</li> <li><i>Junior</i> companies rely on <a href="/wiki/Equity_(economics)" title="Equity (economics)">equity</a> financing as their principal means of funding exploration. Juniors are mainly pure exploration companies, but may also produce minimally, and do not have a revenue exceeding US$50 million.<sup id="cite_ref-MEG-CorpClass_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MEG-CorpClass-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Re their valuation, and stock market characteristics, see <a href="/wiki/Valuation_(finance)#Valuation_of_mining_projects" title="Valuation (finance)">Valuation (finance) § Valuation of mining projects</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation_and_governance">Regulation and governance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Regulation and governance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EITI_Global_Conference_2016.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/EITI_Global_Conference_2016.jpg/220px-EITI_Global_Conference_2016.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/EITI_Global_Conference_2016.jpg/330px-EITI_Global_Conference_2016.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/EITI_Global_Conference_2016.jpg/440px-EITI_Global_Conference_2016.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3945" data-file-height="2680" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/EITI" class="mw-redirect" title="EITI">EITI</a> Global Conference 2016</figcaption></figure> <p>New regulations and a process of legislative reforms aim to improve the harmonization and stability of the mining sector in mineral-rich countries.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New legislation for mining industry in African countries still appears to be an issue, but has the potential to be solved, when a consensus is reached on the best approach.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucia_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucia-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the beginning of the 21st century, the booming and increasingly complex mining sector in mineral-rich countries was providing only slight benefits to local communities, especially in given the sustainability issues. Increasing debate and influence by <a href="/wiki/NGOs" class="mw-redirect" title="NGOs">NGOs</a> and local communities called for new approaches which would also include disadvantaged communities, and work towards <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a> even after <a href="/wiki/Mine_closure" title="Mine closure">mine closure</a> (including transparency and revenue management). By the early 2000s, community development issues and resettlements became mainstream concerns in World Bank mining projects.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucia_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucia-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mining-industry expansion after mineral prices increased in 2003 and also potential fiscal revenues in those countries created an omission in the other economic sectors in terms of finances and development. Furthermore, this highlighted regional and local demand for mining revenues and an inability of sub-national governments to effectively use the revenues. The <a href="/wiki/Fraser_Institute" title="Fraser Institute">Fraser Institute</a> (a Canadian think tank) has highlighted<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the environmental protection laws in developing countries, as well as voluntary efforts by mining companies to improve their environmental impact.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/Extractive_Industries_Transparency_Initiative" title="Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative">Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative</a> (EITI) was mainstreamed<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in all countries cooperating with the World Bank in mining industry reform.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucia_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucia-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The EITI operates and was implemented with the support of the EITI multi-donor trust fund, managed by the World Bank.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The EITI aims to increase transparency in transactions between governments and companies in extractive industries<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by monitoring the revenues and benefits between industries and recipient governments. The entrance process is voluntary for each country and is monitored by multiple stakeholders including governments, private companies and civil society representatives, responsible for disclosure and dissemination of the reconciliation report;<sup id="cite_ref-Lucia_87-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucia-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, the competitive disadvantage of company-by-company public report is for some of the businesses in Ghana at least, the main constraint.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the outcome assessment in terms of failure or success of the new EITI regulation does not only "rest on the government's shoulders" but also on civil society and companies.<sup id="cite_ref-Owona,_S.O._92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Owona,_S.O.-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, implementation has issues; inclusion or exclusion of <a href="/wiki/Artisanal_mining" title="Artisanal mining">artisanal mining</a> and small-scale mining (ASM) from the EITI and how to deal with "non-cash" payments made by companies to subnational governments. Furthermore, the disproportionate revenues the mining industry can bring to the comparatively small number of people that it employs,<sup id="cite_ref-Lulu_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lulu-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> causes other problems, like a lack of investment in other less lucrative sectors, leading to swings in government revenue because of volatility in the oil markets. Artisanal mining is clearly an issue in EITI Countries such as the Central African Republic, D.R. Congo, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone – i.e. almost half of the mining countries implementing the EITI.<sup id="cite_ref-Lulu_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lulu-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among other things, limited scope of the EITI involving disparity in terms of knowledge of the industry and negotiation skills, thus far flexibility of the policy (e.g. liberty of the countries to expand beyond the minimum requirements and adapt it to their needs), creates another risk of unsuccessful implementation. Public awareness increase, where government should act as a bridge between public and initiative for a successful outcome of the policy is an important element to be considered.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_Bank">World Bank</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: World Bank"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Bank_logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/World_Bank_logo.svg/170px-World_Bank_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/World_Bank_logo.svg/255px-World_Bank_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/World_Bank_logo.svg/340px-World_Bank_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="181" data-file-height="181" /></a><figcaption>World Bank logo</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> has been involved in mining since 1955, mainly through grants from its <a href="/wiki/International_Bank_for_Reconstruction_and_Development" title="International Bank for Reconstruction and Development">International Bank for Reconstruction and Development</a>, with the Bank's <a href="/wiki/Multilateral_Investment_Guarantee_Agency" title="Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency">Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency</a> offering <a href="/wiki/Political_risk" title="Political risk">political risk</a> insurance.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1955 and 1990 it provided about $2 billion to fifty mining projects, broadly categorized as reform and rehabilitation, greenfield mine construction, mineral processing, technical assistance, and engineering. These projects have been criticized, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Caraj%C3%A1s_Mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Carajás Mine">Ferro Carajas project</a> of Brazil, begun in 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The World Bank established mining codes intended to increase foreign investment; in 1988, it solicited feedback from 45 mining companies on how to increase their involvement.<sup id="cite_ref-RocksHardPlaces_67-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RocksHardPlaces-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 20">: 20 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1992, the World Bank began to push for privatization of <a href="/wiki/Government-owned_corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Government-owned corporation">government-owned mining companies</a> with a new set of codes, beginning with its report <i>The Strategy for African Mining</i>. In 1997, Latin America's largest miner <a href="/wiki/Vale_(mining_company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vale (mining company)">Companhia Vale do Rio Doce</a> (CVRD) was privatized. These and other developments, such as the Philippines 1995 Mining Act, led the bank to publish a third report (<i>Assistance for Minerals Sector Development and Reform in Member Countries</i>) which endorsed mandatory environment impact assessments and attention to the concerns of the local population. The codes based on this report are influential in the legislation of developing nations. The new codes are intended to encourage development through tax holidays, zero custom duties, reduced income taxes, and related measures.<sup id="cite_ref-RocksHardPlaces_67-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RocksHardPlaces-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 22">: 22 </span></sup> The results of these codes were analyzed by a group from the University of Quebec, which concluded that the codes promote foreign investment but "fall very short of permitting sustainable development".<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The observed negative correlation between natural resources and economic development is known as the <a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">resource curse</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety">Safety</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Transporte_por_cable_de_minerales,_Devnya,_Bulgaria,_2016-05-27,_DD_65.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Transporte_por_cable_de_minerales%2C_Devnya%2C_Bulgaria%2C_2016-05-27%2C_DD_65.jpg/220px-Transporte_por_cable_de_minerales%2C_Devnya%2C_Bulgaria%2C_2016-05-27%2C_DD_65.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Transporte_por_cable_de_minerales%2C_Devnya%2C_Bulgaria%2C_2016-05-27%2C_DD_65.jpg/330px-Transporte_por_cable_de_minerales%2C_Devnya%2C_Bulgaria%2C_2016-05-27%2C_DD_65.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Transporte_por_cable_de_minerales%2C_Devnya%2C_Bulgaria%2C_2016-05-27%2C_DD_65.jpg/440px-Transporte_por_cable_de_minerales%2C_Devnya%2C_Bulgaria%2C_2016-05-27%2C_DD_65.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7037" data-file-height="5579" /></a><figcaption>Mining transport in Devnya, Bulgaria</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coal_miner_spraying_rock_dust.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Coal_miner_spraying_rock_dust.jpg/220px-Coal_miner_spraying_rock_dust.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Coal_miner_spraying_rock_dust.jpg/330px-Coal_miner_spraying_rock_dust.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Coal_miner_spraying_rock_dust.jpg/440px-Coal_miner_spraying_rock_dust.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3216" data-file-height="2144" /></a><figcaption>A coal miner in <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> spraying rockdust to reduce the combustible fraction of coal dust in the air</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mine_safety" title="Mine safety">Mine safety</a></div><p>Safety has long been a concern in the mining business, especially in sub-surface mining. The <a href="/wiki/Courri%C3%A8res_mine_disaster" title="Courrières mine disaster">Courrières mine disaster</a>, Europe's worst <a href="/wiki/Mining_accident" title="Mining accident">mining accident</a>, involved the death of 1,099 miners in Northern <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> on March 10, 1906. This disaster was surpassed only by the <a href="/wiki/Benxihu_Colliery" title="Benxihu Colliery">Benxihu Colliery</a> accident in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> on April 26, 1942, which killed 1,549 miners.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While mining today is substantially safer than it was in previous decades, <a href="/wiki/Mining_accident" title="Mining accident">mining accidents</a> still occur. Government figures indicate that 5,000 Chinese miners die in accidents each year, while other reports have suggested a figure as high as 20,000.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1870 and 1920, in Queensland Australia, an increase in mining accidents lead to more safety measures surrounding the use of explosives for mining.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mining accidents continue worldwide, including accidents causing dozens of fatalities at a time such as the 2007 <a href="/wiki/Ulyanovskaya_Mine_disaster" title="Ulyanovskaya Mine disaster">Ulyanovskaya Mine disaster</a> in Russia, the <a href="/wiki/2009_Heilongjiang_mine_explosion" title="2009 Heilongjiang mine explosion">2009 Heilongjiang mine explosion</a> in China, and the 2010 <a href="/wiki/Upper_Big_Branch_Mine_disaster" title="Upper Big Branch Mine disaster">Upper Big Branch Mine disaster</a> in the United States. Mining has been identified by the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the <a href="/wiki/National_Occupational_Research_Agenda" title="National Occupational Research Agenda">National Occupational Research Agenda</a> (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Mine_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Mine Safety and Health Administration">Mining Safety and Health Administration</a> (MSHA) was established in 1978 to "work to prevent death, illness, and injury from mining and promote safe and healthful workplaces for US miners."<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since its implementation in 1978, the number of miner fatalities has decreased from 242 miners in 1978 to 24 miners in 2019.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are numerous <a href="/wiki/Occupational_hazard" title="Occupational hazard">occupational hazards</a> associated with mining, including exposure to <a href="/wiki/Rockdust" title="Rockdust">rockdust</a> which can lead to diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Silicosis" title="Silicosis">silicosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asbestosis" title="Asbestosis">asbestosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pneumoconiosis" title="Pneumoconiosis">pneumoconiosis</a>. Gases in the mine can lead to <a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">asphyxiation</a> and could also be ignited. Mining equipment can generate considerable noise, putting workers at risk for <a href="/wiki/Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">hearing loss</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cave-in" title="Cave-in">Cave-ins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rockfall" title="Rockfall">rock falls</a>, and exposure to excess heat are also known hazards. The current NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limit (REL) of noise is 85 dBA with a 3 dBA exchange rate and the MSHA Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) is 90 dBA with a 5 dBA exchange rate as an 8-hour time-weighted average. NIOSH has found that 25% of noise-exposed workers in Mining, Quarrying, and Oil and Gas Extraction have hearing impairment.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prevalence of hearing loss increased by 1% from 1991 to 2001 within these workers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Noise studies have been conducted in several mining environments. Stageloaders (84-102 dBA), shearers (85-99 dBA), auxiliary fans (84–120 dBA), continuous mining machines (78–109 dBA), and roof bolters (92–103 dBA) represent some of the noisiest equipment in underground <a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">coal mines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dragline_excavator" title="Dragline excavator">Dragline</a> oilers, dozer operators, and welders using air arcing were occupations with the highest noise exposures among surface coal miners.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coal mines had the highest hearing loss injury likelihood.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_rights">Human rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Human rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impacts">environmental impacts</a> of mining processes, a prominent criticism pertaining to this form of extractive practice and of mining companies are the <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> abuses occurring within mining sites and <a href="/wiki/Communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Communities">communities</a> close to them.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frequently, despite being protected by International <a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a>, miners are not given appropriate equipment to provide them with protection from possible mine collapse or from harmful <a href="/wiki/Pollutants" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollutants">pollutants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemicals">chemicals</a> expelled during the mining process, work in inhumane conditions spending numerous hours working in extreme heat, darkness and 14 hour workdays with no allocated time for breaks.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Child_labor">Child labor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Child labor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Breaker_Boys_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Breaker_Boys_1.jpg/220px-Breaker_Boys_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Breaker_Boys_1.jpg/330px-Breaker_Boys_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Breaker_Boys_1.jpg/440px-Breaker_Boys_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2280" data-file-height="1592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Breaker_boys" class="mw-redirect" title="Breaker boys">Breaker boys</a>: child workers who broke down coal at a mine in South <a href="/wiki/Pittston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittston">Pittston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, United States in the early 20th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Included within the human rights abuses that occur during mining processes are instances of <a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">child labor</a>. These instances are a cause for widespread criticism of mining <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, a mineral essential for powering modern technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Laptops" class="mw-redirect" title="Laptops">laptops</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smartphones" class="mw-redirect" title="Smartphones">smartphones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric vehicles">electric vehicles</a>. Many of these cases of child laborers are found in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a>. Reports have risen of children carrying sacks of cobalt weighing 25 kg from small mines to local traders<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> being paid for their work only in food and accommodation. A number of companies such as <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tesla,_Inc." title="Tesla, Inc.">Tesla</a> have been implicated in lawsuits brought by families whose children were severely injured or killed during mining activities in Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 2019, 14 Congolese families filed a lawsuit against <a href="/wiki/Glencore" title="Glencore">Glencore</a>, a mining company which supplies the essential cobalt to these multinational corporations with allegations of negligence that led to the deaths of children or injuries such as broken spines, emotional distress and forced labor.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indigenous_peoples">Indigenous peoples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Indigenous peoples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There have also been instances of killings and evictions attributed to conflicts with mining companies. Almost a third of 227 murders in 2020 were of Indigenous peoples rights activists on the frontlines of <a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">climate change activism</a> linked to <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a>, mining, large-scale <a href="/wiki/Agribusiness" title="Agribusiness">agribusiness</a>, hydroelectric dams, and other infrastructure, according to <a href="/wiki/Global_Witness" title="Global Witness">Global Witness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The relationship between indigenous peoples and mining is defined by struggles over access to land. In Australia, the Aboriginal <a href="/wiki/Bininj" title="Bininj">Bininj</a> said mining posed a threat to their living culture and could damage sacred heritage sites.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Philippines, an anti-mining movement has raised concerns regarding "the total disregard for [Indigenous communities'] ancestral land rights".<sup id="cite_ref-Tartlet-2001_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tartlet-2001-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Igorot_people" title="Igorot people">Ifugao peoples</a>' opposition to mining led a governor to proclaim a ban on mining operations in Mountain Province, Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-Tartlet-2001_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tartlet-2001-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Brazil, more than 170 tribes organized a march to oppose controversial attempts to strip back indigenous land rights and open their territories to mining operations.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="United Nations Commission on Human Rights">United Nations Commission on Human Rights</a> has called on Brazil's Supreme Court to uphold Indigenous land rights to prevent exploitation by mining groups and industrial agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Records">Records</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Records"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">factual accuracy</a></b> of parts of this article (those related to article) <b>may be compromised due to out-of-date information</b>. The reason given is: Deepest mine record was just changed and might need more detail.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. <br /><small>Last update: 9th July 2022</small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Extremes_on_Earth#Subterranean" title="Extremes on Earth">Extremes on Earth § Subterranean</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chuquicamata-002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Chuquicamata-002.jpg/220px-Chuquicamata-002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Chuquicamata-002.jpg/330px-Chuquicamata-002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Chuquicamata-002.jpg/440px-Chuquicamata-002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2126" data-file-height="1369" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chuquicamata" title="Chuquicamata">Chuquicamata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, site of the largest circumference and second deepest <a href="/wiki/Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">open pit</a> <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> mine in the world</figcaption></figure> <p>As of 2019, <b><a href="/wiki/Mponeng_Gold_Mine" title="Mponeng Gold Mine">Mponeng</a></b> is the world's deepest mine from ground level, reaching a depth of 4 km (2.5 mi) below ground level. The trip from the surface to the bottom of the mine takes over an hour. It is a <a href="/wiki/Gold_mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold mine">gold mine</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Gauteng" title="Gauteng">Gauteng</a> province. Previously known as <a href="/wiki/Western_Deep_Levels" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Deep Levels">Western Deep Levels</a> #1 Shaft, the underground and surface works were commissioned in 1987. The mine is considered to be one of the most substantial gold mines in the world. </p><p>The Moab Khutsong gold mine in <a href="/wiki/North_West_Province_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="North West Province (South Africa)">North West Province (South Africa)</a> has the world's longest winding steel wire rope, which is able to lower workers to 3,054 metres (10,020 ft) in one uninterrupted four-minute journey.<sup id="cite_ref-Mining_and_minerals_in_South_Africa_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mining_and_minerals_in_South_Africa-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The deepest mine in Europe is the 16th shaft of the uranium mines in <a href="/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADbram" title="Příbram">Příbram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>, at 1,838 metres (6,030 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-DeepestEurope_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeepestEurope-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bergwerk_Saar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bergwerk Saar (page does not exist)">Bergwerk Saar</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saarland" title="Saarland">Saarland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, at 1,750 metres (5,740 ft). <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The deepest open-pit mine in the world is <a href="/wiki/Bingham_Canyon_Mine" title="Bingham Canyon Mine">Bingham Canyon Mine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bingham_Canyon" class="mw-redirect" title="Bingham Canyon">Bingham Canyon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, at over 1,200 metres (3,900 ft). The largest and second deepest open-pit copper mine in the world is <a href="/wiki/Chuquicamata" title="Chuquicamata">Chuquicamata</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> at 900 metres (3,000 ft), which annually produces 443,000 tons of copper and 20,000 tons of molybdenum.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The deepest open-pit mine with respect to <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a> is <a href="/wiki/Tagebau_Hambach" class="mw-redirect" title="Tagebau Hambach">Tagebau Hambach</a> in Germany, where the base of the pit is 299 metres (981 ft) below sea level.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The largest underground mine is <a href="/wiki/Kiruna_Mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiruna Mine">Kiirunavaara Mine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kiruna" title="Kiruna">Kiruna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. With 450 kilometres (280 miles) of roads, 40 million tonnes of annually produced ore, and a depth of 1,270 metres (4,170 ft), it is also one of the most modern underground mines. The deepest borehole in the world is <a href="/wiki/Kola_Superdeep_Borehole" title="Kola Superdeep Borehole">Kola Superdeep Borehole</a> at 12,262 metres (40,230 ft), but this is connected to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_drilling" title="Scientific drilling">scientific drilling</a>, not mining.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metal_reserves_and_recycling">Metal reserves and recycling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Metal reserves and recycling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NatCopper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/NatCopper.jpg/220px-NatCopper.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/NatCopper.jpg/330px-NatCopper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/NatCopper.jpg/440px-NatCopper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1534" data-file-height="1452" /></a><figcaption>Macro of <a href="/wiki/Native_copper" title="Native copper">native copper</a> about <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> inches (4 cm) in size</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyhasalmi_mine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Pyhasalmi_mine.jpg/220px-Pyhasalmi_mine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Pyhasalmi_mine.jpg/330px-Pyhasalmi_mine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Pyhasalmi_mine.jpg/440px-Pyhasalmi_mine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pyh%C3%A4salmi_Mine" title="Pyhäsalmi Mine">Pyhäsalmi Mine</a>, a metal mine in <a href="/wiki/Pyh%C3%A4j%C3%A4rvi" title="Pyhäjärvi">Pyhäjärvi</a>, Finland</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Landfill_mining" title="Landfill mining">Landfill mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict resource</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_critical_mineral_raw_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="List of critical mineral raw materials">List of critical mineral raw materials</a></div> <p>During the 20th century, the variety of <a href="/wiki/Metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Metals">metals</a> used in society increased. Today, the development of major nations such as China and India and technological advances fuel an ever-greater demand. The result is that metal mining activities are expanding, and more and more of the world's metal stocks are above ground in use rather than below ground as unused reserves. An example is the in-use stock of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>. Between 1932 and 1999, copper in use in the US rose from 73 kilograms (161 lb) to 238 kilograms (525 lb) per person.<sup id="cite_ref-unep_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unep-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abandoned_Metal_Recycling_Plant.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Abandoned_Metal_Recycling_Plant.png/220px-Abandoned_Metal_Recycling_Plant.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Abandoned_Metal_Recycling_Plant.png/330px-Abandoned_Metal_Recycling_Plant.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Abandoned_Metal_Recycling_Plant.png/440px-Abandoned_Metal_Recycling_Plant.png 2x" data-file-width="4053" data-file-height="3200" /></a><figcaption> A metal recycling plant in <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> that has been abandoned for years</figcaption></figure> <p>95% of the energy used to make aluminium from <a href="/wiki/Bauxite" title="Bauxite">bauxite</a> ore is saved by using recycled material.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, levels of metal recycling are generally low. In 2010, the <a href="/wiki/International_Resource_Panel" title="International Resource Panel">International Resource Panel</a>, hosted by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> (UNEP), published reports on metal stocks that exist within society<sup id="cite_ref-metal_stocks_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metal_stocks-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and their recycling rates.<sup id="cite_ref-unep_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unep-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The report's authors observed that the metal stocks in society can serve as substantial anthropogenic mines above ground.<sup id="cite_ref-metal_stocks_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metal_stocks-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, they warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars, and fuel cells are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As recycling rates are low and so much metal has already been extracted, some <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a> now contain higher concentrations of metal than the mines themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is especially true of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminum</a>, used in cans, and <a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">precious metals</a>, found in discarded electronics.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, waste after 15 years has still not broken down, so less processing would be required when compared to mining ores. A study undertaken by <a href="/wiki/Cranfield_University" title="Cranfield University">Cranfield University</a> has found £360 million of metals could be mined from just four <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill sites.</a><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also up to 20 MJ/kg of energy in waste, potentially making the re-extraction more profitable.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, although the first landfill mine opened in <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a>, Israel in 1953, little work has followed due to the abundance of accessible ores.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">Asteroid mining</a> – Exploitation of raw materials from asteroids</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_mining" title="Automated mining">Automated mining</a> – Removal of human labor from the mining industry</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_diamond" title="Blood diamond">Blood diamond</a> – Diamonds mined in a war zone and sold to finance conflict</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict resource</a> – War fought over resources<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Environmental effects of mining</a> – Environmental problems from uncontrolled mining<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extractive_Industries_Transparency_Initiative" title="Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative">Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative</a> – Organization of countries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_engineering" title="Geological engineering">Geological engineering</a> – Discipline applying geological science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberley_Process_Certification_Scheme" title="Kimberley Process Certification Scheme">Kimberley Process Certification Scheme</a> – To certify the origin of rough diamonds</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_critical_mineral_raw_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="List of critical mineral raw materials">List of critical mineral raw materials</a> – European Union legislation<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mining_companies" title="List of mining companies">List of mining companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining engineering</a> – Engineering discipline</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_mining" title="Outline of mining">Outline of mining</a> – Overview of and topical guide to mining</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">Peak minerals</a> – Point in time of largest mineral production</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">Resource curse</a> – Theory that resource wealth slows growth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">Resource extraction</a> – Resources that exist without actions of humankind.<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_industry" title="Stone industry">Stone industry</a> – Part of the primary sector of the economy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grozon_coal_and_saltworks" title="Grozon coal and saltworks">Grozon coal and saltworks</a> – Mines in the Keuperian basin, France</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ore">"Definition of ORE"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210194323/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ore">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York, Dover Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+re+metallica&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Dover+Publications&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Agricola&rft.aufirst=Georg&rft.au=Hoover%2C+Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fderemetallica50agri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartman, Howard L. <i>SME Mining Engineering Handbook</i>, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration Inc, 1992, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KloproggePonceLoomis2020-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KloproggePonceLoomis2020_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Theo_KloproggeConcepcion_P._PonceTom_Loomis2020" class="citation book cs1">J. 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Lay summary: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nicholas.duke.edu/dukenvironment/f11/amazon-gold-fever-comes-with-a-high-environmental-cost">Amazon Gold Fever Comes with a High Environmental Cost</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130309181431/http://www.nicholas.duke.edu/dukenvironment/f11/amazon-gold-fever-comes-with-a-high-environmental-cost">Archived</a> 2013-03-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MEG-CorpClass-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MEG-CorpClass_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120803095004/http://www.metalseconomics.com/pdf/PDAC">"Metals Economics Group World Exploration Trends Report"</a>. Metals Economics Group Inc. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metalseconomics.com/pdf/PDAC%202009%20World%20Exploration%20Trends.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-08-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Metals+Economics+Group+World+Exploration+Trends+Report&rft.pub=Metals+Economics+Group+Inc.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metalseconomics.com%2Fpdf%2FPDAC%25202009%2520World%2520Exploration%2520Trends.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCambell2008" class="citation journal cs1">Cambell, Bonnie (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/routledg/03056244/v35n3/s2.pdf?expires=1302287825&id=62185656&titleid=10738&accname=The+John+Rylands+University+Library%2C+The+University+of+Manchester&checksum=6F04E83AFE9F7C22DFB0A7848C306CC6">"Regulation & Legitimacy in the Mining Industry in Africa: Where does"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Review of African Political Economy</i>. <b>35</b> (3): 367–89. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03056240802410984">10.1080/03056240802410984</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154670334">154670334</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200331130216/http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/routledg/03056244/v35n3/s2.pdf?expires=1302287825&id=62185656&titleid=10738&accname=The+John+Rylands+University+Library%2C+The+University+of+Manchester&checksum=6F04E83AFE9F7C22DFB0A7848C306CC6">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 31 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+African+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=Regulation+%26+Legitimacy+in+the+Mining+Industry+in+Africa%3A+Where+does&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=367-89&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03056240802410984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154670334%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cambell&rft.aufirst=Bonnie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocserver.ingentaconnect.com%2Fdeliver%2Fconnect%2Froutledg%2F03056244%2Fv35n3%2Fs2.pdf%3Fexpires%3D1302287825%26id%3D62185656%26titleid%3D10738%26accname%3DThe%2BJohn%2BRylands%2BUniversity%2BLibrary%252C%2BThe%2BUniversity%2Bof%2BManchester%26checksum%3D6F04E83AFE9F7C22DFB0A7848C306CC6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucia-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lucia_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lucia_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lucia_87-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lucia_87-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140417054540/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTOGMC/Resources/336099-1288881181404/7530465-1288881207444/eifd19_mining_sector_reform.pdf">"The World Bank's Evolutionary Approach to Mining Sector Reform"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The World Bank</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTOGMC/Resources/336099-1288881181404/7530465-1288881207444/eifd19_mining_sector_reform.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2014-04-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Bank&rft.atitle=The+World+Bank%27s+Evolutionary+Approach+to+Mining+Sector+Reform&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsiteresources.worldbank.org%2FINTOGMC%2FResources%2F336099-1288881181404%2F7530465-1288881207444%2Feifd19_mining_sector_reform.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.miningfacts.org/Environment/Do-Canadian-mining-companies-operating-abroad-face-weaker-environmental-regulations/">Do Canadian mining companies operating abroad face weaker environmental regulations?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180706030924/http://www.miningfacts.org/Environment/Do-Canadian-mining-companies-operating-abroad-face-weaker-environmental-regulations/">Archived</a> 2018-07-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. MiningFacts.org. <a href="/wiki/Fraser_Institute" title="Fraser Institute">Fraser Institute</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFExtractive_Industries_Transparency_Initiative" class="citation web cs1">Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eiti.org/about/governance">"Governance Structure"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110413135638/http://eiti.org/about/governance">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Governance+Structure&rft.au=Extractive+Industries+Transparency+Initiative&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feiti.org%2Fabout%2Fgovernance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110408081137/http://www.business-humanrights.org/Categories/Principles/ExtractiveIndustriesTransparencyInitiativeEITI">"Principles: Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)"</a>. Business and Human Right Resource Centre (2009). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.business-humanrights.org/Categories/Principles/ExtractiveIndustriesTransparencyInitiativeEITI">the original</a> on 8 April 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Principles%3A+Extractive+Industries+Transparency+Initiative+%28EITI%29&rft.pub=Business+and+Human+Right+Resource+Centre+%282009%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.business-humanrights.org%2FCategories%2FPrinciples%2FExtractiveIndustriesTransparencyInitiativeEITI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Ghanaian_Journal" class="citation web cs1">The Ghanaian Journal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101075848/http://www.theghanaianjournal.com/2011/03/16/at-the-fifth-eiti-global-conference/">"At the Fifth EITI Global Conference"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theghanaianjournal.com/2011/03/16/at-the-fifth-eiti-global-conference/">the original</a> on 1 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=At+the+Fifth+EITI+Global+Conference&rft.au=The+Ghanaian+Journal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theghanaianjournal.com%2F2011%2F03%2F16%2Fat-the-fifth-eiti-global-conference%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Owona,_S.O.-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Owona,_S.O._92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFExtractive_Industries_Transparency_Initiative" class="citation web cs1">Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726083709/http://eiti.org/files/Report_of_5th_EITI_Global_Conference.pdf">"Report of 5th EITI Global Conference in Paris, 2011"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eiti.org/files/Report_of_5th_EITI_Global_Conference.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Report+of+5th+EITI+Global+Conference+in+Paris%2C+2011&rft.au=Extractive+Industries+Transparency+Initiative&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feiti.org%2Ffiles%2FReport_of_5th_EITI_Global_Conference.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lulu-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lulu_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lulu_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140703183803/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTOGMC/Resources/advancing_eiti_mining.pdf">"Advancing the EITI in the Mining Sector: Implementation Issues"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. World Bank's Oil, Gas and Mining Policy and Operations Unit (COCPO). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTOGMC/Resources/advancing_eiti_mining.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 3 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Advancing+the+EITI+in+the+Mining+Sector%3A+Implementation+Issues&rft.pub=World+Bank%27s+Oil%2C+Gas+and+Mining+Policy+and+Operations+Unit+%28COCPO%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsiteresources.worldbank.org%2FEXTOGMC%2FResources%2Fadvancing_eiti_mining.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRevenue_Watch_Institute2010" class="citation web cs1">Revenue Watch Institute (20 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720234318/http://www.revenuewatch.org/news/news-article/tanzania/promoting-transparency-extractive-sectors-eiti-training-tanzania-legislat">"Promoting Transparency in the Extractive Sectors: An EITI Training for Tanzania Legislators"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revenuewatch.org/news/news-article/tanzania/promoting-transparency-extractive-sectors-eiti-training-tanzania-legislat">the original</a> on July 20, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Promoting+Transparency+in+the+Extractive+Sectors%3A+An+EITI+Training+for+Tanzania+Legislators&rft.date=2010-04-20&rft.au=Revenue+Watch+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revenuewatch.org%2Fnews%2Fnews-article%2Ftanzania%2Fpromoting-transparency-extractive-sectors-eiti-training-tanzania-legislat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an overview of the Bank and mining, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pdac.ca/pdac/publications/papers/2001/pdf/Weber-Fahr(T-8).pdf">Mining, Sustainability and Risk:World Bank Group Experiences</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110929090158/http://www.pdac.ca/pdac/publications/papers/2001/pdf/Weber-Fahr(T-8).pdf">Archived</a> 2011-09-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the 1995 <i>World Development</i> <b>23</b>(3) pp. 385–400.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">GRAMA. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://migs.concordia.ca/documents/MIGS_Campbell_Feb07.pdf">The Challenges of Development, Mining Codes in Africa And Corporate Responsibility</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101075848/http://migs.concordia.ca/documents/MIGS_Campbell_Feb07.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-01-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In: <i>International and Comparative Mineral Law and Policy: Trends and Prospects</i>. Summarized in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unites.uqam.ca/grama/pdf/AfricaCodes-Mining_Journal.pdf">African Mining Codes Questioned</a>. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lemonde.fr/web/article/0,1-0@2-3226,36-749532,0.html">"Marcel Barrois"</a>. <i>Le Monde</i> (in French). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-06-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.enviroalternatives.com&rft.atitle=Landfill+Mining&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enviroalternatives.com%2Flandfill.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150612193519/http://www.rebnews.com/news/resource_efficiency/study_shows_around_p360_million_metals_mined_just_four_landfill_sites.html">"Study shows around £360 million of metals could be mined from just four landfill sites"</a>. <i>www.rebnews.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rebnews.com/news/resource_efficiency/study_shows_around_p360_million_metals_mined_just_four_landfill_sites.html">the original</a> on 2015-06-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Research database – University of Groningen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190127094229/https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/publications/pub(e2682e00-9881-4bac-ad4e-a4deb0dd4f1e).html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-01-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-06-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rug.nl&rft.atitle=Assessing+the+opportunities+of+landfill+mining&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rug.nl%2Fresearch%2Fportal%2Fpublications%2Fpub%28e2682e00-9881-4bac-ad4e-a4deb0dd4f1e%29.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Woytinsky, W.S., and E.S. Woytinsky (1953). <i>World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks</i>, pp. 749–881; with many tables and maps on the worldwide mining industry in 1950, including coal, metals and minerals</li> <li>Ali, Saleem H. (2003). <i>Mining, the Environment and Indigenous Development Conflicts</i>. Tucson AZ: University of Arizona Press. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Ali, Saleem H. (2009). <i>Treasures of the Earth: need, greed and a sustainable future</i>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEven-Zohar2002" class="citation book cs1">Even-Zohar, Chaim (2002). <i>From Mine to Mistress: Corporate Strategies and Government Policies in the International Diamond Industry</i>. Mining Journal Books. p. 555. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9537336-1-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9537336-1-3"><bdi>978-0-9537336-1-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Mine+to+Mistress%3A+Corporate+Strategies+and+Government+Policies+in+the+International+Diamond+Industry&rft.pages=555&rft.pub=Mining+Journal+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-9537336-1-3&rft.aulast=Even-Zohar&rft.aufirst=Chaim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Geobacter Project: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170308175324/http://www.geobacter.org/press/2001-07-21-economist.pdf">Gold mines may owe their origins to bacteria</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a> format)</li> <li>Garrett, Dennis. <i>Alaska Placer Mining</i>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJayanta2007" class="citation book cs1">Jayanta, Bhattacharya (2007). <i>Principles of Mine Planning</i> (2nd ed.). Wide Publishing. p. 505. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7764-480-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7764-480-7"><bdi>978-81-7764-480-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Mine+Planning&rft.pages=505&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wide+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-81-7764-480-7&rft.aulast=Jayanta&rft.aufirst=Bhattacharya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Morrison, Tom (1992). <i>Hardrock Gold: a miner's tale</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-2442-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-2442-3">0-8061-2442-3</a></li> <li>John Milne. <i>The Miner's Handbook: A Handy Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits (1894) Mining operations in the 19th century.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ty0LAQAAIAAJ&dq=waterways+john+milne&pg=PA95">The Miner's Handbook: A Handy Book of Reference on the Subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining Operations, Ore Dressing, Etc. For the Use of Students and Others Interested in Mining Matters</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103190333/https://books.google.com/books?id=ty0LAQAAIAAJ&dq=waterways%20john%20milne&pg=PA95">Archived</a> 2023-11-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Aryee, B., Ntibery, B., Atorkui, E. (2003). "Trends in the small-scale mining of precious minerals in Ghana: a perspective on its environmental impact", <i>Journal of Cleaner Production</i> 11: 131–40.</li> <li>Temple, John (1972). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/miningjohntemple">Mining: An International History</a></i>. Ernest Benn Limited.</li> <li>The Oil, gas and Mining Sustainable Community Development Fund (2009). <i>Social Mine Closure Strategy, Mali</i> (in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111007165012/http://commdev.org/section/projects/sadiola">CommDev: Projects: Social Mine Closure Strategy, Mali</a>).</li> <li>White F. (2020). <i>Miner with a Heart of Gold: biography of a mineral science and engineering educator.</i> Friesen Press, Victoria. ISBN 978-1-5255-7765-9 (Hardcover), 978-1-5255-7766-6 (Paperback), 978-1-5255-7767-3 (eBook).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Mining" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Mining">Mining</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Mining_tourism#Q44497" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Mining tourism">Mining tourism</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/11/04713485/0471348511.pdf">First chapter</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160415175613/http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/11/04713485/0471348511.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-04-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gi2sfYQIqPgC">Introductory Mining Engineering</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103190331/https://books.google.com/books?id=gi2sfYQIqPgC">Archived</a> 2023-11-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rmmlf.org/SciTech/Lacy/Introduction-to-Geology-and-Hard-Rock-Mining-2015.pdf">An introduction to geology and hard rock mining</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160813182207/http://rmmlf.org/SciTech/Lacy/Introduction-to-Geology-and-Hard-Rock-Mining-2015.pdf">(archived 13 August 2016)</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Mining"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Mining">"Mining" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1905.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mining&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunroe1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Munroe, Henry Smith (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mining"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Mining">"Mining" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). pp. 528–542.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mining&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=528-542&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Munroe&rft.aufirst=Henry+Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMining" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mining_techniques" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mining techniques"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mining_techniques" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mining</a> techniques</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">Open-pit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining#Strip_mining" title="Surface mining">Strip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placer_mining" title="Placer mining">Placer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_dredge" title="Gold dredge">Dredging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_mining" title="Hydraulic mining">Hydraulic mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountaintop_removal_mining" title="Mountaintop removal mining">Mountaintop removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sub-surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underground_hard-rock_mining" title="Underground hard-rock mining">Hard rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_soft-rock_mining" title="Underground soft-rock mining">Soft rock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Directions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drift_mining" title="Drift mining">Drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slope_mining" title="Slope mining">Slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaft_sinking" title="Shaft sinking">Shaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_pit" title="Bell pit">Bell pit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borehole_mining" title="Borehole mining">Borehole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stoping" title="Stoping">Stoping</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Room_and_pillar_mining" title="Room and pillar mining">Room and pillar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longwall_mining" title="Longwall mining">Longwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_mining" title="Retreat mining">Retreat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abandoned_mine" title="Abandoned mine">Abandoned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_mining" title="Automated mining">Automated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospecting" title="Prospecting">Prospecting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_mining" title="Seabed mining">Seabed mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mine_reclamation" title="Mine reclamation">Reclamation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_resources" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_resources" title="Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_resources" title="Template talk:Natural resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_resources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_resources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_coal" title="Peak coal">peak coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_gas" title="Peak gas">peak gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">Agricultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(agriculture)" title="Field (agriculture)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">Landscape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seascape" title="Seascape">seascape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed" title="Viewshed">viewshed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_copper" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak copper">copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak phosphorus">phosphorus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber products</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant Treaty">FAO Plant Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">gene banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">herbal medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="UPOV">UPOV Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Watershed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_water" title="Peak water">Peak water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">Exploitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">adaptive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital_accounting" title="Natural capital accounting">accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_heritage" title="Natural heritage">Natural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">Nature reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">Resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict <span style="font-size:85%;">(perpetuation)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">Curse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_nationalism" title="Resource nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">Renewable</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_resources" title="Category:Natural resources">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_industries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Industries" title="Template:Industries"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Industries" title="Template talk:Industries"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Industries" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Industries"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_industries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/wiki/Industry_(economics)" title="Industry (economics)">industries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Natural_sector" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Primary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Primary sector of the economy">Natural sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biotic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Arable farming">Arable farming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cereal#Production" title="Cereal">Cereals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legume#Uses" title="Legume">Legumes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_farming" title="Vegetable farming">Vegetables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber_crop" title="Fiber crop">Fiber crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil" title="Vegetable oil">Oilseeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_industry" title="Sugar industry">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_industry" title="Tobacco industry">Tobacco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_crop" title="Permanent crop">Permanent crops</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pome" title="Pome">Apples et al.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry#Commercial_production" title="Berry">Berries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_production" title="Citrus production">Citrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drupe" title="Drupe">Stone fruits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_culinary_fruits#Tropical_and_tropical-like_fruit" title="List of culinary fruits">Tropical fruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viticulture" title="Viticulture">Viticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean#Cultivation" title="Cocoa bean">Cocoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Coffee industry">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea#Production" title="Tea">Tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)#Production" title="Nut (fruit)">Nuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">Olives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plants" title="Medicinal plants">Medicinal plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">Spices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture_industry" title="Horticulture industry">Horticulture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Floral_industry" title="Floral industry">Flowers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_company" title="Seed company">Seeds</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">Animal husbandry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beef_cattle" title="Beef cattle">Beef cattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dairy_farming#Market" title="Dairy farming">Dairy farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_farming" title="Fur farming">Fur farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_industry" title="Horse industry">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">Other livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pig_farming" title="Pig farming">Pig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wool#Production" title="Wool">Wool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">Poultry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beekeeping" title="Beekeeping">Beekeeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochineal#Farming" title="Cochineal">Cochineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellac" title="Shellac">Shellac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk#Production_process" title="Silk">Silk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trapping" title="Trapping">Fur trapping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">Silviculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" title="Bamboo cultivation">Bamboo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">Logging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firewood" title="Firewood">Firewood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rattan#Economic_and_environmental_issues" title="Rattan">Rattan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Tree tapping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankincense#Production" title="Frankincense">Frankincense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gum_arabic#Production" title="Gum arabic">Gum arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutta-percha#Uses" title="Gutta-percha">Gutta-percha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maple_syrup#Production" title="Maple syrup">Maple syrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastic_(plant_resin)#Cultivation" title="Mastic (plant resin)">Mastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber#Production" title="Natural rubber">Natural rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_sugar" title="Palm sugar">Palm sugar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palm_syrup" title="Palm syrup">syrup</a>, & <a href="/wiki/Palm_wine" title="Palm wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_stores_industry" title="Naval stores industry">Pine resin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushroom_hunting" title="Mushroom hunting">Wild mushrooms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fungiculture" title="Fungiculture">Fungiculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truffle" title="Truffle">Truffles</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aquatic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry" title="Fishing industry">Fishing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchovy#Fisheries" title="Anchovy">Anchovies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herring#Fisheries" title="Herring">Herring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardine#Fisheries" title="Sardine">Sardines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cod_fisheries" title="Cod fisheries">Cod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haddock#Fisheries" title="Haddock">Haddock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_pollock#Fisheries" title="Alaska pollock">Pollock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mackerel#Fisheries" title="Mackerel">Mackerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark#Fishery" title="Shark">Shark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swordfish#Fisheries" title="Swordfish">Swordfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuna#Fishing_industry" title="Tuna">Tuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crab_fisheries" title="Crab fisheries">Crabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobster_fishing" title="Lobster fishing">Lobsters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin#As_food" title="Sea urchin">Sea urchins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squid#Commercial_fishing" title="Squid">Squid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">Whaling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carp#Aquaculture" title="Carp">Carp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_catfish" title="Aquaculture of catfish">Catfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_tilapia" title="Aquaculture of tilapia">Tilapia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abalone#Farming" title="Abalone">Abalone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mussel#Aquaculture" title="Mussel">Mussels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_farming" title="Oyster farming">Oysters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_pearl" title="Cultured pearl">Pearls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_microalgae_in_hatcheries" title="Culture of microalgae in hatcheries">Microalgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming" title="Seaweed farming">Seaweed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Both <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clam_digging" title="Clam digging">Clams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumbers_as_food" title="Sea cucumbers as food">Sea cucumbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scallop#Seafood_industry" title="Scallop">Scallops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrimp#Human_uses" title="Shrimp">Shrimp</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuel industry">Fossil fuels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal industry">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_industry" title="Oil shale industry">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_sands" title="Oil sands">Tar sands</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mining of ores <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium#Production_and_refinement" title="Aluminium">Aluminum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper#Production" title="Copper">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_ore#Production_and_consumption" title="Iron ore">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_mining" title="Silver mining">Silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Palladium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platinum#Production" title="Platinum">Platinum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium#Production" title="Lithium">Lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element#Global_rare-earth_production" title="Rare-earth element">Rare-earth metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other minerals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">Gemstones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus#Production" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potash#Production" title="Potash">Potash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt#Production" title="Salt">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur#Production" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravel_pit" title="Gravel pit">Gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalk_mining" title="Chalk mining">Chalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_pit" title="Clay pit">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypsum#Mining" title="Gypsum">Gypsum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limestone#Uses" title="Limestone">Limestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimension_stone#Production" title="Dimension stone">Dimension stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granite#Industry" title="Granite">Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marble#Production" title="Marble">Marble</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Industrial_sector" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Secondary sector of the economy">Industrial sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manufacturing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light_industry" title="Light industry">Light industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_industry" title="Food industry">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feed_manufacturing" title="Feed manufacturing">Animal feed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baking#Commercial_baking" title="Baking">Baking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canning" title="Canning">Canning</a></li> <li>Dairy products</li> <li>Flour</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meat_industry" title="Meat industry">Meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convenience_food" title="Convenience food">Prepared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">Preserved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candy_making" title="Candy making">Sweets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil#Production" title="Vegetable oil">Vegetable oils</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drink_industry" title="Drink industry">Beverages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brewing_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Brewing industry">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottled_water" title="Bottled water">Bottled water</a></li> <li>Liquor</li> <li>Soft drinks</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry">Textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carding" title="Carding">Carding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">Dyeing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_printing" title="Textile printing">Prints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)" title="Spinning (textiles)">Spinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpet" title="Carpet">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lace" title="Lace">Lace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linens" title="Linens">Linens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_industry" title="Clothing industry">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_accessory" title="Fashion accessory">Accessories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dressmaker" title="Dressmaker">Dressmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_clothing" title="Fur clothing">Furs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatmaking" title="Hatmaking">Hatmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing" title="Sewing">Sewing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoemaking" title="Shoemaking">Shoemaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailor" title="Tailor">Tailoring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">Printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">Bookbinding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_embossing" title="Paper embossing">Embossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">Engraving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_printing" title="Security printing">Secure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typesetting" title="Typesetting">Typesetting</a></li></ul></li> <li>Media reproduction <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cassette_tape" title="Cassette tape">Cassette tapes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_of_phonograph_records" title="Production of phonograph records">Phonographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_Disc_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Disc manufacturing">Optical discs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_fabrication" title="Metal fabrication">Metal fabrication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boilermaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Boilermaking">Boilermaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Builders_hardware" title="Builders hardware">Builders'</a> & <a href="/wiki/Household_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="Household hardware">household hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutlery" title="Cutlery">Cutlery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunsmith" title="Gunsmith">Gunsmithing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locksmithing" title="Locksmithing">Locksmithing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_shop" title="Machine shop">Machining</a></li> <li>Other <a href="/wiki/Metalsmith" title="Metalsmith">smithing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_metallurgy" title="Powder metallurgy">Powder metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefabrication" title="Prefabrication">Prefabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_finishing" title="Surface finishing">Surface finishing</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other fabrication <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blow_molding" title="Blow molding">Blow molding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawing_(manufacturing)" title="Drawing (manufacturing)">Drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrusion" title="Extrusion">Extrusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">Glassblowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injection_moulding" title="Injection moulding">Injection moulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">Sintering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">Stonemasonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodworking" title="Woodworking">Woodworking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Furniture</li> <li>Other goods <ul><li>Baggage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle_industry" title="Bicycle industry">Bicycles</a></li> <li>Jewellery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_device" title="Medical device">Medical supplies</a></li> <li>Musical instruments</li> <li>Office supplies</li> <li>Outdoors & sports equipment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">Personal protective equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy#Economics" title="Toy">Toys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electrical <br /> & optical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">Electronics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board#Manufacturing" title="Printed circuit board">Circuit boards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry" title="Semiconductor industry">Semiconductors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer industry">Computers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_system_manufacturers" title="List of computer system manufacturers">Computer systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_hardware_manufacturers" title="List of computer hardware manufacturers">Parts & peripherals</a></li> <li>Blank <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage#Storage_media" title="Computer data storage">storage media</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Communications equipment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone#Sales" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_equipment_provider" title="Network equipment provider">Network infrastructure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronics#Products" title="Consumer electronics">Consumer electronics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Television_set#Major_manufacturers" title="Television set">Televisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_console#Market" title="Video game console">Video game consoles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">Instrumentation</a> <ul><li>Clocks and watches</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation_device#Consumer_applications" title="Satellite navigation device">GPS devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_instrument#List_of_scientific_instruments_manufacturers" title="Scientific instrument">Scientific instruments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging#Industry" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_instrument" title="Optical instrument">Optical instruments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Cameras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescopic_sight" title="Telescopic sight">Gun</a> & <a href="/wiki/Spotting_scope" title="Spotting scope">spotting scopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_construction" title="Laser construction">Laser construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_manufacturing_and_testing" title="Optical manufacturing and testing">Lens grinding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">Microscopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescopes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_device" title="Electrical device">Electrical equipment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Batteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_cable" title="Electrical cable">Electrical</a> & <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">fiber optic</a> cables</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_light" title="Electric light">Electric lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance">Home appliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">Chemicals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Coal & <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">Bitumen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">Coke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">Diesel fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">Fuel oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">Gasoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">Jet fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">Kerosene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_oil" title="Mineral oil">Mineral oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">Paraffin wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">Petrochemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_jelly" title="Petroleum jelly">Petroleum jelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">Propane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_oil" title="Synthetic oil">Synthetic oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar" title="Tar">Tar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_chemicals" title="Commodity chemicals">Commodity chemicals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer#Production" title="Fertilizer">Fertilizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_gas" title="Industrial gas">Industrial gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element#Allotropes" title="Chemical element">Pure elements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciality_chemicals" title="Speciality chemicals">Speciality chemicals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">Adhesives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrochemical" title="Agrochemical">Agrochemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aroma_compound" title="Aroma compound">Aroma compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_agent" title="Cleaning agent">Cleaning products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosive" title="Explosive">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paints</a> & <a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">inks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfume" title="Perfume">Perfumes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">Soap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toiletries" class="mw-redirect" title="Toiletries">Toiletries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine_chemical" title="Fine chemical">Fine chemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">Pharmaceuticals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Production_of_antibiotics" title="Production of antibiotics">Antibiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_product" title="Blood product">Blood products</a></li> <li>Chemical & hormonal <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">contraceptives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generic_drug" title="Generic drug">Generic drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade" title="Illegal drug trade">Illegal drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">Supplements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">Leather</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liming_(leather_processing)" title="Liming (leather processing)">Liming</a> & <a href="/wiki/Deliming" title="Deliming">deliming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">Tanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currier" title="Currier">Currying</a> & <a href="/wiki/Oiling_(leather_processing)" title="Oiling (leather processing)">oiling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">Wood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wood_drying" title="Wood drying">Drying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">Sawmilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineered_wood" title="Engineered wood">Engineered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood-plastic_composite" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood-plastic composite">Composite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry" title="Pulp and paper industry">Paper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sizing#Papermaking" title="Sizing">Sizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardboard" title="Cardboard">Cardboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_(paper)" title="Pulp (paper)">Pulp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_paper" title="Tissue paper">Tissue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_rubber" title="Synthetic rubber">Rubber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tire_manufacturing" title="Tire manufacturing">Tires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">Vulcanized rubber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastics_industry" title="Plastics industry">Plastics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_plastics" title="Commodity plastics">Commodity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_plastic" title="Engineering plastic">Engineered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">Specialty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelletizing" title="Pelletizing">Pellets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fiber" title="Synthetic fiber">Synthetic fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">Thermoplastics</a> & <a href="/wiki/Thermosetting_polymer" title="Thermosetting polymer">thermosets</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Borosilicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fused_quartz" title="Fused quartz">Fused quartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">Soda-lime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Float_glass" title="Float glass">Float glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber" title="Glass fiber">Glass fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_wool" title="Glass wool">Glass wool</a> & <a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">fiberglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_glass" title="Safety glass">Safety glass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">Ceramics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brickworks" title="Brickworks">Brick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthenware" title="Earthenware">Earthenware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porcelain#Other_uses" title="Porcelain">Porcelain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">Refractory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tile" title="Tile">Tile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cement#Cement_industry_in_the_world" title="Cement">Cement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">Mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">Plaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ready-mix_concrete" title="Ready-mix concrete">Ready-mix concrete</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other mineral <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasive" title="Abrasive">Abrasives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fibers" title="Carbon fibers">Carbon fibers</a> & <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_carbon" title="Allotropes of carbon">advanced materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_wool" title="Mineral wool">Mineral wool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_gem" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic gem">Synthetic gems</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">Metal refining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_smelting" title="Aluminium smelting">Aluminum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_extraction" title="Copper extraction">Copper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">Alloys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_(metalworking)" title="Forming (metalworking)">Formed metal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">Rolled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">Forged</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundry" title="Foundry">Cast metal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy_industry" title="Heavy industry">Heavy industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Machine_industry" title="Machine industry">Machinery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conveyor_system" title="Conveyor system">Conveyors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_equipment" title="Heavy equipment">Heavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_machinery" title="Hydraulic machinery">Hydraulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_tool_builder" title="Machine tool builder">Machine tools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbo_generator" title="Turbo generator">Power</a> & <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind turbines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry" title="Automotive industry">Automobiles</a></li> <li>Other heavy <a href="/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">vehicles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerospace industry">Aerospace</a> & <a href="/wiki/Space_industry" title="Space industry">space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_stock" title="Rolling stock">Rail vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Ships</a> & <a href="/wiki/Oil_platform" title="Oil platform">offshore platforms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">Utilities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Power <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_industry" title="Electric power industry">Electric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas#Domestic_use" title="Natural gas">Gas distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_industry" title="Water industry">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_industry" title="Waste management industry">Waste management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waste_collection" title="Waste collection">Collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">Remediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_industry" title="Telecommunications industry">Telecom networks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone_operator" title="Mobile phone operator">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephone company">Telephone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">Buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_property" title="Commercial property">Commercial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_architecture" title="Industrial architecture">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_construction" title="Home construction">Residential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridge building">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_track" title="Railway track">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadbuilding" class="mw-redirect" title="Roadbuilding">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel#Construction" title="Tunnel">Tunnels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal#Construction" title="Canal">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dredging#Major_dredging_companies" title="Dredging">Dredging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor" title="Harbor">Harbors</a></li></ul></li> <li>Specialty trades <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinetry" title="Cabinetry">Cabinetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_wiring" title="Electrical wiring">Electrical wiring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevator_mechanic" title="Elevator mechanic">Elevators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning#HVAC_industry_and_standards" title="Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning">HVAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_painter_and_decorator" title="House painter and decorator">Painting and decorating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">Plumbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">Site preparation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Service_sector" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Tertiary sector of the economy">Service sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sales" title="Sales">Sales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retail" title="Retail">Retail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Car_dealership" title="Car dealership">Car dealership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast-moving_consumer_goods" title="Fast-moving consumer goods">Consumer goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_store" title="General store">General store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grocery_store" title="Grocery store">Grocery store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_store" title="Department store">Department store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mail_order" title="Mail order">Mail order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_shopping" title="Online shopping">Online shopping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialty_store" title="Specialty store">Specialty store</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wholesaling" title="Wholesaling">Wholesale</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auction" title="Auction">Auction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broker" title="Broker">Brokerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distribution_(marketing)" title="Distribution (marketing)">Distribution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">Transport</a> <br /> & Storage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">Cargo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_cargo" title="Air cargo">Air cargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transport" title="Intermodal freight transport">Intermodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mail" title="Mail">Mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_company" title="Moving company">Moving company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_freight_transport" title="Rail freight transport">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking" class="mw-redirect" title="Trucking">Trucking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger transport">Passenger transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car_rental" title="Car rental">Car rentals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger rail">Passenger rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridesharing_company" title="Ridesharing company">Ridesharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxi" title="Taxi">Taxis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warehouse" title="Warehouse">Warehousing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self_storage" title="Self storage">Self storage</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hospitality_industry" title="Hospitality industry">Hospitality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foodservice" title="Foodservice">Foodservice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_establishment" title="Drinking establishment">Drink service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffeehouse" title="Coffeehouse">Cafés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catering" title="Catering">Catering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_food" title="Fast food">Fast food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_delivery" title="Food delivery">Food delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restaurant" title="Restaurant">Restaurants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teahouse" title="Teahouse">Teahouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotel" title="Hotel">Hotels</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asset_management" title="Asset management">Asset management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Financial_services" title="Financial services">Financial services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank" title="Bank">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credit" title="Credit">Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_adviser" title="Financial adviser">Financial advice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holding_company" title="Holding company">Holding company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_funds_transfer" title="Electronic funds transfer">Money transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payment_card_industry" title="Payment card industry">Payment cards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_(finance)" title="Security (finance)">Securities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">Insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_insurance" title="Life insurance">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension_fund" title="Pension fund">Pension funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_insurance" title="Property insurance">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance" title="Reinsurance">Reinsurance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_economics" title="Real estate economics">Real estate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_agent" title="Real estate agent">Brokerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_management" title="Property management">Property management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Professional_services" title="Professional services">Professional</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting_network" title="Accounting network">Accounting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assurance_services" title="Assurance services">Assurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit" title="Audit">Audit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookkeeping" title="Bookkeeping">Bookkeeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_advisor" title="Tax advisor">Tax advice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_firm" title="Architectural firm">Architecture</a> & <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inspection" title="Inspection">Inspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_test" title="Physical test">Physical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Product_testing" title="Product testing">product</a>, & <a href="/wiki/System_testing" title="System testing">system testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">Design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_design" title="Fashion design">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interior_design" title="Interior design">Interior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_design" title="Industrial design">Product</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Legal services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consulting_firm" title="Consulting firm">Consulting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">Marketing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_industry" title="Advertising industry">Advertising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_industries" title="Creative industries">Creative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_industry" title="Language industry">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">Research and development</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic research</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_industry" title="Healthcare industry">Healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Medicine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dentist_office" class="mw-redirect" title="Dentist office">Dentist offices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_care" title="Residential care">Residential care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Entertainment#Industry" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a><br /> & <a href="/wiki/Leisure_industry" title="Leisure industry">leisure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Audio-visual <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_industry" title="Film industry">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_industry" title="Music industry">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_industry" title="Video game industry">Video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/News_agency" title="News agency">News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_industry" title="Radio industry">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television#Content" title="Television">Television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_industry" title="Sport industry">Sport</a></li> <li>Travel <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_travel" title="Business travel">Business travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruise_line" title="Cruise line">Cruise lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">Tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casino" title="Casino">Gambling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_gambling" title="Online gambling">Online</a></li></ul></li> <li>Venues <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amusement_arcade" title="Amusement arcade">Arcades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amusement_park" title="Amusement park">Amusement parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair" title="Fair">Fairgrounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightclub" title="Nightclub">Nightclubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabletop_game_industry" title="Tabletop game industry">Tabletop games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">Publishing</a> <br /> & <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Written <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodical_literature" title="Periodical literature">Periodicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_industry" title="Software industry">Software</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Web_hosting_service" title="Web hosting service">Hosting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_networking_service" title="Social networking service">Social networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">Streaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Website" title="Website">Websites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">Primary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">Secondary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">Tertiary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_school" title="Vocational school">Vocational school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University" title="University">University</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">Testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutoring" title="Tutoring">Tutoring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administrative <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customer_service" title="Customer service">Customer service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lease" title="Lease">Leasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renting" title="Renting">Renting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_agency" title="Employment agency">Staffing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_investigator" title="Private investigator">Private investigation</a> & <a href="/wiki/Security_company" title="Security company">security</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maintenance <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Janitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Janitor">Janitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_maintenance" title="Landscape maintenance">Landscaping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maintenance_(technical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maintenance (technical)">Repairs</a></li> <li>Personal services <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_salon" title="Beauty salon">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cleaning" title="Dry cleaning">Dry cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Funeral industry">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maid_service" title="Maid service">Maid service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pet_industry" title="Pet industry">Pet care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_industry" title="Sex industry">Sex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_industry" title="Poverty industry">Poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industry_classification" title="Industry classification">Classification <br /> standards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Production-based <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_and_New_Zealand_Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="Australian and New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification">ANZSIC</a></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="International Standard Industrial Classification">ISIC</a></b></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_Classification_of_Economic_Activities_in_the_European_Community" title="Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community">NACE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Industry_Classification_System" title="North American Industry Classification System">NAICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="Standard Industrial Classification">SIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Standard_Industrial_Classification_of_Economic_Activities" title="United Kingdom Standard Industrial Classification of Economic Activities">UKSIC</a></li></ul></li> <li>Market-based <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Industry_Classification_Standard" title="Global Industry Classification Standard">GICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_Classification_Benchmark" title="Industry Classification Benchmark">ICB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Refinitiv_Business_Classification" title="The Refinitiv Business Classification">TRBC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">Inputs</a> <br /> & <a href="/wiki/Output_(economics)" title="Output (economics)">outputs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externalities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">Well-being</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding" title="Funding">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">Goods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_good" title="Final good">Final</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_good" title="Intermediate good">Intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">Raw material</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a></li> <li>Primary inputs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_capital" title="Physical capital">Physical capital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">Organization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centralization" class="mw-redirect" title="Centralization">Centralization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartel" title="Cartel">Cartel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(company)" title="Conglomerate (company)">Conglomerate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_integration" title="Horizontal integration">Horizontal integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions" title="Mergers and acquisitions">Mergers and acquisitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopsony" title="Monopsony">Monopsony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_integration" title="Vertical integration">Vertical integration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Enforced breakup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freelancer" title="Freelancer">Freelancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homesteading" title="Homesteading">Homesteading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">Outsourcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putting-out_system" title="Putting-out system">Putting-out system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_spin-off" title="Corporate spin-off">Spinning-off</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_work" title="Temporary work">Temporary work</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint-stock_company" title="Joint-stock company">Joint-stock company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">Nonprofit organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partnership" title="Partnership">Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sole_proprietorship" title="Sole proprietorship">Sole proprietorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">State-owned enterprise</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Industry_(economics)" title="Category:Industry (economics)"><b>Category</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Industries" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Industries"><b>Commons</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_industry" title="Outline of industry"><b>Outline</b></a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44497#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44497#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44497#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Bergbau"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4005614-4">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566173">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="hornictví"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114693&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/027652">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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