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id="toc-Lammas_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lammas_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Lammas rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lammas_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enclosure_and_decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enclosure_and_decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Enclosure and decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enclosure_and_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Modern use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governing_law_in_England_and_Wales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governing_law_in_England_and_Wales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Governing law in England and Wales</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Governing_law_in_England_and_Wales-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Governing law in England and Wales subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Governing_law_in_England_and_Wales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Erection_of_Cottages_Act_1588" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erection_of_Cottages_Act_1588"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Erection of Cottages Act 1588</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erection_of_Cottages_Act_1588-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commons_Act_1876" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commons_Act_1876"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Commons Act 1876</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commons_Act_1876-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commons_Act_1899" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commons_Act_1899"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Commons Act 1899</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commons_Act_1899-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_of_Property_Act_1925" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_Property_Act_1925"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Law of Property Act 1925</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_Property_Act_1925-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commons_Registration_Act_1965" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commons_Registration_Act_1965"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Commons Registration Act 1965</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commons_Registration_Act_1965-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Countryside_and_Rights_of_Way_Act_2000" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Countryside_and_Rights_of_Way_Act_2000"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Countryside_and_Rights_of_Way_Act_2000-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commons_Act_2006" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commons_Act_2006"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Commons Act 2006</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commons_Act_2006-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Management</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Management subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Fencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controls_on_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controls_on_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Controls on development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controls_on_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boards_of_conservators_and_commons_councils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boards_of_conservators_and_commons_councils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Boards of conservators and commons councils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boards_of_conservators_and_commons_councils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roadways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roadways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Roadways</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roadways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finland_and_Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finland_and_Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Finland and Sweden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finland_and_Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Scotland subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commonties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commonties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Commonties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commonties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common_mosses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_mosses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Common mosses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_mosses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Run_rig" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Run_rig"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Run rig</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Run_rig-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scattalds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scattalds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Scattalds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scattalds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crown_Commons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crown_Commons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Crown Commons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crown_Commons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greens_and_loans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greens_and_loans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Greens and loans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greens_and_loans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burgh_commons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burgh_commons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7</span> <span>Burgh commons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burgh_commons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_movements_in_defence_of_English_commons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_movements_in_defence_of_English_commons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Historical movements in defence of English commons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_movements_in_defence_of_English_commons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Common land</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allmende" title="Allmende – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Allmende" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9" title="أرض مشتركة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أرض مشتركة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bien_comunal" title="Bien comunal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Bien comunal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frei" title="Frei – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Frei" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tir_comin" title="Tir comin – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Tir comin" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A6lled" title="Fælled – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fælled" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allmende" title="Allmende – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Allmende" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bien_comunal" title="Bien comunal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bien comunal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almendo" title="Almendo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Almendo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B9" title="زمین مشاع – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زمین مشاع" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biens_communaux" title="Biens communaux – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Biens communaux" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miente" title="Miente – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Miente" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ademprivio" title="Ademprivio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ademprivio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Альменда – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Альменда" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemene_gronden" title="Gemene gronden – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gemene gronden" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E6%9C%89%E5%9C%B0" title="共有地 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="共有地" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allmenning" title="Allmenning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Allmenning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allmenning" title="Allmenning – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Allmenning" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bens_comunals" title="Bens comunals – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Bens comunals" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wsp%C3%B3lnota_gruntowa" title="Wspólnota gruntowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wspólnota gruntowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldio" title="Baldio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Baldio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob%C8%99te_s%C4%83teasc%C4%83" title="Obște sătească – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Obște sătească" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Альменда – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Альменда" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Common land" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yhteismaa" title="Yhteismaa – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Yhteismaa" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allm%C3%A4nning" title="Allmänning – Swedish" lang="sv" 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class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Pooh_sticks_bridge.jpg/170px-Pooh_sticks_bridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Pooh_sticks_bridge.jpg/255px-Pooh_sticks_bridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Pooh_sticks_bridge.jpg/340px-Pooh_sticks_bridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Poohsticks" title="Poohsticks">Poohsticks</a> Bridge in <a href="/wiki/Ashdown_Forest" title="Ashdown Forest">Ashdown Forest</a>, an area of common land.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Common land</b> is collective land (sometimes only open to those whose nation governs the land) in which all persons have certain <a href="/wiki/Common_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Common rights">common rights</a>, such as to allow their <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> to graze upon it, to collect <a href="/wiki/Wood_fuel" title="Wood fuel">wood</a>, or to cut <a href="/wiki/Turf" class="mw-redirect" title="Turf">turf</a> for <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A person who has a right in, or over, common land jointly with another or others is usually called a <b>commoner</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Great Britain, common land or former common land is usually referred to as a <b>common</b>; for instance, <a href="/wiki/Clapham_Common" title="Clapham Common">Clapham Common</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mungrisdale_Common" title="Mungrisdale Common">Mungrisdale Common</a>. Due to <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a>, the extent of common land is now much reduced from the hundreds of square kilometres that existed until the 17th century, but a considerable amount of common land still exists, particularly in upland areas. There are over 8,000 registered commons in England alone.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pannage_in_the_New_Forest.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Pannage_in_the_New_Forest.JPG/220px-Pannage_in_the_New_Forest.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Pannage_in_the_New_Forest.JPG/330px-Pannage_in_the_New_Forest.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Pannage_in_the_New_Forest.JPG/440px-Pannage_in_the_New_Forest.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>Modern-day <a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a>, or common of mast, in the New Forest</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG/220px-Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG/330px-Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG/440px-Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="1755" /></a><figcaption>Conjectural map of a mediaeval English <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manor</a>. The part allocated to "common pasture" is shown in the north-east section, shaded green.</figcaption></figure> <p>Originally in medieval England the common was an integral part of the <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manor</a>, and was thus part of the <a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">estate</a> held by the lord of the manor under a grant from the Crown or a superior peer (who in turn held his land from the Crown; it is sometimes said that the Crown was held to ultimately own all land under its domain). This manorial system, founded on feudalism, granted rights of land use to different classes. These could be <i><a href="/wiki/Appurtenant" class="mw-redirect" title="Appurtenant">appurtenant</a></i> rights whose ownership attached to tenancies of particular plots of land held within a manor.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A commoner would be the person who, for the time being, was the occupier of a particular plot of land. Most land with appurtenant commons rights is adjacent to the common. Other rights of common were said to be <i><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">in gross</a></i>, that is, they were unconnected with tenure of land. This was more usual in regions where commons were more extensive, such as in the high ground of Northern England or in the <a href="/wiki/The_Fens" title="The Fens">Fens</a>, but also included many <a href="/wiki/Village_green" title="Village green">village greens</a> across England and Wales. </p><p>Historically <a href="/wiki/Manorial_court" title="Manorial court">manorial courts</a> defined the details of many of the rights of common allowed to manorial tenants, and such rights formed part of the <a href="/wiki/Copyhold" title="Copyhold">copyhold</a> tenancy whose terms were defined in the manorial court roll. </p><p>Example rights of common are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a>. Right to pasture cattle, horses, sheep or other animals on the common land. The most widespread right.</li> <li>Piscary. Right to fish.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbary" title="Turbary">Turbary</a>. Right to take sods of turf for fuel.</li> <li>Common in the Soil. This is a general term used for rights to extract minerals such as sands, gravels, marl, walling stone and lime from common land.</li> <li>Mast or <a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a>. Right to turn out pigs for a period in autumn to eat mast (<a href="/wiki/Beech" title="Beech">beech</a> mast, acorns and other nuts).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estovers" title="Estovers">Estovers</a>. Right to take sufficient wood for the commoner's house or holding; usually limited to smaller trees, bushes (such as <a href="/wiki/Gorse" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorse">gorse</a>) and fallen branches.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>On most commons, rights of <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a> for each commoner are tightly defined by number and type of animal, and by the time of year when certain rights could be exercised. For example, the occupier of a particular cottage might be allowed to graze fifteen <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, four <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pony" title="Pony">ponies</a> or <a href="/wiki/Donkey" title="Donkey">donkeys</a>, and fifty <a href="/wiki/Geese" class="mw-redirect" title="Geese">geese</a>, whilst the numbers allowed for their neighbours would probably be different. On some commons (such as the <a href="/wiki/New_Forest" title="New Forest">New Forest</a> and adjoining commons), the rights are not limited by numbers, and instead a <i>marking fee</i> is paid each year for each animal <i>turned out</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, if excessive use was made of the common, for example, in <a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">overgrazing</a>, a common would be <i>stinted</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is, a limit would be put on the number of animals each commoner was allowed to graze. These regulations were responsive to demographic and economic pressure. Thus rather than let a common become degraded, access was restricted even further. </p><p>The lord of the manor must only exercise his rights so far as to leave a "sufficiency" of resource for commoners. This was at issue in 1889 when the lord of the manor and owner of Banstead Downs and Heath, a Mr Hartopp, excavated gravel and threatened to reduce the available pasture. The meaning of sufficiency was challenged in court, expert witnesses stated that the grazing capacity was 1,200 animals, the commoners rights totalled 1,440 animals, and 600 animals were normally turned out. It was decided sufficiency was whether enough grazing would be available for all the animals that could be turned out. The judgment was that "The Lord is bound to leave pasture enough to satisfy the commoners rights whether such rights are to be exercised or not". Commoners also have the right to "peaceful enjoyment" of their rights, so that they cannot be hindered by the lord of the manor. This was first proposed in 1500 and became case law in 1827.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_common">Types of common</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types of common"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snake%27s_head_fritillary,_North_Meadow_NNR,_Cricklade_-_geograph.org.uk_-_418738.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Snake%27s_head_fritillary%2C_North_Meadow_NNR%2C_Cricklade_-_geograph.org.uk_-_418738.jpg/220px-Snake%27s_head_fritillary%2C_North_Meadow_NNR%2C_Cricklade_-_geograph.org.uk_-_418738.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Snake%27s_head_fritillary%2C_North_Meadow_NNR%2C_Cricklade_-_geograph.org.uk_-_418738.jpg/330px-Snake%27s_head_fritillary%2C_North_Meadow_NNR%2C_Cricklade_-_geograph.org.uk_-_418738.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Snake%27s_head_fritillary%2C_North_Meadow_NNR%2C_Cricklade_-_geograph.org.uk_-_418738.jpg/440px-Snake%27s_head_fritillary%2C_North_Meadow_NNR%2C_Cricklade_-_geograph.org.uk_-_418738.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Snake's head fritillary, North Meadow, Cricklade. This is grazed as Lammas common land.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scafell_massif_enclosures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Scafell_massif_enclosures.jpg/220px-Scafell_massif_enclosures.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Scafell_massif_enclosures.jpg/330px-Scafell_massif_enclosures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Scafell_massif_enclosures.jpg/440px-Scafell_massif_enclosures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1248" /></a><figcaption>View of the <a href="/wiki/Scafell" title="Scafell">Scafell</a> massif from Yewbarrow, Wasdale, Cumbria. In the valley bottom are older enclosures and higher up on the fell-side are later enclosures on poorer land with substantial walls following boundary lines regardless of terrain. Above those is the unenclosed common land</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pasture_commons">Pasture commons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pasture commons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a> commons are those where the primary right is to pasture <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a>. In the uplands, they are largely <a href="/wiki/Moorland" title="Moorland">moorland</a>, on the coast they may be <a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">salt marsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sand_dune" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand dune">sand dunes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cliff" title="Cliff">cliffs</a>, and on inland lowlands they may be <a href="/wiki/Downland" title="Downland">downland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grassland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heathland" class="mw-redirect" title="Heathland">heathland</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wood_pasture" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood pasture">wood pasture</a>, depending on the soil and history. These habitats are often of very high <a href="/wiki/Nature_conservation" title="Nature conservation">nature conservation</a> value, because of their very long continuity of management extending in some cases over many hundreds of years. In the past, most pasture commons would have been grazed by mixtures of cattle, sheep and ponies (often also geese). The modern survival of grazing on pasture commons over the past century is uneven.<sup id="cite_ref-Impacts_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Impacts-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of <b>hefting</b> (or <b>heafing</b>) – the characteristic of some breeds of sheep for example, keeping to a certain <i>heft</i> (a small local area) throughout their lives – allows different farmers in an extensive landscape such as <a href="/wiki/Moorland" title="Moorland">moorland</a> to graze different areas without the need for fences while maintaining their effective individual interest in them, as each ewe remains on her particular area. Lambs usually learn their heft from their mothers. Also known as 'hoofing' in some areas like North Yorkshire.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ability to keep sheep from straying without fences is still an important factor in sheep farming on the extensive common land in upland areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arable_and_haymeadow_commons">Arable and haymeadow commons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Arable and haymeadow commons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Surviving commons are almost all pasture, but in earlier times, <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> farming and <a href="/wiki/Hay" title="Hay">haymaking</a> were significant, with strips of land in the <a href="/wiki/Open_field_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Open field system">common arable fields</a> and common <a href="/wiki/Hay_meadow" title="Hay meadow">haymeadows</a> assigned annually by <a href="/wiki/Sortition" title="Sortition">lot</a>. When not in use for those purposes, such commons were <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazed</a>. Examples include the common arable fields around the village of <a href="/wiki/Laxton,_Nottinghamshire#Open_Fields" title="Laxton, Nottinghamshire">Laxton</a> in Nottinghamshire, and a common meadow at <a href="/wiki/North_Meadow,_Cricklade" title="North Meadow, Cricklade">North Meadow, Cricklade</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lammas_rights">Lammas rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lammas rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Lammas rights</i> entitled commoners to pasture following the harvest, between <a href="/wiki/Lammas" title="Lammas">Lammas</a> day, 12 August (<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">N.S.</a>), to 6 April, even if they did not have other rights to the land. Such rights sometimes had the effect of preventing enclosure and building development on agricultural land.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Enclosure_and_decline">Enclosure and decline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Enclosure and decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a></div> <p>Most of the medieval common land of England was lost due to enclosure. In English social and economic history, <b>enclosure</b> or <b>inclosure</b> is the process which ends traditional rights such as <a href="/wiki/Mowing" class="mw-redirect" title="Mowing">mowing</a> <a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">meadows</a> for <a href="/wiki/Hay" title="Hay">hay</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing</a> <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> on common land formerly held in the <a href="/wiki/Open_field_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Open field system">open field system</a>. Once enclosed, these uses of the land become restricted to the owner, and it ceases to be land for the use of commoners. In <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a> the term is also used for the process that ended the ancient system of <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">arable farming</a> in <a href="/wiki/Open_field_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Open field system">open fields</a>. Under enclosure, such land is fenced (<i>enclosed</i>) and <i>deeded</i> or <i>entitled</i> to one or more owners. The process of enclosure began to be a widespread feature of the English agricultural landscape during the 16th century. By the 19th century, unenclosed commons had become largely restricted to large areas of rough pasture in mountainous areas and to relatively small residual parcels of land in the lowlands. </p><p>Enclosure could be accomplished by buying the ground rights and all common rights to accomplish exclusive rights of use, which increased the value of the land. The other method was by passing laws causing or forcing enclosure, such as Parliamentary enclosure. The latter process of enclosure was sometimes accompanied by force, resistance, and bloodshed, and remains among the most controversial areas of <a href="/wiki/Agricultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural">agricultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economic</a> <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> in England. </p><p>Enclosure is considered one of the causes of the <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a>. Enclosed land was under control of the farmer who was free to adopt better farming practices. There was widespread agreement in contemporary accounts that profit making opportunities were better with enclosed land.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following enclosure, crop yields and livestock output increased while at the same time productivity increased enough to create a surplus of labour. The increased labour supply is considered one of the factors facilitating the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the era of enclosure, there was relatively little common land remaining of value although some residual commoners remained until the end of the Second World War. By that time lowland commons had become neglected because the commoners were able to find better-paid work in other sectors of the economy. As a result they largely stopped exercising their rights; relatively few commoners exist today. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_use">Modern use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Much common land is still used for its original purpose. The right to graze domestic stock is by far the most extensive commoners right registered, and its ongoing use contributes significantly to agricultural and rural economies. Rights to graze sheep are registered on 53% of the Welsh and 16% of the English commons. Cattle are registered on 35% of Welsh and 20% of English commons, whilst horses and ponies are registered on 27% of Welsh and 13% of English commons. In some cases rights to graze goats, geese and ducks are registered, whilst in others the type of livestock is not specified. These figures relate to the number of common land units, and due to discrepancies in the registers and large numbers of small commons with no rights in England, the apparent distinction between Wales and England may be exaggerated.<sup id="cite_ref-Foundation_for_common_land_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foundation_for_common_land-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, despite the diverse legal and historical origins of commons, they are managed through a community of users, comprising those who hold rights together with the owner(s) of the soil. Such communities generally require joint working to integrate all interests, with formal or informal controls and collaborative understandings, often coupled with strong social traditions and local identity.<sup id="cite_ref-Foundation_for_common_land_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foundation_for_common_land-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, 26% of commons in Wales, and as many as 65% in England, have no common rights shown on the registers. Such areas are derived from <a href="/wiki/Manorial_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Manorial waste">wastes of manors</a>, where rights probably existed formerly.<sup id="cite_ref-Foundation_for_common_land_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foundation_for_common_land-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When such open habitats are no longer grazed they revert to scrub and then dense woodland, losing the grassy or heathland vegetation which may have occupied the land continuously for many centuries. In 2007, <a href="/wiki/Ashdown_Forest" title="Ashdown Forest">Ashdown Forest</a>, the Sussex heathland which was the setting for the <a href="/wiki/Winnie-the-Pooh" title="Winnie-the-Pooh">Winnie-the-Pooh</a> stories, became the centre of a dispute between some local residents and the forest's governing body, the Board of Conservators, which is responsible for administering the forest's 24 km<sup>2</sup> of common land. The conservators wished to restore the forest's landscape to one that predominantly consisted of heathland—its defining characteristic until the mid-twentieth century, but something that was in danger of being lost after the Second World War as a result of the advance of woodland into traditional heathland areas when, as one commentator stated: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...returning soldiers gave up trying to scratch a living out of the forest. Whereas once hundreds of commoners used the wood and heath—their livestock obliging by chewing down young tree shoots—today there is only one commercial grazer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2007_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>The conservators were forced to intervene to stem the invasion of trees, scrub and bracken that threatened the ecologically precious heathlands, cutting down saplings, removing scrub and mowing the bracken. Some residents complained that the results looked like a First World War battle field. This is not a problem restricted to this common, but according to Jonathan Brown writing in the Independent on 21 April 2007 "similar debates are raging between locals and the authorities at other heathland areas in the New Forest and Surrey".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2007_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2008 the Foundation for Common Land was created in the UK to try to enhance the understanding and protection of commons.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Governing_law_in_England_and_Wales">Governing law in England and Wales</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Governing law in England and Wales"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The legal position concerning common land has been confused, but recent legislation has sought to remedy this and remove the legal uncertainties so that commons can be better used and protected. </p><p>Most commons are based on ancient rights under British <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>, which pre-date <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statutes</a> passed by the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament of England</a>. The exact <a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a> rights which apply to individual commons were in some cases documented, but more often were based on long-held traditions. A major reform began in 1965, with a national register of common land which recorded the land ownership and the rights of any commoners, and two other important statutes have followed. </p><p>Owners of land in general have all the rights of exclusive ownership, to use the land as they wish. However, for common land the owner's rights are restricted, and other people known as commoners have certain rights over the land. The landowner may retain other rights to the land, such as rights to minerals and large timber, and to any common rights left unexercised by the commoners. The commoners will continue to exercise their rights, or have a document which describes their rights, which may be part of the deeds of another property. A number of commoners still exercise rights, for example, there are 500 practising commoners in the <a href="/wiki/New_Forest" title="New Forest">New Forest</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there is a federation of commoners in <a href="/wiki/Cumbria" title="Cumbria">Cumbria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many cases commons have no existing commoners, the rights having been neglected. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Erection_of_Cottages_Act_1588">Erection of Cottages Act 1588</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Erection of Cottages Act 1588"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Erection_of_Cottages_Act_1588" title="Erection of Cottages Act 1588">Erection of Cottages Act 1588</a></div> <p>It was a common <a href="/wiki/T%C5%B7_unnos" title="Tŷ unnos">a belief</a> that if a squatter and their friends could—between sunrise and sunset in a single day—build a house on common land, raise the roof over their head and light a fire in the hearth, then they would have the right of undisturbed possession.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison135_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison135-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The belief—sometimes called "keyhole tenure", and which persisted as recently as the early 20th century—was actually a fallacy, but to stop landless peasants unlawfully squatting on commons, the <a href="/wiki/Erection_of_Cottages_Act_1588" title="Erection of Cottages Act 1588">Erection of Cottages Act 1588</a> (<a href="/wiki/31_Eliz._1" class="mw-redirect" title="31 Eliz. 1">31 Eliz. 1</a>. c. 7) was introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison135_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison135-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-statute664_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-statute664-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commons_Act_1876">Commons Act 1876</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Commons Act 1876"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">United Kingdom legislation</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:100%"><span style="font-size:125%">Commons Act 1876</span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;">Act of Parliament</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg/210px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg/280px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1550" /></span></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Citation_of_United_Kingdom_legislation" title="Citation of United Kingdom legislation">Citation</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/39_%26_40_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="39 & 40 Vict.">39 & 40 Vict.</a> c. 56</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Under the <b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Commons_Act_1876"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Commons Act 1876</span></span></b> (<a href="/wiki/39_%26_40_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="39 & 40 Vict.">39 & 40 Vict.</a> c. 56) some 36 commons in England and Wales were regulated. The act also enabled the confirmation of orders providing for the inclosure of common land or common fields. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commons_Act_1899">Commons Act 1899</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Commons Act 1899"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">United Kingdom legislation</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox vevent mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:100%"><span style="font-size:125%">Commons Act 1899</span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;">Act of Parliament</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg/210px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg/280px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281837%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1550" /></span></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Short_and_long_titles" title="Short and long titles">Long title</a></th><td class="infobox-data description">An Act to amend the Inclosure Acts 1845 to 1882 and the Law relating to Commons and Open Spaces.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Citation_of_United_Kingdom_legislation" title="Citation of United Kingdom legislation">Citation</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/62_%26_63_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="62 & 63 Vict.">62 & 63 Vict.</a> c. 30</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Dates</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">Royal assent</a></th><td class="infobox-data">9 August 1899</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Other legislation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Amended by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Statute_Law_Revision_Act_1883" title="Statute Law Revision Act 1883">Statute Law Revision Act 1883</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"><div style="background-color: #ffffcc;">Status: Amended</div></th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/62-63/30/contents/enacted">Text of statute as originally enacted</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Commons_Act_1899"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Commons Act 1899</span></span></b> (<a href="/wiki/62_%26_63_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="62 & 63 Vict.">62 & 63 Vict.</a> c. 30) provides a mechanism of enabling district councils and National Park authorities to manage commons where their use for exercise and recreation is the prime consideration and where the owner and commoners do not require a direct voice in the management, or where the owner cannot be found. There are at least 200 schemes of management made under the 1899 act. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_of_Property_Act_1925">Law of Property Act 1925</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Law of Property Act 1925"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Property_Act_1925" title="Law of Property Act 1925">Law of Property Act 1925</a> (<a href="/wiki/15_%26_16_Geo._5" class="mw-redirect" title="15 & 16 Geo. 5">15 & 16 Geo. 5</a>. c. 20), which still forms the core of English property law, has two provisions for common land: </p> <ul><li>Section 193 gave the right of the public to "air and exercise" on metropolitan commons and those in pre-1974 urban districts and boroughs. This constituted about one fifth of the commons, but the 1925 act did not give this right to commons in essentially rural areas (although some urban districts had remarkably rural extent, such as the Lakes Urban District), which had to wait for the <a href="/wiki/Countryside_and_Rights_of_Way_Act_2000" title="Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000">Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000</a>.</li> <li>Section 194 restricted the inclosure of commons, which would now require Ministerial consent.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commons_Registration_Act_1965">Commons Registration Act 1965</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Commons Registration Act 1965"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The UK government regularised the definitions of common land with the <a href="/wiki/Commons_Registration_Act_1965" title="Commons Registration Act 1965">Commons Registration Act 1965</a> (c. 64),<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which established a register of common land. </p><p>Not all commons have owners, but all common land by definition is registered under Commons Registration Act 1965, along with the rights of any commoners if they still exist. The registration authorities are the county councils, and when there is no ownership, a local council, such as a <a href="/wiki/Parish_councils_in_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Parish councils in England">parish council</a> is normally given guardianship by vesting the property under section 8 the act. </p><p>An online database of registered common land was compiled by DEFRA in 1992–93 as part of a survey of the condition and wildlife of commons.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The official up to date registers of common land are held by the commons registration authorities. </p><p>The following registration information is held:<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Land Section</b></li></ul> <p>This includes a description of the land, who applied to register the land, and when the land became finally registered. There are also related plans which show the boundaries of the land. </p> <ul><li><b>Rights Section</b></li></ul> <p>This includes a description of the rights of common (e.g. a right to graze a certain number of sheep), the area of common over which the right is exercisable, the name of the holder of the right and whether the right is attached to land in the ownership of the holder of the right (the commoner) or is a right held in gross i.e. unattached to land. </p> <ul><li><b>Ownership Section</b></li></ul> <p>This includes details of the owner(s) of the common land. Entries in this section however, are not held to be conclusive. </p><p>Numerous inconsistencies and irregularities remained, mainly because a period of only three years was given for registration submissions. However, there is now an opportunity to clear these up under the 2006 act, and to add land omitted under the 1965 act.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Countryside_and_Rights_of_Way_Act_2000">Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other than for those commons covered by the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Property_Act_1925" title="Law of Property Act 1925">Law of Property Act 1925</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Commons_Act_1899" class="mw-redirect" title="Commons Act 1899">Commons Act 1899</a> and certain other statutes, the public did not have the right to use or enjoy common land if they were not a commoner. However, the <a href="/wiki/Countryside_and_Rights_of_Way_Act_2000" title="Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000">Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000</a> (c. 37) gave the public the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_to_roam" title="Freedom to roam">freedom to roam</a> freely on all registered common land in England and Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new rights were introduced region by region through England and Wales, with completion in 2005. Maps showing accessible areas have been produced, and are available online as "open access maps" produced by Natural England.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commons are included in the public access land now shown on the <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Survey" title="Ordnance Survey">Ordnance Survey</a> Explorer maps. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commons_Act_2006">Commons Act 2006</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Commons Act 2006"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Commons_Act_2006" title="Commons Act 2006">Commons Act 2006</a> (c. 26) is an important recent piece of legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The act: </p> <ul><li>Enables commons to be managed more sustainably by commoners and landowners working together through commons councils with powers to regulate grazing and other agricultural activities</li> <li>Provides better protection for common land and greens – this includes reinforcing existing protections against abuse, encroachment and unauthorised development</li> <li>Recognises that the protection of common land has to be proportionate to the harm caused and that some specified works can be carried out without the need for consent</li> <li>Requires commons registration authorities to bring their registers up-to-date by recording past changes affecting the registers during a 'transitional period', and to keep the registers up-to-date by recording new changes affecting the registers – commons registration authorities will have new powers to correct many of the mistakes in the registers</li> <li>Sets out new, clearer criteria for the registration of town or village greens</li> <li>Prohibits the severance of rights of common grazing, preventing commoners from selling, leasing or letting their rights away from the property to which rights are attached,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though temporary severance of such rights is permitted<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for renewable terms of up to two years (in England) and five years (in Wales).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Several hundred square kilometres of 'waste land' that was provisionally registered under the Commons Registration Act 1965 was not, in fact, finally registered. As a consequence, it ceased to be recognised as common land. A partial remedy for this defect in the earlier legislation is provided by the <a href="/wiki/Commons_Act_2006" title="Commons Act 2006">Commons Act 2006</a>. Under Schedule 2(4) to the Act, applications that failed to achieve final registration under the 1965 Act may, in certain circumstances, be reconsidered – offering, in effect, a second chance for the land to be confirmed ('re-registered') as common. Land that is re-registered in this way will enjoy the special legal protection afforded to common land. It will also become subject in due course to the public right of access introduced by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000; or depending on location, may qualify as a section 193 'urban' common (in which case, it would also be subject to a right of access for horse-riders).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fencing">Fencing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Fencing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wimbledon_Windmill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Wimbledon_Windmill.jpg/220px-Wimbledon_Windmill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Wimbledon_Windmill.jpg/330px-Wimbledon_Windmill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Wimbledon_Windmill.jpg/440px-Wimbledon_Windmill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/Wimbledon_Windmill" title="Wimbledon Windmill">windmill</a> on <a href="/wiki/Wimbledon_Common" title="Wimbledon Common">Wimbledon Common</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The act of transferring resources from the commons to purely private ownership is known as <i><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></i>, or (especially in formal use, and in place names) <i>Inclosure</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Inclosure_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclosure Acts">Inclosure Acts</a> were a series of private acts of Parliament, mainly from about 1750 to 1850, which enclosed large areas of common, especially the arable and haymeadow land and the better pasture land. </p><p>The maintenance of fences around a common is the responsibility of the occupiers of the adjacent enclosed land, not (as it would be with enclosed land) the responsibility of the owners of the grazed livestock. This can lead to difficulties where not all adjacent occupiers maintain their fences properly. However the fencing of land within a registered common is not allowed, as this is a form of enclosure and denies use of the land to others. </p><p>A celebrated landmark case of unauthorised fencing of a common was in 1866 by Lord Brownlow who illegally enclosed 434 acres of Berkhamsted Common to add to his <a href="/wiki/Ashridge_Estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashridge Estate">Ashridge Estate</a>. Brownlow had failed to buy out the commoners, so resorted to this action. A public outcry followed, and the Commons Preservation Society found a champion in <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Smith_(politician)" title="Augustus Smith (politician)">Augustus Smith</a> who had the inclination and the money to act, and himself held commons rights. Smith hired 120 navvies armed with hammers, chisels and crowbars, who on the night of 6 March 1866, under the aegis of the newly formed Commons Preservation Society (now the <a href="/wiki/Open_Spaces_Society" title="Open Spaces Society">Open Spaces Society</a>), felled to the ground two miles of iron railings. Soon after, local people flocked in. Lord Brownlow took action against Augustus Smith and the court case lasted until 1870 when it ended with the complete vindication of Smith.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controls_on_development">Controls on development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Controls on development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Development of common land is strictly controlled. The government states that common land should be open and accessible to the public, and the law restricts the kind of works that can be carried out on commons. HM Planning Inspectorate is responsible for determining applications under the 2006 Act regarding common land in England, and several other pieces of legislation regarding commons and greens. All applications are determined on behalf of the Secretary of State for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra).<sup id="cite_ref-UK_planning_portal_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UK_planning_portal-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under section 38 of the Commons Act 2006, you need consent to carry out any restricted works on land registered as common land under the Commons Registration Act 1965. Restricted works are any that prevent or impede access to or over the land. They include fencing, buildings, structures, ditches, trenches, embankments and other works, where the effect of those works is to prevent or impede access. They also include, in every case, new solid surfaces, such as for a new car park or access road.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boards_of_conservators_and_commons_councils">Boards of conservators and commons councils</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Boards of conservators and commons councils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some commons are managed by boards of <a href="/wiki/Conservators" title="Conservators">conservators</a> for the wider public benefit. However, for areas where these are not established, or an improved system is required, the Commons Act 2006<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provides for the establishment of commons councils to manage common land.<sup id="cite_ref-DEFRA_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DEFRA-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Standard Constitution Regulations relating to commons councils were formally approved in April 2010, and commons councils are most likely to be useful where they can improve current management practices. This may be where commons are in agricultural use, but where it can be difficult to reach agreement on collective management. Commons councils are voluntary and can be established only where there is substantial support among those with interests in the land, such as; the commoners (especially those who actively exercise their rights); owners and other legal interests. </p><p>Commons councils enable decisions to be made by majority voting, so relieving the burden of trying to reach unanimous decisions. They will have the power to make rules about agricultural activities, the management of vegetation, and the exercise of common rights, which are binding on all those with interests on a common.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roadways">Roadways</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Roadways"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enclosure_Road,_Lazonby.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Enclosure_Road%2C_Lazonby.jpg/220px-Enclosure_Road%2C_Lazonby.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Enclosure_Road%2C_Lazonby.jpg/330px-Enclosure_Road%2C_Lazonby.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Enclosure_Road%2C_Lazonby.jpg/440px-Enclosure_Road%2C_Lazonby.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>A parliamentary enclosure road near Lazonby in Cumbria. The roads were made as straight as possible, and the boundaries much wider than a cart width to reduce the ground damage of driving sheep and cattle.<sup id="cite_ref-whyte_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whyte-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Commons are often crossed by unfenced public roads, and this leads to another problem on modern pasture commons where grazing survives (or is to be reintroduced). Historically, the roads would have been <a href="/wiki/Cart" title="Cart">cart</a>-tracks, and there would have been no conflict between their <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horse</a>-drawn (or <a href="/wiki/Ox" title="Ox">ox</a>-drawn) traffic and the pastured animals, and no great difficulty if pastured animals wandered off the common along the roads. However, these roads now have fast motorised traffic which does not mix safely with animals. To continue (or restore) grazing, such roads may need fencing or at least blocking at the edge of the common with <a href="/wiki/Cattle_grid" title="Cattle grid">cattle grids</a> – however fencing a common is reminiscent of the process of enclosure, historically fatal to its survival, and permission for fencing on a common is a strictly controlled process within the UK planning system.<sup id="cite_ref-UK_planning_portal_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UK_planning_portal-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public roads through enclosed common land were made to an accepted width between boundaries. In the late eighteenth century this was at least 60 feet (18 m), but from the 1790s this was decreased to 40 feet (12 m), and later 30 feet (9.1 m) as the normal maximum width. The reason for these wide roads to was to prevent excessive churning of the road bed, and allow easy movement of flocks and herds of animals.<sup id="cite_ref-whyte_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whyte-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Finland_and_Sweden">Finland and Sweden</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Finland and Sweden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <b>partition unit</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporation</a> that owns common land. In this case, the land is not state-owned or in joint-ownership under a trust, but is owned by a definite partition unit, a legal <a href="/wiki/Partnership" title="Partnership">partnership</a> whose partners are the participating individual landowners. Common lands and waterways owned by a partition unit were created by an agreement where certain land was reserved for the common use of all adjacent landowners. For the most part, this was due to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Partition" title="Great Partition">Great Partition</a> (Swedish: <a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/storskiftet" class="extiw" title="sv:storskiftet">storskiftet</a>, Finnish: <a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/isojako" class="extiw" title="fi:isojako">isojako</a>), which started in 1757 and was largely complete by the 1800s. Earlier, the land of a village was divided into narrow stripes of farmland for each to own in an <a href="/wiki/Open-field_system" title="Open-field system">open-field system</a>, with the remainder commonly owned. Work on the land was collective. In the Great Partition, villages were organized as corporations termed partition units (Swedish: <a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/skifteslag" class="extiw" title="sv:skifteslag">skifteslag</a>, Finnish: <a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/jakokunta" class="extiw" title="fi:jakokunta">jakokunta</a>), and land was divided into large chunks that were divided among the households (commoners) for individual cultivation and habitation. Land or waterways that remained undivided was kept by the partition unit as commons, owned by the partition unit. Later, <a href="/wiki/Gustav_III" title="Gustav III">Gustav III</a> claimed the yet unclaimed forest for the Crown – this was the origin of the large forest holdings of the state in Sweden and Finland. Today, partition units are a common way of owning waterways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ireland">Ireland</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Ireland, <a href="/wiki/Commonage" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonage">commonage</a> (<a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>: <i lang="ga">cimíneacht, cimín</i><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is a holding held by two or more persons in specified shares or jointly and originally purchased from the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Land_Commission" title="Irish Land Commission">Irish Land Commission</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Land_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Land Acts">Land Purchase Acts</a> (1885 and 1903).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, tenants on large estates rented their land from the landlord. The farm consisted of an enclosed parcel of land and permission to use nearby unenclosed land belonging to the landlord. In many areas access unenclosed land (the "hill") was vital as it allowed the tenant to keep livestock and gain a cash income.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are over 4,500 commonages in Ireland, with 11,000–14,000 farmers having grazing rights.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 4,260 square kilometres (1,640 sq mi; 1,050,000 acres) of commonage is currently grazed, mostly in counties <a href="/wiki/County_Mayo" title="County Mayo">Mayo</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Galway" title="County Galway">Galway</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Sligo" title="County Sligo">Sligo</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Donegal" title="County Donegal">Donegal</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Kerry" title="County Kerry">Kerry</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_Wicklow" title="County Wicklow">Wicklow</a>. It is generally used for grazing <a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">sheep</a> in upland areas.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overgrazing in the 1980s and 1990s led to damage to hill areas and river banks; numbers are now limited.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a>, prior to the <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman invasion of Ireland">Norman-English conquest of Ireland</a> (begun in the 12th century AD, not complete until the late 16th century), land was owned by tribes. A portion of the tribe's territory, known as the <i>Fearan Fine</i> ("tribe's quarter") was held in common by the entire tribe. This was generally low-quality land, used for grazing <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">pigs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, and was leased to tribe members for a year at a time.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scotland">Scotland</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Commoning has probably existed in Scotland for over a millennium. However, there is no modern legislation relating to commons which formally identifies the extent of common land or clarifies the full range of rights. The right of turbary – the ability to cut peat as fuel – clearly exists in large parts of Scotland, whilst the scale of such rights, and the extent to which they are utilised, remain unknown. The main work undertaken on Scottish commons concerns grazing, using a pragmatic definition, where such commons were defined as pastures with multiple grazing rights and/or multiple graziers.<sup id="cite_ref-Foundation_for_common_land_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foundation_for_common_land-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are seven main historic types of common land in Scotland,<sup id="cite_ref-callander_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-callander-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some of which have similarities to common land in England and Wales. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commonties">Commonties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Commonties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The overwhelming majority of areas of common land in lowland Scotland and the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Highland</a> fringes were <i>commonties</i>. A commonty is an area of land where the rights of <a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">property</a> or use are shared by two or more neighbouring (though not necessarily adjacent) landowners. They are not therefore truly 'common' land in the sense that anyone can use them, and this distinction meant that it was often very easy for commonties to be divided between landowners after a series of Acts permitting this were passed by the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Scotland" title="Parliament of Scotland">Parliament of Scotland</a> in the 17th century, most notably the 1695 Act for the Division of Commonties. As a result, the number of commonties declined very rapidly in the 18th and 19th centuries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_mosses">Common mosses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Common mosses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Common mosses were areas of <a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">bog</a> where the right to dig <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a> for fuel were shared by neighbouring landowners. They are therefore similar to commonties and most commonties included a common moss. However the difficulties of dividing such wet areas meant that they were left out of many commonty divisions and many common mosses may still survive, un-noticed because of the decline of peat-cutting. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Run_rig">Run rig</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Run rig"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Run_rig" title="Run rig">Run rig</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buchansrigs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Buchansrigs.jpg/300px-Buchansrigs.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Buchansrigs.jpg/450px-Buchansrigs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Buchansrigs.jpg/600px-Buchansrigs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="848" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ridge_and_furrow" title="Ridge and furrow">Rig and furrow marks</a> at Buchans Field, <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Rural_Life" title="National Museum of Rural Life">Wester Kittochside</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Run rig is a system of agriculture involving the cultivation of adjacent, narrow strips of raised land (rigs). Traditionally adjacent rigs would be used by different farmers and the rigs were periodically re-allocated between them. The system was common throughout Scotland until the 18th century, but survived longer in the Western <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Highlands</a>, where runrig was often associated with an adjacent area of common hill grazing which was also shared by the same farmers as the runrig. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scattalds">Scattalds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Scattalds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scattalds are unique to <a href="/wiki/Shetland" title="Shetland">Shetland</a> and are based on <a href="/wiki/Udal_law" title="Udal law">udal law</a>, rather than the <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> law that predominated in the rest of Scotland. However, Scattalds are very similar to commonties and many were divided under the same 1695 Act that allowed for the division of commonties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crown_Commons">Crown Commons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Crown Commons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crown Commons were areas of land held directly by the crown and therefore the common rights that could be used were rights of use rather than rights of property. Unlike commonties, the rights to use crown commons (for example for grazing livestock) were available to anyone, not just the neighbouring landowners. There are no crown commons left in Scotland; those that survived into the 20th century were taken over by the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Estate" title="Crown Estate">Crown Estate</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greens_and_loans">Greens and loans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Greens and loans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Greens were small areas of common land near a settlement where livestock could be kept overnight, markets held and other communal activities carried out. Sometimes they were adjacent to <a href="/wiki/Drovers%27_road" title="Drovers' road">drovers' roads</a> near river crossing points or overnight accommodation. Most were genuinely common land with only the Crown holding any title to them. A loan was a common route through private property allowing access to an area of common land or other public place. As the traditional uses of greens and loans declined, they were often absorbed by the neighbouring landowners. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burgh_commons">Burgh commons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Burgh commons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Burgh commons were areas of common land where property rights or privileges of use were held by the <a href="/wiki/Burgh" title="Burgh">burgh</a> for their inhabitants. They could include any of the other six types of common land and were sometimes shared with landowners outside the burgh. By the early 19th century, most burgh commons had been appropriated by the wealthy landowners who dominated burgh councils, and very few have survived. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Public_land" title="Public land">Public land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_range" title="Open range">Open range</a>, <a href="/wiki/Range_war" title="Range war">Range war</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sheep_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheep Wars">Sheep Wars</a></div> <p>Common land, an English development, was used in many former British colonies, for example in Ireland and the United States. The North American colonies adopted the English laws in establishing their own commons. Famous examples include the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Common" title="Boston Common">Boston Common</a> in Massachusetts and the <a href="/wiki/New_Haven_Green" title="New Haven Green">New Haven Green</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven, Connecticut</a>, some of the oldest commons in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cambridge_Common_from_the_Seat_of_Caleb_Gannett_1808.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cambridge Common, c. 1808–9, with Harvard College at left and Christ Church at right"><img alt="Cambridge Common, c. 1808–9, with Harvard College at left and Christ Church at right" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Cambridge_Common_from_the_Seat_of_Caleb_Gannett_1808.jpg/120px-Cambridge_Common_from_the_Seat_of_Caleb_Gannett_1808.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Cambridge_Common_from_the_Seat_of_Caleb_Gannett_1808.jpg/180px-Cambridge_Common_from_the_Seat_of_Caleb_Gannett_1808.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Cambridge_Common_from_the_Seat_of_Caleb_Gannett_1808.jpg/240px-Cambridge_Common_from_the_Seat_of_Caleb_Gannett_1808.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2025" data-file-height="1108" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Common" title="Cambridge Common">Cambridge Common</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1808</span>–9, with <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> at left and <a href="/wiki/Christ_Church_(Cambridge,_Massachusetts)" title="Christ Church (Cambridge, Massachusetts)">Christ Church</a> at right</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wakefield_common.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wakefield, Massachusetts, town common showing bandstand/gazebo at right and lake at left"><img alt="Wakefield, Massachusetts, town common showing bandstand/gazebo at right and lake at left" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Wakefield_common.jpg/120px-Wakefield_common.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Wakefield_common.jpg/180px-Wakefield_common.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Wakefield_common.jpg/240px-Wakefield_common.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Wakefield,_Massachusetts" title="Wakefield, Massachusetts">Wakefield, Massachusetts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Common_District_(Wakefield,_Massachusetts)" title="Common District (Wakefield, Massachusetts)">town common</a> showing bandstand/gazebo at right and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Quannapowitt" title="Lake Quannapowitt">lake</a> at left</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Boston_Common_Central_Burying_Ground.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Central Burying Ground on the Boston Common in Boston, Massachusetts"><img alt="Central Burying Ground on the Boston Common in Boston, Massachusetts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Boston_Common_Central_Burying_Ground.jpg/120px-Boston_Common_Central_Burying_Ground.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Boston_Common_Central_Burying_Ground.jpg/180px-Boston_Common_Central_Burying_Ground.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Boston_Common_Central_Burying_Ground.jpg/240px-Boston_Common_Central_Burying_Ground.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Central Burying Ground on the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Common" title="Boston Common">Boston Common</a> in <a href="/wiki/Boston,_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston, Massachusetts</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_Justice" title="Agrarian Justice">Agrarian Justice</a></i> by Thomas Paine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alquer%C3%ADa" class="mw-redirect" title="Alquería">Alquería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_land_law" title="English land law">English land law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exmoor" title="Exmoor">Exmoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeowner_association" title="Homeowner association">Homeowner associations</a> (often associated with <a href="/wiki/Common-interest_development" title="Common-interest development">common-interest developments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kibbutz" title="Kibbutz">Kibbutz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leyton_Marsh" title="Leyton Marsh">Leyton Marsh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leicester_Square" title="Leicester Square">Leicester Square</a> in London, historically lammas land</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moshav" title="Moshav">Moshav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_land" title="Public land">Public land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_Appropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Original Appropriation">Original Appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_way_in_England_and_Wales" title="Rights of way in England and Wales">Rights of way in England and Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_forest" title="Royal forest">Royal forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satoyama" title="Satoyama">Satoyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trespass_to_land" title="Trespass to land">Trespass to land</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_movements_in_defence_of_English_commons">Historical movements in defence of English commons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Historical movements in defence of English commons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Diggers" title="Diggers">Diggers</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Levellers" title="Levellers">Levellers</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/landscape/protection/historiccultural/commonland/default.aspx">Natural England</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100128014427/http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/landscape/protection/historiccultural/commonland/default.aspx">Archived</a> 28 January 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFShortWinter1999" class="citation journal cs1">Short, Christopher; Winter, Michael (September 1999). "The Problem of Common Land: Towards Stakeholder Governance". <i>Journal of Environmental Planning and Management</i>. <b>42</b> (5): 616. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999JEPM...42..613S">1999JEPM...42..613S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09640569910911">10.1080/09640569910911</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Environmental+Planning+and+Management&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Common+Land%3A+Towards+Stakeholder+Governance&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=616&rft.date=1999-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09640569910911&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999JEPM...42..613S&rft.aulast=Short&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Winter%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShort2008" class="citation journal cs1">Short, Chris (1 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.glos.ac.uk/475/1/The%20traditional%20commons%20of%20England%20and%20Wales%20in%20the.pdf">"The traditional commons of England and Wales in the twenty-first century: meeting new and old challenges"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Journal of the Commons</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 192. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18352%2Fijc.47">10.18352/ijc.47</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+the+Commons&rft.atitle=The+traditional+commons+of+England+and+Wales+in+the+twenty-first+century%3A+meeting+new+and+old+challenges&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=192&rft.date=2008-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18352%2Fijc.47&rft.aulast=Short&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.glos.ac.uk%2F475%2F1%2FThe%2520traditional%2520commons%2520of%2520England%2520and%2520Wales%2520in%2520the.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerridge1992" class="citation book cs1">Kerridge, Eric (1992). <i>The common fields of England</i>. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0719035724" title="Special:BookSources/0719035724"><bdi>0719035724</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+common+fields+of+England&rft.place=Manchester%2C+UK&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0719035724&rft.aulast=Kerridge&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newforestexplorersguide.co.uk/sitefolders/commoning/marl%20turbary%20sheep/marl%20turbary%20sheep%20page.html">New Forest explorers guide</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://direct.gov.uk/en/HomeAndCommunity/Planning/LandAndPropertyDevelopment/DG_10026177">UK government</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.verderers.org.uk/rights.html">Forest rights</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan Jane Buck Cox - "No tragedy on the Commons" Journal of Environmental Ethics, Vol 7, Spring 1985 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/3113/buck_NoTragedy.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1971" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Ian (1971). <i>A guide to the Law of Commons</i>. Open Spaces Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+guide+to+the+Law+of+Commons&rft.pub=Open+Spaces+Society&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Impacts-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Impacts_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130623174514/http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/cceec/impactsofenvironmentalchange/impacts_of_grazing.html">"Impacts of grazing on lowland heathland"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bournemouth_University" title="Bournemouth University">Bournemouth University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/cceec/impactsofenvironmentalchange/impacts_of_grazing.html">the original</a> on 23 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Impacts+of+grazing+on+lowland+heathland&rft.pub=Bournemouth+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bournemouth.ac.uk%2Fcceec%2Fimpactsofenvironmentalchange%2Fimpacts_of_grazing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shepherd Amanda Owen in <a href="/wiki/Our_Yorkshire_Farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Our Yorkshire Farm">Our Yorkshire Farm</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPritchard2000" class="citation book cs1">Pritchard, Evelyn (2000). Chave, Leonard (ed.). <i>The Historical Background</i>. Ham Amenities Group. p. 23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Background&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Ham+Amenities+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Pritchard&rft.aufirst=Evelyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOverton1996">Overton 1996</a>, pp. 165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverton1996" class="citation book cs1">Overton, Mark (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521568593"><i>Agricultural Revolution in England: The transformation if the agrarian economy 1500–1850</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56859-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56859-3"><bdi>978-0-521-56859-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricultural+Revolution+in+England%3A+The+transformation+if+the+agrarian+economy+1500%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56859-3&rft.aulast=Overton&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780521568593&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foundation_for_common_land-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Foundation_for_common_land_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foundation_for_common_land_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foundation_for_common_land_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foundation_for_common_land_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foundationforcommonland.org.uk/">"Foundation for Common Land - A gathering of those across Great Britain and beyond with a stake in pastoral commons and their future"</a>. <i>www.foundationforcommonland.org.uk</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.foundationforcommonland.org.uk&rft.atitle=Foundation+for+Common+Land+-+A+gathering+of+those+across+Great+Britain+and+beyond+with+a+stake+in+pastoral+commons+and+their+future&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foundationforcommonland.org.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2007-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2007_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2007_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown2007">Brown 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bathe, Graham "Common Land". Pitkin. 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100202062706/http://newforestcommoners.co.uk/">"newforestcommoners.co.uk"</a>. <i>newforestcommoners.co.uk</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newforestcommoners.co.uk/">the original</a> on 2 February 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=newforestcommoners.co.uk&rft.atitle=newforestcommoners.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewforestcommoners.co.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Federation of Cumbrian Commoners website – retrieved Nov 2014 [Cumbria <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.cumbriacommoners.org.uk/commons-councils">http://www.cumbriacommoners.org.uk/commons-councils</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160906131719/http://www.cumbriacommoners.org.uk/commons-councils">Archived</a> 6 September 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harrison135-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harrison135_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harrison135_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harrison. The Common People. pp. 135-136</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroly1925" class="citation book cs1">Croly, Elizabeth (1925). <i>The Lure of the New Forest</i>. 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Published by Centre for North West regional Studies, University of Lancaster 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8BTaAAAAMAAJ&q=cim%C3%ADn">"Béaloideas: The Journal of the Folklore of Ireland Society"</a>. The Society. 25 December 2018 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=B%C3%A9aloideas%3A+The+Journal+of+the+Folklore+of+Ireland+Society&rft.pub=The+Society&rft.date=2018-12-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8BTaAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dcim%25C3%25ADn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeeney2013" class="citation web cs1">Deeney, John (24 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agriland.ie/farming-news/legal-advice-subdividing-commonage-land/">"Legal advice, subdividing commonage land"</a>. <i>Agriland.ie</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Agriland.ie&rft.atitle=Legal+advice%2C+subdividing+commonage+land&rft.date=2013-08-24&rft.aulast=Deeney&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.agriland.ie%2Ffarming-news%2Flegal-advice-subdividing-commonage-land%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackenGalliganMcGrath2013" class="citation book cs1">Macken, James; Galligan, Eamon; McGrath, Michael (1 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nVEQAgAAQBAJ&q=Commonage+ireland&pg=PA232"><i>Compulsory Purchase and Compensation in Ireland: Law and Practice</i></a>. A&C Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781845922306" title="Special:BookSources/9781845922306"><bdi>9781845922306</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compulsory+Purchase+and+Compensation+in+Ireland%3A+Law+and+Practice&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2013-01-01&rft.isbn=9781845922306&rft.aulast=Macken&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Galligan%2C+Eamon&rft.au=McGrath%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnVEQAgAAQBAJ%26q%3DCommonage%2Bireland%26pg%3DPA232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yourcommonage.ie/p/commonage_3.html">"WHAT IS COMMONAGE"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WHAT+IS+COMMONAGE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yourcommonage.ie%2Fp%2Fcommonage_3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foundationforcommonland.org.uk/news/237-ireland-new-commonage-grazing-plans-explained">"Ireland: new commonage grazing plans explained - Foundation for Common Land"</a>. <i>www.foundationforcommonland.org.uk</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.foundationforcommonland.org.uk&rft.atitle=Ireland%3A+new+commonage+grazing+plans+explained+-+Foundation+for+Common+Land&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foundationforcommonland.org.uk%2Fnews%2F237-ireland-new-commonage-grazing-plans-explained&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://michaelmartyn.ie/commonage/">"Commonage,common land,commonage in Ireland,Commonage Framework plans"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Commonage%2Ccommon+land%2Ccommonage+in+Ireland%2CCommonage+Framework+plans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmichaelmartyn.ie%2Fcommonage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOECD2010" class="citation book cs1">OECD (21 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eC_WAgAAQBAJ&q=Commonage+ireland&pg=PA129"><i>OECD Environmental Performance Reviews OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Ireland 2010</i></a>. OECD Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789264079502" title="Special:BookSources/9789264079502"><bdi>9789264079502</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=OECD+Environmental+Performance+Reviews+OECD+Environmental+Performance+Reviews%3A+Ireland+2010&rft.pub=OECD+Publishing&rft.date=2010-04-21&rft.isbn=9789264079502&rft.au=OECD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeC_WAgAAQBAJ%26q%3DCommonage%2Bireland%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishexaminer.com/farming/news/commonage-plans-threaten-livelihoods-of-many-hill-farmers-290477.html">"Commonage plans threaten livelihoods of many hill farmers"</a>. <i>www.irishexaminer.com</i>. 9 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.irishexaminer.com&rft.atitle=Commonage+plans+threaten+livelihoods+of+many+hill+farmers&rft.date=2014-10-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishexaminer.com%2Ffarming%2Fnews%2Fcommonage-plans-threaten-livelihoods-of-many-hill-farmers-290477.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.libraryireland.com/Brehon-Laws/Ceiles-1.php">"The Ceiles and the Land Laws - Brehon Laws"</a>. <i>www.libraryireland.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.libraryireland.com&rft.atitle=The+Ceiles+and+the+Land+Laws+-+Brehon+Laws&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.libraryireland.com%2FBrehon-Laws%2FCeiles-1.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGinnell2013" class="citation book cs1">Ginnell, Laurence (16 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i2p8CgAAQBAJ&q=%22fearan+fine%22&pg=PT80"><i>The Brehon Laws: A Legal Handbook</i></a>. Read Books Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781446549407" title="Special:BookSources/9781446549407"><bdi>9781446549407</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brehon+Laws%3A+A+Legal+Handbook&rft.pub=Read+Books+Ltd&rft.date=2013-04-16&rft.isbn=9781446549407&rft.aulast=Ginnell&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di2p8CgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522fearan%2Bfine%2522%26pg%3DPT80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-callander-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-callander_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCallander1987" class="citation book cs1">Callander, Robin Fraser (1987). <i>A pattern of landownership in Scotland : with particular reference to Aberdeenshire</i>. Finzean, Aberdeenshire: Haughend Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0907184133" title="Special:BookSources/978-0907184133"><bdi>978-0907184133</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60041593">60041593</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+pattern+of+landownership+in+Scotland+%3A+with+particular+reference+to+Aberdeenshire&rft.place=Finzean%2C+Aberdeenshire&rft.pub=Haughend+Publications&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60041593&rft.isbn=978-0907184133&rft.aulast=Callander&rft.aufirst=Robin+Fraser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/places/new-haven-green.htm">"New Haven Green (U.S. National Park Service)"</a>. <i>www.nps.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nps.gov&rft.atitle=New+Haven+Green+%28U.S.+National+Park+Service%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fplaces%2Fnew-haven-green.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bathe, Graham (2015) Common Land Pitkin</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2007" class="citation cs2">Brown, Jonathan (21 April 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080607211632/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/oh-bother-nimbies-do-battle-with-council-over-poohs-forest-445617.html">"Oh bother! Nimbies do battle with council over Pooh's forest"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a></i>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/oh-bother-nimbies-do-battle-with-council-over-poohs-forest-445617.html">the original</a> on 7 June 2008</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Oh+bother%21+Nimbies+do+battle+with+council+over+Pooh%27s+forest&rft.date=2007-04-21&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk%2Fthis-britain%2Foh-bother-nimbies-do-battle-with-council-over-poohs-forest-445617.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span> (section: This Britain)</li> <li>Clayden, Paul (2007) Our Common Land. Open Spaces Society</li> <li>Gadsden, G.D.,(1988) The Law of Commons. Sweet and Maxwell. See also Cousins, E.F. & Honey, R. (2012) Gadsden on Commons and Greens. Sweet & Maxwell</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonner1912" class="citation book cs1">Gonner, E. C. K (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.13857"><i>Common Land and Inclosure</i></a>. London: Macmillan & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Common+Land+and+Inclosure&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan+%26+Co&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Gonner&rft.aufirst=E.+C.+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.13857&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924079597336">[2]</a></li> <li>HM Government guide for Common land: "Management, protection and registering to use" <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.gov.uk/common-land-management-protection-and-registering-to-use">[3]</a></li> <li>HM Government guide for Common land: "Common land and village greens" <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.gov.uk/common-land-village-greens">[4]</a></li> <li>HM Govt planning inspectorate – planning portal for common land. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/planning/countryside/commonland/commonland">[5]</a></li> <li>DEFRA Database of registered common land in England <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/218756/common-land.xls">[6]</a></li> <li>Federation of Cumbrian Commoners <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160906131719/http://www.cumbriacommoners.org.uk/commons-councils">[7]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>New commons for old – Presentation to the Newcastle Common Land Conference 5 July 2013,<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://commons.ncl.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/New-Commons-for-Old-Land-Trust-presentation-MB-Comments-D-MacKay.pdf">[8]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129155646/http://commons.ncl.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/New-Commons-for-Old-Land-Trust-presentation-MB-Comments-D-MacKay.pdf">Archived</a> 29 November 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Modern commons: a protected open space? Kate Ashbrook, general secretary, Open Spaces Society <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://commons.ncl.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Kate-Ashbrook.pdf">[9]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200410010041/http://contestedcommons.s3-website-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Kate-Ashbrook.pdf">Archived</a> 10 April 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_MoorShaw-TaylorWarde2002" class="citation cs2">De Moor, Martina; Shaw-Taylor, Leigh; Warde, Paul, eds. (2002), <i>The Management of Common Land in North West Europe, c. 1500–1850</i>, Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-51273-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-51273-0"><bdi>978-2-503-51273-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Management+of+Common+Land+in+North+West+Europe%2C+c.+1500%E2%80%931850&rft.place=Turnhout%2C+Belgium&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-2-503-51273-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span>. Comparative Rural History of the North Sea Area Series, no. 8.</li> <li>Galhano Alves, João Pedro (2009), <i>The artificial simulacrum world. The geopolitical elimination of communitary [</i>sic<i>] land use and its effects on our present global condition</i>, Eloquent Books, New York, USA, 71 p.</li> <li>Hill, Howard (1980) <i>Freedom to Roam: the struggle for access to Britain's moors and mountains</i>. Ashbourne: Moorland <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-903485-77-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-903485-77-7">978-0-903485-77-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeinzen-DickMwangiDohrn2006" class="citation cs2">Meinzen-Dick, Ruth; Mwangi, Esther; Dohrn, Stephan (May 2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.capri.cgiar.org/pdf/polbrief_04.pdf">"Securing the Commons"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>CAPRi: CGiAR Systemwide Program on Collective Action and Property Rights Policy Brief</i> (4)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CAPRi%3A+CGiAR+Systemwide+Program+on+Collective+Action+and+Property+Rights+Policy+Brief&rft.atitle=Securing+the+Commons&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2006-05&rft.aulast=Meinzen-Dick&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft.au=Mwangi%2C+Esther&rft.au=Dohrn%2C+Stephan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.capri.cgiar.org%2Fpdf%2Fpolbrief_04.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeeson1993" class="citation cs2">Neeson, J. M. (1993), <i>Commoners : common right, enclosure and social change in England, 1700–1820</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-56774-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-56774-2"><bdi>0-521-56774-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commoners+%3A+common+right%2C+enclosure+and+social+change+in+England%2C+1700%E2%80%931820&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-521-56774-2&rft.aulast=Neeson&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_land&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bahs.org.uk/">British Agricultural History Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://commons.ncl.ac.uk/">Common land research</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080316131005/http://commons.ncl.ac.uk/">Archived</a> 16 March 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – website of research project at Newcastle university</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141125042714/http://archive.defra.gov.uk/rural/documents/protected/common-land/tvgprotect-faq.pdf">DEFRA guide to village greens in England</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foundationforcommonland.org.uk/">Foundation for common land</a> – A gathering of those across Great Britain and beyond with a stake in pastoral commons and their future</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oss.org.uk/what-we-do/commons/">Website of the Open Spaces Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.openaccess.naturalengland.org.uk/wps/portal/oasys/maps/MapSearch">Open access maps at Natural England</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Commons"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Commons">"Commons" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 779–784.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Commons&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=779-784&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+land" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Property" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Property_navbox" title="Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Property_navbox" title="Template talk:Property navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Property_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Property" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By owner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_land" title="Communal land">Communal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">Customary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unowned_property" title="Unowned property">Unowned</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By nature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estate (landed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">Intangible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">indigenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">Tangible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Common land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_commons_(economics)" title="Digital commons (economics)">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_commons" title="Information commons">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">Knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">Bundle of rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_commodities" title="Fictitious commodities">fictitious commodities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">Common good (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_possession_theory_of_property" title="First possession theory of property">First possession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_appropriation" title="Original appropriation">appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">homestead principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">Free-rider problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_rent" title="Law of rent">Law of rent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_property_rights" title="Women's property rights">women's</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">anticommons</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia"><i>Acequia</i> (watercourse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejido" title="Ejido"><i>Ejido</i> (agrarian land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_estate" title="Literary estate">literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Forest types</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">Huerta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executor" title="Executor">executor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">restraint on alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_rights" title="Air rights">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006" title="The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006">Forest-dwelling (India)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_to_roam" title="Freedom to roam">Freedom to roam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing_rights" title="Grazing rights">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law#Land_rights" title="Land law">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_rights" title="Littoral rights">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bergregal" title="Bergregal">Bergregal</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(transit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (transit)">Right of way (transit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(property_access)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (property access)">Right of way (property access)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior-appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_by_dispossession" title="Accumulation by dispossession">Disposession</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth" title="Redistribution of income and wealth">redistribution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Farhud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_taking" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory taking">Regulatory taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a></li> <li>spousal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband-selling" class="mw-redirect" title="Husband-selling">husband-selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars<br /><span class="nobold">(<i>key work</i>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_(Bastiat_book)" title="The Law (Bastiat book)">The Law</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty" title="Progress and Poverty">Progress and Poverty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Hardin" title="Garrett Hardin">Garrett Hardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(essay)" title="The Gift (essay)">The Gift</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">What Is Property?</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray N. Rothbard</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Liberty" title="The Ethics of Liberty">The Ethics of Liberty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> Categories: <a href="/wiki/Category:Property" title="Category:Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law" title="Category:Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law_by_country" title="Category:Property law by country">by country</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2259176#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2259176#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2259176#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4141970-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567303">Japan</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/013704">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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