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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Medical laboratory staff</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_laboratory_staff-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_shortages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_shortages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Labor shortages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_shortages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_laboratory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_laboratory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Types of laboratory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_laboratory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specimen_processing_and_work_flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specimen_processing_and_work_flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Specimen processing and work flow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specimen_processing_and_work_flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laboratory_informatics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laboratory_informatics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Laboratory informatics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laboratory_informatics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Result_analysis,_validation_and_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Result_analysis,_validation_and_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Result analysis, validation and interpretation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Result_analysis,_validation_and_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_laboratory_accreditation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_laboratory_accreditation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Medical laboratory accreditation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_laboratory_accreditation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Industry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Industry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Industry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Medical laboratory</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another 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Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediese_laboratorium" title="Mediese laboratorium – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mediese laboratorium" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="علم المختبرات السريرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم المختبرات السريرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratori_cl%C3%ADnic" title="Laboratori clínic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Laboratori clínic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratorio_cl%C3%ADnico" title="Laboratorio clínico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Laboratorio clínico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proba_analitiko" title="Proba analitiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Proba analitiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A2%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C" title="علوم آزمایشگاهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علوم آزمایشگاهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratoire_de_biologie_m%C3%A9dicale" title="Laboratoire de biologie médicale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Laboratoire de biologie médicale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%84%EC%83%81%EA%B2%80%EC%82%AC%EC%8B%A4" title="임상검사실 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="임상검사실" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratorium_klinik" title="Laboratorium klinik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Laboratorium klinik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratorio_di_analisi" title="Laboratorio di analisi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Laboratorio di analisi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מעבדה רפואית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מעבדה רפואית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%9B%E7%94%9F%E6%A4%9C%E6%9F%BB%E6%89%80" title="衛生検査所 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="衛生検査所" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%8D%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F" title="មន្ទីរពិសោធន៍វេជ្ជសាស្រ្ត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="មន្ទីរពិសោធន៍វេជ្ជសាស្រ្ត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostyka_laboratoryjna" title="Diagnostyka laboratoryjna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Diagnostyka laboratoryjna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laborat%C3%B3rio_m%C3%A9dico" title="Laboratório médico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Laboratório médico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory" title="Medical laboratory – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Medical laboratory" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratorijska_diagnostika" title="Laboratorijska diagnostika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Laboratorijska diagnostika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%DA%AF%DB%95%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="تاقیگەی پزیشکی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تاقیگەی پزیشکی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4%C3%A4ketieteellinen_laboratorio" title="Lääketieteellinen laboratorio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lääketieteellinen laboratorio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%8C" title="ห้องปฏิบัติการทางการแพทย์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ห้องปฏิบัติการทางการแพทย์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%B1bbi_laboratuvar" title="Tıbbi laboratuvar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tıbbi laboratuvar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%B2ng_th%C3%AD_nghi%E1%BB%87m_y_t%E1%BA%BF" title="Phòng thí nghiệm y tế – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phòng thí nghiệm y tế" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A3%80%E9%AA%8C%E7%A7%91" title="检验科 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="检验科" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2296168#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Medical+laboratory%22">"Medical laboratory"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Medical+laboratory%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Medical+laboratory%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Medical+laboratory%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Medical+laboratory%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Medical+laboratory%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LabMachines.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/LabMachines.jpg/250px-LabMachines.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/LabMachines.jpg/375px-LabMachines.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/LabMachines.jpg/500px-LabMachines.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Clinical laboratory in a hospital setting showing several <a href="/wiki/Automated_analyser" title="Automated analyser">automated analysers</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>medical laboratory</b> or <b>clinical laboratory</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">laboratory</a> where tests are conducted out on clinical specimens to obtain information about the <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Patient" title="Patient">patient</a> to aid in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clinical medical laboratories are an example of <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a>, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Research_laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Research laboratory">research laboratories</a> that focus on <a href="/wiki/Basic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic science">basic science</a>, such as found in some <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academic</a> institutions. </p><p>Medical laboratories vary in size and complexity and so offer a variety of testing services. More comprehensive services can be found in acute-care hospitals and medical centers, where 70% of clinical decisions are based on laboratory testing.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Doctors offices and clinics, as well as skilled nursing and <a href="/wiki/Nursing_home" title="Nursing home">long-term care facilities</a>, may have laboratories that provide more basic testing services. Commercial medical laboratories operate as independent businesses and provide testing that is otherwise not provided in other settings due to low test volume or complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Departments">Departments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Departments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In hospitals and other patient-care settings, laboratory medicine is provided by the Department of Pathology and Medical Laboratory, and generally divided into two sections, each of which will be subdivided into multiple specialty areas.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two sections are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomic_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomic pathology">Anatomic pathology</a>: areas included here are <a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">histopathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">cytopathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gross_pathology" title="Gross pathology">gross pathology</a>.</li> <li>Medical Laboratory, which typically includes the following areas:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Clinical microbiology</a>: This encompasses several different sciences, including <a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">bacteriology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">virology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">parasitology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">mycology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a>: This area typically includes automated analysis of blood specimens, including tests related to <a href="/wiki/Enzymology" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymology">enzymology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">toxicology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">endocrinology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a>: This area includes automated and manual analysis of blood cells. It also often includes <a href="/wiki/Coagulation" title="Coagulation">coagulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunohaematology" title="Immunohaematology">Blood bank</a> involves the testing of blood specimens in order to provide blood transfusion and related services.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_diagnostics" title="Molecular diagnostics">Molecular diagnostics</a> DNA testing may be done here, along with a subspecialty known as <a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">cytogenetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a> testing is available in some laboratories, including <a href="/wiki/Semen_analysis" title="Semen analysis">Semen analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sperm_bank" title="Sperm bank">Sperm bank</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">assisted reproductive technology</a>.</li></ul></li></ul> <p>Layouts of clinical laboratories in health institutions vary greatly from one facility to another. For instance, some health facilities have a single laboratory for the microbiology section, while others have a separate lab for each specialty area. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LabEquipment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/LabEquipment.jpg/230px-LabEquipment.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/LabEquipment.jpg/345px-LabEquipment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/LabEquipment.jpg/460px-LabEquipment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Laboratory equipment for <a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">hematology</a> (black analyser) and <a href="/wiki/Urinalysis" title="Urinalysis">urinalysis</a> (left of the open <a href="/wiki/Centrifuge" title="Centrifuge">centrifuge</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p>The following is an example of a typical breakdown of the responsibilities of each area: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a> includes culturing of the <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> in clinical specimens, such as <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sputum" title="Sputum">sputum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Synovial_fluid" title="Synovial fluid">synovial fluid</a>, as well as possible infected tissue. The work here is mainly concerned with <a href="/wiki/Culture_(microbiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture (microbiology)">cultures</a>, to look for suspected pathogens which, if found, are further identified based on biochemical tests. Also, sensitivity testing is carried out to determine whether the pathogen is sensitive or resistant to a suggested medicine. Results are reported with the identified organism(s) and the type and amount of drug(s) that should be prescribed for the patient.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a> is where specimens are examined for <a href="/wiki/Parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasites">parasites</a>. For example, fecal samples may be examined for evidence of intestinal parasites such as tapeworms or hookworms.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a> is concerned with identification of viruses in specimens such as <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a> analyzes whole blood specimens to perform <a href="/wiki/Full_blood_count" class="mw-redirect" title="Full blood count">full blood counts</a>, and includes the examination of <a href="/wiki/Blood_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood film">blood films</a>. Other specialized tests include cell counts on various bodily fluids.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coagulation" title="Coagulation">Coagulation</a> testing determines various blood clotting times, coagulation factors, and platelet function.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_biochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical biochemistry">Clinical biochemistry</a> commonly performs dozens of different tests on <a href="/wiki/Blood_serum" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood serum">serum</a> or plasma. These tests, mostly automated, includes quantitative testing for a wide array of substances, such as <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood sugar">blood sugar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a> is mainly focused on testing for pharmaceutical and recreational drugs. <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">Urine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> samples are the common specimens.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Serology" title="Serology">Serology</a> uses the process of antigen-antibody interaction as a diagnostic tool. Compatibility of transplanted organs may also be determined with these methods.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunohematology" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunohematology">Immunohematology</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Blood_bank" title="Blood bank">blood bank</a> determines <a href="/wiki/Blood_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood groups">blood groups</a>, and performs compatibility testing on donor blood and recipients. It also prepares blood components, derivatives, and products for transfusion. This area determines a patient's blood type and Rh status, checks for antibodies to common antigens found on red blood cells, and cross matches units that are negative for the antigen.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinalysis" title="Urinalysis">Urinalysis</a> tests urine for many analytes, including microscopically. If more precise quantification of urine chemicals is required, the specimen is processed in the <a href="/wiki/Clinical_biochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical biochemistry">clinical biochemistry</a> lab.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">Histopathology</a> processes solid tissue removed from the body (<a href="/wiki/Biopsies" class="mw-redirect" title="Biopsies">biopsies</a>) for evaluation at the microscopic level.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a> examines smears of cells from all over the body (such as from the <a href="/wiki/Cervix" title="Cervix">cervix</a>) for evidence of inflammation, cancer, and other conditions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_diagnostics" title="Molecular diagnostics">Molecular diagnostics</a> includes specialized tests involving <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> analysis.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a> involves using blood and other cells to produce a DNA <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotype</a>. This can be helpful in cases of prenatal diagnosis (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Down%27s_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Down's syndrome">Down's syndrome</a>) as well as in some cancers which can be identified by the presence of abnormal <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_pathology" title="Surgical pathology">Surgical pathology</a> examines organs, limbs, tumors, fetuses, and other tissues biopsied in surgery such as breast mastectomies.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_laboratory_staff">Medical laboratory staff</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Medical laboratory staff"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hospital_Laboratory.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Hospital_Laboratory.JPG/230px-Hospital_Laboratory.JPG" decoding="async" width="230" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Hospital_Laboratory.JPG/345px-Hospital_Laboratory.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Hospital_Laboratory.JPG/460px-Hospital_Laboratory.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Clinical laboratory in a hospital setting with two technologists shown.</figcaption></figure> <p>The staff of clinical laboratories may include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pathologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathologist">Pathologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical biochemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathologists%27_assistant" title="Pathologists' assistant">Laboratory assistant</a> (LA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_manager" title="Laboratory manager">Laboratory manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_scientist" title="Biomedical scientist">Biomedical scientist</a> (BMS) in the UK, <a href="/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist" title="Medical laboratory scientist">Medical laboratory scientist</a> (MT, MLS or CLS) in the US or <a href="/wiki/Medical_laboratory_technologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical laboratory technologist">Medical laboratory technologist</a> in Canada</li> <li>Medical laboratory technician/clinical laboratory technician (MLT or CLT in US)<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_laboratory_assistant" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical laboratory assistant">Medical laboratory assistant</a> (MLA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlebotomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlebotomist">Phlebotomist</a> (PBT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a> technician</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Labor_shortages">Labor shortages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Labor shortages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Medical_laboratory" title="Talk:Medical laboratory">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> has a documented shortage of working laboratory professionals. For example, as of 2016<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> vacancy rates for Medical Laboratory Scientists ranged from 5% to 9% for various departments. The decline is primarily due to retirements, and to at-capacity educational programs that cannot expand which limits the number of new graduates. Professional organizations and some state educational systems are responding by developing ways to promote the lab professions in an effort to combat this shortage. In addition, the vacancy rates for the MLS were tested again in 2018. The percentage range for the various departments has developed a broader range of 4% to as high as 13%.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The higher numbers were seen in the <a href="/wiki/Phlebotomy" title="Phlebotomy">Phlebotomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a> was another department that has had a struggle with vacancies.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their average in the 2018 survey was around 10-11% vacancy rate across the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recruitment campaigns, funding for college programs, and better salaries for the laboratory workers are a few ways they are focusing to decrease the vacancy rate.<sup id="cite_ref-v672_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-v672-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The National Center For Workforce Analysis has estimated that by 2025 there will be a 24% increase in demand for lab professionals.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Highlighted by the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>, work is being done to address this shortage including bringing pathology and laboratory medicine into the conversation surrounding access to healthcare.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> COVID-19 brought the laboratory to the attention of the government and the media, thus giving opportunity for the staffing shortages as well as the resource challenges to be heard and dealt with.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_laboratory">Types of laboratory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types of laboratory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>deal primarily with the United Kingdom and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Medical_laboratory" title="Talk:Medical laboratory">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In most developed countries, there are two main types of lab processing the majority of medical specimens. <b>Hospital laboratories</b> are attached to a <a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">hospital</a>, and perform tests on their patients. <b>Private</b> (or <b>community</b>) <b>laboratories</b> receive samples from <a href="/wiki/General_practitioner" title="General practitioner">general practitioners</a>, insurance companies, <a href="/wiki/Contract_research_organization" title="Contract research organization">clinical research sites</a> and other health clinics for analysis. For extremely specialised tests, samples may go to a research laboratory. Some tests involve specimens sent between different labs for uncommon tests. For example, in some cases it may be more cost effective if a particular laboratory specializes in a less common tests, receiving specimens (and payment) from other labs, while sending other specimens to other labs for those tests they do not perform. </p><p>In many countries there are specialized types of medical laboratories according to the types of investigations carried out. Organisations that provide blood products for transfusion to hospitals, such as the Red Cross, will provide access to their reference laboratory for their customers. Some laboratories specialize in Molecular diagnostic and cytogenetic testing, in order to provide information regarding diagnosis and treatment of genetic or cancer-related disorders. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specimen_processing_and_work_flow">Specimen processing and work flow</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Specimen processing and work flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a hospital setting, sample processing will usually start with a set of samples arriving with a test request, either on a form or electronically via the laboratory information system (<a href="/wiki/Laboratory_Information_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory Information System">LIS</a>). Inpatient specimens will already be labeled with patient and testing information provided by the LIS. Entry of test requests onto the LIS system involves typing (or scanning where barcodes are used) in the laboratory number, and entering the patient identification, as well as any tests requested. This allows laboratory analyzers, computers and staff to recognize what tests are pending, and also gives a location (such as a hospital department, doctor or other customer) for results reporting. </p><p>Once the specimens are assigned a laboratory number by the LIS, a sticker is typically printed that can be placed on the tubes or specimen containers. This label has a barcode that can be scanned by automated analyzers and test requests uploaded to the analyzer from the LIS. </p><p>Specimens are prepared for analysis in various ways. For example, chemistry samples are usually centrifuged and the serum or plasma is separated and tested. If the specimen needs to go on more than one analyzer, it can be divided into separate tubes. </p><p>Many specimens end up in one or more sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Automated_analyser" title="Automated analyser">automated analysers</a>, that process a fraction of the sample to return one or more test results. Some laboratories use robotic sample handlers (<a href="/wiki/Laboratory_automation" title="Laboratory automation">Laboratory automation</a>) to optimize the workflow and reduce the risk of contamination from sample handling by the staff. </p><p>The work flow in a hospital laboratory is usually heaviest from 2:00 am to 10:00 am. Nurses and doctors generally have their patients tested at least once a day with common tests such as complete blood counts and chemistry profiles. These orders are typically drawn during a morning run by <a href="/wiki/Phlebotomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlebotomist">phlebotomists</a> for results to be available in the patient's charts for the attending physicians to consult during their morning rounds. Another busy time for the lab is after 3:00 pm when private practice physician offices are closing. Couriers will pick up specimens that have been drawn throughout the day and deliver them to the lab. Also, couriers will stop at outpatient drawing centers and pick up specimens. These specimens will be processed in the evening and overnight to ensure results will be available the following day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Laboratory_informatics">Laboratory informatics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Laboratory informatics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The large amount of information processed in laboratories is managed by a system of software programs, computers, and <a href="/wiki/Medical_terminology" title="Medical terminology">terminology standards</a> that exchange data about patients, test requests, and test results known as a <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_information_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory information system">Laboratory information system</a> or LIS. The LIS is often interfaced with the <a href="/wiki/Hospital_information_system" title="Hospital information system">hospital information system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_health_record" title="Electronic health record">EHR</a> and/or laboratory instruments. Formats for terminologies for test processing and reporting are being standardized with systems such as <a href="/wiki/LOINC" title="LOINC">Logical Observation Identifiers Names and Codes</a> (LOINC) and <a href="/wiki/NPU_terminology" title="NPU terminology">Nomenclature for Properties and Units terminology</a> (NPU terminology). </p><p>These systems enable hospitals and labs to order the correct test requests for each patient, keep track of individual patient and specimen histories, and help guarantee a better quality of results. Results are made available to care providers electronically or by printed hard copies for patient charts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Result_analysis,_validation_and_interpretation"><span id="Result_analysis.2C_validation_and_interpretation"></span>Result analysis, validation and interpretation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Result analysis, validation and interpretation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to various regulations, such as the international ISO 15189 norm, all pathological laboratory results must be verified by a competent professional. In some countries, staffs composed of clinical scientists do the majority of this work inside the laboratory with certain abnormal results referred to the relevant <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathologist</a>. Doctor Clinical Laboratory scientists have the responsibility for limited interpretation of testing results in their discipline in many countries. Interpretation of results can be assisted by some software in order to validate normal or non-modified results. </p><p>In other testing areas, only professional medical staff (<a href="/wiki/Pathologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathologist">pathologist</a> or <a href="/wiki/Clinical_Laboratory" title="Clinical Laboratory">clinical Laboratory</a>) is involved with interpretation and consulting. Medical staff are sometimes also required in order to explain pathology results to <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a>. For a simple result given by phone or to explain a technical problem, often a medical technologist or medical lab scientist can provide additional information. </p><p>Medical Laboratory Departments in some countries are exclusively directed by a specialized Doctor laboratory Science. In others, a consultant, medical or non-medical, may be the head the department. In Europe and some other countries, Clinical Scientists with a Masters level education may be qualified to head the department. Others may have a PhD and can have an exit qualification equivalent to medical staff (e.g., FRCPath in the UK). </p><p>In France, only medical staff (<a href="/wiki/Pharm.D." class="mw-redirect" title="Pharm.D.">Pharm.D.</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Medicine_Laboratory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doctor of Medicine Laboratory (page does not exist)">M.D.</a> specialized in <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">anatomical pathology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Clinical_biologist" title="Clinical biologist">clinical Laboratory Science</a>) can discuss Laboratory results. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_laboratory_accreditation">Medical laboratory accreditation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Medical laboratory accreditation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Credibility of medical laboratories is paramount to the health and safety of the patients relying on the testing services provided by these labs. Credentialing agencies vary by country. The international standard in use today for the accreditation of medical laboratories is <a href="/wiki/ISO_15189" title="ISO 15189">ISO 15189</a> - <i>Medical laboratories - Requirements for quality and competence.</i> </p><p>In the United States, billions of dollars is spent on unaccredited lab tests, such as <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_Developed_Test" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory Developed Test">Laboratory developed tests</a> which do not require accreditation or FDA approval; about a billion USD a year is spent on US autoimmune LDTs alone.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accreditation is performed by the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Commission" title="Joint Commission">Joint Commission</a>, <a href="/wiki/College_of_American_Pathologists" title="College of American Pathologists">College of American Pathologists</a>, AAB (American Association of Bioanalysts), and other state and federal agencies. Legislative guidelines are provided under CLIA 88 (<a href="/wiki/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments" title="Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments">Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments</a>) which regulates Medical Laboratory testing and personnel. </p><p>The accrediting body in Australia is NATA, where all laboratories must be NATA accredited to receive payment from Medicare. </p><p>In France the accrediting body is the <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_fran%C3%A7ais_d%27accr%C3%A9ditation" class="extiw" title="fr:Comité français d'accréditation">Comité français d'accréditation</a> (COFRAC). In 2010, modification of legislation established ISO 15189 accreditation as an obligation for all clinical laboratories.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United Arab Emirates, the Dubai Accreditation Department (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dac.dm.ae">DAC</a>) is the accreditation body that is internationally recognised<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the <a href="/wiki/International_Laboratory_Accreditation_Cooperation" title="International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation">International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation</a> (ILAC) for many facilities and groups, including Medical Laboratories, Testing and Calibration Laboratories, and Inspection Bodies. </p><p>In Hong Kong, the accrediting body is Hong Kong Accreditation Service (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkas.gov.hk">HKAS</a>). On 16 February 2004, HKAS launched its medical testing accreditation programme. </p><p>In Canada, laboratory accreditation is not mandatory, but is becoming more and more popular. Accreditation Canada (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://accreditation.ca/">AC</a>) is the national reference. Different provincial oversight bodies mandate laboratories in EQA participations like LSPQ (Quebec), IQMH (Ontario) for example. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industry">Industry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20-22_rue_de_la_Pompe,_Paris_16e_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/20-22_rue_de_la_Pompe%2C_Paris_16e_3.jpg/250px-20-22_rue_de_la_Pompe%2C_Paris_16e_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/20-22_rue_de_la_Pompe%2C_Paris_16e_3.jpg/375px-20-22_rue_de_la_Pompe%2C_Paris_16e_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/20-22_rue_de_la_Pompe%2C_Paris_16e_3.jpg/500px-20-22_rue_de_la_Pompe%2C_Paris_16e_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Laboratoire de La Muette, medical laboratory in Paris</figcaption></figure> <p>The laboratory industry is a part of the broader healthcare and health technology industry. Companies exist at various levels, including <a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">clinical laboratory services</a>, suppliers of instrumentation equipment and consumable materials, and suppliers and developers of diagnostic tests themselves (often by <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a> companies).<sup id="cite_ref-:3_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Clinical laboratory services includes large <a href="/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation">multinational corporations</a> such <a href="/wiki/LabCorp" class="mw-redirect" title="LabCorp">LabCorp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quest_Diagnostics" title="Quest Diagnostics">Quest Diagnostics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sonic_Healthcare" title="Sonic Healthcare">Sonic Healthcare</a><sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but a significant portion of revenue, estimated at 60% in the United States, is generated by hospital labs.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018, the total global revenue for these companies was estimated to reach $146 billion by 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another estimate places the market size at $205 billion, reaching $333 billion by 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_Clinical_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="American Association for Clinical Chemistry">American Association for Clinical Chemistry</a> (AACC) represents professionals in the field. </p><p>Clinical laboratories are supplied by other multinational companies which focus on materials and equipment, which can be used for both scientific research and medical testing. The largest of these is <a href="/wiki/Thermo_Fisher_Scientific" title="Thermo Fisher Scientific">Thermo Fisher Scientific</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016, global life sciences instrumentation sales were around $47 billion, not including consumables, software, and services.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, laboratory equipment includes lab centrifuges, transfection solutions, water purification systems, extraction techniques, gas generators, concentrators and evaporators, fume hoods, incubators, biological safety cabinets, bioreactors and fermenters, microwave-assisted chemistry, lab washers, and shakers and stirrers.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Health_technology_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Health technology in the United States">Health technology in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf/page1-220px-CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf/page1-330px-CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf/page1-440px-CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>Brochure illustrating the work of the CDC Division of Laboratory Sciences</figcaption></figure> <p>In the United States, estimated total revenue as of 2016 was $75 billion, about 2% of total <a href="/wiki/Health_care_spending_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care spending in the United States">healthcare spending</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016, an estimated 60% of revenue was done by hospital labs, with 25% done by two independent companies (LabCorp and Quest).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hospital labs may also outsource their lab, known as outreach, to run tests; however, <a href="/wiki/Health_insurers" class="mw-redirect" title="Health insurers">health insurers</a> may pay the hospitals more than they would pay a laboratory company for the same test, but as of 2016, the markups were questioned by insurers.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rural hospitals, in particular, can bill for lab outreach under the Medicare's 70/30 shell rule.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_Developed_Test" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory Developed Test">Laboratory developed tests</a> are designed and developed inside a specific laboratory and do not require FDA approval; due to technological innovations, they have become more common<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are estimated at a total value of $11 billion in 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the rise of <a href="/wiki/High-deductible_health_plan" title="High-deductible health plan">high-deductible health plans</a>, laboratories have sometimes struggled to collect when billing patients; consequently, some laboratories have shifted to become more "consumer-focused".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARUP_Laboratories" title="ARUP Laboratories">ARUP Laboratories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_scientist" title="Healthcare scientist">Healthcare scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point-of-care_testing" title="Point-of-care testing">Point-of-care testing</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFarrLaurence_Shatkin2004" class="citation book cs1">Farr, J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.darkintelligencegroup.com&rft.atitle=Rural+Hospital+Spokesman%3A+Hospital+Lab+Outreach+Programs+Are+Legal+-+The+Dark+Intelligence+Group&rft.date=2018-07-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darkintelligencegroup.com%2Ftdr-insider%2Frural-hospital-group-says-lab-billing-model-is-legal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedical+laboratory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealth" class="citation web cs1">Health, Center for Devices and Radiological. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fda.gov/medicaldevices/productsandmedicalprocedures/invitrodiagnostics/laboratorydevelopedtests/default.htm">"Laboratory Developed Tests"</a>. <i>www.fda.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190423034833/https://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/InVitroDiagnostics/LaboratoryDevelopedTests/default.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Technology+Platform+Shifts+Shape+Laboratory-Developed+Testing+Market&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Laurie+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.bccresearch.com%2Ftechnology-platform-shifts-shape-laboratory-developed-testing-market&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedical+laboratory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.darkdaily.com/how-smart-clinical-laboratories-and-genetic-testing-labs-are-collecting-more-revenue-by-pricing-tests-to-meet-the-expectations-of-patients-523/">"How Smart Clinical Laboratories and Genetic Testing Labs Are Collecting More Revenue by Pricing Tests to Meet the Expectations of Patients | Dark Daily"</a>. <i>www.darkdaily.com</i>. 23 May 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181202155121/https://www.darkdaily.com/how-smart-clinical-laboratories-and-genetic-testing-labs-are-collecting-more-revenue-by-pricing-tests-to-meet-the-expectations-of-patients-523/">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-12-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.darkdaily.com&rft.atitle=How+Smart+Clinical+Laboratories+and+Genetic+Testing+Labs+Are+Collecting+More+Revenue+by+Pricing+Tests+to+Meet+the+Expectations+of+Patients+%7C+Dark+Daily&rft.date=2016-05-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darkdaily.com%2Fhow-smart-clinical-laboratories-and-genetic-testing-labs-are-collecting-more-revenue-by-pricing-tests-to-meet-the-expectations-of-patients-523%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedical+laboratory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_laboratory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Morris, S., Otto, N. C., Golemboski, K. (2013). Improving patient safety and healthcare quality in the 21st century—Competencies required of future medical laboratory science practitioners. <i>Clinical Laboratory Science</i>, <i>26</i>, 200–204.</li> <li>Archibong, F., Atangwho, A., Ayuk, E. A., Okoye, E. I., Atroger, M., Okokon, B. I. (2019). Medical law: exploring doctor's knowledge on the laws regulating clinical and medical laboratories in Nigeria. <i>Nigerian Journal of Medicine, 28</i>(4), 386–392.</li> <li>Plebani, M., Laposata, M., Lippi, G. (2019). Driving the route of laboratory medicine: a manifesto for the future. <i>Internal and Emergency Medicine</i>, <i>14</i>, 337–340.</li> <li>Goulding, M. H., Graham, L., Chorney, D., Rajendram, R. (2020). The use of interprofessional stimulation to improve collaboration and problem solving among undergraduate BHSc medical laboratory science and BScN nursing students. <i>Canadian Journal of Medical Laboratory Science, 82</i>(2), 25–33.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/10142644/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Medizinisches Labor"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4193766-1">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85082957">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Médecine -- Laboratoires"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11962009p">France</a></span></span></li><li><span 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