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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History of discovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prokaryotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prokaryotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Prokaryotes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prokaryotes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prokaryotes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prokaryotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structure_in_sequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure_in_sequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Structure in sequences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure_in_sequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA_packaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_packaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>DNA packaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_packaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eukaryotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eukaryotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Eukaryotes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Eukaryotes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Eukaryotes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Eukaryotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interphase_chromatin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interphase_chromatin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Interphase chromatin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interphase_chromatin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metaphase_chromatin_and_division" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphase_chromatin_and_division"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Metaphase chromatin and division</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metaphase_chromatin_and_division-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_chromosomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_chromosomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Human chromosomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_chromosomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karyotype" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karyotype"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Karyotype</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Karyotype-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Karyotype subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Karyotype-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_and_analysis_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_analysis_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>History and analysis techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_and_analysis_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aberrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aberrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Aberrations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aberrations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aberrations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aberrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sperm_aneuploidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sperm_aneuploidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Sperm aneuploidy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sperm_aneuploidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Number_in_various_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number_in_various_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Number in various organisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Number_in_various_organisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Number in various organisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Number_in_various_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_eukaryotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_eukaryotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>In eukaryotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_eukaryotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_prokaryotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_prokaryotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>In prokaryotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_prokaryotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Chromosome</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 116 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-116" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">116 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosoom" title="Chromosoom – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Chromosoom" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosom" title="Chromosom – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Chromosom" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%83%E1%89%A5%E1%88%88%E1%89%A0%E1%88%AB%E1%88%82" title="ሃብለበራሂ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሃብለበራሂ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%A8%D8%BA%D9%8A" title="صبغي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صبغي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma" title="Cromosoma – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cromosoma" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xromosom" title="Xromosom – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Xromosom" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%85" title="کوروموزوم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="کوروموزوم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE" title="ক্রোমোজোম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ক্রোমোজোম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C3%A1m-sek-th%C3%A9" title="Jiám-sek-thé – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Jiám-sek-thé" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Хромосома – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Хромосома" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Храмасома – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Храмасома" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Хромозома – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хромозома" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hromosom" title="Hromosom – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hromosom" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromozom" title="Kromozom – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kromozom" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma" title="Cromosoma – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cromosoma" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromozom" title="Chromozom – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chromozom" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosom" title="Cromosom – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cromosom" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kromosom" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%85" title="كروموزوم – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="كروموزوم" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosom" title="Chromosom – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chromosom" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosoom" title="Kromosoom – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kromosoom" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CF%81%CF%89%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%83%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Χρωμόσωμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χρωμόσωμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma" title="Cromosoma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cromosoma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosomo" title="Kromosomo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kromosomo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosoma" title="Kromosoma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kromosoma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%85" title="کروموزوم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کروموزوم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chromosome" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gromosoom" title="Gromosoom – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Gromosoom" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%B3mas%C3%B3m" title="Crómasóm – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Crómasóm" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma" title="Cromosoma – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cromosoma" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Хромосома – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Хромосома" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngiam-set-th%C3%AD" title="Ngiam-set-thí – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ngiam-set-thí" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%BC%EC%83%89%EC%B2%B4" title="염색체 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="염색체" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B4" title="Քրոմոսոմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քրոմոսոմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="गुणसूत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गुणसूत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosomi" title="Kromosomi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kromosomi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosomo" title="Kromosomo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kromosomo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kromosom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-chromosome" title="I-chromosome – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-chromosome" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litningur" title="Litningur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Litningur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma" title="Cromosoma – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cromosoma" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%96%D7%95%D7%9D" title="כרומוזום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כרומוזום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kromosom" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A3%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%81_(%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D)" title="ವರ್ಣತಂತು (ಕ್ರೋಮೋಸೋಮ್) – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವರ್ಣತಂತು (ಕ್ರೋಮೋಸೋಮ್)" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ქრომოსომა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ქრომოსომა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хромосомалар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Хромосомалар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chembeuzi" title="Chembeuzi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Chembeuzi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwomoz%C3%B2m" title="Kwomozòm – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Kwomozòm" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromozom" title="Kromozom – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kromozom" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хромосомалар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Хромосомалар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%A5%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%A1" title="ກະໂລໂມຊົມ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ກະໂລໂມຊົມ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosoma" title="Chromosoma – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Chromosoma" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hromosoma" title="Hromosoma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Hromosoma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosoma" title="Chromosoma – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Chromosoma" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma" title="Cromosoma – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Cromosoma" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma" title="Cromosoma – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Cromosoma" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosz%C3%B3ma" title="Kromoszóma – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kromoszóma" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Хромозом – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хромозом" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%82" title="ക്രോമസോം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ക്രോമസോം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="गुणसूत्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="गुणसूत्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ქრომოსომა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ქრომოსომა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kromosom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%C4%93ng-s%C3%A1ik-t%C4%81%CC%A4" title="Niēng-sáik-tā̤ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Niēng-sáik-tā̤" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Хромосом – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хромосом" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%81%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%86%E1%80%AF%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ခရိုမိုဆုမ်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ခရိုမိုဆုမ်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosoom" title="Chromosoom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chromosoom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="गुणसूत्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="गुणसूत्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81" title="चिंपुतु – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="चिंपुतु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E4%BD%93" title="染色体 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="染色体" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosoom" title="Kromosoom – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Kromosoom" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kromosom" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kromosom" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromos%C3%B2ma" title="Cromosòma – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cromosòma" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Хромосом – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Хромосом" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baaddiraa" title="Baaddiraa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Baaddiraa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xromosomalar" title="Xromosomalar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xromosomalar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0" title="ਗੁਣਸੂਤਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗੁਣਸੂਤਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85" title="کروموسوم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کروموسوم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%81%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ခရိုမိုသိုမ်း – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ခရိုမိုသိုမ်း" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%85" title="کروموزوم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کروموزوم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosom" title="Chromosom – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chromosom" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromossomo" title="Cromossomo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cromossomo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xromosomalar" title="Xromosomalar – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Xromosomalar" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromozom" title="Cromozom – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cromozom" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Хромосома – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Хромосома" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A2" title="ᱠᱨᱚᱢᱚᱡᱚᱢ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱠᱨᱚᱢᱚᱡᱚᱢ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma" title="Cromosoma – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Cromosoma" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Chromosome" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromozomi" title="Kromozomi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kromozomi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chromosome" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85" title="ڪروموسوم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪروموسوم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromoz%C3%B3m" title="Chromozóm – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Chromozóm" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kromosom" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%86%D9%85%DB%86%D8%B3%DB%86%D9%85" title="کرۆمۆسۆم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کرۆمۆسۆم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Хромозом – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хромозом" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kromosom" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kromosom" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosomi" title="Kromosomi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kromosomi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kromosom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosoma" title="Kromosoma – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kromosoma" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF" title="நிறப்புரி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நிறப்புரி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Хромосома – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Хромосома" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95" title="వారసవాహిక – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వారసవాహిక" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A1" title="โครโมโซม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โครโมโซม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Хромосома – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Хромосома" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromozom" title="Kromozom – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kromozom" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Хромосома – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хромосома" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85" title="کروموسوم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کروموسوم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyiemx_Saek_Daej" title="Nyiemx Saek Daej – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Nyiemx Saek Daej" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nhi%E1%BB%85m_s%E1%BA%AFc_th%E1%BB%83" title="Nhiễm sắc thể – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhiễm sắc thể" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosoma" title="Kromosoma – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kromosoma" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E4%BD%93" title="染色体 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="染色体" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%96%D7%90%D7%9D" title="כראמאזאם – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="כראמאזאם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%B3m%C3%B3s%C3%B3m%C3%B9" title="Krómósómù – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Krómósómù" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94" title="染色體 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="染色體" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E4%BD%93" title="染色体 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="染色体" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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For the genetic algorithm, see <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_(genetic_algorithm)" title="Chromosome (genetic algorithm)">Chromosome (genetic algorithm)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table role="presentation" cellpadding="0" style="border-spacing:0; clear:right; float:right;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:322px;"> <div style="position:relative; width:320px; height:185px; overflow:hidden; border:solid #ccc 1px; background-color:white;"> <div style="left:0px; top:0px; width:320px; position:absolute"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chromosome_DNA_Gene.svg" title="File:Chromosome DNA Gene.svg"><img alt="A chromosome unravelling into a long string of DNA, a section of which is highlighted as the gene" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Chromosome_DNA_Gene_unannotated.svg/320px-Chromosome_DNA_Gene_unannotated.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Chromosome_DNA_Gene_unannotated.svg/480px-Chromosome_DNA_Gene_unannotated.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Chromosome_DNA_Gene_unannotated.svg/640px-Chromosome_DNA_Gene_unannotated.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="658" /></a></span> </div> <div style="text-align:left; font-size:11px; line-height:110%"> <div style="background-color:transparent; color:black"><div id="annotation_128x52" style="position:absolute; left:128px; top:52px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chromosome </a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_197x52" style="position:absolute; left:197px; top:52px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> (<a href="/wiki/Base_pair#Length_measurements" title="Base pair">10<sup>7</sup> - 10<sup>10</sup> bp</a>)</span></div> <div id="annotation_25x100" style="position:absolute; left:25px; top:100px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA </a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_128x110" style="position:absolute; left:128px; top:110px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">Gene </a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_162x110" style="position:absolute; left:162px; top:110px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> (<a href="/wiki/Base_pair#Length_measurements" title="Base pair">10<sup>3</sup> - 10<sup>6</sup> bp </a>)</span></div> <div id="annotation_154x158" style="position:absolute; left:154px; top:158px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">Function </a> </span></div></div> </div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left"><div style="float:left;margin-right:0.5em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="The image above contains clickable links"><img alt="The image above contains clickable links" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/18px-Interactive_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/27px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/36px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="133" data-file-height="200" /></span></span></div>A chromosome and its <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_organization" title="Nuclear organization">packaged</a> long strand of DNA unraveled. The DNA's <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a> encode genes, which provide functions. 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/300px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="111" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li>Chromosome</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul></div></div> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History and topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a> (<span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/12px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/18px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, 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title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Personalized medicine</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chromosome.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Chromosome.svg/200px-Chromosome.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Chromosome.svg/300px-Chromosome.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Chromosome.svg/400px-Chromosome.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="688" data-file-height="848" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of a replicated and condensed <a href="/wiki/Metaphase" title="Metaphase">metaphase</a> eukaryotic chromosome: <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li><a href="/wiki/Chromatid" title="Chromatid">Chromatid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">Centromere</a></li><li>Short arm</li><li>Long arm</li></ol></div></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>chromosome</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_organization" title="Nuclear organization">package</a> of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> containing part or all of the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genetic material</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a>. In most chromosomes, the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with <a href="/wiki/Nucleosome" title="Nucleosome">nucleosome</a>-forming packaging <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>; in <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> cells, the most important of these proteins are the <a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">histones</a>. Aided by <a href="/wiki/Chaperone_(protein)" title="Chaperone (protein)">chaperone proteins</a>, the histones bind to and <a href="/wiki/DNA_condensation" title="DNA condensation">condense</a> the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity.<sup id="cite_ref-Hammond-2017_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammond-2017-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These eukaryotic chromosomes display a complex <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">three-dimensional structure</a> that has a significant role in <a href="/wiki/Transcriptional_regulation" title="Transcriptional regulation">transcriptional regulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Normally, chromosomes are visible under a <a href="/wiki/Light_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Light microscope">light microscope</a> only during the <a href="/wiki/Metaphase" title="Metaphase">metaphase</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>, where all chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell in their condensed form.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before this stage occurs, each chromosome is duplicated (<a href="/wiki/S_phase" title="S phase">S phase</a>), and the two copies are joined by a <a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">centromere</a>—resulting in either an X-shaped structure if the centromere is located equatorially, or a two-armed structure if the centromere is located distally; the joined copies are called '<a href="/wiki/Sister_chromatids" title="Sister chromatids">sister chromatids</a>'. During metaphase, the duplicated structure (called a 'metaphase chromosome') is highly condensed and thus easiest to distinguish and study.<sup id="cite_ref-Schleyden-1847_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schleyden-1847-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In animal cells, chromosomes reach their highest compaction level in <a href="/wiki/Anaphase" title="Anaphase">anaphase</a> during <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_segregation" title="Chromosome segregation">chromosome segregation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chromosomal <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">recombination</a> during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> plays a crucial role in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a>. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_instability" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomal instability">chromosomal instability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">translocation</a>, the cell may undergo <a href="/wiki/Mitotic_catastrophe" title="Mitotic catastrophe">mitotic catastrophe</a>. This will usually cause the cell to initiate <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a>, leading to its own <a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">death</a>, but the process is occasionally hampered by cell mutations that result in the progression of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>. </p><p>The term 'chromosome' is sometimes used in a wider sense to refer to the individualized portions of <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a> in cells, which may or may not be visible under light microscopy. In a narrower sense, 'chromosome' can be used to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division, which are visible under light microscopy due to high condensation. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>chromosome</i> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span></span>/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> words <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">χρῶμα</span></span> (<i>chroma</i>, "colour") and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">σῶμα</span></span> (<i>soma</i>, "body"), describing the strong <a href="/wiki/Stain" title="Stain">staining</a> produced by particular <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term was coined by the German anatomist <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Wilhelm_Waldeyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer">Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> referring to the term '<a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a>', which was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Walther_Flemming" title="Walther Flemming">Walther Flemming</a>. </p><p>Some of the early <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyological</a> terms have become outdated.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, 'chromatin' (Flemming 1880) and 'chromosom' (Waldeyer 1888) both ascribe color to a non-colored state.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_discovery">History of discovery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History of discovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:267px;max-width:267px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Walter_sutton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Walter_sutton.jpg/140px-Walter_sutton.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Walter_sutton.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="145" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:121px;max-width:121px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Theodor_Boveri.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Theodor_Boveri.jpg/119px-Theodor_Boveri.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Theodor_Boveri.jpg/179px-Theodor_Boveri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Theodor_Boveri.jpg/238px-Theodor_Boveri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1082" data-file-height="1755" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Sutton" title="Walter Sutton">Walter Sutton</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Boveri" title="Theodor Boveri">Theodor Boveri</a> (right) independently developed the chromosome theory of inheritance in 1902.</div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Otto_B%C3%BCtschli" title="Otto Bütschli">Otto Bütschli</a> was the first scientist to recognize the structures now known as chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a series of experiments beginning in the mid-1880s, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Boveri" title="Theodor Boveri">Theodor Boveri</a> gave definitive contributions to elucidating that chromosomes are the <a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vectors</a> of <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a>, with two notions that became known as 'chromosome continuity' and 'chromosome individuality'.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Roux" title="Wilhelm Roux">Wilhelm Roux</a> suggested that every chromosome carries a different <a href="/wiki/Genetic_load" title="Genetic load">genetic configuration</a>, and Boveri was able to test and confirm this hypothesis. Aided by the rediscovery at the start of the 1900s of <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a>'s earlier experimental work, Boveri identified the connection between the rules of inheritance and the behaviour of the chromosomes. Two generations of American <a href="/wiki/Cytologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytologist">cytologists</a> were influenced by Boveri: <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beecher_Wilson" title="Edmund Beecher Wilson">Edmund Beecher Wilson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nettie_Stevens" title="Nettie Stevens">Nettie Stevens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Sutton" title="Walter Sutton">Walter Sutton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_Painter" title="Theophilus Painter">Theophilus Painter</a> (Wilson, Stevens, and Painter actually worked with him).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his famous textbook, <i>The Cell in Development and Heredity</i>, Wilson linked together the independent work of Boveri and Sutton (both around 1902) by naming the chromosome theory of inheritance the '<a href="/wiki/Boveri%E2%80%93Sutton_chromosome_theory" title="Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory">Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory</a>' (sometimes known as the 'Sutton–Boveri chromosome theory').<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> remarks that the theory was hotly contested by some famous geneticists, including <a href="/wiki/William_Bateson" title="William Bateson">William Bateson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Johannsen" title="Wilhelm Johannsen">Wilhelm Johannsen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Goldschmidt" title="Richard Goldschmidt">Richard Goldschmidt</a> and <a href="/wiki/T.H._Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="T.H. Morgan">T.H. Morgan</a>, all of a rather dogmatic mindset. Eventually, absolute proof came from chromosome maps in Morgan's own laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of human chromosomes was published by Painter in 1923. By inspection through a microscope, he counted 24 pairs of chromosomes, giving 48 in total. His error was copied by others, and it was not until 1956 that the true number (46) was determined by Indonesian-born <a href="/wiki/Cytogeneticist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytogeneticist">cytogeneticist</a> <a href="/wiki/Joe_Hin_Tjio" title="Joe Hin Tjio">Joe Hin Tjio</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prokaryotes">Prokaryotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Prokaryotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nucleoid" title="Nucleoid">Nucleoid</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a> – <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> – typically have a single <a href="/wiki/Circular_chromosome" title="Circular chromosome">circular chromosome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chromosomes of most bacteria (also called <a href="/wiki/Genophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Genophore">genophores</a>), can range in size from only 130,000 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic">endosymbiotic</a> bacteria <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidatus_Hodgkinia_cicadicola&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Candidatus Hodgkinia cicadicola (page does not exist)">Candidatus Hodgkinia cicadicola</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-VanLeuven-2014_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VanLeuven-2014-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Tremblaya_princeps" class="mw-redirect" title="Tremblaya princeps">Candidatus Tremblaya princeps</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to more than 14,000,000 base pairs in the soil-dwelling bacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Sorangium_cellulosum" title="Sorangium cellulosum">Sorangium cellulosum</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some bacteria have more than one chromosome. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Spirochaete" title="Spirochaete">Spirochaetes</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Borrelia_burgdorferi" title="Borrelia burgdorferi">Borrelia burgdorferi</a></i> (causing <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a>), contain a single <i>linear</i> chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Vibrio" title="Vibrio">Vibrios</a></i> typically carry two chromosomes of very different size. Genomes of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Burkholderia" title="Burkholderia">Burkholderia</a></i> carry one, two, or three chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure_in_sequences">Structure in sequences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Structure in sequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prokaryotic chromosomes have less sequence-based structure than eukaryotes. Bacteria typically have a one-point (the <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_replication" title="Origin of replication">origin of replication</a>) from which replication starts, whereas some archaea contain multiple replication origins.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The genes in prokaryotes are often organized in <a href="/wiki/Operon" title="Operon">operons</a>, and do not usually contain <a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">introns</a>, unlike eukaryotes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNA_packaging">DNA packaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: DNA packaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> do not possess nuclei. Instead, their DNA is organized into a structure called the <a href="/wiki/Nucleoid" title="Nucleoid">nucleoid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Le-2013_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Le-2013-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nucleoid is a distinct structure and occupies a defined region of the bacterial cell. This structure is, however, dynamic and is maintained and remodeled by the actions of a range of histone-like proteins, which associate with the bacterial chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, the DNA in chromosomes is even more organized, with the DNA packaged within structures similar to eukaryotic nucleosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain bacteria also contain <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmids</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Extrachromosomal_DNA" title="Extrachromosomal DNA">extrachromosomal DNA</a>. These are circular structures in the <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> that contain cellular DNA and play a role in <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schleyden-1847_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schleyden-1847-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In prokaryotes (see <a href="/wiki/Nucleoid" title="Nucleoid">nucleoids</a>) and viruses,<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson-2000_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-2000-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the DNA is often densely packed and organized; in the case of <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, by homology to eukaryotic histones, and in the case of bacteria, by <a href="/wiki/Histone-like_nucleoid-structuring_protein" title="Histone-like nucleoid-structuring protein">histone-like</a> proteins. </p><p>Bacterial chromosomes tend to be tethered to the <a href="/wiki/Plasma_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma membrane">plasma membrane</a> of the bacteria. In molecular biology application, this allows for its isolation from plasmid DNA by centrifugation of lysed bacteria and pelleting of the membranes (and the attached DNA). </p><p>Prokaryotic chromosomes and plasmids are, like eukaryotic DNA, generally <a href="/wiki/Supercoiled" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercoiled">supercoiled</a>. The DNA must first be released into its relaxed state for access for <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a>, regulation, and <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">replication</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eukaryotes">Eukaryotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Eukaryotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">Chromatin</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/DNA_condensation" title="DNA condensation">DNA condensation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nucleosome" title="Nucleosome">Nucleosome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">Histone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Protamine" title="Protamine">Protamine</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic_chromosome_fine_structure" title="Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure">Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eukaryote_DNA-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Eukaryote_DNA-en.svg/250px-Eukaryote_DNA-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Eukaryote_DNA-en.svg/375px-Eukaryote_DNA-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Eukaryote_DNA-en.svg/500px-Eukaryote_DNA-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1189" data-file-height="734" /></a><figcaption>Organization of DNA in a eukaryotic cell</figcaption></figure> <p>Each eukaryotic chromosome consists of a long linear <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA molecule</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, forming a compact complex of proteins and DNA called <i><a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a>.</i> Chromatin contains the vast majority of the DNA in an organism, but a <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">small amount</a> inherited maternally can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a>. It is present in most <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, with a few exceptions, for example, <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">Histones</a> are responsible for the first and most basic unit of chromosome organization, the <a href="/wiki/Nucleosome" title="Nucleosome">nucleosome</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> with nuclei such as those found in plants, fungi, and animals) possess multiple large linear chromosomes contained in the cell's nucleus. Each chromosome has one <a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">centromere</a>, with one or two arms projecting from the centromere, although, under most circumstances, these arms are not visible as such. In addition, most eukaryotes have a small circular <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondrial</a> <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">genome</a>, and some eukaryotes may have additional small circular or linear <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasmic</a> chromosomes. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chromatin_Structures.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Chromatin_Structures.png/860px-Chromatin_Structures.png" decoding="async" width="860" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Chromatin_Structures.png/1290px-Chromatin_Structures.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Chromatin_Structures.png 2x" data-file-width="1696" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>The major structures in DNA compaction: <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nucleosome" title="Nucleosome">nucleosome</a>, the 10 nm "beads-on-a-string" fibre, the 30 nm fibre and the <a href="/wiki/Metaphase" title="Metaphase">metaphase</a> chromosome</figcaption></figure> <p>In the nuclear chromosomes of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, the uncondensed DNA exists in a semi-ordered structure, where it is wrapped around <a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">histones</a> (structural <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>), forming a composite material called <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interphase_chromatin">Interphase chromatin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Interphase chromatin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The packaging of DNA into nucleosomes causes a 10 nanometer fibre which may further condense up to 30 nm fibres<sup id="cite_ref-Cooper-2019_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper-2019-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the euchromatin in interphase nuclei appears to be in the form of 30-nm fibers.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooper-2019_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper-2019-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chromatin structure is the more decondensed state, i.e. the 10-nm conformation allows transcription.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooper-2019_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper-2019-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heterochromatin_vs._euchromatin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Heterochromatin_vs._euchromatin.svg/400px-Heterochromatin_vs._euchromatin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Heterochromatin_vs._euchromatin.svg/600px-Heterochromatin_vs._euchromatin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Heterochromatin_vs._euchromatin.svg/800px-Heterochromatin_vs._euchromatin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="138" /></a><figcaption>Heterochromatin vs. euchromatin</figcaption></figure> <p>During <a href="/wiki/Interphase" title="Interphase">interphase</a> (the period of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">cell cycle</a> where the cell is not dividing), two types of <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a> can be distinguished: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euchromatin" title="Euchromatin">Euchromatin</a>, which consists of DNA that is active, e.g., being expressed as protein.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterochromatin" title="Heterochromatin">Heterochromatin</a>, which consists of mostly inactive DNA. It seems to serve structural purposes during the chromosomal stages. Heterochromatin can be further distinguished into two types: <ul><li><i>Constitutive heterochromatin</i>, which is never expressed. It is located around the centromere and usually contains <a href="/wiki/Repeated_sequence_(DNA)" title="Repeated sequence (DNA)">repetitive sequences</a>.</li> <li><i>Facultative heterochromatin</i>, which is sometimes expressed.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metaphase_chromatin_and_division">Metaphase chromatin and division</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Metaphase chromatin and division"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HumanChromosomesChromomycinA3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/HumanChromosomesChromomycinA3.jpg/200px-HumanChromosomesChromomycinA3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/HumanChromosomesChromomycinA3.jpg/300px-HumanChromosomesChromomycinA3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/HumanChromosomesChromomycinA3.jpg/400px-HumanChromosomesChromomycinA3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="453" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Human chromosomes during <a href="/wiki/Metaphase" title="Metaphase">metaphase</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stages_of_early_mitosis_in_a_vertebrate_cell_with_micrographs_of_chromatids.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Stages_of_early_mitosis_in_a_vertebrate_cell_with_micrographs_of_chromatids.svg/220px-Stages_of_early_mitosis_in_a_vertebrate_cell_with_micrographs_of_chromatids.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="503" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Stages_of_early_mitosis_in_a_vertebrate_cell_with_micrographs_of_chromatids.svg/330px-Stages_of_early_mitosis_in_a_vertebrate_cell_with_micrographs_of_chromatids.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Stages_of_early_mitosis_in_a_vertebrate_cell_with_micrographs_of_chromatids.svg/440px-Stages_of_early_mitosis_in_a_vertebrate_cell_with_micrographs_of_chromatids.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="1170" /></a><figcaption>Stages of early mitosis in a vertebrate cell with micrographs of chromatids</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early stages of <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> (cell division), the chromatin double helix becomes more and more condensed. They cease to function as accessible genetic material (<a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a> stops) and become a compact transportable form. The loops of thirty-nanometer chromatin fibers are thought to fold upon themselves further to form the compact metaphase chromosomes of mitotic cells. The DNA is thus condensed about ten-thousand-fold.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooper-2019_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper-2019-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_scaffold" title="Chromosome scaffold">chromosome scaffold</a>, which is made of proteins such as <a href="/wiki/Condensin" title="Condensin">condensin</a>, <a href="/wiki/TOP2A" title="TOP2A">TOP2A</a> and <a href="/wiki/KIF4A" title="KIF4A">KIF4</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> plays an important role in holding the chromatin into compact chromosomes. Loops of thirty-nanometer structure further condense with scaffold into higher order structures.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This highly compact form makes the individual chromosomes visible, and they form the classic four-arm structure, a pair of sister <a href="/wiki/Chromatid" title="Chromatid">chromatids</a> attached to each other at the <a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">centromere</a>. The shorter arms are called <i><a href="/wiki/P_arm" class="mw-redirect" title="P arm">p arms</a></i> (from the French <i>petit</i>, small) and the longer arms are called <i><a href="/wiki/Q_arm" class="mw-redirect" title="Q arm">q arms</a></i> (<i>q</i> follows <i>p</i> in the Latin alphabet; q-g "grande"; alternatively it is sometimes said q is short for <i>queue</i> meaning tail in French<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). This is the only natural context in which individual chromosomes are visible with an optical <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a>. </p><p>Mitotic metaphase chromosomes are best described by a linearly organized longitudinally compressed array of consecutive chromatin loops.<sup id="cite_ref-Naumova-2013_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naumova-2013-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During mitosis, <a href="/wiki/Microtubule" title="Microtubule">microtubules</a> grow from centrosomes located at opposite ends of the cell and also attach to the centromere at specialized structures called <a href="/wiki/Kinetochore" title="Kinetochore">kinetochores</a>, one of which is present on each sister <a href="/wiki/Chromatid" title="Chromatid">chromatid</a>. A special DNA base sequence in the region of the kinetochores provides, along with special proteins, longer-lasting attachment in this region. The microtubules then pull the chromatids apart toward the centrosomes, so that each daughter cell inherits one set of chromatids. Once the cells have divided, the chromatids are uncoiled and DNA can again be transcribed. In spite of their appearance, chromosomes are structurally highly condensed, which enables these giant DNA structures to be contained within a cell nucleus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_chromosomes">Human chromosomes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Human chromosomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chromosomes in humans can be divided into two types: <a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">autosomes</a> (body chromosome(s)) and allosome (<a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosome</a>(s)). Certain genetic traits are linked to a person's sex and are passed on through the sex chromosomes. The autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information. All act in the same way during cell division. Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes), giving a total of 46 per cell. In addition to these, human cells have many hundreds of copies of the <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_genome" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondrial genome">mitochondrial genome</a>. <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">Sequencing</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> has provided a great deal of information about each of the chromosomes. Below is a table compiling statistics for the chromosomes, based on the <a href="/wiki/Sanger_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanger Institute">Sanger Institute</a>'s human genome information in the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_and_Genome_Annotation_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrate and Genome Annotation Project">Vertebrate Genome Annotation (VEGA) database</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Number of genes is an estimate, as it is in part based on <a href="/wiki/Gene_prediction" title="Gene prediction">gene predictions</a>. Total chromosome length is an estimate as well, based on the estimated size of unsequenced <a href="/wiki/Heterochromatin" title="Heterochromatin">heterochromatin</a> regions. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Chromosome</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">Genes</a><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Total <a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">base pairs</a></th> <th>% of bases </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_1" title="Chromosome 1">1</a></td> <td>2000</td> <td>247,199,719</td> <td>8.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_2" title="Chromosome 2">2</a></td> <td>1300</td> <td>242,751,149</td> <td>7.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_3" title="Chromosome 3">3</a></td> <td>1000</td> <td>199,446,827</td> <td>6.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_4" title="Chromosome 4">4</a></td> <td>1000</td> <td>191,263,063</td> <td>6.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_5" title="Chromosome 5">5</a></td> <td>900</td> <td>180,837,866</td> <td>5.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_6" title="Chromosome 6">6</a></td> <td>1000</td> <td>170,896,993</td> <td>5.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_7" title="Chromosome 7">7</a></td> <td>900</td> <td>158,821,424</td> <td>5.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_8" title="Chromosome 8">8</a></td> <td>700</td> <td>146,274,826</td> <td>4.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_9" title="Chromosome 9">9</a></td> <td>800</td> <td>140,442,298</td> <td>4.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_10" title="Chromosome 10">10</a></td> <td>700</td> <td>135,374,737</td> <td>4.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_11" title="Chromosome 11">11</a></td> <td>1300</td> <td>134,452,384</td> <td>4.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_12" title="Chromosome 12">12</a></td> <td>1100</td> <td>132,289,534</td> <td>4.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_13" title="Chromosome 13">13</a></td> <td>300</td> <td>114,127,980</td> <td>3.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_14" title="Chromosome 14">14</a></td> <td>800</td> <td>106,360,585</td> <td>3.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_15" title="Chromosome 15">15</a></td> <td>600</td> <td>100,338,915</td> <td>3.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_16" title="Chromosome 16">16</a></td> <td>800</td> <td>88,822,254</td> <td>2.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_17" title="Chromosome 17">17</a></td> <td>1200</td> <td>78,654,742</td> <td>2.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_18" title="Chromosome 18">18</a></td> <td>200</td> <td>76,117,153</td> <td>2.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_19" title="Chromosome 19">19</a></td> <td>1500</td> <td>63,806,651</td> <td>2.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_20" title="Chromosome 20">20</a></td> <td>500</td> <td>62,435,965</td> <td>2.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_21" title="Chromosome 21">21</a></td> <td>200</td> <td>46,944,323</td> <td>1.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_22" title="Chromosome 22">22</a></td> <td>500</td> <td>49,528,953</td> <td>1.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X (sex chromosome)</a></td> <td>800</td> <td>154,913,754</td> <td>5.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y (sex chromosome)</a></td> <td>200<sup id="cite_ref-NCBI-1998_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCBI-1998-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>57,741,652</td> <td>1.9 </td></tr> <tr class="sortbottom"> <th>Total</th> <th style="text-align:right">21,000</th> <th style="text-align:right">3,079,843,747</th> <th style="text-align:right">100.0 </th></tr></tbody></table> <p>Based on the micrographic characteristics of size, position of the <a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">centromere</a> and sometimes the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomal satellite">chromosomal satellite</a>, the human chromosomes are classified into the following groups:<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Group </th> <th>Chromosomes </th> <th>Features </th></tr> <tr style="background:lavenderblush"> <td><b>A</b> </td> <td>1–3 </td> <td>Large, metacentric or submetacentric </td></tr> <tr style="background:honeydew"> <td><b>B</b> </td> <td>4–5 </td> <td>Large, submetacentric </td></tr> <tr style="background:lightyellow"> <td><b>C</b> </td> <td>6–12, X </td> <td>Medium-sized, submetacentric </td></tr> <tr style="background:linen"> <td><b>D</b> </td> <td>13–15 </td> <td>Medium-sized, acrocentric, with <a href="/wiki/Satellite_chromosome" title="Satellite chromosome">satellite</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:lightcyan"> <td><b>E</b> </td> <td>16–18 </td> <td>Small, metacentric or submetacentric </td></tr> <tr style="background:lavender"> <td><b>F</b> </td> <td>19–20 </td> <td>Very small, metacentric </td></tr> <tr style="background:lavenderblush"> <td><b>G</b> </td> <td>21–22, Y </td> <td>Very small, acrocentric (and 21, 22 with <a href="/wiki/Satellite_chromosome" title="Satellite chromosome">satellite</a>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Karyotype">Karyotype</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Karyotype"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NHGRI_human_male_karyotype.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/NHGRI_human_male_karyotype.png/200px-NHGRI_human_male_karyotype.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/NHGRI_human_male_karyotype.png/300px-NHGRI_human_male_karyotype.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/NHGRI_human_male_karyotype.png/400px-NHGRI_human_male_karyotype.png 2x" data-file-width="3084" data-file-height="2417" /></a><figcaption>Karyogram of a human male</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/220px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/330px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/440px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 2x" data-file-width="9684" data-file-height="16008" /></a><figcaption>Schematic <a href="/wiki/Karyogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Karyogram">karyogram</a> of a human, with annotated <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">bands and sub-bands</a>. It is a graphical representation of the idealized human <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> karyotype. It shows dark and white regions on <a href="/wiki/G_banding" title="G banding">G banding</a>. Each row is vertically aligned at <a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">centromere</a> level. It shows 22 <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a>, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosome</a> (bottom right), as well as the <a href="/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics" title="Human mitochondrial genetics">mitochondrial genome</a> (at bottom left). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>In general, the <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotype</a> is the characteristic chromosome complement of a <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryote</a> <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of <a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">cytogenetics</a>. </p><p>Although the <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">replication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a> of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> is highly standardized in <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are often highly variable. There may be variation between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization. In some cases, there is significant variation within species. Often there is: </p> <dl><dd>1. variation between the two sexes</dd> <dd>2. variation between the <a href="/wiki/Germline" title="Germline">germline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Somatic_cell" title="Somatic cell">soma</a> (between <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> and the rest of the body)</dd> <dd>3. variation between members of a population, due to <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">balanced genetic polymorphism</a></dd> <dd>4. <a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">geographical variation</a> between <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">races</a></dd> <dd>5. <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_(genetics)" title="Mosaic (genetics)">mosaics</a> or otherwise abnormal individuals.</dd></dl> <p>Also, variation in karyotype may occur during development from the fertilized egg. </p><p>The technique of determining the karyotype is usually called <i>karyotyping</i>. Cells can be locked part-way through division (in metaphase) <a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a> (in a reaction vial) with <a href="/wiki/Colchicine" title="Colchicine">colchicine</a>. These cells are then stained, photographed, and arranged into a <i>karyogram</i>, with the set of chromosomes arranged, autosomes in order of length, and sex chromosomes (here X/Y) at the end. </p><p>Like many sexually reproducing species, humans have special <a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">gonosomes</a> (sex chromosomes, in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">autosomes</a>). These are XX in females and XY in males. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_and_analysis_techniques">History and analysis techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: History and analysis techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_authority#Use_in_science" title="Argument from authority">Argument from authority § Use in science</a></div> <p>Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question: <i>How many chromosomes does a normal <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> human cell contain?</i> In 1912, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_von_Winiwarter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hans von Winiwarter (page does not exist)">Hans von Winiwarter</a> reported 47 chromosomes in <a href="/wiki/Spermatogonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatogonia">spermatogonia</a> and 48 in <a href="/wiki/Oogonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Oogonia">oogonia</a>, concluding an <a href="/wiki/XO_sex-determination_system" title="XO sex-determination system">XX/XO</a> <a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">sex determination mechanism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1922, <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_Painter" title="Theophilus Painter">Painter</a> was not certain whether the diploid number of man is 46 or 48, at first favouring 46.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He revised his opinion later from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on humans having an <a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XX/XY</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New techniques were needed to definitively solve the problem: </p> <ol><li>Using cells in culture</li> <li>Arresting <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Metaphase" title="Metaphase">metaphase</a> by a solution of <a href="/wiki/Colchicine" title="Colchicine">colchicine</a></li> <li>Pretreating cells in a <a href="/wiki/Hypotonicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotonicity">hypotonic solution</a> <span class="nowrap">0.075 M KCl</span>, which swells them and spreads the chromosomes</li> <li>Squashing the preparation on the slide forcing the chromosomes into a single plane</li> <li>Cutting up a photomicrograph and arranging the result into an indisputable karyogram.</li></ol> <p>It took until 1954 before the human diploid number was confirmed as 46.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Considering the techniques of Winiwarter and Painter, their results were quite remarkable.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">Chimpanzees</a>, the closest living relatives to modern humans, have 48 chromosomes as do the other <a href="/wiki/Great_apes" class="mw-redirect" title="Great apes">great apes</a>: in humans two chromosomes fused to form <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_2" title="Chromosome 2">chromosome 2</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aberrations">Aberrations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Aberrations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality" title="Chromosome abnormality">Chromosome abnormality</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chromosome_21.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Chromosome_21.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="171" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="90" data-file-height="171" /></a><figcaption>In Down syndrome, there are three copies of chromosome 21.</figcaption></figure> <p>Chromosomal aberrations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a cell. They can cause genetic conditions in humans, such as <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although most aberrations have little to no effect. Some chromosome abnormalities do not cause disease in carriers, such as <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">translocations</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_inversion" title="Chromosomal inversion">chromosomal inversions</a>, although they may lead to a higher chance of bearing a child with a chromosome disorder.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Abnormal numbers of chromosomes or chromosome sets, called <a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">aneuploidy</a>, may be lethal or may give rise to genetic disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_counseling" title="Genetic counseling">Genetic counseling</a> is offered for families that may carry a chromosome rearrangement. </p><p>The gain or loss of DNA from chromosomes can lead to a variety of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic disorders</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human examples include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cri_du_chat" class="mw-redirect" title="Cri du chat">Cri du chat</a>, which is caused by the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_deletion" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic deletion">deletion</a> of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. "Cri du chat" means "cry of the cat" in French; the condition was so-named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like those of a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw, moderate to severe mental health problems, and are very short.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>, the most common trisomy, usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (<a href="/wiki/Trisomy_21" class="mw-redirect" title="Trisomy 21">trisomy 21</a>). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate developmental disability.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwards_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwards syndrome">Edwards syndrome</a>, or trisomy-18, the second most common trisomy.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symptoms include motor retardation, developmental disability and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems. Ninety percent of those affected die in infancy. They have characteristic clenched hands and overlapping fingers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isodicentric_15" title="Isodicentric 15">Isodicentric 15</a>, also called idic(15), partial tetrasomy 15q, or inverted duplication 15 (inv dup 15).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobsen_syndrome" title="Jacobsen syndrome">Jacobsen syndrome</a>, which is very rare. It is also called the 11q terminal deletion disorder.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those affected have normal intelligence or mild developmental disability, with poor expressive language skills. Most have a bleeding disorder called <a href="/wiki/Paris-Trousseau_syndrome" title="Paris-Trousseau syndrome">Paris-Trousseau syndrome</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klinefelter_syndrome" title="Klinefelter syndrome">Klinefelter syndrome</a> (XXY). Men with Klinefelter syndrome are usually sterile and tend to be taller and have longer arms and legs than their peers. Boys with the syndrome are often shy and quiet and have a higher incidence of <a href="/wiki/Speech_delay" title="Speech delay">speech delay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">dyslexia</a>. Without testosterone treatment, some may develop <a href="/wiki/Gynecomastia" title="Gynecomastia">gynecomastia</a> during puberty.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patau_Syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Patau Syndrome">Patau Syndrome</a>, also called D-Syndrome or trisomy-13. Symptoms are somewhat similar to those of trisomy-18, without the characteristic folded hand.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_supernumerary_marker_chromosome" title="Small supernumerary marker chromosome">Small supernumerary marker chromosome</a>. This means there is an extra, abnormal chromosome. Features depend on the origin of the extra genetic material. <a href="/wiki/Cat-eye_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Cat-eye syndrome">Cat-eye syndrome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isodicentric_15" title="Isodicentric 15">isodicentric chromosome 15 syndrome</a> (or Idic15) are both caused by a supernumerary marker chromosome, as is <a href="/wiki/Pallister%E2%80%93Killian_syndrome" title="Pallister–Killian syndrome">Pallister–Killian syndrome</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple-X_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Triple-X syndrome">Triple-X syndrome</a> (XXX). XXX girls tend to be tall and thin and have a higher incidence of dyslexia.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome</a> (X instead of XX or XY). In Turner syndrome, female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. Females with Turner syndrome often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development and a "caved-in" appearance to the chest.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Hirschhorn_syndrome" title="Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome">Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome</a>, which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4. It is characterized by growth retardation, delayed motor skills development, "Greek Helmet" facial features, and mild to profound mental health problems.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/XYY_syndrome" title="XYY syndrome">XYY syndrome</a>. XYY boys are usually taller than their siblings. Like XXY boys and XXX girls, they are more likely to have learning difficulties.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sperm_aneuploidy">Sperm aneuploidy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sperm aneuploidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Exposure of males to certain lifestyle, environmental and/or occupational hazards may increase the risk of aneuploid spermatozoa.<sup id="cite_ref-Templado-2013_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Templado-2013-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, risk of aneuploidy is increased by tobacco smoking,<sup id="cite_ref-Shi-2001_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi-2001-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rubes-1998_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rubes-1998-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and occupational exposure to benzene,<sup id="cite_ref-Xing-2010_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xing-2010-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> insecticides,<sup id="cite_ref-Xia-2004_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xia-2004-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Xia-2005_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xia-2005-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and perfluorinated compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-Governini-2015_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Governini-2015-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased aneuploidy is often associated with increased DNA damage in spermatozoa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Number_in_various_organisms">Number in various organisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Number in various organisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_organisms_by_chromosome_count" title="List of organisms by chromosome count">List of organisms by chromosome count</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_eukaryotes">In eukaryotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: In eukaryotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The number of chromosomes in <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> is highly variable. It is possible for chromosomes to fuse or break and thus evolve into novel karyotypes. Chromosomes can also be fused artificially. For example, when the 16 chromosomes of <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">yeast</a> were fused into one giant chromosome, it was found that the cells were still viable with only somewhat reduced growth rates.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tables below give the total number of chromosomes (including sex chromosomes) in a cell nucleus for various eukaryotes. Most are <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Human#Genetics" title="Human">humans</a> who have 22 different types of <a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">autosomes</a>—each present as two homologous pairs—and two <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosomes</a>, giving 46 chromosomes in total. Some other organisms have more than two copies of their chromosome types, for example <a href="/wiki/Bread_wheat" class="mw-redirect" title="Bread wheat">bread wheat</a> which is <i>hexaploid</i>, having six copies of seven different chromosome types for a total of 42 chromosomes. </p> <table border="0"> <tbody><tr> <td style="vertical-align: top"> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="float:left; margin:1em 0 1em 1em"> <caption>Chromosome numbers in some plants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Plant species</th> <th># </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Thale_cress" class="mw-redirect" title="Thale cress">Thale cress</a> (diploid)<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">Rye</a> (diploid)<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>14 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Einkorn_wheat" class="mw-redirect" title="Einkorn wheat">Einkorn wheat</a> (diploid)<sup id="cite_ref-Dubcovsky-1996_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dubcovsky-1996-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>14 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a> (diploid or palaeotetraploid)<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>20 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Durum_wheat" title="Durum wheat">Durum wheat</a> (tetraploid)<sup id="cite_ref-Dubcovsky-1996_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dubcovsky-1996-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>28 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bread_wheat" class="mw-redirect" title="Bread wheat">Bread wheat</a> (hexaploid)<sup id="cite_ref-Dubcovsky-1996_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dubcovsky-1996-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>42 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_tobacco" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultivated tobacco">Cultivated tobacco</a> (tetraploid)<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>48 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Adder%27s_tongue_fern" class="mw-redirect" title="Adder's tongue fern">Adder's tongue fern</a> (polyploid)<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>approx. 1,200 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align: top"> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="float:left; margin:1em 0 1em 1em"> <caption>Chromosome numbers (2n) in some animals </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Species</th> <th># </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Indian_muntjac" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian muntjac">Indian muntjac</a></td> <td>6♀, 7♂ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Common_fruit_fly" class="mw-redirect" title="Common fruit fly">Common fruit fly</a></td> <td>8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pill_millipede" title="Pill millipede">Pill millipede</a><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>30 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">Earthworm</a><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>36 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_fox" title="Tibetan fox">Tibetan fox</a></td> <td>36 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Domestic_cat" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic cat">Domestic cat</a><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>38 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Domestic_pig" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic pig">Domestic pig</a></td> <td>38 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_mouse" title="Laboratory mouse">Laboratory mouse</a><sup id="cite_ref-Romanenko-2006_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romanenko-2006-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Painter-1928_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Painter-1928-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>40 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_rat" title="Laboratory rat">Laboratory rat</a><sup id="cite_ref-Painter-1928_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Painter-1928-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>42 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rabbit" title="Rabbit">Rabbit</a><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>44 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Syrian_hamster" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian hamster">Syrian hamster</a><sup id="cite_ref-Romanenko-2006_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romanenko-2006-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>44 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guppy" title="Guppy">Guppy</a><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>46 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Human<sup id="cite_ref-De_Grouchy-1987_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Grouchy-1987-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>46 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hare" title="Hare">Hare</a><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>48 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">Gorilla</a><sup id="cite_ref-De_Grouchy-1987_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Grouchy-1987-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>48 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">Chimpanzee</a> </td> <td>48 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Domestic_sheep" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic sheep">Domestic sheep</a></td> <td>54 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Garden_snail" class="mw-redirect" title="Garden snail">Garden snail</a><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>54 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Silkworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Silkworm">Silkworm</a><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>56 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">Elephant</a><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>56 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cow" class="mw-redirect" title="Cow">Cow</a></td> <td>60 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Donkey" title="Donkey">Donkey</a></td> <td>62 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">Guinea pig</a><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>64 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">Horse</a></td> <td>64 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">Dog</a><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>78 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hedgehog" title="Hedgehog">Hedgehog</a></td> <td>90 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Goldfish" title="Goldfish">Goldfish</a><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>100–104 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kingfisher" title="Kingfisher">Kingfisher</a><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>132 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align: top"> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="float:left; margin:1em 0 1em 1em"> <caption>Chromosome numbers in other organisms </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Species</th> <th>Large<br />chromosomes</th> <th>Intermediate<br />chromosomes</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Microchromosome" title="Microchromosome">Microchromosomes</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Trypanosoma_brucei" title="Trypanosoma brucei">Trypanosoma brucei</a></i></td> <td>11</td> <td>6</td> <td>≈100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Domestic_pigeon" title="Domestic pigeon">Domestic pigeon</a><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>18</td> <td>–</td> <td>59–63 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chicken<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>8</td> <td>2 sex chromosomes</td> <td>60 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Normal members of a particular eukaryotic species all have the same number of nuclear chromosomes. Other eukaryotic chromosomes, i.e., mitochondrial and plasmid-like small chromosomes, are much more variable in number, and there may be thousands of copies per cell. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PLoSBiol3.5.Fig1bNucleus46Chromosomes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/PLoSBiol3.5.Fig1bNucleus46Chromosomes.jpg/180px-PLoSBiol3.5.Fig1bNucleus46Chromosomes.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/PLoSBiol3.5.Fig1bNucleus46Chromosomes.jpg/270px-PLoSBiol3.5.Fig1bNucleus46Chromosomes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/PLoSBiol3.5.Fig1bNucleus46Chromosomes.jpg/360px-PLoSBiol3.5.Fig1bNucleus46Chromosomes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="612" /></a><figcaption>The 23 human <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_territories" title="Chromosome territories">chromosome territories</a> during <a href="/wiki/Prometaphase" title="Prometaphase">prometaphase</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fibroblast" title="Fibroblast">fibroblast</a> cells</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Asexually_reproducing" class="mw-redirect" title="Asexually reproducing">Asexually reproducing</a> species have one set of chromosomes that are the same in all body cells. However, asexual species can be either haploid or diploid. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sexually_reproducing" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually reproducing">Sexually reproducing</a> species have <a href="/wiki/Somatic_cell" title="Somatic cell">somatic cells</a> (body cells) that are <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> [2n], having two sets of chromosomes (23 pairs in humans), one set from the mother and one from the father. <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">Gametes</a> (reproductive cells) are <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> [n], having one set of chromosomes. Gametes are produced by <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> of a diploid <a href="/wiki/Germline" title="Germline">germline</a> cell, during which the matching chromosomes of father and mother can exchange small parts of themselves (<a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover" title="Chromosomal crossover">crossover</a>) and thus create new chromosomes that are not inherited solely from either parent. When a male and a female gamete merge during <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a>, a new diploid organism is formed. </p><p>Some animal and plant species are <a href="/wiki/Polyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid">polyploid</a> [Xn], having more than two sets of <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a>. Important crops such as tobacco or wheat are often polyploid, compared to their ancestral species. Wheat has a haploid number of seven chromosomes, still seen in some <a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">cultivars</a> as well as the wild progenitors. The more common types of pasta and bread are polyploid, having 28 (tetraploid) and 42 (hexaploid) chromosomes, compared to the 14 (diploid) chromosomes in wild wheat.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_prokaryotes">In prokaryotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In prokaryotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a> <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> generally have one copy of each major chromosome, but most cells can easily survive with multiple copies.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Buchnera_(proteobacteria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Buchnera (proteobacteria)">Buchnera</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Symbiont" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiont">symbiont</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid">aphids</a> has multiple copies of its chromosome, ranging from 10 to 400 copies per cell.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in some large bacteria, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Epulopiscium_fishelsoni" class="mw-redirect" title="Epulopiscium fishelsoni">Epulopiscium fishelsoni</a></i> up to 100,000 copies of the chromosome can be present.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plasmids and plasmid-like small chromosomes are, as in eukaryotes, highly variable in copy number. The number of plasmids in the cell is almost entirely determined by the rate of division of the plasmid – fast division causes high copy number. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromomere" title="Chromomere">Chromomere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohesin" title="Cohesin">Cohesin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampbrush_chromosome" title="Lampbrush chromosome">Lampbrush chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">Locus (genetics)</a> – explains gene location nomenclature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minichromosome" title="Minichromosome">Minichromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neochromosome" title="Neochromosome">Neochromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondisjunction" title="Nondisjunction">Nondisjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_chromosome" title="Parasitic chromosome">Parasitic chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytene_chromosome" title="Polytene chromosome">Polytene chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_chromosome" title="Secondary chromosome">Secondary chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_influence_on_sex_determination" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal influence on sex determination">Maternal influence on sex determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature-dependent_sex_determination" title="Temperature-dependent sex determination">Temperature-dependent sex determination</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hammond-2017-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hammond-2017_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHammondStrømmeHuangPatel2017" class="citation journal cs1">Hammond CM, Strømme CB, Huang H, Patel DJ, Groth A (March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5319910">"Histone chaperone networks shaping chromatin function"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology</i>. <b>18</b> (3): 141–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrm.2016.159">10.1038/nrm.2016.159</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5319910">5319910</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28053344">28053344</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Molecular+Cell+Biology&rft.atitle=Histone+chaperone+networks+shaping+chromatin+function&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=141-158&rft.date=2017-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5319910%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28053344&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrm.2016.159&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=CM&rft.au=Str%C3%B8mme%2C+CB&rft.au=Huang%2C+H&rft.au=Patel%2C+DJ&rft.au=Groth%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5319910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChromosome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2002" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, John (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/molecularbiolog000wils"><i>Molecular biology of the cell : a problems approach</i></a></span>. 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href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18445653">18445653</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Extreme+polyploidy+in+a+large+bacterium&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=6730-4&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2373351%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18445653&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0707522105&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PNAS..105.6730M&rft.aulast=Mendell&rft.aufirst=JE&rft.au=Clements%2C+KD&rft.au=Choat%2C+JH&rft.au=Angert%2C+ER&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2373351&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChromosome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading 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.side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chromosomes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Chromosomes">Chromosomes</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090531182950/http://hopes.stanford.edu/basics/dna/b0.html">An Introduction to DNA and Chromosomes</a> from <a href="/wiki/HOPES" class="mw-redirect" title="HOPES">HOPES</a>: Huntington's Outreach Project for Education at Stanford</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atlasgeneticsoncology.org/Educ/PolyMecaEng.html">Chromosome Abnormalities at AtlasGeneticsOncology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chromosomewalk.ch/en">On-line exhibition on chromosomes and genome (SIB)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081120000502/http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/predictdisorder/">What Can Our Chromosomes Tell Us?</a>, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/chromosomes/karyotype/">Try making a karyotype yourself</a>, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/Chromosomes.html">Kimballs Chromosome pages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/genome/chromosomes.php">Chromosome News from Genome News Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041210120428/http://www.chromosomehelpstation.com/eurochromnet.htm">Eurochromnet</a>, European network for Rare Chromosome Disorders on the Internet</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ensembl.org/">Ensembl.org</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ensembl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensembl">Ensembl</a> project, presenting chromosomes, their <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntenic">syntenic</a> loci graphically via the web</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www3.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/index.html">Genographic Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070712035011/https://www3.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/index.html">Archived</a> 12 July 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/ghr/chromosomes">Home reference on Chromosomes</a> from the U.S. National Library of Medicine</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321091921/http://www.dna-rainbow.org/">Visualisation of human chromosomes</a> and comparison to other species</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rarechromo.org/">Unique – The Rare Chromosome Disorder Support Group</a> Support for people with rare chromosome disorders</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chromosome_genetics" title="Template talk:Chromosome genetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chromosome_genetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chromosome genetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cytogenetics:_chromosomes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a>: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">chromosomes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">Ploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genetic material</a>/<a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">Chromatin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euchromatin" title="Euchromatin">Euchromatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterochromatin" title="Heterochromatin">Heterochromatin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatid" title="Chromatid">Chromatid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleosome" title="Nucleosome">Nucleosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_organization" title="Nuclear organization">Nuclear organization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">Autosome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex chromosome</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">allosome</a> or heterosome)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microchromosome" title="Microchromosome">Macrochromosome/Microchromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_bacterial_chromosome" class="mw-redirect" title="Circular bacterial chromosome">Circular chromosome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Linear_chromosome" title="Linear chromosome">Linear chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Extra chromosome</a> (or accessory chromosome)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_supernumerary_marker_chromosome" title="Small supernumerary marker chromosome">Supernumerary chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_chromosome" title="B chromosome">A chromosome/B chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampbrush_chromosome" title="Lampbrush chromosome">Lampbrush chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytene_chromosome" title="Polytene chromosome">Polytene chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinokaryon" title="Dinokaryon">Dinoflagellate chromosomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">Homologous chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isochromosome" title="Isochromosome">Isochromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_chromosome" title="Satellite chromosome">Satellite chromosome</a></li> <li><i>Centromere position</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centromere#Metacentric" title="Centromere">Metacentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submetacentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Submetacentric">Submetacentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Telocentric">Telocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrocentric">Acrocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocentric_chromosome" title="Holocentric chromosome">Holocentric</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Centromere number</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acentric_fragment" title="Acentric fragment">Acentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocentric">Monocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicentric_chromosome" title="Dicentric chromosome">Dicentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycentric_chromosome" title="Polycentric chromosome">Polycentric</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes<br />and evolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality#Structural_abnormalities" title="Chromosome abnormality">Structural alterations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_inversion" title="Chromosomal inversion">Chromosomal inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">Chromosomal translocation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality#Numerical_disorders" title="Chromosome abnormality">Numerical alterations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Aneuploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">Euploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">Polyploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopolyploidy" title="Paleopolyploidy">Paleopolyploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyploidization" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploidization">Polyploidization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a>: <a href="/wiki/Telomere-binding_protein" title="Telomere-binding protein">Telomere-binding protein</a> (<a href="/wiki/TINF2" title="TINF2">TINF2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protamine" title="Protamine">Protamine</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">Histone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H1" title="Histone H1">H1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H2A" title="Histone H2A">H2A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H2B" title="Histone H2B">H2B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H3" title="Histone H3">H3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H4" title="Histone H4">H4</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">Centromere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CENPA" title="CENPA">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centromere_protein_B" title="Centromere protein B">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPC1" title="CENPC1">C1</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPC2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPC2 (page does not exist)">C2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centromere_protein_E" title="Centromere protein E">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPF" title="CENPF">F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPH" title="CENPH">H</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPI" title="CENPI">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPJ" title="CENPJ">J</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPK" title="CENPK">K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPM" title="CENPM">M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPN" title="CENPN">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPO" title="CENPO">O</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPP (page does not exist)">P</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPQ&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPQ (page does not exist)">Q</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPT" title="CENPT">T</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extrachromosomal_DNA" title="Extrachromosomal DNA">Extrachromosomal DNA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organisms_by_chromosome_count" title="List of organisms by chromosome count">List of organisms by chromosome count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_eukaryotic_genomes" title="List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes">List of sequenced genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_System_for_Human_Cytogenetic_Nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature">International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Self-replicating_organic_structures" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Self-replicating_organic_structures" title="Template:Self-replicating organic structures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Self-replicating_organic_structures" title="Template talk:Self-replicating organic 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title="Animal">Animalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protista</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_dark_matter" title="Biological dark matter">Biological dark matter</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:#CEDAF2;"><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_virus#Group_I:_dsDNA_viruses" title="DNA virus">dsDNA virus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giant_virus" title="Giant virus">Giant virus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_virus#Group_II:_ssDNA_viruses" title="DNA virus">ssDNA virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-stranded_RNA_viruses" title="Double-stranded RNA viruses">dsRNA virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_virus#Group_IV—positive-sense_ssRNA_viruses" title="RNA virus">(+)ssRNA virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_virus#Group_V—negative-sense_ssRNA_viruses" title="RNA virus">(−)ssRNA virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrovirus" title="Retrovirus">ssRNA-RT virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DsDNA-RT_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="DsDNA-RT virus">dsDNA-RT virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:#CEDAF2;"><a href="/wiki/Subviral_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Subviral agents">Subviral<br />agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;"><a href="/wiki/Viroid" title="Viroid">Viroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pospiviroidae" title="Pospiviroidae">Pospiviroidae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Avsunviroidae" title="Avsunviroidae">Avsunviroidae</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;"><a href="/wiki/Helper_virus" title="Helper virus">Helper-virus<br />dependent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;"><a href="/wiki/Satellite_(biology)" title="Satellite (biology)">Satellite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>ssRNA satellite virus</li> <li>dsDNA satellite virus (<a href="/wiki/Virophage" title="Virophage">Virophage</a>)</li> <li>ssDNA satellite virus</li> <li>ssDNA satellite</li> <li>dsRNA satellite</li> <li>ssRNA satellite (<a href="/wiki/Virusoid" title="Virusoid">Virusoid</a>)</li> <li>Satellite-like nucleic acids <ul><li>RNA</li> <li>DNA</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defective_interfering_particle" title="Defective interfering particle">Defective interfering particle</a> <ul><li>RNA</li> <li>DNA</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Prion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Mammalian prion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_prion" title="Fungal prion">Fungal prion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acid</a><br />self-replication</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Mobile_genetic_elements" title="Mobile genetic elements">Mobile genetic<br />elements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobilome" title="Mobilome">Mobilome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomic_island" title="Genomic island">Genomic island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transposable_element" title="Transposable element">Transposable element</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrotransposon" title="Retrotransposon">Class I or retrotransposon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_transposon" title="DNA transposon">Class II or DNA transposon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_factor_(bacteria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertility factor (bacteria)">Fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-factor" class="mw-redirect" title="R-factor">Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colicin" title="Colicin">Col</a></li> <li>Degradative</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">Virulence</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ti_plasmid" title="Ti plasmid">Ti</a></li> <li>Cryptic</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmid" title="Cosmid">Cosmid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fosmid" title="Fosmid">Fosmid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phagemid" title="Phagemid">Phagemid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_I_catalytic_intron" title="Group I catalytic intron">Group I intron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_II_intron" title="Group II intron">Group II intron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrozyme" title="Retrozyme">Retrozyme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: center;">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase" title="RNA-dependent RNA polymerase">RNA replication</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chromosome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_chromosome" title="Linear chromosome">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_chromosome" title="Circular chromosome">Circular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrachromosomal_DNA" title="Extrachromosomal DNA">Extrachromosomal DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_chromosome" title="Secondary chromosome">Secondary chromosome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">Gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">Gene duplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-coding_DNA" title="Non-coding DNA">Non-coding DNA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_replication" title="Origin of replication">Origin of replication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Replicon_(genetics)" title="Replicon (genetics)">Replicon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_viral_element" title="Endogenous viral element">Endogenous viral element</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provirus" title="Provirus">Provirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophage" title="Prophage">Prophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_retrovirus" title="Endogenous retrovirus">Endogenous retrovirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpoviron" title="Transpoviron">Transpoviron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeated_sequence_(DNA)" title="Repeated sequence (DNA)">Repeated sequences in DNA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tandem_repeat" title="Tandem repeat">Tandem repeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspersed_repeat" title="Interspersed repeat">Interspersed repeat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">Endosymbiosis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">Mitochondrion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitosome" title="Mitosome">Mitosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogenosome" title="Hydrogenosome">Hydrogenosome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">Chloroplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromoplast" title="Chromoplast">Chromoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontoplast" title="Gerontoplast">Gerontoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucoplast" title="Leucoplast">Leucoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apicoplast" title="Apicoplast">Apicoplast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappa_organism" title="Kappa organism">Kappa organism</a></li> <li>Organs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriome" title="Bacteriome">Bacteriome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophosome" title="Trophosome">Trophosome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitroplast" title="Nitroplast">Nitroplast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li>?<a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">Ribozyme</a></li></ul></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coacervate" title="Coacervate">Coacervate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteinoid" title="Proteinoid">Proteinoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulphobes" title="Sulphobes">Sulphobe</a></li> <li>Research <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_lipid_bilayer" title="Model lipid bilayer">Model lipid bilayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeewanu" title="Jeewanu">Jeewanu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">Cell division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_cell" title="Artificial cell">Artificial cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cellular_life" title="Non-cellular life">Non-cellular life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_virology" title="Synthetic virology">Synthetic virus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_vector" title="Viral vector">Viral vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helper_dependent_virus" title="Helper dependent virus">Helper dependent virus</a></li></ul></li> <li>?<a href="/wiki/Nanobacterium" title="Nanobacterium">Nanobacterium</a></li> <li>?<a href="/wiki/Nanobe" title="Nanobe">Nanobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_cell" title="Cancer cell">Cancer cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HeLa" title="HeLa">HeLa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonally_transmissible_cancer" title="Clonally transmissible cancer">Clonally transmissible cancer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virome" title="Virome">Virome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37748#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37748#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4010162-9">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85025391">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Chromosomes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11967860v">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Chromosomes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11967860v">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="染色体"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00570780">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="chromozomy"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph139276&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007286463705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10640763">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&oldid=1257527688">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chromosome&oldid=1257527688</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chromosomes" title="Category:Chromosomes">Chromosomes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_substructures" title="Category:Nuclear substructures">Nuclear substructures</a></li><li><a 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