CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of Russia (1855–1894) - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"beb49569-1a51-4652-a399-d9dfadc8ea92","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_Russia_(1855–1894)","wgTitle":"History of Russia (1855–1894)","wgCurRevisionId":1250077515,"wgRevisionId":1250077515,"wgArticleId":870354,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles lacking in-text citations from November 2018","All articles lacking in-text citations","Use dmy dates from December 2023","Articles needing additional references from March 2023","All articles needing additional references","All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases","Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from September 2014" ,"Source attribution","Commons category link is locally defined","19th century in the Russian Empire"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_Russia_(1855–1894)","wgRelevantArticleId":870354,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage", "wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q3978541","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=[ "ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg/1200px-Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg/800px-Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="800"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg/640px-Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="640"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of Russia (1855–1894) - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_Russia_1855–1894 rootpage-History_of_Russia_1855–1894 skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Economic development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reforms_and_their_limits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reforms_and_their_limits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Reforms and their limits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reforms_and_their_limits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_affairs_after_the_Crimean_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_affairs_after_the_Crimean_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Foreign affairs after the Crimean War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_affairs_after_the_Crimean_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia_and_the_U.S_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia_and_the_U.S_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Russia and the U.S Civil War</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Russia_and_the_U.S_Civil_War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Russia and the U.S Civil War subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Russia_and_the_U.S_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Russia_rejects_the_Anglo-French_Intrigues_for_interference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia_rejects_the_Anglo-French_Intrigues_for_interference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Russia rejects the Anglo-French Intrigues for interference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia_rejects_the_Anglo-French_Intrigues_for_interference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adams_to_Russell:_"superfluous_to_point_out_this_means_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adams_to_Russell:_"superfluous_to_point_out_this_means_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Adams to Russell: "superfluous to point out this means war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adams_to_Russell:_"superfluous_to_point_out_this_means_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_fleets_in_New_York_and_San_Francisco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_fleets_in_New_York_and_San_Francisco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Russian fleets in New York and San Francisco</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_fleets_in_New_York_and_San_Francisco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Navy_Secretary_Gideon_Welles:_"God_Bless_the_Russians"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navy_Secretary_Gideon_Welles:_"God_Bless_the_Russians""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Navy Secretary Gideon Welles: "God Bless the Russians"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navy_Secretary_Gideon_Welles:_"God_Bless_the_Russians"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolutionary_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolutionary_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Revolutionary movements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutionary_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Russia (1855–1894)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 4 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-4" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">4 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7_(1855%E2%80%931892)" title="تاريخ روسيا (1855–1892) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ روسيا (1855–1892)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sviluppo_economico_russo_nel_XIX_secolo" title="Sviluppo economico russo nel XIX secolo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sviluppo economico russo nel XIX secolo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_Rusiei,_1855-1892" title="Istoria Rusiei, 1855-1892 – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria Rusiei, 1855-1892" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_Nga_(1855%E2%80%931892)" title="Lịch sử Nga (1855–1892) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Nga (1855–1892)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3978541#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&oldid=1250077515" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_Russia_%281855%E2%80%931894%29&id=1250077515&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Russia_%281855%25E2%2580%25931894%29"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Russia_%281855%25E2%2580%25931894%29"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_Russia_%281855%E2%80%931894%29&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3978541" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Russia" title="Category:History of Russia">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">History of <span class="fn org label">Russia</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/80px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/120px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/160px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="517" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Periods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia#Prehistory" title="History of Russia">Prehistory</a>  •  <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia#Antiquity" title="History of Russia">Antiquity</a>  •  <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavs</a></span> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> pre-9th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Arthania" title="Arthania">Arthania</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Gar%C3%B0ar%C3%ADki" title="Garðaríki">Garðaríki</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>879–1240: <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ancient Rus'</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Rurik" title="Rurik">Rurik</a> • <a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptism of Rus'">Baptism of Rus'</a> • <i><a href="/wiki/Russkaya_Pravda" title="Russkaya Pravda">Russkaya Pravda</a></i><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Land" title="Novgorod Land">Novgorod Land</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 882–1136</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Polotsk" title="Principality of Polotsk">Principality of Polotsk</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 987–1397</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Chernigov" title="Principality of Chernigov">Principality of Chernigov</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 988–1402</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rostov-Suzdal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostov-Suzdal">Rostov-Suzdal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1093–1157</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Early_Middle_Ages_(c._500_–_1097)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1240–1480: <a href="/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Council_of_Liubech_and_after_(1097–1237)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">Feudal Rus'</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Liubech" title="Council of Liubech">Council of Liubech</a> • <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Uvetichi" title="Council of Uvetichi">Council of Uvetichi</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol conquest</a> • <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo" title="Battle of Kulikovo">Battle of Kulikovo</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1136–1478</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1157–1331</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Principality of Moscow</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1263–1547</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Council_of_Liubech_and_after_(1097–1237)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1480–1917: <a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarist Russia</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Great_Stand_on_the_Ugra_River" title="Great Stand on the Ugra River">Great Stand on the Ugra River</a> • <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of<br />Troubles</a> • <a href="/wiki/Zemsky_Sobor" title="Zemsky Sobor">Zemsky Sobor</a> • <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nystad" title="Treaty of Nystad">Treaty of Nystad</a> • <a href="/wiki/Government_reform_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Government reform of Peter the Great">Petrovian reforms</a> • <a href="/wiki/1812_Patriotic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="1812 Patriotic War">1812 Patriotic War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Decembrist_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Decembrist Revolt">Decembrist Revolt</a> • <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation reform</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905" title="Russian Revolution of 1905">1905 Revolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/October_Manifesto" title="October Manifesto">October Manifesto</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Second Patriotic War</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1547–1721</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1721–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1799–1867</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1809–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1867–1915</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Russian_Manchuria_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Manchuria (China)">Russian Manchuria</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1900–1905</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Uryankhay_Krai" title="Uryankhay Krai">Uryankhay Krai</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1914–1921</td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1917–1923: <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Provisional Government</a> • <a href="/wiki/Dual_power" title="Dual power"><i>Dvoyevlastiye</i></a> • <a href="/wiki/July_Days" title="July Days">July Days</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kornilov_affair" title="Kornilov affair">Kornilov affair</a> • <a href="/wiki/Directorate_(Russia)" title="Directorate (Russia)">Directorate</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Constituent Assembly</a> (<a href="/wiki/1917_Russian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election">election</a>) • <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Coup">Bolshevik Coup</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Civil War</a> • <a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White Guard</a> • <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet-Polish_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet-Polish War">Soviet-Polish War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Priamurye_Government" title="Provisional Priamurye Government">Priamurye<br />Govt.</a> • <a href="/wiki/War_Communism" class="mw-redirect" title="War Communism">War Communism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">USSR</a> • <a href="/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">Emigrants</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/General_Secretariat_of_Ukraine" title="General Secretariat of Ukraine">General Secretariat of Ukraine</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR#Early_years_(1917–1920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1919–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Byelorussian SSR">Byelorussian SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1920–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasian SFSR">Transcaucasian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_State_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Russian State (1918–1920)">Russian State</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1918–1920</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Priamurye_Government" title="Provisional Priamurye Government">Provisional Priamurye Govt.</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1921–1923</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <b><a href="/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Leaders of the Russian Civil War">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1923–1991: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">Soviet Era</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">NEP</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Union">Cultural revolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Korenization" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenization">Korenization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Collectivization" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivization">Collectivization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Industrialization</a> • <a href="/wiki/GULAG" class="mw-redirect" title="GULAG">GULAG</a> • <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(WWII)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Front (WWII)">Great Patriotic War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> • <a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a> • <a href="/wiki/1954_transfer_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="1954 transfer of Crimea">Crimea<br />transfer</a> • <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Afghan War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> • <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> • <a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">Karabakh<br />War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Parade_of_sovereignties" title="Parade of sovereignties">Parade of sovereignties</a> (<a href="/wiki/War_of_Laws" title="War of Laws">War of Laws</a>)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Karelo-Finnish_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Karelo-Finnish SSR">Karelo-Finnish SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1940–1956</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">         <b><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tuvan_People%27s_Republic" title="Tuvan People's Republic">Tannu Tuva</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1921–1944</td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>since 1991: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1991–present)">Modern Russia</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/1991_August_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 August Coup">August Coup</a> • <a href="/wiki/Belavezha_Accords" class="mw-redirect" title="Belavezha Accords">Belavezha Accords</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata<br />Protocol</a> • <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">USSR dissolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">CIS</a> • "<a href="/wiki/Near_abroad" title="Near abroad">Near<br />abroad</a>" • <a href="/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis" title="1993 Russian constitutional crisis">Constitutional crisis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Privatization_in_Russia" title="Privatization in Russia">Privatization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">CSTO</a> • <a href="/wiki/Chechen%E2%80%93Russian_conflict#Post-Soviet_era" title="Chechen–Russian conflict">Chechen wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">1st</a> • <a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">2nd</a>) • <a href="/wiki/Loans_for_shares_scheme" title="Loans for shares scheme">Oligarchy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Five-Days War</a> • <a href="/wiki/2008_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia" title="2008 amendments to the Constitution of Russia">Presidential terms<br />amendments</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Eurasian Economic Union">Eurasian Economic Union</a> • <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea</a> • <a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas" title="War in Donbas">War in Donbas</a> • <a href="/wiki/2020_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia" title="2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia">2020 amendments</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Invasion of Ukraine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prelude_to_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Prelude</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_emigration_following_the_invasion_of_Ukraine_(2022%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian emigration following the invasion of Ukraine (2022–present)">Mass emigration</a> • <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_debt_default" title="2022 Russian debt default">Debt default</a> • <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Sanctions</a> • <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_mobilization" title="2022 Russian mobilization">Mobilization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022 annexation</a>)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Tatarstan" title="Tatarstan">Republic of Tatarstan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/wiki/Tatarstan#Present-day" title="Tatarstan">1994</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechen Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">2000</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Crimea_(Russia)" title="Republic of Crimea (Russia)">Republic of Crimea</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">2014</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic" title="Donetsk People's Republic">Donetsk People's Republic</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/wiki/Luhansk_People%27s_Republic" title="Luhansk People's Republic">Luhansk People's Republic</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Kherson_Oblast" title="Russian occupation of Kherson Oblast">Kherson Oblast</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Zaporizhzhia_Oblast" title="Russian occupation of Zaporizhzhia Oblast">Zaporizhzhia Oblast</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">         <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_federal_subjects" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Russian federal subjects">full list...</a></b> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <span class="nowrap"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_alpha"><b><a href="#ref_alpha">^A</a></b> <i>Not internationally recognized.</i></span> </span><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_beta"><b><a href="#ref_beta">^B</a></b> <i>Not fully controlled.</i></span> </span></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_history" title="Timeline of Russian history">860–1721</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1721%E2%80%931796)" title="History of Russia (1721–1796)">1721–1796</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1796%E2%80%931855)" title="History of Russia (1796–1855)">1796–1855</a><br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1855–1894</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1894%E2%80%931917)" title="History of Russia (1894–1917)">1894–1917</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Soviet_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union_(1917%E2%80%931927)" title="History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)">1917–1927</a><br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">1927–1953</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)">1953–1964</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">1964–1982</a><br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">1982–1991</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1991–present)">1991–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/16px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/24px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Russia portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Russia" title="Template:History of Russia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Russia" title="Template talk:History of Russia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Russia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Russia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_Empire_(1867).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg/220px-Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg/330px-Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg/440px-Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>The Russian Empire in 1866</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1855, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a> began his reign as <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> and presided over a period of political and social reform, notably the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">emancipation of serfs</a> in 1861 and the lifting of censorship. His successor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a> (r. 1881–1894) pursued a policy of repression and restricted public expenditure, but continued land and labour reforms. This was a period of population growth and significant industrialization, though Russia remained a largely rural country. </p><p>Political movements of the time included the <a href="/wiki/Narodniki" class="mw-redirect" title="Narodniki">Populists</a> (<i>Narodniki</i>), <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxists</a>. A revolutionary organization called <a href="/wiki/Narodnaya_Volya_(organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Narodnaya Volya (organization)">People's Will</a> (<i>Narodnaya Volya</i>) <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Assassination of Alexander II of Russia">assassinated Alexander II</a>. Another current of thought was embodied in the <a href="/wiki/Slavophile" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavophile">Slavophiles</a>, who opposed modernization and Westernization. </p><p>Russia continued to expand its empire, occupying the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>. In foreign affairs, the period began with the conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>. Russian policy brought it into conflict with other European powers, in particular <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>, as it sought to extend influence over the European portions of the receding <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and regain naval access to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. This culminated in a successful <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">war with the Ottoman Empire</a> in 1877–1878, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano" title="Treaty of San Stefano">Treaty of San Stefano</a> and <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a> in 1878 by which an independent <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> came into being and by acquisition of former Ottoman territories in the <a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a>. Russia joined Germany and Austria-Hungary in the <a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a>, but friction continued with both partners over Bulgaria. The alliance with Germany came to an end in 1890. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_development">Economic development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Economic development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)" title="Special:EditPage/History of Russia (1855–1894)">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Russia's population growth rate from 1850 to 1910 was the fastest of all the major powers except for the United States. Between 1850 and 1900, Russia's population doubled, but it remained chiefly rural well into the twentieth century. </p><p>The proclamation law of 1861 freed the peasants from dependence on the landowners and granted them all the land, previously worked by the peasants for their own use. Agriculture remained in the hands of peasants, who together constituted about four-fifths of the rural population, and former landowners. By the end of 19th century, Russia was the largest producer and exporter of cereals in the world. Owing to the development of agriculture, Russia gradually assumed a more important position in the world trade. </p><p>Industrial growth was significant, although unsteady, and in absolute terms it was not extensive. Russia's industrial regions included Moscow, the central regions of European Russia, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_region" title="Baltic region">Baltic</a> cities, Russian <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, some areas along the lower <a href="/wiki/River_Don,_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="River Don, Russia">Don</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dnepr_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Dnepr River">Dnepr</a> rivers, and the southern <a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a>. By 1890 Russia had about 32,000 kilometers of railroads and 1.4 million factory workers, most of whom worked in the textile industry. Between 1860 and 1890, annual coal production had grown about 1,200 percent to over 6.8 million tons, and iron and steel production had more than doubled to 2 million tons per year. The state budget had more than doubled, however, and debt expenditures had quadrupled, constituting 28 percent of official expenditures in 1891. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reforms_and_their_limits">Reforms and their limits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Reforms and their limits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Government_reforms_of_Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Government reforms of Alexander II of Russia">Government reforms of Alexander II of Russia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)" title="Special:EditPage/History of Russia (1855–1894)">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a>, who succeeded <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a> in 1855, was a man of a liberal disposition, who saw no alternative but to implement change in the aftermath of the Disastrous performance of the Army, the economy and the government during <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>. Alexander initiated substantial reforms in education, the government, the judiciary, and the military.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1861 he proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">emancipation of 20 million privately held serfs</a>. Local commissions effected emancipation by giving land and freedom to the serfs. The land allotted to the peasants was bought from the owners with the State's assistance. The government issued bonds to the landowners for this purpose and collected redemption payments from the peasants at the rate of 5% of the total cost yearly. The government had envisioned that the 50,000 former landlords who possessed estates of more than 1.1 km would thrive without serfs and would continue to provide loyal political and administrative leadership in the countryside. The government also had expected that peasants would produce sufficient crops for their own consumption and for export sales, thereby helping to finance most of the government's expenses, imports, and foreign debt. </p><p>Reforms of local government closely followed emancipation. In 1864 most local government in the European part of Russia was organized into provincial and district elected self-government (<i><a href="/wiki/Zemstvo" title="Zemstvo">zemstvos</a></i>), which were made up of representatives of all classes and were responsible for local schools, public health, roads, prisons, food supply, and other concerns. In 1870 elected city councils, or <i><a href="/wiki/Duma" title="Duma">duma</a></i>, were formed. Dominated by property owners and constrained by provincial governors and the police, the <i>zemstva</i> and <i>duma</i> raised taxes and levied labor to support their activities. </p><p>In 1864 Alexander II implemented the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_reform_of_Alexander_II" title="Judicial reform of Alexander II">great judicial reform</a>. In major towns, it established courts with juries. In general, the judicial system functioned effectively, but the government lacked the finances and cultural influence to extend the court system to the villages, where traditional peasant justice continued to operate with minimal interference from provincial officials. The Russian judicial system was modelled after contemporary French and German law. Each case had to be decided on its merits and not on <a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">precedents</a>. This approach remained in place ever since.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other major reforms took place in the educational and cultural spheres. Censorship, which had stifled opinion under Nicholas, was greatly relaxed, and public opinion found a voice. This greatly facilitated the government's effort to eradicate corruption, red tape and inefficiency. Universities had gained autonomy. The Government encouraged education: it was during Alexander's reign that the education of the peasant masses started on a vast scale. The central government attempted to act through the <a href="/wiki/Zemstvo" title="Zemstvo">zemstva</a> to establish uniform curricula for elementary schools. </p><p>In the financial sphere, Russia established the State Bank in 1866, which put the national currency on a firmer footing. The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Ministry of Finance of the Russian Empire">Ministry of Finance</a> supported railroad development, which facilitated vital export activity, but it was cautious and moderate in its foreign ventures. The ministry also founded the <a href="/wiki/Peasant_Land_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasant Land Bank">Peasant Land Bank</a> in 1882 to enable enterprising farmers to acquire more land. The Ministry of Internal Affairs countered this policy, however, by establishing the <a href="/wiki/Nobles%27_Land_Bank" title="Nobles' Land Bank">Nobles' Land Bank</a> in 1885 to forestall foreclosures of mortgages. </p><p>The reform of the military service (1874) was the last of the principal reforms in Alexander's II reign. The <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> demonstrated the necessity of building a modern army. The old system of long term service (25 years) for a limited number of recruits was abandoned, as being too heavy a burden for the people and as providing practically no reserves. The new conscription system, which provided for a short term of active service followed by several years in the reserve, was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Milyutin" title="Dmitry Milyutin">Dmitry Milyutin</a> in 1874. It was drawn on democratic lines, calling to the colours all young men of 21 without distinction of class. Exemption was only granted to young men who were the sole breadwinners of their families. It also gave the army a role in teaching many peasants to read and in pioneering medical education for women. </p><p>Alexander's far reaching policy, however, did not bring political peace to Russia. In 1881 revolutionaries assassinated Alexander II. </p><p>His son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a> (r. 1881–1894) initiated a period of political counterreform. He strengthened the security police, reorganizing it into an agency known as the <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">Okhrana</a>, gave it extraordinary powers, and placed it under the Ministry of Internal Affairs. <a href="/wiki/Dmitriy_Tolstoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitriy Tolstoy">Dmitriy Tolstoy</a>, Alexander's minister of internal affairs, instituted the use of land captains, who were noble overseers of districts, and he restricted the power of the zemstvos and the dumas. Alexander III assigned his former tutor, conservative <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Pobedonostsev" title="Konstantin Pobedonostsev">Konstantin Pobedonostsev</a>, to be the procurator of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Synod" title="Holy Synod">Holy Synod</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Orthodox Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Delyanov" title="Ivan Delyanov">Ivan Delyanov</a> to be the minister of education. In their attempts to "save" Russia from "modernism," they revived religious censorship, persecuted non-Orthodox and non-Russian populations, fostered anti- Semitism, and suppressed the autonomy of the universities. Their attacks on liberal and non-Russian elements alienated large segments of the population. The nationalities, particu- larly Poles, Finns, Latvians, Lithuanians, and Ukrainians, reacted to the regime's efforts to Russify them by intensifying their own nationalism. Many Jews emigrated or joined radical movements. Secret organizations and political movements con- tinued to develop despite the regime's efforts to quell them.<sup id="cite_ref-Curtis_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curtis-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alexander III put strict economizing into practice;<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the civil list of the Imperial family was reduced, and estimates for the army, navy and civil service were cut down considerably. This allowed the introduction of a series of financial reforms which tended to ameliorate the condition of the peasantry: the <a href="/wiki/Tax_per_head" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax per head">poll tax</a> was abolished in 1886, a law was passed to accelerate legal transfer of the land allotted to the peasants in 1861, the payments due from them for this land were greatly reduced, Crown lands were made available for leasing or purchase to the peasants on advantageous terms, and great stretches of Crown lands in Eastern Russia and Siberia were opened for peasant emigration and resettlement. </p><p>Labour legislation was first introduced in 1882 with the creation of the inspectorate of factories (in charge of health and life saving regulations), the regulation of working hours and the limitation of female and juvenile labor. </p><p>Alexander's financial reforms prepared the way for the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold standard</a>, which was carried out in the first years of his successor's reign (1897). He also continued a policy of intensive railway building. Here the greatest event was the laying down of the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway" title="Trans-Siberian Railway">Trans-Siberian Railway</a> in 1891. </p><p>During the second half of the 19th century, a faction of so-called "<a href="/wiki/Slavophile" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavophile">Slavophiles</a>" emerged in intellectual circles. They were convinced that <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> had made a mistake in trying to modernize and Westernize the country and that Russia's salvation lay in the rejection of Western ideas. Slavophiles believed that while the West polluted itself with science, atheism, materialism, and wealth, they should return to a simple peasant-based society centered on the Orthodox faith. The government rejected these ideas since it felt the need for rapid modernization. </p><p>It followed that Russia, despite being a polyglot empire with dozens of nationalities and languages, was anything but friendly to the nationalistic aspirations of minorities. Poles fared especially badly since they had been enemies for centuries and because they had revolted in 1830 and 1863. As Russian industrialization progressed, Poland fared quite well, but other areas like Ukraine remained backward, a problem worsened by the clumsy land reforms of Alexander II. Jews in Russia proper and Ukraine were subject to bad (and worsening) discrimination, especially since they were associated with either Poles or with revolutionary movements. Most of the latter were also highly nationalistic and oblivious to the minority problem. Even the <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolsheviks</a> were clueless until after they had taken power in 1917. </p><p>Despite industrialization, Russia was still overwhelmingly rural and backward at the start of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a> were the only cities with any significant industry. Since most workers were fresh off the farm and totally uneducated, the main impetus of revolution came from middle-class college graduates frustrated at the inefficiency of Russian society. </p><p>Thus (with heavy foreign investment and technical assistance), Russia managed to achieve at least a veneer of industrialization by 1914. Along with this came all of the abuses already encountered in the West such as child labor and unsafe working conditions. But while Britain, the US, Germany, and others were eventually able to rid themselves of those problems, Russia found it much more difficult due to inadequate infrastructure and (especially) the lack of an honest, educated bureaucracy. During the latter years of the 19th century, revolutionary groups of all flavors proliferated, some of which sought to reject modernity altogether and turn the clock back to the Middle Ages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_affairs_after_the_Crimean_War">Foreign affairs after the Crimean War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Foreign affairs after the Crimean War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Russia–United Kingdom relations">Russia–United Kingdom relations</a></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, Russia pursued cautious and well-calculated foreign policies. Russia was hurt by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1856)" title="Treaty of Paris (1856)">Treaty of Paris (1856)</a>, which had demilitarized the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> and deprived Russia of the southern strip of <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a>, which controlled access to the <a href="/wiki/Danube_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Danube River">Danube River</a>. The treaty gave the West European powers, not Russia, the duty of protecting Christians living in the Ottoman Empire. The first phase of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a>'s foreign policy had the primary goal of regaining Russian naval access to the Black Sea. Russian statesmen viewed Britain and <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> (redesignated as <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> in 1867) as opposed to that goal, so foreign policy concentrated on good relations with France, Prussia, and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Curtis_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curtis-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the Crimean War, Russia revived its expansionist policies. Russian troops first moved to gain control of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> region, where the revolts of Muslim tribesmen—<a href="/wiki/Chechens" title="Chechens">Chechens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestanis</a>—had continued despite numerous Russian campaigns in the nineteenth century. Once the forces of <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Baryatinsky" title="Aleksandr Baryatinsky">Aleksandr Baryatinsky</a> had captured the legendary Chechen rebel leader <a href="/wiki/Imam_Shamil" title="Imam Shamil">Shamil</a> in 1859, the army resumed the expansion into Central Asia that had begun under <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a>. The capture of <a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a> was a significant victory over the <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kokand" title="Khanate of Kokand">Kokand Khanate</a>, part of which was annexed in 1866. By 1867 Russian forces had captured enough territory to form the <a href="/wiki/Guberniya" class="mw-redirect" title="Guberniya">Guberniya</a> (Governorate General) of <a href="/wiki/Turkestan" title="Turkestan">Turkestan</a>, the capital of which was Tashkent. The <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Bukhara" title="Khanate of Bukhara">Bukhara Khanate</a> then lost the crucial <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> area to Russian forces in 1868. To avoid alarming Britain, which had strong interests in protecting nearby India, Russia left the Bukhoran territories directly bordering <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a> nominally independent. The Central Asian khanates retained a degree of autonomy until 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis199837_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis199837-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russia followed the United States, Britain, and France in establishing relations with Japan, and, together with Britain and France, Russia obtained concessions from China consequent to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a> (1856–1860). Under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a> in 1858 and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Beijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Beijing">Treaty of Beijing</a> in 1860, China ceded to Russia extensive trading rights and regions adjacent to the <a href="/wiki/Amur_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Amur River">Amur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ussuri" title="Ussuri">Ussuri</a> rivers and allowed Russia to begin building a port and naval base at <a href="/wiki/Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a>. As part of the foreign policy goals in Europe, Russia initially gave guarded support to France's anti-Austrian diplomacy. A weak Franco-Russian entente soured, however, when France backed a <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Polish</a> uprising against Russian rule in 1863. Russia then aligned itself more closely with Prussia by approving the unification of Germany in exchange for a revision of the Treaty of Paris and the remilitarization of the Black Sea. These diplomatic achievements came at a London conference in 1871, following France's defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>. After 1871 Germany, united under Prussian leadership, was the strongest continental power in Europe. In 1873 Germany formed the loosely knit <a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a> with Russia and Austria-Hungary to prevent them from forming an alliance with France. Nevertheless, Austro-Hungarian and Russian ambitions clashed in the Balkans, where rivalries among Slavic nationalities and anti-Ottoman sentiments seethed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis199837_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis199837-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1870s, Russian nationalist opinion became a serious domestic factor in its support for liberating Balkan Christians from Ottoman rule and making <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> quasi-protectorates of Russia. From 1875 to 1877, the Balkan crisis escalated with the <a href="/wiki/Herzegovina_Uprising_(1875-1878)" class="mw-redirect" title="Herzegovina Uprising (1875-1878)">rebellion in Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/April_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="April Uprising">insurrection in Bulgaria</a>, which the Ottoman Turks suppressed with such great cruelty that Serbia, but none of the West European powers, declared war. In early 1877, Russia came to the rescue of beleaguered Serbia when it went to <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">war with the Ottoman Empire of 1877–1878</a>. Within one year, Russian troops were nearing <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, and the Ottomans surrendered. Russia's nationalist diplomats and generals persuaded Alexander II to force the Ottomans to sign the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano" title="Treaty of San Stefano">Treaty of San Stefano</a> in March 1878, creating an enlarged, independent Bulgaria that stretched into the southwestern Balkans. Another significant result of the 1877–78 <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War">Russo-Turkish War</a> in Russia's favour was the acquisition from the Ottomans of the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Batumi" title="Batumi">Batum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ardahan" title="Ardahan">Ardahan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kars" title="Kars">Kars</a> in the <a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a>, which were transformed into the militarily administered regions of <a href="/wiki/Batum_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Batum Oblast">Batum Oblast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kars_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Kars Oblast">Kars Oblast</a>. To replace Muslim refugees who had fled across the new frontier into Ottoman territory the Russian authorities settled large numbers of Christians from an ethnically diverse range of communities in <a href="/wiki/Kars_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Kars Oblast">Kars Oblast</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox">Greek Orthodox</a> <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Greeks" title="Caucasus Greeks">Caucasus Greeks</a>, and Christian but mainly non-Orthodox <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, all of whom hoped to achieve their own regional ambitions on the back of the Russian Empire. When Britain threatened to declare war over the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano, an exhausted Russia backed down. At the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a> in July 1878, Russia agreed to the creation of a smaller Bulgaria. Russian nationalists were furious with Austria-Hungary and Germany for failing to back Russia, but the <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a> accepted a revived and strengthened League of the Three Emperors as well as Austro-Hungarian hegemony in the western Balkans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis199838_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis199838-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russian diplomatic and military interests subsequently re-focussed on Central Asia, where Russia had quelled a series of uprisings in the 1870s, and Russia incorporated hitherto independent emirates into the empire. Britain renewed its concerns in 1881 when Russian troops occupied <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmen</a> lands on the Persian and Afghan borders, but Germany lent diplomatic support to Russian advances, and an Anglo-Russian war was averted. Meanwhile, Russia's sponsorship of Bulgarian independence brought negative results as the Bulgarians, angry at Russia's continuing interference in domestic affairs, sought the support of Austria-Hungary. In the dispute that arose between Austria-Hungary and Russia, Germany took a firm position toward Russia while mollifying the tsar with a bilateral defensive alliance, the <a href="/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty" title="Reinsurance Treaty">Reinsurance Treaty</a> of 1887 between Germany and Russia. Within a year, Russo-German acrimony led to <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>'s forbidding further loans to Russia, and France replaced Germany as Russia's financier. When <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II" title="Wilhelm II">Wilhelm II</a> dismissed Bismarck in 1890, the loose Russo-Prussian entente collapsed after having lasted for more than twenty-five years. Three years later, Russia <a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">allied itself with France</a> by entering into a joint military convention, which matched the dual alliance formed in 1879 by Germany and Austria-Hungary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis199838_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis199838-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russia_and_the_U.S_Civil_War">Russia and the U.S Civil War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Russia and the U.S Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><sup id="cite_ref-Crook_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crook-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia_rejects_the_Anglo-French_Intrigues_for_interference">Russia rejects the Anglo-French Intrigues for interference</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Russia rejects the Anglo-French Intrigues for interference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The clouds of world war gathered densely over the planet. Russell and Gladstone, now joined by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>, continued to demand aggressive meddling in US affairs. This outcome was avoided because of British and French fears of what Russia might do if they continued to launch bellicose gestures against the Union. On 29 October 1862 there occurred in St. Petersburg an extremely cordial meeting of Russian Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gorchakov" title="Alexander Gorchakov">Alexander Gorchakov</a> with US chargé d'affaires <a href="/wiki/Bayard_Taylor" title="Bayard Taylor">Bayard Taylor</a>, which was marked by a formal Russian pledge never to move against the US, and to oppose any attempt by other powers to do so. Taylor reported these comments by Gortchakov to the State Department: "You know the sentiments of Russia. We desire above all things the maintenance of the American Union as one indivisible nation. We cannot take any part, more than we have done. We have no hostility to the Southern people. Russia has declared her position and will maintain it. There will be proposals of intervention [by Britain and France]. We believe that intervention could do no good at present. Proposals will be made to Russia to join some plan of interference. She will refuse any intervention of the kind. Russia will occupy the same ground as at the beginning of the struggle. You may rely upon it, she will not change. But we entreat you to settle the difficulty. I cannot express to you how profound an anxiety we feel – how serious are our fears."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_de_St.-P%C3%A9tersbourg" title="Journal de St.-Pétersbourg">Journal de St.-Pétersbourg</a></i>, the official gazette of the Tsarist government, denounced the Anglo-French intervention plan against the US, which had been inspired by Russell. This article helped prevent a wider war: the British cabinet, informed of the Russian attitude by telegraph, voted down Russell's aggressive project. Russell made his last bid to swing the British cabinet in favor of a policy of interference together with Napoleon III against the Union on 12 November 1862, but he was unable to carry the day, and this turned out to be his last chance for the year. </p><p>US Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</a> thought that if the Anglo-French were to assail the Union, they would soon find themselves at war with Russia as well. He wrote to <a href="/wiki/John_Bigelow" title="John Bigelow">John Bigelow</a> early in the war: "I have a belief that the European State, whichever one it may be, that commits itself to intervention anywhere in North America, will sooner or later fetch up in the arms of a native of an oriental country not especially distinguished for amiability of manners or temper."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adams_to_Russell:_"superfluous_to_point_out_this_means_war"><span id="Adams_to_Russell:_.22superfluous_to_point_out_this_means_war"></span>Adams to Russell: "superfluous to point out this means war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Adams to Russell: "superfluous to point out this means war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The summer of 1863, despite the news of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Gettysburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vicksburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Vicksburg">Vicksburg</a>, was marked by another close brush with US-UK war. It was on 5 September 1863 that US Ambassador <a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">Charles Francis Adams Sr.</a> told British Foreign Secretary <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">Lord Russell</a> that if the <a href="/wiki/Scorpion-class_ironclad" title="Scorpion-class ironclad"><i>Scorpion</i>-class ironclads</a> – powerful warships capable of breaking the Union blockade which were then under construction in England – were allowed to leave port, "It would be superfluous in me to point out to your Lordship that this is war."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lord Russell had to pause, and then backed off entirely. The <i>Scorpion</i>-class ships were put under surveillance by the British government on 9 September, and finally seized by the British government in mid-October, 1863.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2007147_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2007147-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They never fought for the Confederacy. </p><p>A revolt against Russian domination of Poland, incited by the British, started in 1863 and lasted into late 1864. Crook points out that it was Lord Russell who told British Ambassador to the US <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lyons,_1st_Viscount_Lyons" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Lyons, 1st Viscount Lyons">Lord Lyons</a> in March 1863 that the Polish issue had the potential to create a Russo-American common front and thus revolutionize world power relations, evidently to the detriment of London.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrook1874285_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrook1874285-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a prophecy was coherent with the then-fashionable ideas of <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a> about Russia and America as the two great powers of the future. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_fleets_in_New_York_and_San_Francisco">Russian fleets in New York and San Francisco</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Russian fleets in New York and San Francisco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most dramatic gestures of cooperation between the Russian Empire and the United States came in the autumn of 1863, as the Laird rams crisis hung in the balance. On 24 September, the Russian Baltic fleet began to arrive in New York harbor. On 12 October, the Russian Far East fleet began to arrive in San Francisco. The Russians, judging that they were on the verge of war with Britain and France over the British-fomented Polish insurrection of 1863, had taken this measure to prevent their ships from being bottled up in their home ports by the superior British fleet. These ships were also the tokens of the vast Russian land armies that could be thrown in the scales on a number of fronts, including the northwest frontier of India; the British had long been worried about such an eventuality. In mid-July 1863, French Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Drouyn_de_Lhuys" title="Édouard Drouyn de Lhuys">Édouard Drouyn de Lhuys</a> was offering London the joint occupation of Poland by means of invasion. But the experience of the Confederate commerce raiders had graphically illustrated just how effective even a limited number of warships could be when they turned to commerce raiding, which is what the Russian naval commanders had been ordered to do in case of hostilities. The Russian admirals had also been told that, if the US and Russia were to find themselves at war with Britain and France, the Russian ships should place themselves under Lincoln's command and operate in synergy with the US Navy against the common enemies. It is thus highly significant that the Russian ships were sent to the United States. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navy_Secretary_Gideon_Welles:_"God_Bless_the_Russians""><span id="Navy_Secretary_Gideon_Welles:_.22God_Bless_the_Russians.22"></span>Navy Secretary Gideon Welles: "God Bless the Russians"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Navy Secretary Gideon Welles: "God Bless the Russians""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coming on the heels of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga" title="Battle of Chickamauga">bloody Union reverse at Chickamauga</a>, the news of the Russian fleet unleashed an immense wave of euphoria in the North. It was this moment that inspired the later verses of <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Sr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes</a>, one of the most popular writers in America, for the 1871 friendship visit of the Russian <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duke_Alexei_Alexandrovich_of_Russia" title="Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia">Grand Duke Alexis</a>: </p> <div class="poem"> <p><i>Bleak are our shores with the blasts of December, / Fettered and chill is the rivulet's flow; / Thrilling and warm are the hearts that remember / Who was our friend when the world was our foe. ... Fires of the North in eternal communion, / Blend your broad flashes with evening's bright star; / God bless the Empire that loves the Great Union; / Strength to her people! Long life to the Czar!</i> <sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </div> <p>The Russians, as Clay reported to Seward and Lincoln, were delighted in turn by the celebration of their fleets, which stayed in American waters for over six months as the Polish revolt was quelled. The Russian officers were lionized and feted, and had their pictures taken by the famous New York photographer <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Brady" title="Matthew Brady">Matthew Brady</a>. When an attack on San Francisco by the Confederate cruiser <i><a href="/wiki/CSS_Shenandoah" title="CSS Shenandoah">Shenandoah</a></i> seemed to be imminent, the Russian admiral there gave orders to his ships to defend the city if necessary. There were no major Union warships on the scene, so Russia was about to fight for the United States. In the event, the Confederate raider did not attack. Soon after the war, <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Purchase" title="Alaska Purchase">Russia sold Alaska to the United States</a>, in part because they felt that an influx of Americans searching for gold was inevitable, and in part to keep the British from seizing control of this vast region. Lincoln's Secretary of the Navy <a href="/wiki/Gideon_Welles" title="Gideon Welles">Gideon Welles</a> wrote in his diary, "The Russian fleet has come out of the Baltic and is now in New York, or a large number of the vessels have arrived…. In sending them to this country at this time there is something significant." Welles was fully justified in his famous concluding words, "God bless the Russians!".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This exceedingly cordial Russo-American friendship set the tone of much nineteenth-century historiography </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revolutionary_movements">Revolutionary movements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Revolutionary movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)" title="Special:EditPage/History of Russia (1855–1894)">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a>'s reforms, particularly the lifting of state censorship, fostered the expression of political and social thought. The regime relied on journals and newspapers to gain support for its domestic and foreign policies. But liberal, nationalist, and radical writers also helped to mold public opinion in opposition to <a href="/wiki/Tsarism" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsarism">tsarism</a>, to private property, and to the imperial state. Because many intellectuals, professionals, peasants, and workers shared these opposition sentiments, the regime regarded the<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2014)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> publications and the radical organizations as dangerous. From the 1860s through the 1880s, Russian radicals, collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Narodniki" class="mw-redirect" title="Narodniki">"Populists"</a> (<i>Narodniki</i>), focused chiefly on the peasantry, whom they identified as "the people" (<i>narod</i>). </p><p>The leaders of the Populist movement included radical writers, idealists, and advocates of terrorism. In the 1860s, <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Chernyshevsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai Chernyshevsky">Nikolai Chernyshevsky</a>, the most important radical writer of the period, posited that Russia could bypass capitalism and move directly to socialism. His most influential work, <i>Что делать?</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/What_Is_to_Be_Done%3F_(novel)" title="What Is to Be Done? (novel)">What Is to Be Done?</a></i>, 1863), describes the role of an individual of a <i>superior nature</i> who guides a new, revolutionary generation. Other radicals such as the incendiary <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchist</a> <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a> (1814–1876) and his terrorist collaborator, <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Nechayev" title="Sergey Nechayev">Sergey Nechayev</a> (1847–1882), urged direct action. The calmer <a href="/wiki/Petr_Tkachev" class="mw-redirect" title="Petr Tkachev">Petr Tkachev</a> (1844–1886) argued against the advocates of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, maintaining that a centralized revolutionary band had to seize power before capitalism could fully develop. Disputing his views, the moralist and individualist <a href="/wiki/Petr_Lavrov" class="mw-redirect" title="Petr Lavrov">Petr Lavrov</a> (1823–1900) made a call "to the people", which hundreds of idealists heeded in 1873 and 1874 by leaving their schools for the countryside to try to generate a mass movement among the <i>narod</i>. However, The Populist campaign failed when the peasants showed hostility to the urban idealists and the government began to consider nationalist opinion more seriously. </p><p>The radicals reconsidered their approach, and in 1876 they formed a propagandist organization called <i>Land and Liberty</i> (<a href="/wiki/Zemlya_i_volya" class="mw-redirect" title="Zemlya i volya">Zemlya i volya</a>), which leaned toward terrorism. This orientation became stronger three years later, when the group renamed itself the <i>People's Will</i> (<a href="/wiki/Narodnaya_Volya_(organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Narodnaya Volya (organization)">Narodnaya Volya</a>), the name under which the radicals carried out the assassination of Alexander II in 1881. In 1879 <a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Georgi Plekhanov</a> formed a propagandist faction of <i>Land and Liberty</i> called <i><a href="/wiki/Black_Repartition" title="Black Repartition">Black Repartition</a></i> (Черный передел, <i>Chernyi Peredel</i>), which advocated redistributing all land to the peasantry. This group studied Marxism, which, paradoxically, was principally concerned with urban industrial workers. The People's Will remained underground. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLincoln1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Bruce_Lincoln" title="W. Bruce Lincoln">Lincoln, W. Bruce</a> (1990). <i>Russia's Great Reforms: Autocracy, Bureaucracy, and the Politics of Change in Imperial Russia</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+Great+Reforms%3A+Autocracy%2C+Bureaucracy%2C+and+the+Politics+of+Change+in+Imperial+Russia&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=W.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiasanovsky1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_V._Riasanovsky" title="Nicholas V. Riasanovsky">Riasanovsky, Nicholas V.</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.129586/2015.129586.A-History-Of-Russia-Fourth-Edition_djvu.txt"><i>A History of Russia</i></a> (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 377. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503361-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503361-8"><bdi>978-0-19-503361-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>. <q>The reform of the judiciary which was largely the work of the Minister of Justice <a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" class="extiw" title="ru:Замятнин, Дмитрий Николаевич">Dmitry Zamyatin</a>, his extremely important assistant <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Ivanovich_Zarudny" title="Sergei Ivanovich Zarudny">Serge Zarudny</a>, and several other enlightened officials, proved to be the most successful of the 'great reforms'. Almost overnight it transformed the Russian judiciary from one of the worst to one of the best in the civilized world. / Later the government tried on occasion to influence judges for political reasons, and, what is more important, in its struggle against radicalism and revolution it began to withdraw whole categories of legal eases from the normal procedure of 1864 and to subject them to various forms of the courts martial. But, while the reform of the judiciary could be restricted in application, it could not be undone by the imperial government, and, as far as the reform extended, modem justice replaced arbitrariness and confusion. Russian legal reform followed Western, especially French, models, but, as Kucherov and others have demonstrated, these models were skillfully adapted to Russian needs It might be added that the courts, as well as the <i><a href="/wiki/Zemstvo" title="Zemstvo">zemstvo</a></i> institutions, acquired political significance, for they served as centers of public interest and enjoyed a somewhat greater freedom of expression than was generally allowed in Russia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Russia&rft.pages=377&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-19-503361-8&rft.aulast=Riasanovsky&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.129586%2F2015.129586.A-History-Of-Russia-Fourth-Edition_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Curtis-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Curtis" class="citation book cs1">Curtis, Glenn E., ed. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/97007563/"><i>Russia: a country study</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>: <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8444-0866-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8444-0866-2"><bdi>0-8444-0866-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+a+country+study&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division%2C+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-8444-0866-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fitem%2F97007563%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNew_York_Special1887" class="citation news cs1">New York Special (19 December 1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newspapers.library.in.gov/cgi-bin/indiana?a=d&d=IJ18871219.1.1">"Imperial Misery"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Indianapolis_Journal" title="Indianapolis Journal">Indianapolis Journal</a></i>. p. 1, col. 3–4. <q>The following article is a translation from a letter written in the Russian language to a Russian citizen of this State, by an official of high standing in the Russian court: ... 'Take, for instance, the finances of the country. Since Alexander III ascended the throne a rigid economy has been apparently observed in all departments....'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indianapolis+Journal&rft.atitle=Imperial+Misery&rft.pages=p.+1%2C+col.+3-4&rft.date=1887-12-19&rft.au=New+York+Special&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewspapers.library.in.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Findiana%3Fa%3Dd%26d%3DIJ18871219.1.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis199837-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis199837_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis199837_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurtis1998">Curtis 1998</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis199838-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis199838_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis199838_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurtis1998">Curtis 1998</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crook-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crook_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrook1874" class="citation book cs1">Crook, David P. (1874). <i>The North, the South, and the Powers 1861–1865</i>. John Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471188551" title="Special:BookSources/978-0471188551"><bdi>978-0471188551</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+North%2C+the+South%2C+and+the+Powers+1861%E2%80%931865&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=1874&rft.isbn=978-0471188551&rft.aulast=Crook&rft.aufirst=David+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Papers relating to the foreign relations of the United States, Bayard Taylor to Secretary Seward</i>. U.S. Department of State, Washington DC: Government Printing Office. 29 October 1862. p. 764.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Papers+relating+to+the+foreign+relations+of+the+United+States%2C+Bayard+Taylor+to+Secretary+Seward&rft.pages=764&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+State%2C+Washington+DC%3A+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1862-10-29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, p. 128</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Adams" title="Henry Adams">Adams, Henry</a> (2007). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Education_of_Henry_Adams" title="The Education of Henry Adams">The Education of Henry Adams</a> (autobiography)</i>. New York: Cosmo. p. 163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1604596342" title="Special:BookSources/978-1604596342"><bdi>978-1604596342</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Education+of+Henry+Adams+%28autobiography%29&rft.pages=163&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Cosmo&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1604596342&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2007147-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2007147_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams2007">Adams 2007</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrook1874285-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrook1874285_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrook1874">Crook 1874</a>, p. 285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes1908" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Sr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.">Holmes, Oliver Wendell</a> (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924014445427"><i>Complete Poetical Works</i></a>. Houghton Mifflin. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924014445427/page/n225">198</a>–200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1406759822" title="Special:BookSources/978-1406759822"><bdi>978-1406759822</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Complete+Poetical+Works&rft.pages=198-200&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1908&rft.isbn=978-1406759822&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Oliver+Wendell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924014445427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelles1911" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Welles" title="Gideon Welles">Welles, Gideon</a> (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diaryofgideonwel0003well"><i>The Diary of Gideon Welles</i></a>. Houghton Mifflin. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diaryofgideonwel0003well/page/443">443</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0781284103" title="Special:BookSources/978-0781284103"><bdi>978-0781284103</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diary+of+Gideon+Welles&rft.pages=443&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1911&rft.isbn=978-0781284103&rft.aulast=Welles&rft.aufirst=Gideon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdiaryofgideonwel0003well&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/country-studies/about-this-collection/"><i>Country Studies</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Country+Studies&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fcollections%2Fcountry-studies%2Fabout-this-collection%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" class="Z3988"></span> – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtis1998" class="citation book cs1">Curtis, Glenn E., ed. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/97007563/"><i>Russia: a country study</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>: <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8444-0866-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8444-0866-2"><bdi>0-8444-0866-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+a+country+study&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division%2C+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-8444-0866-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fitem%2F97007563%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia+%281855%E2%80%931894%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Russian_history_(1613%E2%80%931917)" title="Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)">Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)</a></div> <ul><li>Brooks, Jeffrey. "The Russian Nation Imagined: The Peoples of Russia as Seen in Popular Imagery, 1860s–1890s." <i>Journal of social history</i> 43.3 (2010): 535–557. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jsh/summary/v043/43.3.brooks.html">online</a></li> <li>Hamm, Michael F. <i>The city in late imperial Russia</i> (Indiana Univ Press, 1986)</li> <li>Henderson, William Otto. <i>Industrial Revolution on the Continent: Germany, France, Russia 1800–1914</i> (Routledge, 2013)</li> <li>Jelavich, Barbara. <i>St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet foreign policy, 1814–1974</i> (Indiana University Press, 1974)</li> <li>LeDonne, John P. <i>The Russian Empire and the World, 1700–1917: The Geopolitics of Expansion and Containment</i> (Oxford University Press, 1997)</li> <li>Menning, Bruce W. <i>Bayonets Before Bullets: The Imperial Russian Army, 1861–1914</i> (Indiana University Press, 1992)</li> <li>Offord, Derek.<i> Nineteenth-Century Russia: Opposition to Autocracy.</i> (Routledge, 2014), survey</li> <li>Pipes, Richard. <i>Russia under the old regime</i> (1974), survey</li> <li>Pipes, Richard, ed. <i>The Russian Intelligentsia</i> (Columbia University Press, 1961)</li> <li>Rawlinson, Henry, et al. <i>Great Power Rivalry in Central Asia: 1842–1880. England and Russia in the East</i> (Routledge, 2006)</li> <li>Riasanovsky, Nicholas, and Mark Steinberg. <i>A History of Russia since 1855-Volume 2</i> (Oxford UP, 2010).</li> <li>Seton-Watson, Hugh. <i>The Russian Empire, 1801–1917.</i> (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967) survey</li> <li>Tian-Shanskaia, and Olga Semyonova, eds. <i>Village life in late tsarist Russia</i> (Indiana University Press, 1993)</li> <li>Todd, William Mills, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Belknap" title="Robert L. Belknap">Robert L. Belknap</a>, eds. <i>Literature and society in imperial Russia, 1800–1914</i> (Stanford Univ Press, 1978)</li> <li>Wood, Alan. <i>The Origins of the Russian Revolution, 1861–1917</i> (Routledge, 2004)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Dmytryshyn, Basil. <i>Imperial Russia: a source book, 1700–1917</i> (Dryden Press, 1974)</li> <li>Vernadsky, George, and Sergeĭ Germanovich Pushkarev, eds. <i>A Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917: Peter the Great to Nicholas I</i> (Vol. 2. Yale University Press, 1972)</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-left plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Russian_Empire" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></span>.</div></div> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855–1894)&oldid=1250077515">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855–1894)&oldid=1250077515</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th_century_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Category:19th century in the Russian Empire">19th century in the Russian Empire</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_in-text_citations_from_November_2018" title="Category:Articles lacking in-text citations from November 2018">Articles lacking in-text citations from November 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_in-text_citations" title="Category:All articles lacking in-text citations">All articles lacking in-text citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_December_2023" title="Category:Use dmy dates from December 2023">Use dmy dates from December 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_March_2023" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from March 2023">Articles needing additional references from March 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases" title="Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases">All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_September_2014" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from September 2014">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from September 2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Source_attribution" title="Category:Source attribution">Source attribution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_locally_defined" title="Category:Commons category link is locally defined">Commons category link is locally defined</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 8 October 2024, at 10:34<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6bb4bcc5b5-rnbtl","wgBackendResponseTime":165,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.706","walltime":"0.978","ppvisitednodes":{"value":2987,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":156694,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":3310,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":9,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":60476,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 798.305 1 -total"," 23.47% 187.368 1 Template:History_of_Russia"," 23.08% 184.221 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 21.80% 174.014 1 Template:Reflist"," 18.93% 151.103 9 Template:Cite_book"," 12.34% 98.526 1 Template:Short_description"," 10.12% 80.815 4 Template:Ambox"," 9.79% 78.138 1 Template:More_footnotes_needed"," 9.65% 77.075 1 Template:Commons_category"," 9.39% 74.956 1 Template:Sister_project"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.414","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7672877,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdams2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrook1874\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtis1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLincoln1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNew_York_Special1887\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiasanovsky1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelles1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Curtis\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Cite book\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Country study\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Russia\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 1,\n [\"More footnotes needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 6,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreferenced section\"] = 2,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Which\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-qw979","timestamp":"20241125134310","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of Russia (1855\u20131894)","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3978541","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3978541","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-08-01T01:27:27Z","dateModified":"2024-10-08T10:34:56Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/63\/Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg","headline":"aspect of history"}</script> </body> </html>