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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Organization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predecessor:_The_Niagara_Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predecessor:_The_Niagara_Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Predecessor: The Niagara Movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predecessor:_The_Niagara_Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jim_Crow_and_disenfranchisement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jim_Crow_and_disenfranchisement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Jim Crow and disenfranchisement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jim_Crow_and_disenfranchisement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_Defense_Fund" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_Defense_Fund"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Legal Defense Fund</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_Defense_Fund-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Desegregation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Desegregation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Desegregation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Desegregation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>The 1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lee_Alcorn_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lee_Alcorn_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Lee Alcorn controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lee_Alcorn_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-George_W._Bush" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#George_W._Bush"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>George W. Bush</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-George_W._Bush-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tax_exempt_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tax_exempt_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Tax exempt status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tax_exempt_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-LGBT_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#LGBT_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>LGBT rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-LGBT_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Travel_warning_regarding_Missouri" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Travel_warning_regarding_Missouri"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Travel warning regarding Missouri</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Travel_warning_regarding_Missouri-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Censorship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Censorship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Censorship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Censorship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Travel_warning_regarding_Florida" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Travel_warning_regarding_Florida"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Travel warning regarding Florida</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Travel_warning_regarding_Florida-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_branch_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_branch_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Local branch impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_branch_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Current activities</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Current_activities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Current activities subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Current_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Youth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Youth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Youth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Youth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Youth_and_College_Division" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Youth_and_College_Division"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Youth and College Division</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Youth_and_College_Division-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ACT-SO_program" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ACT-SO_program"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>ACT-SO program</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ACT-SO_program-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Environmental justice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Headquarters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Headquarters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Headquarters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Headquarters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_convention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_convention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>National convention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_convention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Awards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">NAACP</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B6_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86" title="الجمعية الوطنية للنهوض بالملونين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الجمعية الوطنية للنهوض بالملونين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="NAACP" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacia_Asocio_por_la_Plibonigo_de_Koloruloj" title="Nacia Asocio por la Plibonigo de Koloruloj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nacia Asocio por la Plibonigo de Koloruloj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="NAACP" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%86_%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%AA_%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="انجمن ملی پیشرفت رنگین‌پوستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انجمن ملی پیشرفت رنگین‌پوستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="NAACP" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="NAACP" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EB%AF%B8_%EC%9C%A0%EC%83%89%EC%9D%B8_%EC%A7%80%EC%9C%84_%ED%96%A5%EC%83%81_%ED%98%91%ED%9A%8C" title="전미 유색인 지위 향상 협회 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전미 유색인 지위 향상 협회" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80_%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%81_%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%BB%D5%A8%D5%B6%D5%A9%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Գունավոր մարդկանց առաջընթացի ազգային ասոցիացիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գունավոր մարդկանց առաջընթացի ազգային ասոցիացիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%91%E0%A4%AB_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2" title="नेशनल असोसियेशन फॉर दि एडवान्स्मेन्ट ऑफ कलर्ड पीपल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नेशनल असोसियेशन फॉर दि एडवान्स्मेन्ट ऑफ कलर्ड पीपल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="NAACP" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacional_Asociuro_por_l%27Avancigo_di_Kolorizita_Homi" title="Nacional Asociuro por l'Avancigo di Kolorizita Homi – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Nacional Asociuro por l'Avancigo di Kolorizita Homi" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="NAACP" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="NAACP" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%A8%E7%B1%B3%E9%BB%92%E4%BA%BA%E5%9C%B0%E4%BD%8D%E5%90%91%E4%B8%8A%E5%8D%94%E4%BC%9A" title="全米黒人地位向上協会 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="全米黒人地位向上協会" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krajowe_Stowarzyszenie_na_rzecz_Popierania_Ludno%C5%9Bci_Kolorowej" title="Krajowe Stowarzyszenie na rzecz Popierania Ludności Kolorowej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Krajowe Stowarzyszenie na rzecz Popierania Ludności Kolorowej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a 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содействия прогрессу цветного населения" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacionalno_udru%C5%BEenje_za_napredak_Obojenih" title="Nacionalno udruženje za napredak Obojenih – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nacionalno udruženje za napredak Obojenih" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Civil rights organization in the United States</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NAACP_seal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0f/NAACP_seal.svg/150px-NAACP_seal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0f/NAACP_seal.svg/225px-NAACP_seal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0f/NAACP_seal.svg/300px-NAACP_seal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="262" data-file-height="262" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Abbreviation</th><td class="infobox-data nickname">NAACP</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Formation</th><td class="infobox-data note">February 12, 1909<span class="noprint">; 115 years ago</span><span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1909-02-12</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Founders</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Moorfield_Storey" title="Moorfield Storey">Moorfield Storey</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Lillian_Wald" title="Lillian Wald">Lillian Wald</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moskowitz_(activist)" title="Henry Moskowitz (activist)">Henry Moskowitz</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Taxpayer_Identification_Number" title="Taxpayer Identification Number">Tax ID no.</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">38-4108034</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Legal status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/501(c)(4)" class="mw-redirect" title="501(c)(4)">501(c)(4)</a> Civic Leagues and Social Welfare Organizations</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Purpose</th><td class="infobox-data">"To ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination."</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Membership </div></th><td class="infobox-data">300,000<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Chairman</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Leon_W._Russell" title="Leon W. Russell">Leon W. Russell</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">President and CEO</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Derrick_Johnson_(activist)" title="Derrick Johnson (activist)">Derrick Johnson</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main organ</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Board of directors</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Publication</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Budget </div></th><td class="infobox-data">$24,800,000 (2019)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://naacp.org/">naacp<wbr />.org</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</b> (<b>NAACP</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an American <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> organization formed in 1909 as an interracial endeavor to advance justice for <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> by a group including <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moorfield_Storey" title="Moorfield Storey">Moorfield Storey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Wald" title="Lillian Wald">Lillian Wald</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moskowitz_(activist)" title="Henry Moskowitz (activist)">Henry Moskowitz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the years, leaders of the organization have included <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a>. </p><p>Its mission in the 21st century is "to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate race-based discrimination". NAACP initiatives include political lobbying, publicity efforts, and litigation strategies developed by its legal team.<sup id="cite_ref-History_and_Geography_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_and_Geography-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The group enlarged its mission in the late 20th century by considering issues such as <a href="/wiki/Police_misconduct" title="Police misconduct">police misconduct</a>, the status of black foreign refugees and questions of economic development.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its name, retained in accordance with tradition, uses the once common term <i><a href="/wiki/Colored_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Colored people">colored people</a>,</i> referring to those with some African ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The NAACP bestows annual awards on African Americans in three categories: <a href="/wiki/NAACP_Image_Awards" title="NAACP Image Awards">Image Awards</a> are for achievements in the arts and media, <a href="/wiki/NAACP_Theatre_Awards" title="NAACP Theatre Awards">Theatre Awards</a> are for achievements in theatre and stage, and <a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medals</a> are for outstanding achievements of any kind. Its headquarters are in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2></div> <p>The NAACP is headquartered in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, with additional regional offices in <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, Maryland, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>, and <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each regional office is responsible for coordinating the efforts of state conferences in that region. Local, youth, and college chapters organize activities for individual members. </p><p>In the U.S., the NAACP is administered by a 64-member board led by a chairperson. The board elects one person as the president and one as the chief executive officer for the organization. <a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> activist and former Georgia State Senator, was chairman until replaced in February 2010 by healthcare administrator <a href="/wiki/Roslyn_Brock" title="Roslyn Brock">Roslyn Brock</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For decades in the first half of the 20th century, the organization was effectively led by its executive secretary, who acted as chief operating officer. <a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_F._White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter F. White">Walter F. White</a>, who served in that role successively from 1920 to 1958, were much more widely known as NAACP leaders than were presidents during those years.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The organization has never had a woman president, except on a temporary basis, and there have been calls to name one.<sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (June 2022)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_C._Miller" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorraine C. Miller">Lorraine C. Miller</a> served as interim president after <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Jealous" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Jealous">Benjamin Jealous</a> stepped down. <a href="/wiki/Maya_Wiley" title="Maya Wiley">Maya Wiley</a> was rumored to be in line for the position in 2013, but <a href="/wiki/Cornell_William_Brooks" title="Cornell William Brooks">Cornell William Brooks</a> was selected.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Departments within the NAACP govern areas of action. Local chapters are supported by the "Branch and Field Services" department and the "Youth and College" department. The "Legal" department focuses on <a href="/wiki/Court_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Court case">court cases</a> of broad application to minorities, such as systematic <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> in employment, government, or education. The <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, bureau is responsible for <a href="/wiki/Lobbying" title="Lobbying">lobbying</a> the U.S. government, and the Education Department works to improve <a href="/wiki/Public_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Public education">public education</a> at the local, state, and federal levels. The goal of the Health Division is to advance health care for minorities through public policy initiatives and education.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2007<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NAACP&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the NAACP had approximately 425,000 paying and non-paying members.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The NAACP's non-current records are housed at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>, which has served as the organization's official repository since 1964. The records held there comprise approximately five million items spanning the NAACP's history from the time of its founding until 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2011, the NAACP teamed with the digital repository <a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> to digitize and host online the earlier portion of its archives, through 1972 – nearly two million pages of documents, from the national, legal, and branch offices throughout the country, which offer first-hand insight into the organization's work related to such crucial issues as lynching, school desegregation, and discrimination in all its aspects (in the military, the criminal justice system, employment, housing).<sup id="cite_ref-ProQuest_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ProQuest-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Predecessor:_The_Niagara_Movement">Predecessor: The Niagara Movement</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Pan-American_Exposition" title="Pan-American Exposition">Pan-American Exposition</a> of 1901 in <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a>, featured many American innovations and achievements, but also included a disparaging caricature of slave life in the South as well as a depiction of life in Africa, called "Old Plantation" and "Darkest Africa", respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Expo_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Expo-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A local African-American woman, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Burnett_Talbert" title="Mary Burnett Talbert">Mary Talbert</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, was appalled by the exhibit, as <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1900)" title="Exposition Universelle (1900)">a similar one in Paris</a> highlighted black achievements. She informed <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> of the situation, and a coalition began to form.<sup id="cite_ref-Expo_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Expo-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1905, a group of thirty-two prominent African-American leaders met to discuss the challenges facing African Americans and possible strategies and solutions. They were particularly concerned by the <a href="/wiki/American_South" class="mw-redirect" title="American South">Southern states</a>' <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">disenfranchisement</a> of blacks starting with <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>'s passage of a new constitution in 1890. Through 1908, Southern legislatures, dominated by white <a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrats" title="Southern Democrats">Southern Democrats</a>, ratified new constitutions and laws creating barriers to voter registration and more complex election rules. In practice, this and the <a href="/wiki/Lily-white_movement" title="Lily-white movement">Lily-white movement</a> caused the exclusion of most blacks and many poor whites from the political system in southern states. Black voter registration and turnout dropped markedly in the South as a result of such legislation. Men who had been voting for thirty years in the South were told they did not "qualify" to register.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> White-dominated legislatures also passed segregation and <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a> laws.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because hotels in the US were segregated, the men convened in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> at the Erie Beach Hotel<sup id="cite_ref-eriebeach_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eriebeach-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the Canadian side of the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_River" title="Niagara River">Niagara River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fort_Erie,_Ontario" title="Fort Erie, Ontario">Fort Erie, Ontario</a>. As a result, the group came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a>. A year later, three non-African-Americans joined the group: journalist <a href="/wiki/William_English_Walling" title="William English Walling">William English Walling</a>, a wealthy socialist; and social workers <a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moskowitz_(civil_rights_leader)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Moskowitz (civil rights leader)">Henry Moskowitz</a>. Moskowitz, who was Jewish, was then also Associate Leader of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Society_for_Ethical_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Society for Ethical Culture">New York Society for Ethical Culture</a>. They met in 1906 at <a href="/wiki/Storer_College" title="Storer College">Storer College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry,_West_Virginia" title="Harpers Ferry, West Virginia">Harpers Ferry, West Virginia</a>, and in 1907 in <a href="/wiki/Boston,_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston, Massachusetts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-niagarahistory_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-niagarahistory-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fledgling group struggled for a time with limited resources and internal conflict and disbanded in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seven of the members of the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a> joined the Board of Directors of the NAACP, founded in 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-niagarahistory_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-niagarahistory-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although both organizations shared membership and overlapped for a time, the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a> was a separate organization. Historically, it is considered to have had a more radical platform than the NAACP. The <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a> was formed exclusively by African Americans. Four European Americans were among the founders of the NAACP, they included <a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moskowitz_(activist)" title="Henry Moskowitz (activist)">Henry Moskowitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_English_Walling" title="William English Walling">William English Walling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Garrison_Villard" title="Oswald Garrison Villard">Oswald Garrison Villard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Founders_of_the_NAACP.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2d/Founders_of_the_NAACP.jpg/220px-Founders_of_the_NAACP.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2d/Founders_of_the_NAACP.jpg/330px-Founders_of_the_NAACP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2d/Founders_of_the_NAACP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="239" /></a><figcaption>Founders of the NAACP: <a href="/wiki/Moorfield_Storey" title="Moorfield Storey">Moorfield Storey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a> and <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Springfield_Race_Riot_of_1908" class="mw-redirect" title="Springfield Race Riot of 1908">Race Riot of 1908</a> in <a href="/wiki/Springfield,_Illinois" title="Springfield, Illinois">Springfield, Illinois</a>, the state capital and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>'s hometown, was a catalyst showing the urgent need for an effective civil rights organization in the U.S. In the decades around the turn of the century, the rate of <a href="/wiki/Lynchings" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynchings">lynchings</a> of blacks, particularly men, was at an all-time high. <a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a>, journalist <a href="/wiki/William_English_Walling" title="William English Walling">William English Walling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moskowitz_(civil_rights_leader)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Moskowitz (civil rights leader)">Henry Moskowitz</a> met in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> in January 1909 to work on organizing for black civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-NAACP_Timeline_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAACP_Timeline-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They sent out solicitations for support to more than 60 prominent Americans, and set a meeting date for February 12, 1909. This was intended to coincide with the 100th anniversary of the birth of <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">President Abraham Lincoln</a>, who emancipated enslaved African Americans. While the first large meeting did not occur until three months later, the February date is often cited as the organization's founding date. </p><p>The NAACP was founded on February 12, 1909, by a larger group including African Americans <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Grimk%C3%A9" title="Archibald Grimké">Archibald Grimké</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Church_Terrell" title="Mary Church Terrell">Mary Church Terrell</a>, and the previously named whites <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moskowitz_(civil_rights_leader)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Moskowitz (civil rights leader)">Henry Moskowitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_English_Walling" title="William English Walling">William English Walling</a> (the wealthy Socialist son of a former slave-holding family),<sup id="cite_ref-NAACP_Timeline_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAACP_Timeline-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Florence_Kelley" title="Florence Kelley">Florence Kelley</a>, a social reformer and friend of Du Bois;<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Garrison_Villard" title="Oswald Garrison Villard">Oswald Garrison Villard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Edward_Russell" title="Charles Edward Russell">Charles Edward Russell</a>, a renowned <a href="/wiki/Muckraker" title="Muckraker">muckraker</a> and close friend of Walling. Russell helped plan the NAACP and had served as acting chairman of the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Committee" title="National Negro Committee">National Negro Committee</a> (1909), a forerunner to the NAACP.<sup id="cite_ref-LOC_Russell_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LOC_Russell-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On May 30, 1909, the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a> conference took place at New York City's <a href="/wiki/Henry_Street_Settlement" title="Henry Street Settlement">Henry Street Settlement</a> House; they created an organization of more than 40, identifying as the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Committee" title="National Negro Committee">National Negro Committee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marlin_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marlin-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among other founding members were <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Wald" title="Lillian Wald">Lillian Wald</a>, a nurse who had founded the <a href="/wiki/Henry_Street_Settlement" title="Henry Street Settlement">Henry Street Settlement</a> where the conference took place. </p><p>Du Bois played a key role in organizing the event and presided over the proceedings. Also in attendance was <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells-Barnett" class="mw-redirect" title="Ida B. Wells-Barnett">Ida B. Wells-Barnett</a>, an African-American journalist and anti-<a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a> crusader. Wells-Barnett addressed the conference on the history of lynching in the United States and called for action to publicize and prosecute such crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The members chose the new organization's name to be the <i>National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</i> and elected its first officers:<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>National President, <a href="/wiki/Moorfield_Storey" title="Moorfield Storey">Moorfield Storey</a>, Boston</li> <li>Chairman of the executive committee, <a href="/wiki/William_English_Walling" title="William English Walling">William English Walling</a></li> <li>Treasurer, <a href="/wiki/John_Elmer_Milholland" class="mw-redirect" title="John Elmer Milholland">John E. Milholland</a> a prominent New York Republican</li> <li>Disbursing Treasurer, <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Garrison_Villard" title="Oswald Garrison Villard">Oswald Garrison Villard</a></li> <li>Executive Secretary, <a href="/wiki/Frances_Blascoer" title="Frances Blascoer">Frances Blascoer</a></li> <li>Director of Publicity and Research, <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>.</li></ul> <p>The NAACP was incorporated a year later in 1911. The association's charter expressed its mission: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To promote equality of rights and eradicate caste or race prejudice among citizens of the United States; to advance the interest of colored citizens; to secure for them impartial suffrage; and to increase their opportunities for securing justice in the courts, education for their children, employment according to their ability, and complete equality before the law.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The larger conference resulted in a more diverse organization, where the leadership was predominantly white. <a href="/wiki/Moorfield_Storey" title="Moorfield Storey">Moorfield Storey</a>, a white attorney from a Boston abolitionist family, served as the president of the NAACP from its founding to 1915. At its founding, the NAACP had one African American on its executive board, Du Bois. Storey was a long-time classical liberal and <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrat</a> who advocated <i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a></i> free markets, the <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold standard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">anti-imperialism</a>. Storey consistently and aggressively championed <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a>, not only for blacks but also for <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> and immigrants (he opposed immigration restrictions). Du Bois continued to play a pivotal leadership role in the organization, serving as editor of the association's magazine, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a>,</i> which had a circulation of more than 30,000.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a></i> was used both for news reporting and for publishing African-American poetry and literature. During the organization's campaigns against lynching, Du Bois encouraged the writing and performance of plays and other expressive literature about this issue.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Jewish community contributed greatly to the NAACP's founding and continued financing.<sup id="cite_ref-myjewishlearning1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-myjewishlearning1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jewish historian <a href="/wiki/Howard_Sachar" title="Howard Sachar">Howard Sachar</a>'s book <i>A History of Jews in America</i> notes "In 1914, Professor Emeritus <a href="/wiki/Joel_Elias_Spingarn" title="Joel Elias Spingarn">Joel Spingarn</a> of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> became chairman of the NAACP and recruited for its board such Jewish leaders as <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Schiff" title="Jacob Schiff">Jacob Schiff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Billikopf" title="Jacob Billikopf">Jacob Billikopf</a>, and Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Samuel_Wise" title="Stephen Samuel Wise">Stephen Wise</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-myjewishlearning1_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-myjewishlearning1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jim_Crow_and_disenfranchisement">Jim Crow and disenfranchisement</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal,_Oklahoma_City,_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg/220px-Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg/330px-Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg/440px-Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4110" data-file-height="2764" /></a><figcaption>An African American drinks out of a segregated water cooler designated for "colored" patrons in 1939 at a streetcar terminal in <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City" title="Oklahoma City">Oklahoma City</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg/220px-JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg/330px-JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg/440px-JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1878" data-file-height="1260" /></a><figcaption>Sign for the "colored" waiting room at a bus station in <a href="/wiki/Durham,_North_Carolina" title="Durham, North Carolina">Durham</a>, North Carolina, 1940</figcaption></figure><p> In its early years, the NAACP was based in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. It concentrated on litigation in efforts to overturn <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchisement</a> of blacks, which had been established in every southern state by 1908, excluding most from the political system, and the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow statutes</a> that legalized <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a>. </p><p>In 1913, the NAACP organized opposition to President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>'s introduction of racial segregation into federal government policy, workplaces, and hiring. African-American women's clubs were among the organizations that protested Wilson's changes, but the administration did not alter its assuagement of Southern cabinet members and the Southern bloc in Congress. </p><p>By 1914, the group had 6,000 members and 50 branches. It was influential in winning the right of African Americans to serve as military officers in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Six hundred African-American officers were commissioned and 700,000 men registered for the draft. The following year, the NAACP organized a nationwide protest, with marches in numerous cities, against <a href="/wiki/D._W._Griffith" title="D. W. Griffith">D. W. Griffith</a>'s silent movie <i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a>,</i> a film that glamorized the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>. As a result, several cities refused to allow the film to open.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The NAACP began to lead lawsuits targeting disfranchisement and racial segregation early in its history. It played a significant part in the challenge of <i><a href="/wiki/Guinn_v._United_States" title="Guinn v. United States">Guinn v. United States</a></i> (1915) to <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>'s discriminatory <a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">grandfather clause</a>, which effectively disenfranchised most black citizens while exempting many whites from certain voter registration requirements. It persuaded the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> to rule in <i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i> in 1917 that state and local governments cannot officially segregate African Americans into separate residential districts. The Court's opinion reflected the jurisprudence of property rights and freedom of contract as embodied in the earlier precedent it established in <i><a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</a></i>. It also played a role in desegregating recreational activities via the historic <i>Bob-Lo Excursion Co. v. Michigan</i> after plaintiff <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Elizabeth_Ray" title="Sarah Elizabeth Ray">Sarah Elizabeth Ray</a> was wrongfully discriminated against when attempting to board a ferry. </p><p>In 1916, chairman Joel Spingarn invited <a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a> to serve as field secretary. Johnson was a former U.S. consul to <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> and a noted African-American scholar and columnist. Within four years, Johnson was instrumental in increasing the NAACP's membership from 9,000 to almost 90,000. In 1920, Johnson was elected head of the organization. Over the next ten years, the NAACP escalated its lobbying and litigation efforts, becoming internationally known for its advocacy of equal rights and equal protection for the "American Negro".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The NAACP devoted much of its energy during the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_years" class="mw-redirect" title="Interwar years">interwar years</a> to fight the <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a> of blacks throughout the United States by working for legislation, lobbying, and educating the public. The organization sent its field secretary <a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter F. White</a> to <a href="/wiki/Phillips_County,_Arkansas" title="Phillips County, Arkansas">Phillips County</a>, Arkansas, in October 1919, to investigate the <a href="/wiki/Elaine_Race_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaine Race Riot">Elaine Race Riot</a>. Roving white vigilantes killed more than 200 black tenant farmers and federal troops after a deputy sheriff's attack on a union meeting of <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecroppers</a> left one white man dead. White published his report on the riot in the <i>Chicago Daily News</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NAACP organized the appeals for twelve black men sentenced to death a month later based on the fact that testimony used in their convictions was obtained by beatings and electric shocks. It gained a groundbreaking Supreme Court decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Moore_v._Dempsey" title="Moore v. Dempsey">Moore v. Dempsey</a></i> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_261" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 261">261</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/261/86/">86</a> (1923) that significantly expanded the Federal courts' oversight of the states' criminal justice systems in the years to come. White investigated eight race riots and 41 lynchings for the NAACP and directed its study <i>Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NAACP_leaders_with_poster_NYWTS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/NAACP_leaders_with_poster_NYWTS.jpg/220px-NAACP_leaders_with_poster_NYWTS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/NAACP_leaders_with_poster_NYWTS.jpg/330px-NAACP_leaders_with_poster_NYWTS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/NAACP_leaders_with_poster_NYWTS.jpg/440px-NAACP_leaders_with_poster_NYWTS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3665" data-file-height="2954" /></a><figcaption>NAACP leaders <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Moon" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry L. Moon">Henry L. Moon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hill_(labor_director)" title="Herbert Hill (labor director)">Herbert Hill</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a> in 1956</figcaption></figure> <p>The NAACP also worked for more than a decade seeking federal anti-lynching legislation, but the <a href="/wiki/Solid_South" title="Solid South">Solid South</a> of white Democrats voted as a bloc against it or used the filibuster in the Senate to block passage. Because of disenfranchisement, African Americans in the South were unable to elect representatives of their choice to office. The NAACP regularly displayed <a href="/wiki/A_man_was_lynched_yesterday_flag" title="A man was lynched yesterday flag">a black flag stating "A Man Was Lynched Yesterday"</a> from the window of its offices in New York to mark each lynching.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It organized the first of the two <a href="/wiki/1935_New_York_anti-lynching_exhibitions" title="1935 New York anti-lynching exhibitions">1935 New York anti-lynching exhibitions</a> in support of the <a href="/wiki/Costigan-Wagner_Bill" class="mw-redirect" title="Costigan-Wagner Bill">Costigan-Wagner Bill</a>, having previously widely published an account of the <a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Henry_Lowry" title="Lynching of Henry Lowry">Lynching of Henry Lowry</a>, as <i>An American Lynching</i>, in support of the <a href="/wiki/Dyer_Anti-Lynching_Bill" title="Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill">Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill</a>. </p><p>In alliance with the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a>, the NAACP led the successful fight to prevent the nomination of <a href="/wiki/John_J._Parker" title="John J. Parker">John Johnston Parker</a> to the Supreme Court, based on his support for denying the vote to blacks and his anti-labor rulings. It organized legal support for the <a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys" title="Scottsboro Boys">Scottsboro Boys</a>. The NAACP lost most of the internecine battles with the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Labor_Defense" title="International Labor Defense">International Labor Defense</a> over the control of those cases and the legal strategy to be pursued in that case. </p><p>The organization also brought litigation to challenge the "<a href="/wiki/White_primary" title="White primary">white primary</a>" system in the South. Southern state Democratic parties had created white-only primaries as another way of barring blacks from the political process. Since the Democrats dominated southern states, the primaries were the only competitive contests. In 1944 in <i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Allwright" title="Smith v. Allwright">Smith v. Allwright</a></i>, the Supreme Court ruled against the white primary. Although states had to retract legislation related to the white primaries, the legislatures soon came up with new methods to severely limit the franchise for blacks. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Red_Scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Red Scare">Second Red Scare</a> the NAACP was often linked to Communism by right-wing politicians. The <a href="/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee" title="House Un-American Activities Committee">House Un-American Activities Committee</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Subcommittee_on_Internal_Security" title="United States Senate Subcommittee on Internal Security">United States Senate Subcommittee on Internal Security</a>, and security agencies sought to prove to the NAACP had been infiltrated by Communists. To distance themselves from these accusations, the NAACP purged suspected Communists from its membership, according to the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a>'s website.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_Defense_Fund">Legal Defense Fund</h3></div> <p>The board of directors of the NAACP created the <a href="/wiki/NAACP_Legal_Defense_and_Educational_Fund" title="NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund">Legal Defense Fund</a> in 1939 specifically for tax purposes. It functioned as the NAACP legal department. Intimidated by the Department of the Treasury and the Internal Revenue Service, the Legal and Educational Defense Fund, Inc., became a separate legal entity in 1957, although it was clear that it was to operate in accordance with NAACP policy. After 1961 serious disputes emerged between the two organizations, creating considerable confusion in the eyes and minds of the public.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Desegregation">Desegregation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_John_F._Kennedy_Meets_with_National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_(NAACP)_Group.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/President_John_F._Kennedy_Meets_with_National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_%28NAACP%29_Group.jpg/170px-President_John_F._Kennedy_Meets_with_National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_%28NAACP%29_Group.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/President_John_F._Kennedy_Meets_with_National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_%28NAACP%29_Group.jpg/255px-President_John_F._Kennedy_Meets_with_National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_%28NAACP%29_Group.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/President_John_F._Kennedy_Meets_with_National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_%28NAACP%29_Group.jpg/340px-President_John_F._Kennedy_Meets_with_National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_%28NAACP%29_Group.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="992" /></a><figcaption>NAACP representatives E. Franklin Jackson and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gill_Spottswood" title="Stephen Gill Spottswood">Stephen Gill Spottswood</a> meeting with <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">President Kennedy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> in 1961</figcaption></figure> <p>By the 1940s, the federal courts were amenable to lawsuits regarding constitutional rights, against which Congressional action was virtually impossible. With the rise of private corporate litigators such as the NAACP to bear the expense, civil suits became the pattern in modern civil rights litigation,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the public face of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>. The NAACP's Legal department, headed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hamilton_Houston" title="Charles Hamilton Houston">Charles Hamilton Houston</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>, undertook a campaign spanning several decades to bring about the reversal of the "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" doctrine announced by the Supreme Court's decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i>. </p><p>The NAACP's <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a> chapter, under president <a href="/wiki/Lillie_Mae_Carroll_Jackson" class="mw-redirect" title="Lillie Mae Carroll Jackson">Lillie Mae Carroll Jackson</a>, challenged segregation in Maryland state professional schools by supporting the 1935 <i><a href="/wiki/Murray_v._Pearson" title="Murray v. Pearson">Murray v. Pearson</a></i> case argued by Marshall. Houston's victory in <i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_ex_rel._Gaines_v._Canada" title="Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada">Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada</a></i> (1938) led to the formation of the Legal Defense Fund in 1939. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_(5_September_1963).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg/220px-Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg/330px-Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg/440px-Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4537" data-file-height="3006" /></a><figcaption>Locals viewing the bomb-damaged home of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Shores" title="Arthur Shores">Arthur Shores</a>, NAACP attorney, <a href="/wiki/Birmingham,_Alabama" title="Birmingham, Alabama">Birmingham</a>, Alabama, on September 5, 1963. The bomb exploded on September 4, the previous day, injuring Shores' wife.</figcaption></figure> <p>The campaign for desegregation culminated in a unanimous 1954 Supreme Court decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> that held state-sponsored segregation of public elementary schools was <a href="/wiki/Constitutionality" title="Constitutionality">unconstitutional</a>. Bolstered by that victory, the NAACP pushed for full desegregation throughout the South.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NAACP activists were excited about the judicial strategy. Starting on December 5, 1955, NAACP activists, including <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Nixon" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a>, its local president, and <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a>, who had served as the chapter's Secretary, helped organize a <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">bus boycott</a> in <a href="/wiki/Montgomery,_Alabama" title="Montgomery, Alabama">Montgomery</a>, Alabama. This was designed to protest segregation on the city's buses, two-thirds of whose riders were black. The boycott lasted 381 days.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1956 the South Carolina legislature created an anti-NAACP oath, and teachers who refused to take the oath lost their positions. After twenty-one Black teachers at the Elloree Training School refused to comply, White school officials dismissed them. Their dismissal led to Bryan v. Austin in 1957, which became an important civil rights case.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Alabama, the state responded by effectively barring the NAACP from operating within its borders because of its refusal to divulge a list of its members. The NAACP feared members could be fired or face violent retaliation for their activities. Although the Supreme Court eventually overturned the state's action in <i><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Alabama" title="NAACP v. Alabama">NAACP v. Alabama</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_357" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 357">357</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/357/449/">449</a> (1958), the NAACP lost its leadership role in the Civil Rights Movement while it was barred from Alabama. </p><p>New organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC, in 1957) and the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> (SNCC, in 1960) rose up with different approaches to activism. Rather than relying on litigation and legislation, these newer groups employed direct action and mass mobilization to advance the rights of African Americans. <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a>, NAACP's executive director, clashed repeatedly with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> and other civil rights leaders over questions of strategy and leadership within the movement. </p><p>The NAACP continued to use the Supreme Court's decision in <i>Brown</i> to press for desegregation of schools and public facilities throughout the country. <a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(civil_rights_activist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Daisy Bates (civil rights activist)">Daisy Bates</a>, president of its Arkansas state chapter, spearheaded the campaign by the <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> to <a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">integrate</a> the public schools in <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock,_Arkansas" title="Little Rock, Arkansas">Little Rock</a>, Arkansas.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the mid-1960s, the NAACP had regained some of its prominence in the Civil Rights Movement by pressing for civil rights legislation. The <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a> took place on August 28, 1963. That fall, President John F. Kennedy sent a civil rights bill to Congress before he was assassinated. </p><p>President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> worked hard to persuade Congress to pass a civil rights bill aimed at ending racial discrimination in employment, education and public accommodations, and succeeded in gaining passage in July 1964. He followed that with passage of the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>, which provided for protection of the franchise, with a role for federal oversight and administrators in places where voter turnout was historically low. </p><p>Under its anti-desegregation director <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a>, the <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a>'s <a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a> program targeted civil rights groups, including the NAACP, for infiltration, disruption and discreditation.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kivie_Kaplan" title="Kivie Kaplan">Kivie Kaplan</a> became NAACP President in 1966. After his death in 1975, scientist <a href="/wiki/W._Montague_Cobb" class="mw-redirect" title="W. Montague Cobb">W. Montague Cobb</a> took over until 1982. <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a> retired as executive director in 1977, and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hooks" title="Benjamin Hooks">Benjamin Hooks</a>, a lawyer and clergyman, was elected his successor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_1990s">The 1990s</h3></div> <p>In the 1990s, the NAACP ran into debt. The dismissal of two leading officials further added to the picture of an organization in deep crisis. After such, <a href="/wiki/Rupert_Richardson" title="Rupert Richardson">Rupert Richardson</a> began her term as president of the NAACP in 1992. </p><p>In 1993, the NAACP's Board of Directors narrowly selected Reverend <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Chavis" title="Benjamin Chavis">Benjamin Chavis</a> over Reverend <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a> to fill the position of executive director. A controversial figure, Chavis was ousted eighteen months later by the same board. They accused him of using NAACP funds for an out-of-court settlement in a sexual harassment lawsuit.<sup id="cite_ref-Marable_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marable-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the dismissal of Chavis, <a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a> narrowly defeated NAACP chairperson <a href="/wiki/William_Gibson_(NAACP)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Gibson (NAACP)">William Gibson</a> for president in 1995, after Gibson was accused of overspending and mismanagement of the organization's funds. </p><p>In 1996, Congressman <a href="/wiki/Kweisi_Mfume" title="Kweisi Mfume">Kweisi Mfume</a>, a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Democratic Party">Democratic</a> Congressman from Maryland and former head of the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a>, was named the organization's president. Three years later strained finances forced the organization to drastically cut its staff, from 250 in 1992 to 50. </p><p>In the second half of the 1990s, the organization restored its finances, permitting the NAACP National Voter Fund to launch a major get-out-the-vote offensive in the <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000 U.S. presidential elections</a>. 10.5 million African Americans cast their ballots in the election; this was one million more than four years before.<sup id="cite_ref-Marable_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marable-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NAACP's effort was credited by observers as playing a significant role in Democrat <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a>'s winning several states where the election was close, such as <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> and Michigan.<sup id="cite_ref-Marable_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marable-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lee_Alcorn_controversy">Lee Alcorn controversy</h3></div> <p>During the 2000 presidential election, <a href="/wiki/Lee_Alcorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee Alcorn">Lee Alcorn</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/Dallas" title="Dallas">Dallas</a> NAACP branch, criticized Al Gore's selection of Senator <a href="/wiki/Joe_Lieberman" title="Joe Lieberman">Joe Lieberman</a> for his vice-presidential candidate because Lieberman was Jewish. On a gospel talk radio show on station <a href="/wiki/KHVN" title="KHVN">KHVN</a>, Alcorn stated, "If we get a Jew person, then what I'm wondering is, I mean, what is this movement for, you know? Does it have anything to do with the <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_process#1996–99_agreements" title="Israeli–Palestinian peace process">failed peace talks</a>? ... So I think we need to be very suspicious of any kind of partnerships between the Jews at that kind of level because we know that their interest primarily has to do with money and these kind of things."<sup id="cite_ref-CBS1_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBS1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> NAACP President Kweisi Mfume immediately suspended Alcorn and condemned his remarks. Mfume stated,</p><blockquote><p>I strongly condemn those remarks. I find them to be repulsive, anti-Semitic, anti-NAACP and anti-American. Mr. Alcorn does not speak for the NAACP, its board, its staff or its membership. We are proud of our long-standing relationship with the <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">Jewish community</a> and I personally will not tolerate statements that run counter to the history and beliefs of the NAACP in that regard.<sup id="cite_ref-CBS1_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBS1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Alcorn, who had been suspended three times in the previous five years for misconduct, subsequently resigned from the NAACP. He founded what he called the Coalition for the Advancement of Civil Rights. Alcorn criticized the NAACP, saying, "I can't support the leadership of the NAACP. Large amounts of money are being given to them by large corporations with which I have a problem."<sup id="cite_ref-CBS1_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBS1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alcorn also said, "I cannot be bought. For this reason I gladly offer my resignation and my membership to the NAACP because I cannot work under these constraints."<sup id="cite_ref-CNN1_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alcorn's remarks were also condemned by <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a>, Jewish groups and George W. Bush's rival Republican presidential campaign. Jackson said he strongly supported Lieberman's addition to the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> ticket, saying, "When we live our faith, we live under the law. He [Lieberman] is a firewall of exemplary behavior."<sup id="cite_ref-CBS1_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBS1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a>, another prominent African-American leader, said, "The appointment of Mr. Lieberman was to be welcomed as a positive step."<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian1_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The leaders of the <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Congress" title="American Jewish Congress">American Jewish Congress</a> praised the NAACP for its quick response, stating that: "It will take more than one bigot like Alcorn to shake the sense of fellowship of <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">American Jews</a> with the NAACP and black America ... Our common concerns are too urgent, our history too long, our connection too sturdy, to let anything like this disturb our relationship."<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="George_W._Bush">George W. Bush</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jena_63.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Jena_63.jpg/170px-Jena_63.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Jena_63.jpg/255px-Jena_63.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Jena_63.jpg 2x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Louisiana NAACP leads Jena March 6</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2004, President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> declined an invitation to speak to the NAACP's national convention.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bush's spokesperson said that Bush had declined the invitation to speak to the NAACP because of harsh statements about him by its leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-allen_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an interview, Bush said, "I would describe my relationship with the current leadership as basically nonexistent. You've heard the rhetoric and the names they've called me."<sup id="cite_ref-allen_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bush said he admired some members of the NAACP and would seek to work with them "in other ways".<sup id="cite_ref-allen_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 20, 2006, Bush addressed the NAACP national convention. He made a bid for increasing support by African Americans for Republicans, in the midst of a <a href="/wiki/2006_United_States_elections" title="2006 United States elections">midterm election</a>. He referred to Republican Party support for civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tax_exempt_status">Tax exempt status</h3></div> <p>In October 2004, the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service" title="Internal Revenue Service">Internal Revenue Service</a> informed the NAACP that it was investigating its tax-exempt status based on chairman <a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a>'s speech at its 2004 Convention, in which he criticized President George W. Bush as well as other political figures.<sup id="cite_ref-janofsky_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-janofsky-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the US <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code" title="Internal Revenue Code">Internal Revenue Code</a> prohibits organizations granted <a href="/wiki/Tax-exempt" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax-exempt">tax-exempt</a> status from "directly or indirectly participating in, or intervening in, any political campaign on behalf of (or in opposition to) any candidate for elective public office."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NAACP denounced the investigation as retaliation for its success in increasing the number of African Americans who were voting.<sup id="cite_ref-janofsky_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-janofsky-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In August 2006, the IRS investigation concluded with the agency's finding "that the remarks did not violate the group's tax-exempt status."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="LGBT_rights">LGBT rights</h3></div> <p>As the American LGBT rights movement gained steam after the <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a> of 1969, the NAACP became increasingly affected by the movement to gain rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people. While chairman of the NAACP, Bond became an outspoken supporter of the rights of gays and lesbians and stated his support for <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">same-sex marriage</a>. He boycotted the 2006 funeral services for <a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a>, as he said the King children had chosen an anti-gay megachurch. This was in contradiction to their mother's longstanding support for the rights of gay and lesbian people.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 2005 speech in <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond, Virginia</a>, Bond said: </p> <dl><dd>African Americans ... were the only Americans who were enslaved for two centuries, but we were far from the only Americans suffering discrimination then and now. ... Sexual disposition parallels race. I was born this way. I have no choice. I wouldn't change it if I could. Sexuality is unchangeable.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>In a 2007 speech on the Martin Luther King Day Celebration at <a href="/wiki/Clayton_State_University" title="Clayton State University">Clayton State University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Morrow,_Georgia" title="Morrow, Georgia">Morrow, Georgia</a>, Bond said, "If you don't like gay marriage, don't get gay married." His positions have pitted elements of the NAACP against religious groups in the civil rights movement who oppose gay marriage, mostly within the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC). The NAACP became increasingly vocal in opposition against state-level constitutional amendments to ban same-sex marriage and related rights. State NAACP leaders such as <a href="/wiki/William_Barber_II" title="William Barber II">William J. Barber II</a> of North Carolina participated actively against <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Amendment_1" title="North Carolina Amendment 1">North Carolina Amendment 1</a> in 2012, but voters passed it. </p><p>On May 19, 2012, the NAACP's board of directors formally endorsed same-sex marriage as a civil right, voting 62–2 for the policy in a <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a>, Florida quarterly meeting.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benjamin Jealous, the organization's president, said of the decision, "Civil marriage is a civil right and a matter of civil law. ... The NAACP's support for marriage equality is deeply rooted in the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a> of the United States Constitution and equal protection of all people." Possibly significant in the NAACP's vote was its concern with the <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_the_United_States" title="HIV/AIDS in the United States">HIV/AIDS crisis</a> in the black community; while AIDS support organizations recommend that people live a monogamous lifestyle, the government did not recognize same-sex relationships as part of this.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of this endorsement, Keith Ratliff Sr. of <a href="/wiki/Des_Moines,_Iowa" title="Des Moines, Iowa">Des Moines</a>, Iowa, resigned from the NAACP board.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Travel_warning_regarding_Missouri">Travel warning regarding Missouri</h3></div> <p>On June 7, 2017, the NAACP issued a warning for African-American travelers to <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>: </p> <blockquote> <p>Individuals traveling in the state are advised to travel with extreme CAUTION. Race, gender and color based crimes have a long history in Missouri. Missouri, home of <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gaines" class="mw-redirect" title="Lloyd Gaines">Lloyd Gaines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scot" class="mw-redirect" title="Dred Scot">Dred Scott</a> and the dubious distinction of the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a> and one of the last states to lose its slaveholding past, may not be safe. ... [Missouri Senate Bill] SB 43 legalizes individual discrimination and harassment in Missouri and would prevent individuals from protecting themselves from discrimination, harassment, and retaliation in Missouri. </p><p> Moreover, over-zealous enforcement of routine traffic violations in Missouri against African Americans has resulted in an increasing trend that shows African Americans are 75% more likely to be stopped than Caucasians.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Missouri NAACP Conference president Rod Chapel Jr., suggested that visitors to Missouri "should have <a href="/wiki/Bail_in_the_United_States" title="Bail in the United States">bail</a> money."<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Censorship">Censorship</h3></div> <p>The NAACP led protests of the 1915 film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019 the NAACP called for a ban of all <a href="/wiki/Dr._Seuss" title="Dr. Seuss">Dr. Seuss</a> books from public schools and libraries citing discriminatory depictions of Blacks, Jews, Indigenous peoples, Muslims, and Asians.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2023 the group sued to block a book from being banned from school libraries.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Travel_warning_regarding_Florida">Travel warning regarding Florida</h3></div> <p>In May 2023 in response to new laws targeting people of color and <a href="/wiki/LGBT" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT">LGBTQ+</a> individuals, the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a>, the NAACP, the <a href="/wiki/League_of_United_Latin_American_Citizens" title="League of United Latin American Citizens">League of United Latin American Citizens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Equality_Florida" title="Equality Florida">Equality Florida</a> issued travel advisories for visitors to Florida.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Under its current Governor, the State of Florida has engaged in an all-out attack on Black Americans, accurate Black history, voting rights, members of the LGBTQ+community, immigrants, women's reproductive rights, and free speech, while simultaneously embracing a culture of fear, bullying, and intimidation by public officials. In his effort to rewrite American history to exclude the voices, contributions of African Americans and the challenges they overcame despite the systemic racism that African Americans have faced since first arriving in this country, Governor DeSantis has signed various controversial anti-civil rights measures into law; including the Combatting Violence, Disorder and Looting and Law Enforcement Protection Act Florida HB 1, <a href="/wiki/Stop_WOKE_Act" title="Stop WOKE Act">Stop Wrongs against Our Kids and Employees Act ("Stop W.O.K.E. Act") Florida HB 7</a>, Constitutional Carry Act Florida House HB 543, Florida Senate Bill 266, and Florida Senate Bill 7066.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_branch_impact">Local branch impact</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:NAACP##" title="Talk:NAACP">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NAACP&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22NAACP%22">"NAACP"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22NAACP%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22NAACP%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22NAACP%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22NAACP%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22NAACP%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <span class="anonymous-show"><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3ANAACP&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+23+November+2024&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=NAACP">making an edit request</a></span></span><span class="user-show"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NAACP&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> </span>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The organization's national initiatives, political lobbying, and publicity efforts were handled by the headquarters staff in New York and Washington, D.C. Court strategies were developed by the legal team based for many years at <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-History_and_Geography_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_and_Geography-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>NAACP local branches have also been important. When, in its early years, the national office launched campaigns against <i>The Birth of a Nation</i>, it was the local branches that carried out the boycotts. When the organization fought to expose and outlaw lynching, the branches carried the campaign into hundreds of communities. And while the Legal Defense Fund developed a federal court strategy of legal challenges to segregation, many branches fought discrimination using state laws and local political opportunities, sometimes winning important victories.<sup id="cite_ref-History_and_Geography_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_and_Geography-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those victories were mostly achieved in Northern and Western states before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. When the Southern civil rights movement gained momentum in the 1940s and 1950s, credit went both to the Legal Defense Fund attorneys and to the massive network of local branches that <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a> and other organizers had spread across the region.<sup id="cite_ref-History_and_Geography_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_and_Geography-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Local organizations built a culture of black political activism.<sup id="cite_ref-History_and_Geography_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_and_Geography-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_activities">Current activities</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:From_left_to_right,_Benjamin_T._Jealous,_president_and_CEO_of_the_National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_(NAACP),_former_president_William_%22Bill%22_Clinton_and_Myrlie_Evers-Williams,_chairman_130605-A-WP504-047.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/From_left_to_right%2C_Benjamin_T._Jealous%2C_president_and_CEO_of_the_National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_%28NAACP%29%2C_former_president_William_%22Bill%22_Clinton_and_Myrlie_Evers-Williams%2C_chairman_130605-A-WP504-047.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/From_left_to_right%2C_Benjamin_T._Jealous%2C_president_and_CEO_of_the_National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_%28NAACP%29%2C_former_president_William_%22Bill%22_Clinton_and_Myrlie_Evers-Williams%2C_chairman_130605-A-WP504-047.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/From_left_to_right%2C_Benjamin_T._Jealous%2C_president_and_CEO_of_the_National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_%28NAACP%29%2C_former_president_William_%22Bill%22_Clinton_and_Myrlie_Evers-Williams%2C_chairman_130605-A-WP504-047.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2060" data-file-height="1371" /></a><figcaption>NAACP President and CEO <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Jealous" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Jealous">Benjamin Jealous</a> and former president <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a> wreath-laying ceremony in Arlington, June 5, 2013</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Youth">Youth</h3></div> <p>Youth sections of the NAACP were established in 1936; there are now more than 600 groups with a total of more than 30,000 individuals in this category. The NAACP Youth & College Division is a branch of the NAACP in which youth are actively involved. The Youth Council is composed of hundreds of state, county, high school and college operations where youth (and college students) volunteer to share their opinions with their peers and address local and national issues. Sometimes volunteer work expands to a more international scale. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Youth_and_College_Division">Youth and College Division</h4></div> <p>"The mission of the NAACP Youth & College Division shall be to inform youth of the problems affecting African Americans and other racial and ethnic minorities; to advance the economic, education, social and political status of African Americans and other racial and ethnic minorities and their harmonious cooperation with other peoples; to stimulate an appreciation of the African Diaspora and other African Americans' contribution to civilization; and to develop an intelligent, militant effective youth leadership."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ACT-SO_program">ACT-SO program</h4></div> <p>Since 1978, the NAACP has sponsored the <a href="/wiki/Afro-Academic,_Cultural,_Technological_and_Scientific_Olympics" title="Afro-Academic, Cultural, Technological and Scientific Olympics">Afro-Academic, Cultural, Technological and Scientific Olympics</a> (ACT-SO) program for high school youth around the United States. The program is designed to recognize and award African-American youth who demonstrate accomplishment in academics, technology, and the arts. Local chapters sponsor competitions in various categories for young people in grades 9–12. Winners of the local competitions are eligible to proceed to the national event at a convention held each summer at locations around the United States. Winners at the national competition receive national recognition, along with cash awards and various prizes.<sup id="cite_ref-actso1_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-actso1-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_justice">Environmental justice</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a> group at NAACP has 11 full-time staff members. In April 2019, the NAACP published a report outlining the tactics used by the fossil fuel industry. The report claims that "Fossil fuel companies target the NAACP for manipulation and co-optation."<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NAACP has been concerned about the influence of utilities which have contributed massive amounts of money to NAACP chapters in return for chapter support of non-environmentally friendly goals of utilities. In response, the NAACP has been working with its chapters to encourage them to support environmentally sound policies.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Headquarters">Headquarters</h4></div> <p>On June 29, 2020, <a href="/wiki/WTOP-FM" title="WTOP-FM">WTOP-FM</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> news radio station, reported that the NAACP intended to relocate its national headquarters from its longtime home in Baltimore to the Franklin D. Reeves Center of Municipal Affairs, a building owned by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Government of the District of Columbia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> located at <a href="/wiki/U_Street_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="U Street (Washington, D.C.)">U</a> and <a href="/wiki/14th_Street_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="14th Street (Washington, D.C.)">14th Streets</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northwest_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Northwest (Washington, D.C.)">Northwest</a> <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Derrick Johnson, the NAACP's president and CEO, emphasized that the organization will be better able to engage in and influence change in D.C. than in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_convention">National convention</h2></div> <p>The NAACP's national convention has been held annually in the following cities: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>1909: New York City</li> <li>1910: New York City</li> <li>1928: Los Angeles</li> <li>1929: Cleveland</li> <li>1954: Dallas</li> <li>1980: Miami Beach, Florida</li> <li>1981: Denver</li> <li>1982: Boston</li> <li>1983: New Orleans</li> <li>1984: Kansas City, Missouri</li> <li>1985: Dallas</li> <li>1986: Baltimore</li> <li>1987: New York City</li> <li>1988: Washington, D.C.</li> <li>1989: Detroit</li> <li>1990: Los Angeles</li> <li>1991: Houston</li> <li>1992: Nashville, Tennessee</li> <li>1993: Indianapolis</li> <li>1994: Chicago</li> <li>1995: Minneapolis</li> <li>1996: Charlotte, North Carolina</li> <li>1997: Pittsburgh</li> <li>1998: Atlanta</li> <li>1999: New York City</li> <li>2000: Baltimore</li> <li>2001: New Orleans</li> <li>2002: Houston</li> <li>2003: Miami</li> <li>2004: Philadelphia</li> <li>2005: Milwaukee</li> <li>2006: Washington, D.C.</li> <li>2007: Detroit</li> <li>2008: Cincinnati</li> <li>2009: New York City</li> <li>2010: Kansas City, Missouri</li> <li>2011: Los Angeles</li> <li>2012: Houston</li> <li>2013: Orlando, Florida</li> <li>2014: Baltimore</li> <li>2015: Philadelphia</li> <li>2016: Cincinnati</li> <li>2017: Baltimore</li> <li>2018: San Antonio</li> <li>2019: Detroit</li> <li>2020: Virtually</li> <li>2021: Virtually</li> <li>2022: Atlantic City, New Jersey</li> <li>2023: Boston</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards">Awards</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Image_Awards" title="NAACP Image Awards">NAACP Image Awards</a> – honoring African-American achievements in film, television, music, and literature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Theatre_Awards" title="NAACP Theatre Awards">NAACP Theatre Awards</a> – honoring African-American achievements in theatre productions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal</a> – honoring general African-American achievements</li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thalheimer_Award_Programs_-_2022_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Thalheimer_Award_Programs_-_2022_%282%29.jpg/220px-Thalheimer_Award_Programs_-_2022_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Thalheimer_Award_Programs_-_2022_%282%29.jpg/330px-Thalheimer_Award_Programs_-_2022_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Thalheimer_Award_Programs_-_2022_%282%29.jpg/440px-Thalheimer_Award_Programs_-_2022_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2341" data-file-height="1707" /></a><figcaption>Dayton (OH) NAACP President <a href="/wiki/Derrick_L._Foward" title="Derrick L. Foward">Derrick L. Foward</a> Receives Thalheimer Award for Programs in Atlantic City, New Jersey in July 2022</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thalheimer_Award_Publications_-_2022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Thalheimer_Award_Publications_-_2022.jpg/220px-Thalheimer_Award_Publications_-_2022.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Thalheimer_Award_Publications_-_2022.jpg/330px-Thalheimer_Award_Publications_-_2022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Thalheimer_Award_Publications_-_2022.jpg/440px-Thalheimer_Award_Publications_-_2022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3641" data-file-height="2487" /></a><figcaption>Dayton (OH) NAACP President <a href="/wiki/Derrick_L._Foward" title="Derrick L. Foward">Derrick L. Foward</a> Receives Thalheimer Award for Publications in Atlantic City, New Jersey in July 2022</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Thalheimer_Award" title="Thalheimer Award">Thalheimer Award</a> – for achievements by NAACP branches and chapters</li> <li>Montague Cobb Award – honoring African-American achievements in the field of health</li> <li>Nathaniel Jones Award for Public Service – first awarded to public servants in 2018</li> <li>Foot Soldier In the Sands Award – awarded to attorneys who have contributed legal expertise to the NAACP on a pro bono basis</li> <li>Juanita Jackson Mitchell Award for Legal Activism – awarded to an NAACP unit for "exemplary legal redress committee activities"</li> <li>William Robert Ming Advocacy Award – awarded to lawyers who exemplify personal and financial sacrifice for human equality</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Althea_T._L._Simmons" title="Althea T. L. Simmons">Althea T. L. Simmons</a>, NAACP attorney</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Better_Housing_Association" title="Chicago Better Housing Association">Chicago Better Housing Association</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a></i>, official magazine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Independent_Political_League" title="National Independent Political League">National Independent Political League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_New_Orleans_Branch" title="NAACP New Orleans Branch">NAACP New Orleans Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Theatre_Award_%E2%80%93_President%27s_Award" title="NAACP Theatre Award – President's Award">NAACP Theatre Award – President's Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">NAACP is usually pronounced "N double-A C P."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.naacp.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/NAACP2016AnnualReportWEB.pdf">NAACP2016AnnualReport</a> <i>naacp.org</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140808054436/http://www.naacp.org/press/entry/naacp-passes-resolution-supporting-strong-clean-air-act">Archived</a> August 8, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.charitynavigator.org/ein/131084135">"Charity Navigator – Rating for NAACP Empowerment Programs, Inc"</a>. <i>www.charitynavigator.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210821161918/https://www.charitynavigator.org/ein/131084135">Archived</a> from the original on August 21, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 21,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.charitynavigator.org&rft.atitle=Charity+Navigator+%E2%80%93+Rating+for+NAACP+Empowerment+Programs%2C+Inc.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.charitynavigator.org%2Fein%2F131084135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/pronunciation/english/naacp">"NAACP"</a>. <i>Cambridge Dictionary</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 22,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Dictionary&rft.atitle=NAACP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fus%2Fpronunciation%2Fenglish%2Fnaacp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/National-Association-for-the-Advancement-of-Colored-People">"National Association for the Advancement of Colored People | History"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430172425/https://www.britannica.com/topic/National-Association-for-the-Advancement-of-Colored-People">Archived</a> from the original on April 30, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 15,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=National+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Colored+People+%7C+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FNational-Association-for-the-Advancement-of-Colored-People&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kwame Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds. <i>Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience</i>, in articles "Civil Rights Movement" by Patricia Sullivan (pp 441–455) and "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" by Kate Tuttle (pp 1,388–1,391). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-00071-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-00071-1">0-465-00071-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoer2024" class="citation magazine cs1">Foer, Franklin (March 4, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2024/04/us-anti-semitism-jewish-american-safety/677469/">"The Golden Age of American Jews is Ending"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Golden+Age+of+American+Jews+is+Ending&rft.date=2024-03-04&rft.aulast=Foer&rft.aufirst=Franklin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2024%2F04%2Fus-anti-semitism-jewish-american-safety%2F677469%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-History_and_Geography-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-History_and_Geography_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-History_and_Geography_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-History_and_Geography_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-History_and_Geography_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-History_and_Geography_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depts.washington.edu/moves/NAACP_intro.shtml">"NAACP History and Geography"</a>. <i>Mapping American Social Movements Through the 20th Century</i>. University of Washington. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170510072048/http://depts.washington.edu/moves/NAACP_intro.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on May 10, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Caucus&rft.atitle=N.A.A.C.P.+Endorses+Same-Sex+Marriage&rft.date=2012-05-19&rft.aulast=Barbaro&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F05%2F19%2Fn-a-a-c-p-endorses-same-sex-marriage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120522160138/http://www.naacp.org/news/entry/naacp-passes-resolution-in-support-of-marriage-equality">"NAACP Passes Resolution in Support of Marriage Equality"</a>. NAACP. May 19, 2012. 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NPR (June 8, 2012). Retrieved on May 24, 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.monaacp.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/170605-NAACP-MO-Travel-Advisory.pdf">"National Association for the Advancement of Colored People"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225003952/http://www.monaacp.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/170605-NAACP-MO-Travel-Advisory.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on February 25, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Civil+rights+groups+warn+tourists+about+traveling+to+Florida&rft.date=2023-05-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2023%2F05%2F22%2F1177455149%2Fcivil-rights-groups-warn-tourists-about-traveling-to-florida&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchinson" class="citation web cs1">Hutchinson, Bill. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/naacp-issues-travel-advisory-alleging-florida-hostile-african/story?id=99492997">"NAACP issues travel advisory alleging, Florida 'hostile to African Americans'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/ABC_News_(United_States)" title="ABC News (United States)">ABC News</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230729043533/https://abcnews.go.com/US/naacp-issues-travel-advisory-alleging-florida-hostile-african/story?id=99492997">Archived</a> from the original on July 29, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 4,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=NAACP+issues+travel+advisory+alleging%2C+Florida+%27hostile+to+African+Americans%27&rft.aulast=Hutchinson&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FUS%2Fnaacp-issues-travel-advisory-alleging-florida-hostile-african%2Fstory%3Fid%3D99492997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/3-organized/naacp-legal-team.html">"A New Legal Team at the NAACP - Separate Is Not Equal"</a>. <i>americanhistory.si.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210514172645/https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/3-organized/naacp-legal-team.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 18,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=americanhistory.si.edu&rft.atitle=A+New+Legal+Team+at+the+NAACP+-+Separate+Is+Not+Equal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famericanhistory.si.edu%2Fbrown%2Fhistory%2F3-organized%2Fnaacp-legal-team.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.howard.edu/brownat50/BrownBios/BioCharlesHHouston.html">"Charles Hamilton Houston"</a>. <i>law.howard.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210825230507/http://law.howard.edu/brownat50/BrownBios/BioCharlesHHouston.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 25, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 25,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=law.howard.edu&rft.atitle=Charles+Hamilton+Houston&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw.howard.edu%2Fbrownat50%2FBrownBios%2FBioCharlesHHouston.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/03/03/the-birth-of-a-nation/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'The Birth of a Nation': The most racist movie ever made"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210905072712/https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/03/03/the-birth-of-a-nation/">Archived</a> from the original on September 5, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 18,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=%27The+Birth+of+a+Nation%27%3A+The+most+racist+movie+ever+made&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fposteverything%2Fwp%2F2015%2F03%2F03%2Fthe-birth-of-a-nation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.howard.edu/brownat50/brownChrono/BrownHistory.html">"Brown@50: Brief History of Brown Fifty Years Later"</a>. <i>law.howard.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201010085545/http://law.howard.edu/brownat50/brownChrono/BrownHistory.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 10, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 25,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=law.howard.edu&rft.atitle=Brown%4050%3A+Brief+History+of+Brown+Fifty+Years+Later&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw.howard.edu%2Fbrownat50%2FbrownChrono%2FBrownHistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ellabakercenter.org/who-was-ella-baker/">"Ella Baker Center for Human Rights Who Was Ella Baker?"</a>. <i>ellabakercenter.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191211144653/https://ellabakercenter.org/about/who-was-ella-baker">Archived</a> from the original on December 11, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 25,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ellabakercenter.org&rft.atitle=Ella+Baker+Center+for+Human+Rights+Who+Was+Ella+Baker%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fellabakercenter.org%2Fwho-was-ella-baker%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biography.com/activist/ella-baker">"Ella Baker"</a>. <i>Biography</i>. May 4, 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210525192839/https://www.biography.com/activist/ella-baker">Archived</a> from the original on May 25, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 25,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biography&rft.atitle=Ella+Baker&rft.date=2021-05-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biography.com%2Factivist%2Fella-baker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://naacp.org/youth-college/">youth-college</a> <i>naacp.org</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210502040758/https://naacp.org/youth-college/">Archived</a> May 2, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-actso1-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-actso1_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090204222812/http://www.naacp.org/news/press/2008-08-13/index.htm">"NAACP Proudly Announces 30th Anniversary ACT-SO Medalists"</a>. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naacp.org/news/press/2008-08-13/index.htm">the original</a> on February 4, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 31,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NAACP+Proudly+Announces+30th+Anniversary+ACT-SO+Medalists&rft.pub=National+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Colored+People&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naacp.org%2Fnews%2Fpress%2F2008-08-13%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://live-naacp-site.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Fossil-Fueled-Foolery-An-Illustrated-Primer-on-the-Top-10-Manipulation-Tactics-of-the-Fossil-Fuel-Industry-FINAL-1.pdf">"NAACP Fossil Fuels report"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200106045458/https://live-naacp-site.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Fossil-Fueled-Foolery-An-Illustrated-Primer-on-the-Top-10-Manipulation-Tactics-of-the-Fossil-Fuel-Industry-FINAL-1.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on January 6, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 6,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NAACP+Fossil+Fuels+report&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flive-naacp-site.pantheonsite.io%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F04%2FFossil-Fueled-Foolery-An-Illustrated-Primer-on-the-Top-10-Manipulation-Tactics-of-the-Fossil-Fuel-Industry-FINAL-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenn2020" class="citation news cs1">Penn, Ivan (January 5, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/05/business/energy-environment/naacp-utility-donations.html">"N.A.A.C.P. Tells Local Chapters: Don't Let Energy Industry Manipulate You"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200106000500/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/05/business/energy-environment/naacp-utility-donations.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 6, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 6,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=N.A.A.C.P.+Tells+Local+Chapters%3A+Don%27t+Let+Energy+Industry+Manipulate+You&rft.date=2020-01-05&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Penn&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2020%2F01%2F05%2Fbusiness%2Fenergy-environment%2Fnaacp-utility-donations.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taxpayerservicecenter.com/RP_Detail.jsp?ssl=0204%20%20%20%200844">District of Columbia Office of Tax and Revenue property information for the Franklin D. Reeves Center of Municipal Affairs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210926160202/https://www.taxpayerservicecenter.com/RP_Detail.jsp?ssl=0204%20%20%20%200844">Archived</a> September 26, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Retrieved November 9, 2020)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wtop.com/dc/2020/06/naacp-intends-to-move-national-hq-from-baltimore-to-dcs-u-street-corridor/">NAACP intends to move national headquarters from Baltimore to DC's U Street corridor</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201109232205/https://wtop.com/dc/2020/06/naacp-intends-to-move-national-hq-from-baltimore-to-dcs-u-street-corridor/">Archived</a> November 9, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Retrieved from WTOP Radio, Washington D.C. on November 9, 2020)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBooker2020" class="citation news cs1">Booker, Brakkton (June 30, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/live-updates-protests-for-racial-justice/2020/06/30/885191089/naacp-plans-to-move-its-headquarters-from-baltimore-to-washington-d-c">"NAACP Plans To Move Its Headquarters From Baltimore To Washington, D.C."</a> <i>NPR</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210506072811/https://www.npr.org/sections/live-updates-protests-for-racial-justice/2020/06/30/885191089/naacp-plans-to-move-its-headquarters-from-baltimore-to-washington-d-c">Archived</a> from the original on May 6, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 18,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=NAACP+Plans+To+Move+Its+Headquarters+From+Baltimore+To+Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.date=2020-06-30&rft.aulast=Booker&rft.aufirst=Brakkton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Flive-updates-protests-for-racial-justice%2F2020%2F06%2F30%2F885191089%2Fnaacp-plans-to-move-its-headquarters-from-baltimore-to-washington-d-c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>NAACP</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=NAACP">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=NAACP&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li>Alexander, Shawn Leigh. <i>An Army of Lions: The Civil Rights Struggle Before the NAACP</i>. (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Berg" title="Manfred Berg">Berg, Manfred</a>. <i>The Ticket to Freedom: The NAACP and the Struggle for Black Political Integration</i>. University Press of Florida, 2007.</li> <li>Browne-Marshall, Gloria J. <i>The Voting Rights War: The NAACP and the Ongoing Struggle for Justice</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2016.</li> <li>Bynum, Thomas L. <i>NAACP: Youth and the Fight for Black Freedom, 1936–1965</i>. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 2013.</li> <li>Carle, Susan D. <i>Defining the Struggle: National Racial Justice Organizing, 1880–1915</i> (Oxford University Press, 2013). 404pp. Focus on NAACP.</li> <li>Dalfiume, Richard. "The 'Forgotten Years' of the Negro Revolution". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of American History">Journal of American History</a></i> 55, 1 (June 1968): 99–100. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1894253">10.2307/1894253</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1894253">1894253</a>.</li> <li>Fleming, Cynthia Griggs. <i>In the Shadow of Selma: The Continuing Struggle for Civil Rights in the Rural South</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004.</li> <li>Francis, Megan Ming. 2014. "<a href="//doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139583749.002" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1017/CBO9781139583749.002">The Birth of the NAACP, Mob Violence, and the Challenge of Public Opinion</a>". <i>The Birth of the NAACP, Mob Violence, and the Challenge of Public Opinion</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Goings, Kenneth W. (1990). <i>The NAACP Comes of Age: The Defeat of Judge John J. Parker</i>.</li> <li>Hughes, Langston (1962). <i>Fight for Freedom: The Story of the NAACP</i>.</li> <li>Janken, Kenneth Robert. <i>White: The Biography of Walter White, Mr. NAACP</i>. New York: The New Press, 2003.</li> <li>Jonas, Gilbert S. <i>Freedom's Sword: The NAACP and the Struggle against Racism in America, 1909–1969</i>. London: Routledge, 2005.</li> <li>Kellogg, Charles Flint. <i>NAACP: A History of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</i>. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Levering_Lewis" title="David Levering Lewis">Lewis, David Levering</a>. <i>W.E.B. DuBois</i>. In two volumes (<a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois:_Biography_of_a_Race,_1868%E2%80%931919" title="W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919">1994</a>; <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois:_The_Fight_for_Equality_and_the_American_Century_1919%E2%80%931963" class="mw-redirect" title="W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century 1919–1963">2001</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMosnier2005" class="citation thesis cs1">Mosnier, Joseph L. (2005). <i>Crafting Law in the Second Reconstruction: Julius Chambers, the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, and Title VII</i> (PhD dissertation). University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70810152">70810152</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Crafting+Law+in+the+Second+Reconstruction%3A+Julius+Chambers%2C+the+NAACP+Legal+Defense+Fund%2C+and+Title+VII&rft.inst=University+of+North+Carolina+at+Chapel+Hill&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F70810152&rft.aulast=Mosnier&rft.aufirst=Joseph+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Murphy, Walter F. "The South Counterattacks: The Anti-NAACP Laws". <i>Western Political Quarterly</i> 12.2 (1959): 371–390. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/443977">443977</a>.</li> <li>Reed, Christopher Robert. <i>The Chicago NAACP and the Rise of Black Professional Leadership, 1910–1966</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1997.</li> <li>Ring, Natalie J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eas-ref.press.jhu.edu/view?aid=372">"National Association for the Advancement of Colored People"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of American Studies</i>, ed. Simon J. Bronner (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015).</li> <li>Ross, Barbara Joyce (1972). <i>J. E. Spingarn and the Rise of the NAACP, 1911–1939</i>.</li> <li>Ryan, Yvonne. <i>Roy Wilkins: The Quiet Revolutionary and the NAACP</i>. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2014.</li> <li>Sartain, Lee. <i>Borders of Equality: The NAACP and the Baltimore Civil Rights Struggle, 1914–1970</i>. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2013.</li> <li>Sartain, Lee. <i>Invisible Activists: Women of the Louisiana NAACP and the Struggle for Civil Rights, 1915–1945</i>. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. 2007.</li> <li>Schneider, Mark Robert. <i>We Return Fighting: The Civil Rights Movement in the Jazz Age</i>. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 2001.</li> <li>St. James, Warren D. (1958). <i>The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People: A Case Study in Pressure Groups</i>.</li> <li>Sullivan, Patricia. <i>Lift Every Voice: The NAACP and the Making of the Civil Rights Movement</i>. New York: The New Press, 2010.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2010" class="citation thesis cs1">Thompson, Christina M. (2010). <i>A More Perfect Union: Race, Rights, and Rhetoric in the NAACP and the White Citizens' Council</i> (MA thesis). Simmons College. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/754658741">754658741</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=A+More+Perfect+Union%3A+Race%2C+Rights%2C+and+Rhetoric+in+the+NAACP+and+the+White+Citizens%27+Council&rft.inst=Simmons+College&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F754658741&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Christina+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANAACP" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Topping, Simon (2004). <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'Supporting Our Friends and Defeating Our Enemies': Militancy and Nonpartisanship in the NAACP, 1936–1948". <i>Journal of African American History</i>, Vol. 89. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4134044">4134044</a>.</li> <li>Tushnet, Mark V. <i>The NAACP's Legal Strategy against Segregated Education, 1925–1950</i>. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987.</li> <li>Wedin, Carolyn. <i>Inheritors of the Spirit: Mary White Ovington and the Founding of the NAACP</i>. Wiley 1998.</li> <li>Woodley, Jenny. <i>Art for Equality: The NAACP's Cultural Campaign for Civil Rights</i>. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2014.</li> <li>Verney, Kevern, and Lee Sartain, eds. (2009). <i>Long Is the Way and Hard: One Hundred Years of the NAACP</i>.</li> <li>Zangrando, Robert. <i>The NAACP Crusade Against Lynching, 1909–1950</i>. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depts.washington.edu/moves/NAACP_intro.shtml">NAACP History and Geography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depts.washington.edu/moves/NAACP_map-basic.shtml">Map of NAACP branches</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a>, crmvet.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/national-association-advancement-colored-people-naacp">NAACP in Georgia</a>, georgiaencyclopedia.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.democracynow.org/2009/7/20/naacp_turns_100_the_history_and">NAACP Turns 100: The History and Future of the Nation's Oldest and Largest Civil Rights Organization</a>, democracynow.org video</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vault.fbi.gov/NAACP">FBI file on the NAACP</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:NAACP" title="Template:NAACP"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:NAACP" title="Template talk:NAACP"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:NAACP" title="Special:EditPage/Template:NAACP"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Executive Secretaries (1910–1964)<br />Executive Directors (1964–1996)<br />Presidents and CEOs (1996–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Blascoer" title="Frances Blascoer">Frances Blascoer</a> (1910–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a> (1911–1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_Childs_Nerney" title="May Childs Nerney">May Childs Nerney</a> (1912–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Freeman_Nash" title="Royal Freeman Nash">Royal Freeman Nash</a> (1916–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a> (1917–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_John_Shillady" title="Attack on John Shillady">John Shillady</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a> (1920–1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_White_(NAACP)" title="Walter White (NAACP)">Walter White</a> (1929–1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a> (1955–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hooks" title="Benjamin Hooks">Benjamin Hooks</a> (1977–1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Chavis" title="Benjamin Chavis">Benjamin Chavis</a> (1993–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Shinhoster" title="Earl Shinhoster">Earl Shinhoster</a> (1994–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kweisi_Mfume" title="Kweisi Mfume">Kweisi Mfume</a> (1996–2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Courtland_Hayes" title="Dennis Courtland Hayes">Dennis Courtland Hayes</a> (2004–2005, interim)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_S._Gordon" title="Bruce S. Gordon">Bruce S. Gordon</a> (2005–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Courtland_Hayes" title="Dennis Courtland Hayes">Dennis Courtland Hayes</a> (2007–2008, interim)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Jealous" title="Ben Jealous">Ben Jealous</a> (2008–2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Miller" title="Lorraine Miller">Lorraine Miller</a> (2013–2014, interim)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornell_William_Brooks" title="Cornell William Brooks">Cornell William Brooks</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derrick_Johnson_(activist)" title="Derrick Johnson (activist)">Derrick Johnson</a> (2017–present)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Presidents_(1909–1996)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidents (1909–1996)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moorfield_Storey" title="Moorfield Storey">Moorfield Storey</a> (1909–1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Elias_Spingarn" title="Joel Elias Spingarn">Joel Elias Spingarn</a> (1930–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._Spingarn" title="Arthur B. Spingarn">Arthur B. Spingarn</a> (1940–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kivie_Kaplan" title="Kivie Kaplan">Kivie Kaplan</a> (1966–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Montague_Cobb" title="William Montague Cobb">Montague Cobb</a> (1976–1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Kemp_(NAACP)" title="James Kemp (NAACP)">James Kemp</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enolia_McMillan" title="Enolia McMillan">Enolia McMillan</a> (1984–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazel_Dukes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazel Dukes">Hazel Dukes</a> (1990–1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert_Richardson" title="Rupert Richardson">Rupert Richardson</a> (1992–1996)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Board Chairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_English_Walling" title="William English Walling">English Walling</a> (1910–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Garrison_Villard" title="Oswald Garrison Villard">Oswald Garrison Villard</a> (1911–1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Elias_Spingarn" title="Joel Elias Spingarn">Joel Elias Spingarn</a> (1914–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a> (1919–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_T._Wright" title="Louis T. Wright">Louis T. Wright</a> (1934–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channing_Heggie_Tobias" title="Channing Heggie Tobias">Channing Heggie Tobias</a> (1953–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Weaver" title="Robert C. Weaver">Robert C. Weaver</a> (1960–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gill_Spottswood" title="Stephen Gill Spottswood">Stephen Gill Spottswood</a> (1961–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Bush_Wilson" title="Margaret Bush Wilson">Margaret Bush Wilson</a> (1975–1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Alexander_Sr." title="Kelly Alexander Sr.">Kelly Alexander Sr.</a> (1983–1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gibson_(NAACP_activist)" title="William Gibson (NAACP activist)">William Gibson</a> (1985–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a> (1995–1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a> (1998–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roslyn_Brock" title="Roslyn Brock">Roslyn Brock</a> (2010–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_W._Russell" title="Leon W. Russell">Leon W. Russell</a> (2017–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Theatre_Awards" title="NAACP Theatre Awards">NAACP Theatre Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Image_Awards" title="NAACP Image Awards">NAACP Image Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Legal_Defense_and_Educational_Fund" title="NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund">NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">NAACP Youth Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Academic,_Cultural,_Technological_and_Scientific_Olympics" title="Afro-Academic, Cultural, Technological and Scientific Olympics">Afro-Academic, Cultural, Technological and Scientific Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Committee" title="National Negro Committee">National Negro Committee</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events<br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Chestnut, Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement<br />songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom songs">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted<br />historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="W._E._B._Du_Bois" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="Template:W. E. B. Du Bois"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="Template talk:W. E. B. Du Bois"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="Special:EditPage/Template:W. E. B. Du Bois"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="W._E._B._Du_Bois" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois_Boyhood_Homesite" title="W.E.B. Du Bois Boyhood Homesite">W.E.B. Du Bois Boyhood Homesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Conference_of_Negro_Problems" title="Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems">Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Sociological_Laboratory" title="Atlanta Sociological Laboratory">Atlanta Sociological Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Exhibit_of_American_Negroes" title="The Exhibit of American Negroes">The Exhibit of American Negroes</a> (1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Pan-African_Conference" title="First Pan-African Conference">First Pan-African Conference</a> (1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">NAACP</a> (co-founder)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis"><i>The Crisis</i> magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Brownies%27_Book" title="The Brownies' Book"><i>The Brownies' Book</i> magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_(American_newspaper)" title="Freedom (American newspaper)"><i>Freedom</i> newspaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Congress" title="Pan-African Congress">Pan-African Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisk_University_protest" title="Fisk University protest">Fisk University protest</a> (1924–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Memorial_Centre_for_Pan_African_Culture" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Memorial Centre for Pan African Culture">W. E. B. Du Bois Memorial Centre for Pan African Culture</a> (home, burial site, and memorial)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talented_tenth" title="Talented tenth">Talented Tenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_line_(racism)" title="Color line (racism)">Color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_consciousness" title="Double consciousness">Double consciousness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Suppression_of_the_African_Slave-trade_to_the_United_States_of_America" title="The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America">The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America</a></i> (1894)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Study_of_the_Negro_Problems" title="The Study of the Negro Problems">The Study of the Negro Problems</a></i> (1898)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Negro" title="The Philadelphia Negro">The Philadelphia Negro</a></i> (1899)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" title="The Souls of Black Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_in_the_South" title="The Negro in the South">The Negro in the South</a></i> (1907)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(biography)" title="John Brown (biography)">John Brown</a></i> (1909)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro" title="The Negro">The Negro</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Darkwater:_Voices_from_Within_the_Veil" title="Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil">Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil</a></i> (1920)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Reconstruction_in_America" title="Black Reconstruction in America">Black Reconstruction in America</a></i> (1935)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dusk_of_Dawn" title="Dusk of Dawn">Dusk of Dawn</a></i> (1940)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Comet_(short_story)" title="The Comet (short story)">The Comet</a>" (1920)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dark_Princess" title="Dark Princess">Dark Princess</a></i> (1928)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Honors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Library" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Library">W. E. B. Du Bois Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois_Career_of_Distinguished_Scholarship_Award" title="W.E.B. Du Bois Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award">W.E.B. Du Bois Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Research_Institute" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Research Institute">W. E. B. Du Bois Research Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois" title="Shirley Graham Du Bois">Shirley Graham Du Bois</a> (second wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yolande_Du_Bois" title="Yolande Du Bois">Yolande Du Bois</a> (daughter)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Africana" title="Encyclopedia Africana">Encyclopedia Africana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Problem_(book)" title="The Negro Problem (book)">The Negro Problem</a></i> (1903 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois_Clubs_of_America" title="W.E.B. Du Bois Clubs of America">W.E.B. Du Bois Clubs of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q502044#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q502044#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q502044#identifiers" title="Edit this at 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/225491580">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/1047543-6">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80049704">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11994871d">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11994871d">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35373774">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=kn20080606005&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007265842605171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058615018206706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.moma.org/artists/45839">Museum of Modern Art</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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