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Though in his day he was best known as a physician, scholar, diplomat, and [[Catholic priest]], later he became better known as a [[satirist]] for his depictions of the [[grotesque]], and for his larger-than-life characters. Both [[wikt:ecclesiastical|ecclesiastical]] and [[Anti-clericalism|anticlerical]], [[Christian]] and a [[Freethought|freethinker]], a doctor and a ''[[wikt:bon vivant|bon vivant]]'', the multiple facets of his personality sometimes seem contradictory. Caught up in the religious and political turmoil of the [[Reformation]], Rabelais treated the great questions of his time in his novels. Assessments of his life and work have evolved over time depending on dominant paradigms of thought. Rabelais admired [[Erasmus]] and like him is considered a [[Christian humanism|Christian humanist]]. He was critical of medieval scholasticism, lampooning the abuses of powerful princes and popes, opposing them with Greco-Roman learning and popular culture. Rabelais is widely known for the first two volumes relating the childhoods of the giants [[Gargantua and Pantagruel]] written in the style of ''[[bildungsroman]]''; his later works—the ''Third Book'' (which prefigures the philosophical novel) and the ''Fourth Book'' are considerably more erudite in tone. His literary legacy is such that the word ''Rabelaisian'' designates something that is "marked by gross robust humor, extravagance of caricature, or bold naturalism".<ref>{{cite web|title=Rabelaisian|work=Merriam-Webster.com |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rabelaisian}}</ref> == Biography == ===Touraine countryside to monastic life=== According to a tradition dating back to [[Roger de Gaignières]] (1642–1715), François Rabelais was the son of [[seneschal]] and lawyer Antoine Rabelais{{sfn|''The Rabelais Encyclopedia''|p=xiii}} and was born at the estate of ''La Devinière'' in [[Seuilly]] (near [[Chinon]]), [[Touraine]] in modern-day [[Indre-et-Loire]], where a Rabelais museum can be found today.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|p=33–34}} The exact dates of his birth (c. 1483–1494) and death (1553) are unknown, but most scholars accept his likely birthdate as being 1483.{{efn|In 1905, [[Abel Lefranc]] proposed 1494 as his year of birth based on the fact that the fictional giant Gargantua was born on a [[Shrove Tuesday]] taking place around 3 February.{{sfn|Lefranc|1908|pp=265–270}} In a letter Rabelais wrote to [[Guillaume Budé]] around 1520, he calls himself an [[wikt:adulescens|adulescens]], a Latin term applying to a young man under thirty, but scholars note this may well be a mark of modesty when addressing an elder humanist.{{sfn|Rabelais|1994|p=993}} Researchers agree more on 1483, due to a copy of his epitaph indicating his death on April 9, 1553 at the age of 70.{{sfn|Lazard|2002|p=37}} The discovery of a notarial document relating to Rabelais' estate dated March 14, 1553 has led scholars to surmise that he was already dead by this date.{{sfn|Dupèbe|1985|pp=175–176}} A third hypothesis put forward by Claude Bougreau deduces from a study of the chapter 39 of the Third Book that he was born on May 5, 1489.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-04-13 |title=Claude Bougreau nous a quittés |url=https://www.lanouvellerepublique.fr/chinon/claude-bougreau-nous-a-quittes |access-date=2024-06-12 |work=La Nouvelle République |language=fr}}</ref>}} His education was likely typical of the late medieval period: beginning with the [[trivium]] syllabus that included the study of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic before moving on to the [[quadrivium]], which dealt with arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.{{sfn|Lazard|2002|p=38}} In 1623, Jacques Bruneau de Tartifume wrote that Rabelais began his life as a [[Novitiate|novice]] of the [[Order of Friars Minor#Cordeliers|Franciscan Order of Cordeliers]], at the Convent of the Cordeliers, near [[Angers]]; however there is no direct evidence to support this theory.<ref name="Demonet-2022">{{cite book|last=Demonet |first= Marie-Luce |chapter=Rabelais moinillon à la Baumette. Retour sur une hypothèse | title=Narrations fabuleuses. Mélanges en l'honneur de Mireille Huchon |editor-last1=Garnier |editor-first1=Isabelle |editor-last2=La Charité |editor-first2=Claude |quote=Qui sait si Tartifume, bon connaisseur du Gargantua, n'est pas parti du roman pour imaginer ce noviciat?| language=fr |location=Paris |publisher=Classiques Garnier |doi=10.48611/isbn.978-2-406-12714-7.p.0025 |date=2022 |pages=25–44}}</ref> By 1520, he was at [[Fontenay-le-Comte]] in [[Poitou]] where he became friends with Pierre Lamy, a fellow Franciscan, and corresponded with [[Guillaume Budé]], who observed that he was already competent in law.<ref name="Demonet-2022" /> Following [[Erasmus]]' commentary on the original Greek version of the ''[[Gospel of Luke]]'', the [[College of Sorbonne|Sorbonne]] banned the study of Greek in 1523,{{sfn|Boulenger|1978|p=xi}} believing that it encouraged "personal interpretation" of the New Testament.{{sfn|Demerson|1986|p=13}} As a result, both Lamy and Rabelais had their Greek books confiscated. Frustrated by the ban, Rabelais petitioned [[Pope Clement VII]] (1523–1534) and obtained an [[indult]] with the help of Bishop {{ill|Geoffroy d'Estissac|fr}}, and was able to leave the Franciscans for the [[Benedictines|Benedictine Order]] at [[Maillezais]].{{sfn|Boulenger|1978|p=xi}} At the Saint-Pierre-de-Maillezais abbey, he worked as a secretary to the bishop—a well-read [[prelate]] appointed by [[Francis I of France|Francis I]]—and enjoyed his protection.{{sfn|Lazard|2002|p=41}} ===Physician and author === [[File:Hotel-Dieu interior, Rabelais.jpg|thumb|Rabelais worked at the hospital [[Hôtel-Dieu de Lyon]] from 1532 to 1535.]] Around 1527 he left the monastery without authorization, becoming an [[apostasy|apostate]] until [[Pope Paul III]] absolved him of this crime, which carried with it the risk of severe sanctions, in 1536.<ref>{{Cite journal |language=fr |last=Lesellier |first= J. |title= L'absolution de Rabelais en cour de Rome ses circonstances. Ses résultats|journal=Humanisme et Renaissance |issue=3 |volume=3 |date=1936 |pages=237–270 |jstor=20673008 |quote=Les moines en rupture de ban se comptaient alors par milliers et, d'une façon générale, l'opinion ne se montrait nullement sévère à leur égard}}</ref> Until this time, [[church law]] forbade him to work as a doctor or surgeon.{{sfn|Demerson|1986|p=14}} J. Lesellier surmises that it was during the time he spent in Paris from 1528 to 1530 that two of his three children (François and Junie) were born.<ref name="Lesellier-1938">{{Cite journal |language=fr |last=Lesellier |first= J. |title= Deux enfants naturels de Rabelais légitimés par Paul III |journal=Humanisme et Renaissance |issue=4 |volume=5 |date=1938 |pages=549–570 |jstor=20673173 }}</ref> After Paris, Rabelais went to the [[University of Poitiers]] and then to the [[University of Montpellier]] to study medicine. In 1532 he moved to [[Lyon]], one of the intellectual centres of the Renaissance, and began working as a doctor at the hospital [[Hôtel-Dieu de Lyon]]. During his time in Lyon, he edited Latin works for the printer [[Sebastian Gryphius]], and wrote a famous admiring letter to Erasmus to accompany the transmission of a Greek manuscript from the printer. Gryphius published Rabelais' translations and annotations of [[Hippocrates]], [[Galen]] and [[Giovanni Manardo]].{{sfn|Boulenger|1978|p=xiii}} In 1537 he returned to Montpellier to pay the fees to obtain his licence to practice medicine (April 3) and obtained his doctorate the following month (May 22).{{sfn|Huchon|2011|p=242}} Upon his return to Lyon in the summer, he gave an anatomy lesson at Lyon's Hôtel-Dieu using the corpse of a hanged man,{{sfn|Boulenger|1978|p=xvii}} which [[Etienne Dolet]] described in his ''Carmina''.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|p=247}} It was through his work and scholarship in the field of medicine that Rabelais gained European fame.{{sfn|Demerson|1986|p=15}} In 1532, under the pseudonym '''Alcofribas Nasier''' (an [[anagram]] of François Rabelais), he published his first book, ''Pantagruel King of the Dipsodes'', the first of his [[Gargantua and Pantagruel|''Gargantua'' series]], primarily to supplement his income at the hospital.{{sfn|Boulenger|1978|pp=xiii, xv}} The idea of basing an allegory on the lives of giants came to Rabelais from the folklore legend of ''les Grandes chroniques du grand et énorme géant Gargantua'', which were sold by [[colportage|colporteurs]] and at the {{ill|fairs of Lyon|fr|foires de Lyon}} as popular literature in the form of inexpensive pamphlets.{{sfn|Boulenger|1978|p=xiii}} The first edition of an almanac parodying the astrological predictions of the time called ''Pantagrueline prognostications'' appeared for the year 1533 from the press of Rabelais' publisher François Juste. It contained the name "Maître Alcofribas" in its full title. The popular almanacs continued irregularly until the final 1542 edition, which was prepared for the "perpetual year". From 1537, they were printed at the end of Juste's editions of ''Pantagruel''.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|pp=164–165}} Pantagruelism is an "eat, drink and be merry" philosophy, which led his books into disfavor with the theologians but brought them popular success and the admiration of later critics for their focus on the body. This first book, critical of the existing monastic and educational system, contains the first known occurrence in French of the words [[Encyclopedia|''encyclopédie'']], [[Kaballah|''caballe'']], ''progrès,'' and [[Utopia|''utopie'']], among others.<ref>{{cite book| last=Huchon| first=Mireille | chapter= Pantagruelistes et mercuriens lyonnais |title= Lyon et l'illustration de la langue française à la Renaissance | editor-last1=Defaux |editor-first1=Gérard | editor-last2=Colombat |editor-first2=Bernard |language=fr | year=2003 | page=405 | publisher=ENS Éditions | isbn=978-2-84788-032-8 }}</ref><ref>Original context ([https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Pantagruel/%C3%89dition_Marty-Laveaux,_1868/Chapitre_20 fr] / [https://books.google.com/books?id=Hl6PtUdIFawC&dq=THAUMASTE+GOT+UP&pg=PA201 en])</ref> The book became popular, along with its 1534 [[prequel]], which dealt with the life and exploits of Pantagruel's father Gargantua, and which was more infused with the politics of the day and overtly favorable to the monarchy than the preceding volume had been. The 1534 re-edition of ''Pantagruel'' contains many orthographic, grammatical, and typographical innovations, in particular the use of diacritics (accents, apostrophes, and [[diaeresis (diacritic)|diaereses]]), which was then new in French.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|pp=183–187}} Mireille Huchon ascribes this innovation in part to the influence of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]'s ''[[De vulgari eloquentia]]'' on French letters.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|pp=188–192}} === Travel to Italy === [[File:Château de Beauregard - Cardinal Jean du Bellay.jpg|thumb|left|Rabelais' three trips to Rome were under the protection of [[Jean du Bellay]].|alt=Portrait of cardinal Jean du Bellay]] No clear evidence establishes when Jean du Bellay and Rabelais met. Nevertheless, when du Bellay was sent to Rome in January 1534 to convince Pope Clément VII not to excommunicate [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], he was accompanied by Rabelais, who worked as his secretary and personal physician until his return in April. During his stay, Rabelais found the city fascinating and decided to bring out a new edition of [[Bartolomeo Marliani]]'s ''Topographia antiqua Romae'' with Sebastien Gryphe in Lyon.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|pp=196–197}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Topographia antiqua Romae |publisher=Sebastien Gryphe |year=1534 |last=Marliani |first=Bartolomeo |editor-last=Rabelais |editor-first=François |language=la |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHqUc_0UpbUC}}</ref> Rabelais quietly left the Hôtel Dieu de Lyon on 13 February 1535 after receiving his salary, disappearing until August 1535 as a result of the tumultuous [[Affair of the Placards]], which led Francis I to issue an edict forbidding all printing in France. Only the influence of the du Bellays allowed the printing presses to run again.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|pp=201–203}} In May, Jean du Bellay was named cardinal, and still with a diplomatic mission for Francis I, had Rabelais join him in Rome. During this time, Rabelais was also working for Geoffroy d'Estissac's interests and maintained a correspondence with him through diplomatic channels (under royal seal as far as Poitiers). Three letters from Rabelais have survived.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|pp=226–229}} On 17 January 1536, Paul III issued a [[papal brief]] authorizing Rabelais to join a Benedictine monastery and practice medicine, as long as he refrained from surgery.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|p=236}} Jean du Bellay having been named the abbot ''in commendam'' of the [[Saint-Maur Abbey]], Rabelais arranged to be assigned there, knowing that the monks were to become [[secular clergy]] the following year.<ref name="Lesellier-1938" /> [[File:Rabelaismaisonmetz.jpg|thumb|upright|The house of François Rabelais in [[Metz]]]] In 1540, Rabelais lived for a short time in [[Turin]] as part of the household of du Bellay's brother, [[Guillaume du Bellay|Guillaume]].{{sfn|Demerson|1986|p=17}} It was at this time that his two children were legitimized by Paul III, the same year that his third child (Théodule) died in Lyon at the age of two.<ref name="Lesellier-1938" /> Rabelais also spent some time lying low, under periodic threat of being condemned of [[heresy]] depending upon the health of his various protectors. In 1543, both ''Gargantua'' and ''Pantagruel'' were condemned by the [[College of Sorbonne|Sorbonne]], then a theological college.{{sfn|Febvre|1942|pp=111–15, 128–32}} Only the protection of du Bellay saved Rabelais after the condemnation of his novel by the Sorbonne. In June 1543 Rabelais became a [[Master of Requests (France)|Master of Requests]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Marichal |first1= Robert |year= 1948| title=Rabelais fût il Maître des Requêtes?|journal=Bibliothèque d'Humanisme et Renaissance|volume=10|pages=169–78, at p. 169|jstor=20673434}}</ref> Between 1545 and 1547 François Rabelais lived in [[Metz]], then a [[free imperial city]] and a republic, to escape the condemnation by the [[University of Paris]]. In 1547, he became [[curate]] of [[Saint-Christophe-du-Jambet]] in [[Maine (province)|Maine]] and of [[Meudon]] near Paris. With support from members of the prominent [[du Bellay family]], Rabelais had received approval from [[Francis I of France|King Francis&nbsp;I]] to continue to publish his collection on 19 September 1545 for six years.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|p=296}} However, on 31 December 1546, the ''Tiers Livre'' joined the Sorbonne's list of banned books.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|p=311}} After the king's death in 1547, the academic élite frowned upon Rabelais, and the Paris [[Parlement]] suspended the sale of The Fourth Book, published in 1552,{{sfn|Boulenger|1978|p=xx}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lefranc|first=Abel|date=1929|title=Rabelais, la Sorbonne et le Parlement en 1552 (partie 1)|url=http://www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_1929_num_73_4_75794|journal=Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres|volume=73|page=276}}</ref> despite Henry II having accorded him the royal privilege. This suspension proved ineffective, for the time being, as the king reiterated his support for the book.{{sfn|Screech|1979|pp=321–322}} Rabelais resigned from the curacy in January 1553 and died in Paris later that year.{{sfn|Boulenger|1978|pp=xx–xxi, xix–xx}}{{efn|Traditionally, the death date of Rabelais has been given as 9 April 1553<ref name="birthdate">{{cite web| url= https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11920939s| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20200427180754/https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11920939s |title= Notice de personne| website= Bnf.fr| archivedate= 2020-04-27}}</ref> but the discovery of a notarial document (concerning his brother) places Rabelais' death before 14 March 1553.<ref>{{harvnb|Huchon|2011|p=24}}: "il est maintenant établi que Rabelais mourut avant le 14 mars 1553, comme le prouve la pièce notariale [...] qui instaure comme légataire [...] son frère Jamet, marchand à Chinon."</ref>}} == Novels == === ''Gargantua and Pantagruel'' === {{Main|Gargantua and Pantagruel}} [[File:Gustave Dore X.jpg|thumb|Illustration for ''Gargantua and Pantagruel'' by [[Gustave Doré]]]] [[File:Gustave Dore XII.jpg|thumb|Illustration for ''Gargantua and Pantagruel'' by Gustave Doré]] ''Gargantua and Pantagruel'' relates the adventures of Gargantua and his son Pantagruel. The tales are adventurous and erudite, festive and gross, ecumenical, and rarely—if ever—solemn for long. The first book, chronologically, was ''Pantagruel: King of the Dipsodes'' and the Gargantua mentioned in the Prologue refers not to Rabelais' own work but to storybooks that were being sold at the Lyon fairs in the early 1530s.{{sfn|Demerson|Demerson|1995|pp=297, 300}} In the first chapter of the earliest book, Pantagruel's lineage is listed back 60 generations to a giant named Chalbroth. The narrator dismisses the skeptics of the time—who would have thought a giant far too large for [[Noah's Ark]]—stating that Hurtaly (the giant reigning during the flood and a great fan of soup) simply rode the Ark like a kid on a rocking horse, or like a fat Swiss guy on a cannon.{{sfn|Demerson|Demerson|1995|pp=308–314}} In the Prologue to ''Gargantua'' the narrator addresses the: "Most illustrious drinkers, and ''you'' the most precious pox-ridden{{mdash}}for to ''you'' and ''you'' alone are my writings dedicated ..." before turning to Plato's ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Banquet]]''.{{sfn|Demerson|Demerson|1995|p=50}} An unprecedented [[syphilis]] epidemic had raged through Europe for over 30 years when the book was published,<ref>{{cite journal| first= James |last= Marshall | title = Rabelais on Syphilis | journal = Nature | volume = 162 | issue = 4107 | page = 118 | doi= 10.1038/162118a0 | date = 7 July 1948 | bibcode = 1948Natur.162..118M | doi-access = free }}</ref> even the king of France was reputed to have been infected. Etion was the first giant in Pantagruel's list of ancestors to suffer from the disease.{{sfn|Demerson|Demerson|1995|p=510}} Although most chapters are humorous, wildly fantastic and frequently absurd, a few relatively serious passages have become famous for expressing humanistic ideals of the time. In particular, the chapters on Gargantua's boyhood and Gargantua's paternal letter to Pantagruel<ref>{{cite book|last=Rabelais|first=François|title=The Histories of Gargantua and Pantagruel|translator=J. M. Cohen|location=Harmondsworth|publisher=Penguin|series=Penguin Classics|year=1955}}</ref>{{rp|192–96}} present a quite detailed vision of education. ==== Thélème ==== {{Redirect2|Thélème|Abbey of Thélème|the new religious movement|Thelema|the Thelemic monastery|Abbey of Thelema}} In the second novel, ''Gargantua'', M. Alcofribas narrates the Abbey of Thélème, built by the giant Gargantua. It differs markedly from the monastic norm, since it is open to both monks and nuns and has a swimming pool, maid service, and no clocks in sight. Only the good-looking are permitted to enter.{{sfn|Demerson|Demerson|1995|pp=268–269}} The inscription at the gate first specifies who is not welcome: hypocrites, bigots, the pox-ridden, Goths, Magoths, straw-chewing law clerks, usurious grinches, old or officious judges, and burners of heretics.{{sfn|Demerson|Demerson|1995|p=272}} When the members are defined positively, the text becomes more inviting: <blockquote><poem> ::::Honour, praise, distraction ::::Herein lies subtraction ::::in the tuning up of joy. ::::To healthy bodies so employed ::::Do pass on this reaction: ::::Honour, praise, distraction{{sfn|Demerson|Demerson|1995|p=274}}</poem></blockquote> [[File:Gustave Doré -- FAY CE QUE VOUDRAS.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Inscription above the Abbey of Thélème<br />(Gustave Doré)]] The Thélèmites in the abbey live according to a single rule: <blockquote>DO WHAT YOU WANT</blockquote> {{clear}} === ''The Third Book'' === [[File:RabelaisPentagruelTitlepage1571.jpg|thumb|250px|Titlepage of a 1571 edition containing the last three books of Pantagruel: ''Le Tiers Livre des Faits & Dits Heroïques du Bon Pantagruel'' (The Third Book of the True and Reputed Heroic Deeds of the Noble Pantagruel)]] Published in 1546 under his own name with the ''privilège'' granted by Francis I for the first edition and by Henri II for the 1552 edition, ''The Third Book'' was condemned by the Sorbonne, like the previous tomes. In it, Rabelais revisited discussions he had had while working as a secretary to Geoffroy d'Estissac earlier in Fontenay–le–Comte, where [[The woman question|''la querelle des femmes'']] had been a lively subject of debate.{{sfn|Boulenger|1978|p=xix}} More recent exchanges with [[Marguerite de Navarre]]—possibly about the question of clandestine marriage and the [[Book of Tobit]] whose canonical status was being debated at the [[Council of Trent]]—led Rabelais to dedicate the book to her before she wrote the ''[[Heptaméron|Heptameron]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Rabelais and Marguerite de Navarre on Sixteenth-Century Views of Clandestine Marriage |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20061415| first= Cathleen M. |last= Bauschatz | journal = Sixteenth Century Journal | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 395–408 | date = 2003| doi = 10.2307/20061415 | jstor = 20061415 }}</ref> [[File:Consultation de la sybille de Panzoust.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Sybyl of Panzoust]] In contrast to the two preceding chronicles, the dialogue between the characters is much more developed than the plot elements in the third book. In particular, the central question of the book, which Panurge and Pantagruel consider from multiple points of view, is an abstract one: whether Panurge should marry or not. Torn between the desire for a wife and the fear of being cuckolded, Panurge engages in divinatory methods, like dream interpretation and [[bibliomancy]]. He consults authorities vested with revealed knowledge, like the sibyl of Panzoust or the mute Nazdecabre, profane acquaintances, like the theologian Hippothadée or the philosopher Trouillogan,<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://renom.univ-tours.fr/fr/index/corpus/francois-rabelais/le-tiers-livre-1552/comment-trouillogan-philosophe-traicte-la-difficulte-de-mariage-chapitre-xxxv |chapter=XXXV: Comment Trouillogan Philosophe traicte la difficulté de mariage. |page=113|year=1552 |title=Tiers Livre |first=François|last=Rabelais}}</ref> and even the jester [[Triboulet]]. It is likely that several of the characters refer to real people: [[Abel Lefranc]] argues that Hippothadée was [[Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples]],<ref>{{cite web|website=La Vie des Classiques|date=30 October 2019|title=Les amis de Guillaume Budé – Hippothadée représente-t-il Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples|language=fr|url=https://laviedesclassiques.fr/article/les-amis-de-guillaume-bud%C3%A9-hippothad%C3%A9e-repr%C3%A9sente-t-il-jacques-lef%C3%A8vre-d%E2%80%99%C3%A9taples}}</ref> Rondibilis was the doctor [[Guillaume Rondelet]], the [[esoteric]] Her Trippa corresponds to [[Cornelius Agrippa]].{{sfn|Rabelais|1994|p=1412}} One of the comic features of the story is the contradictory interpretations Pantagruel and Panurge get embroiled in, the first of which being the paradoxical [[encomium]] of debts in chapter III.{{sfn|Rabelais|1994|p=1424}} ''The Third Book'', deeply indebted to ''[[In Praise of Folly]]'', contains the first-known attestation of the word ''paradoxe'' in French.{{sfn|Huchon|2011|page=24}} The more reflective tone shows the characters' evolution from the earlier tomes. Here Panurge is not as crafty as Pantagruel and is stubborn in his will to turn every sign to his advantage, refusing to listen to advice he had himself sought out. For example, when Her Trippa reads dark omens in his future marriage, Panurge accuses him of the same blind self-love (''philautie'') from which he seems to suffer. His erudition is more often put to work for pedantry than let to settle into wisdom. By contrast, Pantagruel's speech gains in weightiness by the third book, the exuberance of the young giant having faded.{{sfn|Screech|1992|pp=308–312}} At the end of the ''Third Book'', the protagonists decide to set sail in search of a discussion with the Oracle of the Divine Bottle. The last chapters are focused on the praise of Pantagruelion, which combines properties of linen and hemp—a plant used in the 16th century for both the hangman's rope and medicinal purposes, being copiously loaded onto the ships.<ref>{{Cite conference|language=fr|last=Demonet |first=Marie-Luce |title=Polysémie et pharmacie dans le Tiers Livre |book-title=Rabelais et le Tiers Livre|year=1996 |location=Nice |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00264797 |pages=61–84}}</ref> As a naturalist inspired by [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Charles Estienne]], the narrator intercedes in the story, first describing the plant in great detail, then waxing lyrical on its various qualities.<ref>{{cite book |first=François |last=Rigolot |title=Les Langages de Rabelais |publisher=Droz |year=1996 |pages=144–152 |language= fr}}</ref> === ''The Fourth Book'' === [[File:Paroles_gelées_-_Chapitre_LVI_du_Quart_Livre_illustré_par_Gustave_Doré.jpg|thumb|Gustave Doré's illustration of the Frozen Words episode (Chapter 56)]] Rabelais began work on ''The Fourth Book'' while still in Metz. He dropped off a manuscript containing eleven chapters and ending mid-sentence in Lyon on his way to Rome to work as Cardinal du Bellay's personal physician in 1548. According to Jean Plattard, this publication served two purposes: first, it brought Rabelais some much-needed money; and second, it allowed him to respond to those who considered his work blasphemous. While the prologue denounced slanderers, the following chapters did not raise any polemical issues. Already it contained some of the best-known episodes, including the storm at sea and Panurge's sheep.{{sfn|Plattard|1930|pp=229–234}} It was framed as an erratic odyssey,{{sfn|Screech|1992|pp=379–407}} inspired in part by the [[Argonauts]] and the news of [[Jacques Cartier]]'s voyage to Canada,<ref>{{Cite conference | author=Marie-Luce Demonet|title=Les Argonautiques et le Quart Livre de Rabelais|publisher=MOM editions|volume=53|conference=Actes du colloque de Tours, 20–22 octobre 2011|language=fr|year=2015|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/mom_0151-7015_2015_act_53_1_3382}}</ref> and in part by the imaginary voyage described by [[Lucian]] in ''[[A True Story]]'', which provided Rabelais not only with several anecdotes, but also with a first-person narrator who regularly insisted on the ''veracity'' of obviously fantastical elements of the story.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Le Cadet |first=Nicolas |journal=Réforme, Humanisme, Renaissance |year=2012 |lang=fr |issue=74 |pages=7-24 |title=Le topos lucianesque des « histoires vraies » et la poétique du ''Quart Livre'' |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhren_1771-1347_2012_num_74_1_3159 }}</ref> The full version appeared in 1552, after Rabelais received a royal privilege on 6 Aug 1550 for the exclusive right to publish his work in French, [[Tuscan dialect|Tuscan]], Greek, and Latin. This, he accomplished with the help of the young Cardinal of Châtillon ([[Odet de Coligny]])—who would later convert to Protestantism{{sfn|Huchon|2011|p=335}} and be excommunicated.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48VXAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247 |title=Bullarum diplomatum et privilegiorum sanctorum Romanorum Pontificum, Taurinensis editio |volume=7 |location=Turin |publisher=Dalmazzo |year=1862 |pages=247–249 |language=la}}</ref> Rabelais thanks the Cardinal for his help in the prefatory letter signed 28 January 1552 and, for the first time in the Pantagruel series, titled the prologue in his own name rather than using a pseudonym.{{sfn|Screech|1979|pp=321–322}} == Use of language == The French Renaissance was a time of linguistic contact and debate. The first book of French, rather than Latin, grammar was published in 1530,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ctlf.ens-lyon.fr/notices/notice_165.htm | title = notice John Palsgrave | first1 = Jacques | last1 = Julien | first2 = Susan | last2 = Baddely | date = April 2016 | language = fr |publisher=CTLF|access-date=17 November 2018}}</ref> followed nine years later by the language's first dictionary.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k505878 | title = Dictionnaire francois latin contenant les motz et manières de parler francois, tournez en latin | date = 1539 | publisher = Robert Estienne | location = Paris | language = fr }}</ref> Spelling was far less codified. Rabelais, as an educated reader of the day, preferred [[etymological]] spelling—preserving clues to the lineage of words—to more phonetic spellings which wash those traces away. Rabelais' use of Latin, Greek, regional and dialectal terms, creative [[calque|calquing]], [[Gloss (annotation)|gloss]], [[neologism]] and mis-translation was the fruit of the printing press having been invented less than a hundred years earlier. A doctor by trade, Rabelais was a prolific reader, who wrote a great deal about bodies and all they excrete or ingest. His fictional works are filled with multilingual, often sexual, puns, absurd creatures, bawdy songs and lists. Words and metaphors from Rabelais abound in modern French and some words have found their way into English, through [[Thomas Urquhart]]'s unfinished 1693 translation, completed and considerably augmented by [[Peter Anthony Motteux]] by 1708. According to Radio-Canada, the novel ''Gargantua'' permanently added more than 800 words to the French language.{{sfn|Radio-Canada|2017}} == Scholarly views == Most scholars today agree that Rabelais wrote from a perspective of [[Christian humanism]].{{sfn|Bowen|1998|p={{page needed|date=August 2020}}}} This has not always been the case. [[Abel Lefranc]], in his 1922 introduction to ''Pantagruel'', depicted Rabelais as a militant anti-Christian atheist.<ref>{{cite book| last= Davis| first= Natalie Zemon| chapter= Beyond Babel| editor-last1= Davis| editor-first1= Natalie Zemon | editor-first12= Timothy| editor-last2= Hampton| title= Rabelais and His Critics| publisher= Occasional Papers Series, University of California Press| isbn= | year= 1998}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2020}} On the contrary, [[M. A. Screech]], like Lucien Febvre before him,{{sfn|Febvre|1942|pp=329-360}} describes Rabelais as an [[Erasmus|Erasmian]].{{sfn|Screech|1979|p=14}} While formally a [[Roman Catholic]], Rabelais was a [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]], and favoured classical Antiquity over the "barbarous" Middle Ages, believing in the need for reform to return science and arts to their classical blossoming, and theology and the Church to their original Evangelical form as expressed in the Gospels.<ref>{{cite book | last = Duwal | first = Edwin M. |chapter=Humanism | title = The Rabelais Encyclopedia | year = 2004 | pages= 120–121 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RwjWrTd5la4C&dq=The+Rabelais+Encyclopedia&pg=PA120 |editor-last=Chesney|editor-first=Elizabeth A. |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |isbn=978-0-313-31034-8 | via= Google Books}}</ref> In particular, he was critical of [[monasticism]]. Rabelais criticised what he considered to be inauthentic Christian positions by both Catholics and Protestants, and was attacked and portrayed as a threat to religion or even an atheist by both. For example, "at the request of Catholic theologians, all four Pantagrueline chronicles were censured by either the [[University of the Sorbonne|Sorbonne]], Parlement, or both".<ref>{{cite book | last = | first = |chapter= Evangelism | title = The Rabelais Encyclopedia | year = 2004 | page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=RwjWrTd5la4C&dq=The+Rabelais+Encyclopedia&pg=PA73 73] | chapter-url = |editor-last=Chesney| editor-first=Elizabeth A. |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |isbn=978-0-313-31034-8 }}</ref> On the opposite end of the spectrum, [[John Calvin]] saw Rabelais as a representative of the numerous moderate evangelical humanists who, while "critical of contemporary Catholic institutions, doctrines, and conduct", did not go far enough; in addition, Calvin considered Rabelais' apparent mocking tone to be especially dangerous, since it could be easily misinterpreted as a rejection of the sacred truths themselves.<ref>{{cite book | last = Persels | first = Jeff |chapter=Calvin, Jean or John (1509–64) | title = The Rabelais Encyclopedia | year = 2004 | pages= 27–28 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RwjWrTd5la4C&dq=The+Rabelais+Encyclopedia&pg=PA27 |editor-last= Chesney |editor-first=Elizabeth A. |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |isbn=978-0-313-31034-8 | via= Google Books}}</ref> Timothy Hampton writes that "to a degree unequaled by the case of any other writer from the European Renaissance, the reception of Rabelais's work has involved dispute, critical disagreement, and ... scholarly wrangling ..."<ref>{{cite book| last= Hampton| first= Timothy| chapter= Language and Identities| editor-last1= Davis| editor-first1= Natalie Zemon | editor-first12= Timothy| editor-last2= Hampton| title= Rabelais and His Critics| publisher= Occasional Papers Series, University of California Press| isbn= | year= 1998}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2020}} In particular, as pointed out by Bruno Braunrot, the traditional view of Rabelais as a humanist has been challenged by early post-structuralist analyses denying a single consistent ideological message of his text, and to some extent earlier by Marxist critiques such as [[Mikhail Bakhtin]] with his emphasis on the subversive folk roots of Rabelais' humour in medieval "[[carnival]]" culture. At present, however, "whatever controversy still surrounds Rabelais studies can be found above all in the application of feminist theories to Rabelais criticism", as he is alternately considered a misogynist or a feminist based on different episodes in his works.<ref>{{cite book | last = Braunrot | first = Bruno |chapter=Critical Theory | title = The Rabelais Encyclopedia | year = 2004 | pages= 43–46 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RwjWrTd5la4C&q=Rabelais+seemingly+misogynous&pg=PA45|ref={{Harvid|''The Rabelais Encyclopedia''}}|editor-last=Chesney|editor-first=Elizabeth A. |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |isbn=978-0-313-31034-8 | via= Google Books}}</ref> An article by Edwin M. Duvall in ''Études rabelaisiennes'' 18 (1985)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Duval |first=Edwin M. |date=1985 |title=Interpretation and the ‘Doctrine Absconce’ of Rabelais’s Prologue to Gargantua. |journal=Études Rabelaisiennes |volume=18 |pages=1–17}}</ref> sparked a debate on the prologue of ''Gargantua'' in the pages of the ''Revue d’histoire littéraire de la France''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Defaux |first=Gérard |date=1985 |title=D'un problème l'autre: herméneutique de l' "altior sensus" et "captatio lectoris" dans le Prologue de "Gargantua" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40529732 |journal=Revue d'Histoire littéraire de la France |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=195–216 |issn=0035-2411}}</ref> as to whether Rabelais intentionally hid higher meanings in his work, to be discovered through erudition and philology, or if instead the polyvalence of symbols was a poetic device meant to resist the reductive [[Gloss (annotation)|gloss]].<ref name="Renner-2020"/> {{ill|Michel Jeanneret|fr}} suggests that Panurge's description (in the Papimane Island episode in ''The Fourth Book'') of the ill-effects of the pages of [[decretal]]s being used as toilet paper, targets, cones, and masks on whatever they touch was due to their misuse as material objects.{{sfn|Jeanneret|1975|p=16}} As the merry crew sail on from the island towards the Divine Bottle, in the subsequent episode, Pantagruel is content simply listening to the thawing words as they rain down on the boat,{{sfn|Jeanneret|1975|p=18}} whereas Jeanneret observes that his companions focus instead on their colourful appearance while they are still frozen, hurrying to gather as many up as they can and offering to sell those they have collected. The pilot describes the words as evidence of a great battle,{{sfn|Jeanneret|1975|p=19}} and the narrator even wants to preserve some of the finest insults in oil.{{sfn|Jeanneret|1975|p=20}} Jeanneret observes that Pantagruel considers the exchange of words to be an act of love rather than a commercial exchange,{{sfn|Jeanneret|1975|p=19}} argues that their artificial preservation is superfluous, and "insinuates that books are petrified tombs, where the signs threaten to stop moving and, left to the devices of lazy readers, get shriveled down into simplistic meanings[,]" implying that "[a]ll writing carries within it the danger of the Decretals."<ref>[[#CITEREFJeanneret1975|Jeanneret 1975]], p. 20, "Mais le livre, insinue Pantagruel, est un tombeau pétrifié, où les signes menacent de s'immobiliser et, abandonnés à des lecteurs indolents, de se recroqueviller en significations simplistes. Tout écrit porte en soi le péril des Décrétales"</ref> The ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' of 1911 declared that Rabelais was <blockquote>... a revolutionary who attacked all the past, Scholasticism, the monks; his religion is scarcely more than that of a spiritually minded pagan. Less bold in political matters, he cared little for liberty; his ideal was a tyrant who loves peace. [...] His vocabulary is rich and picturesque, but licentious and filthy.[.....] As a whole it exercises a baneful influence.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | first= Georges |last= Bertrin | title = François Rabelais | encyclopedia= The Catholic Encyclopedia| location = New York | publisher = Robert Appleton Company | date = 1911 | access-date = 25 November 2018 |url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12619b.htm |via= newadvent.org}}</ref></blockquote> == In literature == Acknowledging both the sordid side of the work and its protean nature, [[Jean de La Bruyère]] in 1688 saw beyond that its sublimity:<blockquote>His book is an enigma, it is whatever you want to say, it is inexplicable, it is a chimera ….. a monstrous assembling of refined and ingenious morality and foul corruption. Either it is bad, sinking far below the worst, to have the charm of the rabble. Or it is good, rising as far as exquisite and excellent, to be perhaps the most delicious of dishes.<ref>{{cite book|author = [[Jean de La Bruyère]]|title = Les Caractères|chapter = Des ouvrages de l’esprit |page = 91|publisher = Éditions Garnier|location = Paris|year = 2010 |isbn = 978-2-8105-0173-1}}</ref></blockquote> In his 1759–1767 novel ''[[The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman|Tristram Shandy]]'', [[Laurence Sterne]] quotes extensively from Rabelais.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saintsbury|first1=George|title=Tristram Shandy|date=1912|publisher=J.M. Dent|location=London|page=xx}}</ref> [[Alfred Jarry]] performed, from memory, hymns of Rabelais at [[Symbolism (movement)|Symbolist]] [[Rachilde]]'s Tuesday [[salon (gathering)|salons]], and worked for years on an unfinished [[libretto]] for an opera by [[Claude Terrasse]] based on Pantagruel.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Ben |title=The Pataphysician's Library: An Exploration of Alfred Jarry's Livres Pairs |url=https://archive.org/details/pataphysiciansli00fish |url-access=limited |publisher=Liverpool University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-85323-926-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/pataphysiciansli00fish/page/n107 95]–98}}</ref> [[Anatole France]] gave lectures on Rabelais in Argentina. [[John Cowper Powys]], [[D. B. Wyndham-Lewis]], and [[Lucien Febvre]] (one of the founders of the French historical school ''[[Annales School|Annales]]''), all wrote books about him. [[James Joyce]] included an allusion to "Master Francois somebody" in his 1922 novel ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]''.{{efn|"those books he brings me the works of Master Francois somebody supposed to be a priest about a child born out of her ear because her bumgut fell out a nice word for any priest".}}<ref>{{Cite wikisource | title = Page:Ulysses, 1922.djvu/706 | last = Joyce | first = James | year = 1922}}</ref> [[Mikhail Bakhtin]], a Russian philosopher and critic, derived his concepts of the [[carnivalesque]] and [[grotesque body]] from the world of Rabelais. He points to the historical loss of communal spirit after the Medieval period and speaks of carnival laughter as an "expression of social consciousness".{{sfn|Bakhtin|1993|p=92}} [[Aldous Huxley]] admired Rabelais' work. Writing in 1929, he praised Rabelais, stating "Rabelais loved the bowels which [[Jonathan Swift|Swift]] so malignantly hated. His was the true [[amor fati]] : he accepted reality in its entirety, accepted with gratitude and delight this amazingly improbable world."<ref>{{cite book| last= Huxley |first= Aldous| title= Do What You Will: Essays by Aldous Huxley| place= London| publisher= Chatto & Windus| year= 1929| page= 81}}</ref> [[George Orwell]] was not an admirer of Rabelais. Writing in 1940, he called him "an exceptionally perverse, morbid writer, a case for [[psychoanalysis]]".<ref>{{cite journal| title= Review of ''Landfall'' by Nevil Shute and ''Nailcruncher'' by Albert Cohen |journal=The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell| first= George |last= Orwell| volume= 2| place= London| publisher= Secker & Warburg | year= 1968}}</ref> [[Milan Kundera]], in a 2007 article in ''[[The New Yorker]]'', commented on a list of the most notable works of French literature, noting with surprise and indignation that Rabelais was placed behind [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s war memoirs, and was denied the "aura of a founding figure! Yet in the eyes of nearly every great novelist of our time he is, along with [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]], the founder of an entire art, the art of the novel".<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/01/08/die-weltliteratur |title=Die Weltliteratur: European novelists and modernism |first=Milan |last=Kundera |date=8 January 2007 | magazine= [[The New Yorker]] |access-date=10 November 2017}}</ref> In the satirical musical ''[[The Music Man]]'' by [[Meredith Willson]], the names "[[Chaucer]]! Rabelais! [[Balzac]]!" are presented by local gossips as evidence that the town librarian "advocates dirty books."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iowapublicradio.org/show/classical-music-with-barney-sherman/2018-06-13/what-the-music-man-got-wrong-iowa-author-uncovers-womens-forgotten-cultural-legacy|title=What "The Music Man" Got Wrong: Iowa Author Uncovers Women's Forgotten Cultural Legacy ]author=Barney Sherman|date= 13 June 2018|publisher=Iowa Public Radio}}</ref> Rabelais is a pivotal figure in [[Kenzaburō Ōe]]'s 1994 acceptance speech for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1994/oe-lecture.html |title= Ōe lecture| website= NobelPrize.org| year= 1994| publisher= | access-date= }}</ref> == Honours, tributes and legacy == [[File:Meudon Rabelais-parc.JPG|upright|right|thumb|Bust of Rabelais in [[Meudon]], where he served as Curé]] [[File:Rabelaisjdpmontp.JPG|upright|thumb|right|Monument to Rabelais at [[Montpellier]]'s Jardin des Plantes]] * The public university in [[Tours, France]] is named [[Université François Rabelais]]. * [[Honoré de Balzac]] was inspired by the works of Rabelais to write [[:fr:Les Cent Contes drolatiques|Les Cent Contes Drolatiques]] (The Hundred Humorous Tales). Balzac also pays homage to Rabelais by quoting him in more than twenty novels and the short stories of [[La Comédie humaine]] (The Human Comedy). Michel Brix wrote of Balzac that he "is obviously a son or grandson of Rabelais... He has never hidden his admiration for the author of [[:fr:Gargantua|Gargantua]], whom he cites in [[Le Cousin Pons]] as "the greatest mind of modern humanity".<ref>[[:fr:Bibliothèque de la Pleiade|Bibliothèque de la Pleiade]], 1977, v.VII, p.587</ref><ref>{{cite book| first= Michel |last= Brix| title= Balzac and the Legacy of Rabelais| publisher= PUF| year= 2002–2005| volume= 102| page= 838}}</ref> In his story of ''Zéro, Conte Fantastique'' published in [[:fr:La Silhouette|La Silhouette]] on 3 October 1830, Balzac even adopted Rabelais's pseudonym (''Alcofribas'').<ref>{{cite web | title = Litérature fantastique > Honoré de Balzac | publisher = Le Visage Vert | first= Xavier |last= Legrand-Ferronnière | url=http://www.levisagevert.com/bibliographie-auteurs/auteurs-b/auteurs-b/b0027.html}}</ref> * There is a tradition at the [[University of Montpellier]]'s Faculty of Medicine: no graduating medic can undergo a convocation without taking an oath under ''Rabelais's robe''. Further tributes are paid to him in other traditions of the university, such as its ''[[faluche]]'', a distinctive student headcap which in Montpellier is styled in his honour, with four bands of colour emanating from its centre.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://medecine.edu.umontpellier.fr/files/2014/12/rabelais_n3.pdf |title=Rabelais: La revue de la faculte de medecine de Montepellier |publisher=[[University of Montpellier]] |pages=3, 6 |language=fr |access-date=2019-03-28}}</ref> * [[5666 Rabelais|Asteroid '5666 Rabelais']] was named in honor of François Rabelais in 1982.<ref>{{Cite book |last1= Schmadel |first1=Lutz D.|author2=International Astronomical Union |title=Dictionary of minor planet names |year=2003 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=Berlin; New York |isbn=978-3-540-00238-3 |page=480 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWrB1jPCa8AC&pg=PA480|access-date=9 September 2011}}</ref> * In [[J. M. G. Le Clézio|Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio's]] 2008 Nobel Prize lecture, Le Clézio referred to Rabelais as "the greatest writer in the French language".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/2008/clezio/25790-jean-marie-gustave-le-clezio-nobel-lecture-2008/ |title=In the forest of paradoxes |last=Le Clézio |first=Jean-Marie Gustave |translator-first=Alison |translator-last=Anderson |date=2008-12-07 |website=NobelPrize.org|access-date=2019-03-28}}</ref> * In France the moment at a restaurant when the waiter presents the bill is still sometimes called ''le quart d'heure de Rabelais'' (The fifteen minutes of Rabelais), in memory of a famous trick Rabelais used to get out of paying a tavern bill.<ref>{{cite book |last=[[Brillat-Savarin]] |first=Anthelme |title=La Physiologie du Gout|section=Meditation 28|year=1826 |location=Paris}} *{{Cite web|title=The fifteen minutes of Rabelais|url=https://restaurant-ingthroughhistory.com/2013/08/15/the-fifteen-minutes-of-rabelais/|date=2013-08-15|website=Restaurant-ing through history|language=en|access-date=2020-05-17}}</ref> == Works == * [[Gargantua and Pantagruel]], a series of four or five books including: ** ''{{ill|Pantagruel|fr}} (1532) ** ''La vie très horrifique du grand Gargantua'', usually called ''{{ill|Gargantua|fr}}'' (1534) ** ''{{ill|The Third Book|fr|Le Tiers Livre}}'' (1546) ** ''[[Le Quart Livre|The Fourth Book]]'' (1552) ** ''{{ill|The Fifth Book|fr|Le Cinquième Livre}}'' (1564) whose authorship is contested *''{{ill|Pantagrueline Prognostication|fr|Pantagrueline prognostication}}'' (1532, 1533, 1535, 1537, 1542 ): parodic almanac, astrology *''{{ill|Sciomachie|fr}}'' (1549): description of the festivities organized by Jean du Bellay to celebrate the birth of [[Louis of Valois (1549–1550)|Louis of Valois]]{{sfn|Huchon|2011|p=323-327}} == See also == * ''[[Rabelais and His World]]'' * [[Thomas Urquhart]] * [[Peter Anthony Motteux]], (works at [[s:Author:Peter Anthony Motteux|wikisource]]) * [[The Great Mare]] * [[Rabelais Student Media]] == Notes == {{notelist}} == References == ===Citations=== {{reflist|35em}} === Works cited === ;General {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last1=Demerson |first1=Guy |title=Rabelais |date=1986 |publisher=Balland |location=Paris |isbn=9782715805668 |url-access = registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000deme |language=fr}} * {{cite book |last1=Dupèbe |first1=Jean |title=Études rabelaisiennes |date=1985 |publisher=Droz |pages=175–176 |language=fr |chapter=La date de la mort de Rabelais|volume=XVIII}} * {{cite book |last1=Lazard |first1=Madeleine |title=Rabelais |date=2002 |publisher=Hachette Littératures |location=Paris |isbn=2012791077 |language=fr}} * {{cite book |last1=Lefranc |first1=Abel |title=Revue des Études Rabelaisiennes |date=1908 |publisher=Honoré Champion |location=Paris |pages=265–270 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k19482m/f291.image.r=abel%20lefranc%20rabelais%20naissance.langFR |language=fr |chapter=Conjectures sur la date de naissance de Rabelais|volume=6}} * {{cite book |last1=Plattard |first1=Jean |translator=Louis P. Roche |title=The Life of François Rabelais |date=1930 |publisher=George Routledge & Sons |location=London |language=en|oclc=504218182 |url-access = registration |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.172627 }} * {{cite web|url=https://ici.radio-canada.ca/ohdio/premiere/emissions/aujourd-hui-l-histoire/segments/entrevue/45739/histo-rabelais-litterature-gargantua-renaissance|title=François Rabelais, truculent homme de littérature et de science|author=Radio-Canada|date=7 November 2017|lang=French}} {{refend}} ;Commentary {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last=Bakhtin| first=Mikhail |title= Rabelais and His World |translator= Hélène Iswolsky |location= Bloomington |publisher= Indiana University Press |year=1993 |language=en |url-access = registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rabelaishisworld0000bakh}} * {{cite book |last=Boulenger |first=Jacques |editor1-last=Boulenger |editor1-first=Jacques |editor2-last=Scheler |editor2-first=Lucien |title=Œuvres complètes Œuvres complètes |edition=Revised edition with commentary by Lucien Scheler |date=1978 |publisher=Gallimard |location=Paris |language=Middle French|series=Bibliothèque de la Pléiade|volume=15|oclc=5725863|chapter=Introduction: Vie de Rabelais}} * {{cite book| last = Bowen| first = Barbara C.| title = Enter Rabelais, Laughing| publisher = Vanderbilt University Press| year = 1998| isbn = 978-0-8265-1306-9| url-access = registration| url = https://archive.org/details/enterrabelaislau00bowe_0}} *{{cite book |last=Febvre |first=Lucien |title=Le problème de l'incroyance au XVIe siècle: la religion de Rabelais |location=Paris |publisher=Albin Michel |year=1942 |language=fr |url-access = registration |url=https://archive.org/details/leproblemedelinc1962febv}} * {{cite book |last=Huchon |first= Mireille |title = Rabelais |publisher = Gallimard | date = 2011 | location = Paris | isbn = 978-2-07-073544-0 | language = fr }} * {{Cite journal |last=Jeanneret |first=Michel |title=Les paroles dégelées (Rabelais, Quart Livre, 48-65) |journal=Littérature |issue=17 |year= 1975 |volume=17 |pages=14–30 |doi=10.3406/litt.1975.979 |url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940 |language=fr}} * {{cite book |first = Michael A.|last= Screech |title= Rabelais |publisher=Duckworth |year=1979 |location=London |url-access = registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000scre_o0r2 |isbn =978-0-7156-1660-4 }} * {{Cite book | title = Rabelais | publisher = Gallimard | series = Tel | first = Michael A.|last = Screech | year = 1992 | location = Paris | oclc = 377631583 | language = fr | translator = Marie-Anne de Kisch }} {{refend}} ; Complete works {{refbegin}} * {{cite book | first1 = François | last1 = Rabelais |editor-last1=Huchon|editor-first1=Mireille |editor-last2=Moreau|editor-first2=François |title=Rabelais Oeuvres complètes |date=1994 |publisher=Gallimard |location=Paris |isbn=978-2-07-011340-8 |language=fr|series=Bibliothèque de la Pléiade|volume=15|quote=Presented and annotated by François Moreau | oclc= 31599267}} * {{cite book | first1 = François | last1 = Rabelais | editor-last1= Demerson |editor-first1=Guy | editor-last2=Demerson |editor-first2= Geneviève | title = Rabelais: Œuvres complètes | date = 1995 | publisher = Seuil |ref={{sfnref|Demerson|Demerson|1995}} }} {{refend}} ==Further reading== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last1=Bakhtin |first1=Mihail |last2=Laine |first2=Tapani |last3= Nieminen |first3=Paula |last4=Salo |first4=Erkki |title=François Rabelais: keskiajan ja renessanssin nauru |date=2002 |publisher=Like |location=Helsinki |isbn=978-952-471-083-1 |edition=3rd |language=fi |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last1=Dixon |first1=J. E. G.|first2=John L.|last2=Dawson | title= Concordance des Oeuvres de François Rabelais |location= Geneva| publisher=Librairie Droz|year=1992|isbn=978-952-471-083-1 |language=fr |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last1=Febvre |first1=Lucien |translator= Beatrice Gottlieb |title=The Problem of Unbelief in the Sixteenth Century: The Religion of Rabelais |location= Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1982 |language=en |isbn= 978-0-674-70825-9 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book | last=Kinser |first=Samuel|title=Rabelais's Carnival: Text, Context, Metatext|publisher=University of California Press |place=Berkeley|year=1990|url=http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft596nb3q0/ |ref=none}} * {{cite book |editor-first=Donald Murdoch|editor-last1=Frame|first=François|last=Rabelais|title=The complete works of François Rabelais|url=https://archive.org/details/completeworksoff00rabe|url-access=registration|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|year=1999|language=en|isbn=9780520064010 |ref=none}} {{refend}} == External links == {{Sister project links|author=yes|commonscat=yes|b=no|d=Q131018|n=no|v=no|wikt=no}} * {{Gutenberg author |id=551| name=François Rabelais}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=François Rabelais |sopt=w}} * {{Librivox author | id=1151}} * [http://www.rabelais.nl/ Rabelais.nl] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226125756/http://rabelais.nl/ |date=26 February 2021 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100111041744/http://www.renaissance-france.org/rabelais/pages/pagrablais2.html Rabelais et la Renaissance], sur le [https://web.archive.org/web/20100110055916/http://www.renaissance-france.org/ Portail de la Renaissance française] {{In lang|fr}} * [https://www.musee-rabelais.fr/ François Rabelais Museum on the Internet] {{In lang|fr}} * Henry Émile Chevalier, [http://www.bmlisieux.com/curiosa/rabelais.htm ''Rabelais and his editors''], 1868 {{In lang|fr}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Rabelais, François | volume= 22 |last1= Saintsbury |first1= George |author1-link= George Saintsbury | pages = 769&ndash;773 |short=1}} * {{Discogs artist|The Monks And Nuns|name=The Monks and Nuns from Thélème's Abbey}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rabelais, Francois}} [[Category:François Rabelais| ]] [[Category:1553 deaths]] [[Category:15th-century births]] [[Category:16th-century French male writers]] [[Category:16th-century French novelists]] [[Category:16th-century French physicians]] [[Category:16th-century French writers]] [[Category:16th-century Roman Catholics]] [[Category:French Benedictines]] [[Category:French Franciscans]] [[Category:French Renaissance humanists]] [[Category:French Renaissance]] [[Category:French Roman Catholic writers]] [[Category:French male novelists]] [[Category:French male poets]] [[Category:French medical writers]] [[Category:People from Indre-et-Loire]] [[Category:Thelema]] [[Category:University of Montpellier alumni]] 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title="Template:Template other">Template:Template other</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Template_other&action=edit" title="Template:Template other">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Tooltip" title="Template:Tooltip">Template:Tooltip</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Tooltip&action=edit" title="Template:Tooltip">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Tooltip/styles.css" title="Template:Tooltip/styles.css">Template:Tooltip/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Tooltip/styles.css&action=edit" title="Template:Tooltip/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Use_dmy_dates" title="Template:Use dmy dates">Template:Use dmy dates</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Use_dmy_dates&action=edit" title="Template:Use dmy dates">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Webarchive" title="Template:Webarchive">Template:Webarchive</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Webarchive&action=edit" title="Template:Webarchive">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Yesno" title="Template:Yesno">Template:Yesno</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Yesno&action=edit" title="Template:Yesno">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Yesno-no" title="Template:Yesno-no">Template:Yesno-no</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Yesno-no&action=edit" title="Template:Yesno-no">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Yesno-yes" title="Template:Yesno-yes">Template:Yesno-yes</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Yesno-yes&action=edit" title="Template:Yesno-yes">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Arguments" title="Module:Arguments">Module:Arguments</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Arguments&action=edit" title="Module:Arguments">view 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title="Module:Category handler/shared">Module:Category handler/shared</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Category_handler/shared&action=edit" title="Module:Category handler/shared">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Check_for_unknown_parameters" title="Module:Check for unknown parameters">Module:Check for unknown parameters</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Check_for_unknown_parameters&action=edit" title="Module:Check for unknown parameters">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1" title="Module:Citation/CS1">Module:Citation/CS1</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/COinS" title="Module:Citation/CS1/COinS">Module:Citation/CS1/COinS</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1/COinS&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1/COinS">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration">Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/Date_validation" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation">Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1/Date_validation&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers">Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities">Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities</a> (<a 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href="/w/index.php?title=Module:EditAtWikidata&action=edit" title="Module:EditAtWikidata">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Footnotes" title="Module:Footnotes">Module:Footnotes</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Footnotes&action=edit" title="Module:Footnotes">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list" title="Module:Footnotes/anchor id list">Module:Footnotes/anchor id list</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list&action=edit" title="Module:Footnotes/anchor id list">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list/data" title="Module:Footnotes/anchor id list/data">Module:Footnotes/anchor id list/data</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list/data&action=edit" title="Module:Footnotes/anchor id list/data">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Footnotes/whitelist" 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title="Module:IPAc-en/pronunciation">Module:IPAc-en/pronunciation</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:IPAc-en/pronunciation&action=edit" title="Module:IPAc-en/pronunciation">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:In_lang" title="Module:In lang">Module:In lang</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:In_lang&action=edit" title="Module:In lang">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Infobox" title="Module:Infobox">Module:Infobox</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Infobox&action=edit" title="Module:Infobox">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Infobox/styles.css" title="Module:Infobox/styles.css">Module:Infobox/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Infobox/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Infobox/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:InfoboxImage" title="Module:InfoboxImage">Module:InfoboxImage</a> (<a 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title="Module:Navbox/configuration">Module:Navbox/configuration</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navbox/configuration&action=edit" title="Module:Navbox/configuration">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Navbox/styles.css" title="Module:Navbox/styles.css">Module:Navbox/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navbox/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Navbox/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Ns_has_subpages" title="Module:Ns has subpages">Module:Ns has subpages</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Ns_has_subpages&action=edit" title="Module:Ns has subpages">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Ordinal" title="Module:Ordinal">Module:Ordinal</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Ordinal&action=edit" title="Module:Ordinal">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Pagetype" title="Module:Pagetype">Module:Pagetype</a> (<a 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