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.mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup-lang plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article should specify the language of its non-English content, using {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a>}}, {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a>}} for transliterated languages, and {{<a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a>}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used. <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>. (May 2022)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>Hmong or Mong (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈmʌŋ/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">MUNG</a>; <a href="/wiki/Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">RPA</a>: Hmoob, <a href="/wiki/Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong" title="Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong">Nyiakeng Puachue</a>: 𞄀𞄩𞄰, <a href="/wiki/Pahawh" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahawh">Pahawh</a>: 𖬌𖬣𖬵, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Hmong" title="Help:IPA/Hmong">[m̥ɔ̃́]</a>) is a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a> of the <a href="/wiki/West_Hmongic" class="mw-redirect" title="West Hmongic">West Hmongic</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Hmongic languages</a> spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_China" title="Southwestern China">Southwestern China</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> There are an estimated 4.5 million speakers of varieties that are largely mutually intelligible, including over 280,000 <a href="/wiki/Hmong_Americans" title="Hmong Americans">Hmong Americans</a> as of 2013.<a href="#cite_note-Jarkey_2015-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Over half of all Hmong speakers speak the various dialects in China, where the <a href="/wiki/Dananshan" class="mw-redirect" title="Dananshan">Dananshan</a> dialect forms the basis of the standard language.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> However, Hmong Daw and Mong Leng are widely known only in Laos and the United States; Dananshan is more widely known in the native region of Hmong. <table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #f2ceee;">Hmong</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #f2ceee;">Mong</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #f2ceee;">lus Hmoob / lug Moob / lol Hmongb / lus Hmôngz (Vietnam) / <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1009642731">.mw-parser-output .script-Hmng{font-family:"Noto Sans Pahawh Hmong"}</style>𖬇𖬰𖬞 𖬌𖬣𖬵 / <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1234443428">.mw-parser-output .script-Hmnp{font-family:"Noto Serif Hmong Nyiakeng","Noto Serif Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong","Noto Serif NP Hmong"}</style>𞄉𞄧𞄵𞄀𞄩𞄰‎</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Hmong" title="Help:IPA/Hmong">[m̥ɔ̃́]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">4.5 million<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#endnote_PopulationEthnologue">[a]</a> (2015)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJarkey201511-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Hmongic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Core Hmongic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Hmongic_languages" title="West Hmongic languages">West Hmongic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Chuanqiandian cluster</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Hmong</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Hmong_writing" title="Hmong writing">Hmong writing</a>: incl. <a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" 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ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li>China</li><li>Laos</li><li>Myanmar</li><li>Vietnam</li><li>Thailand</li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #f2ceee;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=190">hmn</a></code> Hmong, Mong (China, Laos)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmn" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmn">hmn</a></code> – inclusive code for the Hmong/Mong macrolanguage (China, Laos), including all Core Hmongic languages, except <code>hmf</code> and <code>hmv</code> Individual codes: <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/cqd" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:cqd">cqd</a></code> – Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao (cover term for Hmong in China) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hea" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hea">hea</a></code> – Northern Qiandong Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hma" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hma">hma</a></code> – Southern Mashan Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmc" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmc">hmc</a></code> – Central Huishui Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmd" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmd">hmd</a></code> – Large Flowery Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hme" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hme">hme</a></code> – Eastern Huishui Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmf" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmf">hmf</a></code> – Hmong Don (Vietnam) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmg" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmg">hmg</a></code> – Southwestern Guiyang Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmh" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmh">hmh</a></code> – Southwestern Huishui Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmi" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmi">hmi</a></code> – Northern Huishui Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmj" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmj">hmj</a></code> – Ge <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hml" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hml">hml</a></code> – Luopohe Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmm" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmm">hmm</a></code> – Central Mashan Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmp" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmp">hmp</a></code> – Northern Mashan Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmq" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmq">hmq</a></code> – Eastern Qiandong Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hms" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hms">hms</a></code> – Southern Qiandong Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmv" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmv">hmv</a></code> – Hmong Dô (Vietnam) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmw" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmw">hmw</a></code> – Western Mashan Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmy" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmy">hmy</a></code> – Southern Guiyang Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmz" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hmz">hmz</a></code> – Hmong Shua (Sinicized Miao) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hnj" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hnj">hnj</a></code> – Mong Njua/Mong Leng (China, Laos), Blue/Green Hmong (United States) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hrm" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hrm">hrm</a></code> – A-Hmo, Horned Miao (China) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/huj" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:huj">huj</a></code> – Northern Guiyang Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mmr" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:mmr">mmr</a></code> – Western Xiangxi Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/muq" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:muq">muq</a></code> – Eastern Xiangxi Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mww" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:mww">mww</a></code> – Hmong Daw (China, Laos), White Hmong (United States) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/sfm" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:sfm">sfm</a></code> – Small Flowery Miao</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/firs1234">firs1234</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=48-AAA-a">48-AAA-a</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hmong_Mien_lang.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Hmong_Mien_lang.png/320px-Hmong_Mien_lang.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Hmong_Mien_lang.png/480px-Hmong_Mien_lang.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Hmong_Mien_lang.png/640px-Hmong_Mien_lang.png 2x" data-file-width="1149" data-file-height="1024"></a><div style="text-align:left;">Map of Hmong-Mien languages, West Hmongic language in purple</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/PAHAWH_HMONG_VOWEL_KEEB.svg/27px-PAHAWH_HMONG_VOWEL_KEEB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/PAHAWH_HMONG_VOWEL_KEEB.svg/40px-PAHAWH_HMONG_VOWEL_KEEB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/PAHAWH_HMONG_VOWEL_KEEB.svg/53px-PAHAWH_HMONG_VOWEL_KEEB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="178" data-file-height="266"></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains Pahawh Hmong <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support" title="Help:Multilingual support">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of the <a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a> characters.</div></div> </div> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Varieties">1 Varieties</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Varieties_in_Laos">1.1 Varieties in Laos</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Varieties_in_the_United_States">1.2 Varieties in the United States</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Phonology">2 Phonology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Vowels">2.1 Vowels</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Consonants">2.2 Consonants</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Syllable_structure">2.3 Syllable structure</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Tones">2.4 Tones</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Orthography">3 Orthography</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Correspondence_between_orthographies">3.1 Correspondence between orthographies</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Vowels_2">3.1.1 Vowels</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Consonants_2">3.1.2 Consonants</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Grammar">4 Grammar</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Nouns">4.1 Nouns</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Classifiers">4.1.1 Classifiers</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Verbs">4.2 Verbs</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Serial_verb_construction">4.2.1 Serial verb construction</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#Tense">4.2.2 Tense</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Aspect">4.2.3 Aspect</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Mood">4.2.4 Mood</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Vocabulary">5 Vocabulary</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Overview">5.1 Overview</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Domains">5.2 Domains</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Colors">5.2.1 Colors</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Numbers">5.2.2 Numbers</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Days_of_the_Week">5.2.3 Days of the Week</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Months_of_the_Year">5.2.4 Months of the Year</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Worldwide_usage">6 Worldwide usage</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Presence_in_Community_and_Education">6.1 Presence in Community and Education</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Translation">6.2 Translation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Sample_texts">7 Sample texts</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#In_popular_culture">8 In popular culture</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Films">9 Films</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#See_also">10 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#Notes">11 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#References">12 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#Bibliography">13 Bibliography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Further_reading">14 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#External_links">15 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Varieties">Varieties</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Varieties" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> Mong Leng (Moob Leeg) and Hmong Daw (Hmoob Dawb) are part of a dialect cluster known in China as Chuanqiandian Miao (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 川黔滇苗; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Sichuan–Guizhou–Yunnan Miao'), called the "Chuanqiandian cluster" in English (or "Miao cluster" in other languages) since West Hmongic is also called Chuanqiandian Miao. The variety spoken from Sichuan in China to Thailand and Laos is referred to in China as the "First Local Variety" (第一土语) of the cluster. Mong Leng and Hmong Daw are just those varieties of the cluster that migrated to Laos. The names Mong Leng, Hmong Dleu/Der, and Hmong Daw are also used in China for various dialects of the cluster. <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> once distinguished only the Laotian varieties (Hmong Daw, Mong Leng), Sinicized Miao (Hmong Shua), and the Vietnamese varieties (Hmong Dô, Hmong Don). The Vietnamese varieties are very poorly known; population estimates are not even available. In 2007, Horned Miao, <a href="/wiki/Small_Flowery_Miao" class="mw-redirect" title="Small Flowery Miao">Small Flowery Miao</a>, and the Chuanqiandian cluster of China were split off from Mong Leng [blu].<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> These varieties are as follows, along with some alternative names. <ul><li>Hmong/Mong/Chuanqiandian Miao macrolanguage (China, Laos, also spoken by minorities in Thailand and the United States), including: <ul><li>Hmong Daw (Hmong Der, Hmoob Dawb, Hmong Dleu, Hmongb Dleub, 'White Hmong'; Chinese: 白苗, Bái Miáo, 'White Miao'),</li> <li>Mong Leng (Moob Leeg, Moob Ntsuab, Mongb Nzhuab, 'Blue/Green Hmong'; Chinese: 青苗, Qīng Miáo, 'Blue-Green Miao'),</li> <li>Hmong Shua (Hmongb Shuat; 'Sinicized Miao'),</li> <li>Hmo or A-Hmo (Chinese: 角苗, Jiǎo Miáo, 'Horned Miao'),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Flowery_Miao" class="mw-redirect" title="Small Flowery Miao">Small Flowery Miao</a>,</li> <li>and the rest of the Chuanqiandian Miao cluster located in China.</li></ul></li> <li>Hmong languages of Vietnam, not considered part of the China/Laos macrolanguage and possibly forming their own distinct macrolanguage — they are still not very well classified even if they are described by Ethnologue as having vigorous use (in Vietnam) but without population estimates; they have most probably been influenced by <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>, as well as by <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> (in the former <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">Indochina colonies</a>) and later <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a>, and they may be confused with varieties spoken by minorities living today in the United States, Europe or elsewhere in Asia (where their varieties may have been assimilated locally, but separately in each area, with other Hmong varieties imported from Laos and China): <ul><li>Hmong Dô (Vietnam),</li> <li>Hmong Don (Vietnam, assumed).</li></ul></li></ul> The <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) stated that the White and Leng dialects "are said to be mutually intelligible to a well-trained ear, with pronunciation and vocabulary differences analogous to the differences between <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Chap2Overview-7">[7]</a> Several Chinese varieties may overlap with or be more distinct than the varieties listed above: <ul><li>Dananshan Miao (Hmong Drout Raol, Hmong Hout Lab; called Hmong Dou in Northern Hmong), the basis of the Chinese standard of the Chuanqiandian cluster</li> <li>Black Miao (subgroups: Hmong Dlob, Hmong Buak/Hmoob Puas; Chinese: 黑苗, Hēi Miáo)<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></li> <li>Southern Hmong (subgroups: Hmongb Shib, Hmongb Lens, Hmongb Dlex Nchab, Hmongb Sad; includes Mong Leng)</li> <li>Northern Hmong (subgroups: Hmongb Soud, Hmong Be/Hmongb Bes, Hmongb Ndrous)</li> <li>Western Sichuan Miao (Chinese: 川苗, Chuān Miáo)</li></ul> In the 2007 request to establish an ISO code for the Chuanqiandian cluster, corresponding to the "first local dialect" (第一土语) of the Chuanqiandian cluster in Chinese, the proposer made the following statement on mutual intelligibility: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">A colleague has talked with speakers of a number of these closely-related lects in the US, in Thailand and in China, and has had many discussions with Chinese linguists and foreign researchers or community development workers who have had extensive contact with speakers of these lects. As a result of these conversations this colleague believes that many of these lects are likely to have high inherent mutual intelligibility within the cluster. Culturally, while each sub-group prides itself on its own distinctives, they also recognize that other sub-groups within this category are culturally similar to themselves and accept the others as members of the same general ethnic group. However, this category of lects is internally varied and geographically scattered and mixed over a broad land area, and comprehensive intelligibility testing would be required to confirm reports of mutual intelligibility throughout the cluster.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Varieties_in_Laos">Varieties in Laos</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Varieties in Laos" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> According to the CDC, "although there is no official preference for one dialect over the other, White Hmong seems to be favored in many ways":<a href="#cite_note-Chap2Overview-7">[7]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">Romanized Popular Alphabet</a> (RPA) most closely reflects that of White Hmong (Hmong Daw); most educated Hmong speak White Hmong because White Hmong people lack the ability to understand Mong Leng; and most Hmong dictionaries only include the White Hmong dialect. Furthermore, younger generations of Hmong are more likely to speak White Hmong, and speakers of Mong Leng are more likely to understand White Hmong than speakers of White Hmong are.<a href="#cite_note-Chap2Overview-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Varieties_in_the_United_States">Varieties in the United States</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Varieties in the United States" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Most Hmong in the United States speak White Hmong (Hmoob Dawb) and Mong Leng (Moob Leeg), with around 60% speaking White Hmong and 40% Mong Leng. The <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a> states that "though some Hmong report difficulty understanding speakers of a dialect not their own, for the most part, Mong Leng seem to do better when understanding both dialects."<a href="#cite_note-Chap2Overview-7">[7]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phonology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> The three dialects described here are Hmong Daw (also called White Miao or Hmong Der),<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Mong Leeg (also called Blue/Green Miao or Mong Leng),<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> and Dananshan (Standard Chinese Miao).<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are the two major dialects spoken by <a href="/wiki/Hmong_Americans" title="Hmong Americans">Hmong Americans</a>. Although mutually intelligible, the dialects differ in both lexicon and certain aspects of phonology. For instance, Mong Leeg lacks the voiceless/aspirated /m̥/ of Hmong Daw (as exemplified by their names) and has a third nasalized vowel, /ã/; Dananshan has a couple of extra diphthongs in native words, numerous Chinese loans, and an eighth tone. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vowels" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The vowel systems of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are as shown in the following charts.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> (Phonemes particular to Hmong Daw† and Mong Leeg‡ are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.) <ol><li>1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA</li> <li>2nd Row: Nyiakeng Puachue</li> <li>3rd Row: Pahawh</li></ol> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">Monophthongs</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>oral </th> <th>nasal </th> <th>oral </th> <th>nasal </th> <th>oral </th> <th>nasal </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="113" style="width:113px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="I_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f8/I_-_Hmong_word.wav/I_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f8/I_-_Hmong_word.wav/I_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/I_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> <a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> ⟨i⟩ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂, 𖬃</big> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center"><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="113" style="width:113px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="W_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6f/W_-_Hmong_word.wav/W_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6f/W_-_Hmong_word.wav/W_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/W_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> <a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a> ⟨w⟩ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬘, 𖬙</big> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center"><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="113" style="width:113px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="U_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a4/U_-_Hmong_word.wav/U_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a4/U_-_Hmong_word.wav/U_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/U_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> <a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> ⟨u⟩ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆, 𖬇</big> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="114" style="width:114px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="E_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/01/E_-_Hmong_word.wav/E_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/01/E_-_Hmong_word.wav/E_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/E_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a> ⟨e⟩ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈, 𖬉</big> </td> <td align="center"><audio id="mwe_player_4" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="111" style="width:111px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Ee_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8d/Ee_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ee_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8d/Ee_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ee_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Ee_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ẽ</a>~eŋ ⟨ee⟩ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬀, 𖬁</big> </td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td><audio id="mwe_player_5" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="112" style="width:112px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="O_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/O_-_Hmong_word.wav/O_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/O_-_Hmong_word.wav/O_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/O_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> <a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a> ⟨o⟩ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒, 𖬓</big> </td> <td><audio id="mwe_player_6" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="110" style="width:110px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Oo_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/Oo_-_Hmong_word.wav/Oo_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/Oo_-_Hmong_word.wav/Oo_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Oo_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ɔ̃</a>~ɔŋ ⟨oo⟩ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬌, 𖬍</big> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td></td> <td> </td> <td align="center"><audio id="mwe_player_7" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="114" style="width:114px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="A_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cb/A_-_Hmong_word.wav/A_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cb/A_-_Hmong_word.wav/A_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/A_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> <a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a> ⟨a⟩ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖, 𖬗</big> </td> <td style="background:#caff70; text-align:center;"><audio id="mwe_player_8" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="110" style="width:110px;" data-durationhint="2" data-mwtitle="Aa_-_Green_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/36/Aa_-_Green_Hmong_word.wav/Aa_-_Green_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/36/Aa_-_Green_Hmong_word.wav/Aa_-_Green_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Aa_-_Green_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ã</a>~aŋ ⟨aa⟩ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬚, 𖬛</big>‡ </td> <td align="center"></td> <td align="center"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Diphthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Closing </th> <th>Centering </th></tr> <tr> <td>Close component is front </td> <td align="center"><audio id="mwe_player_9" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="109" style="width:109px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Ai_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b7/Ai_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ai_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b7/Ai_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ai_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Ai_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> ai ⟨ai⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄤𞄦, 𞄣‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬊, 𖬋</big> </td> <td style="background:#eee8aa; text-align:center;"><audio id="mwe_player_10" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="114" style="width:114px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Ia_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Ia_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ia_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Ia_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ia_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Ia_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> iə ⟨ia⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄦𞄤, 𞄞‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔, 𖬕</big>† </td></tr> <tr> <td>Close component is central </td> <td align="center"><audio id="mwe_player_11" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="109" style="width:109px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Aw_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/Aw_-_Hmong_word.wav/Aw_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/Aw_-_Hmong_word.wav/Aw_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Aw_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> aɨ ⟨aw⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄤𞄬, 𞄢‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎, 𖬏</big> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Close component is back </td> <td align="center"><audio id="mwe_player_12" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="106" style="width:106px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Au_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/Au_-_Hmong_word.wav/Au_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/Au_-_Hmong_word.wav/Au_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Au_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> au ⟨au⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄤𞄨, 𞄠‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄, 𖬅</big> </td> <td align="center"><audio id="mwe_player_13" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="104" style="width:104px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Ua_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b4/Ua_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ua_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b4/Ua_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ua_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ua_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> uə ⟨ua⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄧𞄤, 𞄜‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐, 𖬑</big> </td></tr></tbody></table> The Dananshan standard of China is similar. Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded and marked as absent or added. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Dananshan Miao vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>oral </th> <th>nasal </th> <th>oral </th> <th>nasal </th> <th>oral </th> <th>nasal </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#eecce8;">(<a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a>) (added)</td> <td> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></td> <td align="center">en </td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></td> <td align="center">oŋ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td></td> <td> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></td> <td>aŋ </td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Diphthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Closing </th> <th>Centering </th></tr> <tr> <td>Close component is front </td> <td align="center">aj ⟨ai⟩ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#eecce8;">(absent) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Close component is back </td> <td align="center">aw ⟨au⟩ </td> <td align="center">wɒ ⟨ua⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#eecce8;">əw ⟨ou⟩ eβ ⟨eu⟩ (added) </td> <td align="center"> </td></tr></tbody></table> Dananshan [ɨ] occurs only after non-palatal affricates, and is written ⟨i⟩, much like Mandarin Chinese. /u/ is pronounced [y] after palatal consonants. There is also a triphthong /jeβ/ ⟨ieu⟩, as well as other i- and u-initial sequences in Chinese borrowings, such as /waj/. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Consonants" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Hmong makes a number of phonemic contrasts unfamiliar to English speakers. All non-glottal stops and affricates distinguish aspirated and unaspirated forms, and most also distinguish <a href="/wiki/Prenasalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Prenasalization">prenasalization</a> independently of this. The consonant inventory of Hmong is shown in the chart below. (Consonants particular to Hmong Daw† and Mong Leeg‡ are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.) <ol><li>1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA</li> <li>2nd Row: Nyiakeng Puachue</li> <li>3rd Row: Pahawh</li></ol> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">lateral</a><a href="#endnote_l">*</a> </th> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral</a><a href="#endnote_l">*</a> </th> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilant</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td style="background:#EEE8AA"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiceless bilabial nasal">m̥</a> ⟨hm⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬣𖬵</big>† </td> <td style="background:#EEE8AA">(<a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">m̥ˡ</a>) ⟨hml⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄠𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬠𖬰</big>† </td> <td style="background:#EEE8AA"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_nasal" title="Voiceless alveolar nasal">n̥</a> ⟨hn⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬩</big>† </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#EEE8AA"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_nasal" title="Voiceless palatal nasal">ɲ̥</a> ⟨hny⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄐𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬣𖬰</big>† </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> ⟨m⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬦</big> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">mˡ</a>) ⟨ml⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄠‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬠</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> ⟨n⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬬</big> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a> ⟨ny⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄐‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬮𖬵</big> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a> ⟨g⟩ marginal<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020216-14">[14]</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_nasal" title="Voiced uvular nasal">⟨ɴ⟩</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄢‎ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <th>tenuis </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> ⟨p⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬪𖬵</big> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">pˡ</a>) ⟨pl⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄡‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬟𖬵</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> ⟨t⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬵</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a> ⟨tx⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄔‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬯𖬵</big> </td> <td style="background:#CAFF70">(<a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">tˡ</a>) ⟨dl⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄏‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬭</big>‡ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a> ⟨r⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄖‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬡</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex affricate">tʂ</a> ⟨ts⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬝𖬰</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a> ⟨c⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄈‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬯</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> ⟨k⟩<a href="#endnote_k">***</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎‎ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a> ⟨q⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄗‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬦𖬵</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a> ⟨au⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄠‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬮𖬰</big> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a> ⟨ph⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬝𖬵</big> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">pˡʰ</a>) ⟨plh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄡𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬪</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a> ⟨th⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬟𖬰</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tsʰ</a> ⟨txh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄔𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬦𖬰</big> </td> <td style="background:#CAFF70">(<a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">tˡʰ</a>) ⟨dlh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄏𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬭𖬴</big>‡ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʈʰ</a> ⟨rh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄖𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬢𖬵</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʂʰ</a> ⟨tsh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬪𖬰</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">cʰ</a> ⟨ch⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄈𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a> ⟨kh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬩𖬰</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">qʰ</a> ⟨qh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄗𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬣</big> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#EEE8AA"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> ⟨d⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄏‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬞𖬰</big>† </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">murmured</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#EEE8AA"><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">dʱ</a> ⟨dh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄏𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬞𖬵</big>† </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Prenasalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Prenasalization">prenasalized</a><a href="#endnote_nd">**</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐb</a> ⟨np⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄜‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬨𖬵</big> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐbˡ</a>) ⟨npl⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄞‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬫𖬰</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿd</a> ⟨nt⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄂‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬩𖬵</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿdz</a> ⟨ntx⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄓‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬢𖬰</big> </td> <td style="background:#CAFF70">(<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿdˡ</a>) ⟨ndl⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬭𖬰</big>‡ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯɖ</a> ⟨nr⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄑‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬜𖬰</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯdʐ</a> ⟨nts⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄍‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬝</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶮɟ</a> ⟨nc⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄌‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬤𖬰</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵑɡ</a> ⟨nk⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄇‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬢</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶰɢ</a> ⟨nq⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄙‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬬𖬰</big> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐpʰ</a> ⟨nph⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄜𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬡𖬰</big> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐpˡʰ</a>) ⟨nplh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄞𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬡𖬵</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtʰ</a> ⟨nth⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄂𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬫</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtsʰ</a> ⟨ntxh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄓𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬥𖬵</big> </td> <td style="background:#CAFF70">(<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtˡʰ</a>) ⟨ndlh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬭𖬵</big>‡ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯʈʰ</a> ⟨nrh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄑𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬨𖬰</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯtʂʰ</a> ⟨ntsh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄍𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬯𖬰</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶮcʰ</a> ⟨nch⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄌𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬨</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵑkʰ</a> ⟨nkh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄇𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬫𖬵</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶰqʰ</a> ⟨nqh⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄙𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬬𖬵</big> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Continuant" title="Continuant">Continuant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> ⟨f⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄕‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬜𖬵</big> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> ⟨x⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄆‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬮</big> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral approximant">l̥</a> ⟨hl⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄄𞄉‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬥</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a> ⟨s⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄊‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬤𖬵</big> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a> ⟨xy⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄛‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬰</big> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> ⟨h⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄄‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬟</big> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a> ⟨v⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄒‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬜</big> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> ⟨l⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬞</big> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a> ⟨z⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄋‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬥𖬰</big> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">ʝ</a> ⟨y⟩ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘‎ <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬤</big> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">⟨ɻ⟩</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄣‎ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> The Dananshan standard of China is similar. (Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded and marked as absent or added. Minor differences, such as the voicing of prenasalized stops, or whether /c/ is an affricate or /h/ is velar, may be a matter of transcription.) Aspirates, voiceless fricatives, voiceless nasals, and glottal stop only occur with yin tones (1, 3, 5, 7). Standard orthography is added in <a href="/wiki/Brackets#Angled_bracket" class="mw-redirect" title="Brackets">angled brackets</a>. The glottal stop is not written; it is not distinct from a zero initial. There is also a /w/, which occurs only in foreign words. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Dananshan Miao consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">lateral</a><a href="#endnote_l">*</a> </th> <th>plain </th> <th>sibilant </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">lateral</a><a href="#endnote_l">*</a> </th> <th>plain </th> <th>sibilant </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiceless bilabial nasal">m̥</a> ⟨hm⟩ </td> <td style="background:#EECCE8">(absent) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_nasal" title="Voiceless alveolar nasal">n̥</a> ⟨hn⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_nasal" title="Voiceless palatal nasal">ɲ̥</a> ⟨hni⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> ⟨m⟩ </td> <td style="background:#EECCE8">(absent) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> ⟨n⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a> ⟨ni⟩ </td> <td style="background:#EECCE8"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a> ⟨ngg⟩ (added) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <th>tenuis </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> ⟨b⟩ </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">pˡ</a>) ⟨bl⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> ⟨d⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a> ⟨z⟩ </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">tˡ</a>) ⟨dl⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a> ⟨dr⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex affricate">tʂ</a> ⟨zh⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a> ⟨j⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> ⟨g⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a> ⟨gh⟩ </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a> ⟨p⟩ </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">pˡʰ</a>) ⟨pl⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a> ⟨t⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tsʰ</a> ⟨c⟩ </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">tˡʰ</a>) ⟨tl⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʈʰ</a> ⟨tr⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʂʰ</a> ⟨ch⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tɕʰ</a> ⟨q⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a> ⟨k⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">qʰ</a> ⟨kh⟩ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#EECCE8">(absent) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Prenasalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Prenasalization">prenasalized</a><a href="#endnote_nd">**</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐp</a> ⟨nb⟩ </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐpˡ</a>) ⟨nbl⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿt</a> ⟨nd⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿts</a> ⟨nz⟩ </td> <td style="background:#EECCE8">(absent) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯʈ</a> ⟨ndr⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯtʂ</a> ⟨nzh⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtɕ</a> ⟨nj⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵑk</a> ⟨ng⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶰq</a> ⟨ngh⟩ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐpʰ</a> ⟨np⟩ </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐpˡʰ</a>) ⟨npl⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtʰ</a> ⟨nt⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtsʰ</a> ⟨nc⟩ </td> <td style="background:#EECCE8">(absent) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯʈʰ</a> ⟨ntr⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯtʂʰ</a> ⟨nch⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtɕʰ</a> ⟨nq⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵑkʰ</a> ⟨nk⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶰqʰ</a> ⟨nkh⟩ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Continuant" title="Continuant">Continuant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> ⟨f⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> ⟨s⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral approximant">l̥</a> ⟨hl⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a> ⟨sh⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a> ⟨x⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a> ⟨h⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a> ⟨v⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> ⟨l⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a> ⟨r⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">ʝ</a> ⟨y⟩ </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_l">^*</a> The status of the consonants described here as single phonemes with <a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">lateral release</a> is controversial. A number of scholars instead analyze them as biphonemic clusters with /l/ as the second element. The difference in analysis (e.g., between /pˡ/ and /pl/) is not based on any disagreement in the sound or pronunciation of the consonants in question, but on differing theoretical grounds. Those in favor of a unit-phoneme analysis generally argue for this based on distributional evidence (i.e., if clusters, these would be the only clusters in the language, although see below) and dialect evidence (the laterally released dentals in Mong Leeg, e.g. /tˡʰ/, correspond to the voiced dentals of White Hmong), whereas those in favor of a cluster analysis tend to argue on the basis of general phonetic principles (other examples of labial phonemes with lateral release appear extremely rare or nonexistent<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_nd">^**</a> Some linguists prefer to analyze the prenasalized consonants as clusters whose first element is /n/. However, this cluster analysis is not as common as the above one involving /l/. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_k">^***</a> Only used in <a href="/wiki/Hmong_RPA" class="mw-redirect" title="Hmong RPA">Hmong RPA</a> and not in <a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a>, since Hmong RPA uses <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> and Pahawh Hmong does not. For example, in Hmong RPA, to write keeb, the order Consonant + Vowel + Tone (CVT) must be followed, so it is k + ee + b = keeb, but in Pahawh Hmong, it is just Keeb "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬀" (3rd-Stage Version). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllable_structure">Syllable structure</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Syllable structure" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Hmong <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> have simple structure: all syllables have an <a href="/wiki/Syllable_onset" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable onset">onset</a> consonant (except in a few particles<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020220-16">[16]</a>), <a href="/wiki/Syllable_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable nucleus">nuclei</a> may consist of a monophthong or diphthong, and the only <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">coda</a> consonants that occur are nasals. In Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, nasal codas have become nasalized vowels, though they may be accompanied by weakly articulated [ŋ].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020214-17">[17]</a> Similarly, a short [ʔ] may accompany the low-falling <a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky</a> tone. Dananshan has a syllabic /l̩/ (written ⟨l⟩) in Chinese loans, such as lf 'two' and lx 'child'. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones">Tones</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Tones" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Hmong is a <a href="/wiki/Tonal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonal language">tonal language</a> and makes use of seven (Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg) or eight (Dananshan) distinct <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tones</a>. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Tone </th> <th>Hmong Daw example<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">Hmong/Mong RPA spelling</a> </th> <th>Vietnamese Hmong spelling </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong" title="Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong">Nyiakeng Puachue</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a> </th> <th>Hmong Pronunciation </th></tr> <tr> <td>High ˥ </td> <td>/pɔ́/ 'ball' </td> <td>pob </td> <td>poz </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄨𞄰‎ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬰𖬪𖬵 </td> <td><audio id="mwe_player_14" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="119" style="width:119px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Pob_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/86/Pob_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pob_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/86/Pob_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pob_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Pob_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mid ˧ </td> <td>/pɔ/ 'spleen' </td> <td>po </td> <td>po </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄨‎ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬓𖬰𖬪𖬵 </td> <td><audio id="mwe_player_15" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="119" style="width:119px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Po_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b6/Po_-_Hmong_word.wav/Po_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b6/Po_-_Hmong_word.wav/Po_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Po_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Low ˩ </td> <td>/pɔ̀/ 'thorn' </td> <td>pos </td> <td>pos </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄨𞄴‎ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬓𖬲𖬪𖬵 </td> <td><audio id="mwe_player_16" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="119" style="width:119px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Pos_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Pos_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pos_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Pos_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pos_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Pos_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> </td></tr> <tr> <td>High-falling ˥˧ </td> <td>/pɔ̂/ 'female' </td> <td>poj </td> <td>pox </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄨𞄲‎ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬲𖬪𖬵 </td> <td><audio id="mwe_player_17" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="119" style="width:119px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Poj_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Poj_-_Hmong_word.wav/Poj_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Poj_-_Hmong_word.wav/Poj_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Poj_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mid-rising ˧˦ </td> <td>/pɔ̌/ 'to throw' </td> <td>pov </td> <td>por </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄨𞄳‎ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬶𖬪𖬵 </td> <td><audio id="mwe_player_18" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="119" style="width:119px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Pov_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Pov_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pov_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Pov_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pov_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Pov_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Low checked (<a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky</a>) tone ˩ (phrase final: long low rising ˨˩˧) </td> <td>/pɔ̰̀/ 'to see' </td> <td>pom </td> <td>pov </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄨𞄱‎ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬪𖬵 </td> <td><audio id="mwe_player_19" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="119" style="width:119px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Pom_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/56/Pom_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pom_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/56/Pom_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pom_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Pom_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mid-falling <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy</a> tone ˧˩ </td> <td>/pɔ̤̂/ 'grandmother' </td> <td>pog </td> <td>pol </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄨𞄵‎ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬓𖬪𖬵 </td> <td><audio id="mwe_player_20" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="119" style="width:119px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="Pog_-_Hmong_word.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/71/Pog_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pog_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/71/Pog_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pog_-_Hmong_word.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Pog_-_Hmong_word.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio> </td></tr></tbody></table> The Dananshan tones are transcribed as pure tone. However, given how similar several of them are, it is likely that there are also phonational differences as in Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg. Tones 4 and 6, for example, are said to make <a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a> plosives <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathy voiced">breathy voiced</a> (浊送气), suggesting they may be breathy/murmured like the Hmong g-tone. Tones 7 and 8 are used in early Chinese loans with <a href="/wiki/Entering_tone" class="mw-redirect" title="Entering tone">entering tone</a>, suggesting they may once have marked checked syllables. Because voiceless consonants apart from tenuis plosives are restricted to appearing before certain tones (1, 3, 5, 7), those are placed first in the table: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Dananshan Miao tone </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Tone </th> <th>IPA </th> <th>Orthography </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 high falling </td> <td>˦˧ 43 </td> <td>b </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 top </td> <td>˥ 5 </td> <td>d </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 high </td> <td>˦ 4 </td> <td>t </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 mid </td> <td>˧ 3 </td> <td>k </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 mid falling </td> <td>˧˩ 31 </td> <td>x </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 low falling (breathy) </td> <td>˨˩̤ 21 </td> <td>l </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 low rising (breathy) </td> <td>˩˧̤ 13 </td> <td>s </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 mid rising </td> <td>˨˦ 24 </td> <td>f </td></tr></tbody></table> So much information is conveyed by the tones that it is possible to speak intelligibly using musical tunes only; there is a tradition of young lovers communicating covertly playing a <a href="/wiki/Jew%27s_harp" title="Jew's harp">Jew's harp</a> to convey vowel sounds.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Orthography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hmong_writing" title="Hmong writing">Hmong writing</a></div> Robert Cooper, an anthropologist, collected a Hmong folktale saying that the Hmong used to have a written language, and important information was written down in a treasured book. The folktale explains that cows and rats ate the book, so, in the words of <a href="/wiki/Anne_Fadiman" title="Anne Fadiman">Anne Fadiman</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_Catches_You_and_You_Fall_Down" title="The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down">The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down</a>, "no text was equal to the task of representing a culture as rich as that of the Hmong." Therefore, the folktale states that the Hmong language was exclusively oral from that point onwards.<a href="#cite_note-Fadiman291-20">[20]</a> Natalie Jill Smith, author of "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)", wrote that the <a href="/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a> had caused a previous Hmong writing system to die out when it stated that the death penalty would be imposed on those who wrote it down.<a href="#cite_note-SmithNJp44-21">[21]</a> Since the end of the 19th century, linguists created over two dozen Hmong writing systems, including systems using <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lao_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Lao alphabet">Lao alphabet</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_alphabet" title="Russian alphabet">Russian alphabet</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Thai_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Thai alphabet">Thai alphabet</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a>. In addition, in 1959 <a href="/wiki/Shong_Lue_Yang" title="Shong Lue Yang">Shong Lue Yang</a>, a Hmong spiritual leader from Laos, created an 81 symbol writing system called <a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh</a>. Yang was not previously literate in any language. Chao Fa, an anti-Laotian government Hmong group, uses this writing system.<a href="#cite_note-Fadiman291-20">[20]</a> In the 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong" title="Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong">Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong</a> script was created by a Hmong Minister, Reverend Chervang Kong Vang, to be able to capture Hmong vocabulary clearly and also to remedy redundancies in the language as well as address semantic confusions that was lacking in other scripts. Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was mainly used by <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Christians_Liberty_Evangelical&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Christians Liberty Evangelical (page does not exist)">United Christians Liberty Evangelical</a> Church, a church also founded by Vang, although the script have been found to be in use in Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, France, and Australia.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The script bears strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from the Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Other experiments by Hmong and non-Hmong orthographers have been undertaken using invented letters.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">Romanized Popular Alphabet</a> (RPA), the most widely used script for Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, was developed in Laos between 1951 and 1953 by three Western missionaries.<a href="#cite_note-Fadiman291-20">[20]</a> In the United States Hmong do not use RPA for spelling of proper nouns, because they want their names to be easily pronounced by people unfamiliar with RPA. For instance Hmong in the U.S. spell Hmoob as "Hmong," and Liab Lis is spelled as <a href="/wiki/Lia_Lee" class="mw-redirect" title="Lia Lee">Lia Lee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fadiman291-20">[20]</a> The Dananshan standard in China is written in a pinyin-based alphabet, with tone letters similar to those used in RPA. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Correspondence_between_orthographies">Correspondence between orthographies</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Correspondence between orthographies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The following is a list of pairs of RPA and Dananshan segments having the same sound (or very similar sounds). Note however that RPA and the standard in China not only differ in orthographic rules, but are also used to write different languages. The list is ordered alphabetically by the RPA, apart from prenasalized stops and voiceless sonorants, which come after their oral and voiced homologues. There are three overriding patterns to the correspondences: RPA doubles a vowel for nasalization, whereas pinyin uses ⟨ng⟩; RPA uses ⟨h⟩ for aspiration, whereas pinyin uses the voicing distinction of the Latin script; pinyin uses ⟨h⟩ (and ⟨r⟩) to derive the retroflex and uvular series from the dental and velar, whereas RPA uses sequences based on ⟨t, x, k⟩ vs. ⟨r, s, q⟩ for the same. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vowels_2">Vowels</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Vowels" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>RPA</th> <th>Pinyin </th> <th>Vietnamese </th> <th>Pahawh </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">a </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖, 𖬗 </td></tr> <tr> <td>aa</td> <td colspan="2">ang </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬚, 𖬛 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">ai </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬊, 𖬋 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">au </td> <td>âu </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄, 𖬅 </td></tr> <tr> <td>aw</td> <td>– </td> <td>ơư </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎, 𖬏 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">e </td> <td>ê </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈, 𖬉 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ee</td> <td>eng </td> <td>ênh </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬀, 𖬁 </td></tr> <tr> <td>–</td> <td>eu </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">i </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂, 𖬃 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ia</td> <td>– </td> <td>iê </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔, 𖬕 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">o </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒, 𖬓 </td></tr> <tr> <td>oo</td> <td>ong </td> <td>ông </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬌, 𖬍 </td></tr> <tr> <td>–</td> <td>ou </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">u </td> <td>u </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆, 𖬇 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ua </td> <td>uô </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐, 𖬑 </td></tr> <tr> <td>w</td> <td>i </td> <td>ư </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬘, 𖬙 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consonants_2">Consonants</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Consonants" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>RPA</th> <th>Dananshan </th> <th>Vietnamese </th> <th>Pahawh </th></tr> <tr> <td>c</td> <td>j </td> <td>ch </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬯 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ch</td> <td colspan="2">q </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nc</td> <td>nj </td> <td>nd </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬤𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nch</td> <td colspan="2">nq </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬨 </td></tr> <tr> <td>d</td> <td>– </td> <td>đ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬞𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>dh</td> <td>– </td> <td>đh </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬞𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">dl </td> <td>đr </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬭 </td></tr> <tr> <td>dlh</td> <td>tl </td> <td>đl </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬭𖬴 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ndl</td> <td>– </td> <td>nđr </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬭𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ndlh</td> <td>– </td> <td>nđl </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬭𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">f </td> <td>ph </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬜𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">h </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬟 </td></tr> <tr> <td>k</td> <td>g </td> <td>c </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>kh</td> <td>k </td> <td>kh </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬩𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nk</td> <td>ng </td> <td>g </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬢 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nkh</td> <td>nk </td> <td>nkh </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬫𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">l </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬞 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">hl </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬥 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">m </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬦 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">hm </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬣𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ml</td> <td>– </td> <td>mn </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬠 </td></tr> <tr> <td>hml</td> <td>– </td> <td>hmn </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬠𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">n </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬬 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">hn </td> <td>hn </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬩 </td></tr> <tr> <td>–</td> <td>ngg </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>ny</td> <td>ni </td> <td>nh </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬮𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>hny</td> <td>hni </td> <td>hnh </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬣𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>p</td> <td>b </td> <td>p </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬪𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ph</td> <td>p </td> <td>ph </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬝𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>np</td> <td>nb </td> <td>b </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬨𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nph</td> <td>np </td> <td>mf </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬡𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>pl</td> <td>bl </td> <td>pl </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬟𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>plh</td> <td>pl </td> <td>fl </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬪 </td></tr> <tr> <td>npl</td> <td>nbl </td> <td>bl </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬫𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nplh</td> <td>npl </td> <td>mfl </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬡𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>q</td> <td>gh </td> <td>k </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬦𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>qh</td> <td>kh </td> <td>qh </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬣 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nq</td> <td>ngh </td> <td>ng </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬬𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nqh</td> <td>nkh </td> <td>nkr </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬬𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>r</td> <td>dr </td> <td>tr </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬡 </td></tr> <tr> <td>rh</td> <td>tr </td> <td>rh </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬢𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nr</td> <td>ndr </td> <td>r </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬜𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nrh</td> <td>ntr </td> <td>nr </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬨𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>s</td> <td>sh </td> <td>s </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬤𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>t</td> <td>d </td> <td>t </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>th</td> <td>t </td> <td>th </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬟𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nt</td> <td>nd </td> <td>nt </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬩𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nth</td> <td>nt </td> <td>nth </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬫 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ts</td> <td>zh </td> <td>ts </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬝𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>tsh</td> <td>ch </td> <td>tsh </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬪𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>nts</td> <td>nzh </td> <td>nts </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬝 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ntsh</td> <td>nch </td> <td>ntsh </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬯𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>tx</td> <td>z </td> <td>tx </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬯𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td>txh</td> <td>c </td> <td>cx </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬦𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ntx</td> <td>nz </td> <td>nz </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬢𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ntxh</td> <td>nc </td> <td>nx </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬥𖬵 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">v </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬜 </td></tr> <tr> <td>–</td> <td>w </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>x</td> <td>s </td> <td>x </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬮 </td></tr> <tr> <td>xy</td> <td>x </td> <td>sh </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬰 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">y </td> <td>z </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬤 </td></tr> <tr> <td>z</td> <td>r </td> <td>j </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬥𖬰 </td></tr></tbody></table> There is no simple correspondence between the tone letters. The historical connection between the tones is as follows. The Chinese names reflect the tones given to early Chinese loan words with those tones in Chinese. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Tone class </th> <th rowspan="2">Tone number </th> <th rowspan="2">Dananshan orthog. </th> <th colspan="2">RPA </th> <th rowspan="2">Vietnamese Hmong </th></tr> <tr> <th>Hmoob </th> <th>Moob </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">平 or A </td> <td>1</td> <td>b ˦˧ </td> <td colspan="2">b ˥ </td> <td>z </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>x ˧˩ </td> <td colspan="2">j ˥˧ </td> <td>x </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">上 or B </td> <td>3</td> <td>d ˥ </td> <td colspan="2">v ˧˦ </td> <td>r </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td>l ˨˩̤</td> <td>s</td> <td>g </td> <td>s </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">去 or C </td> <td>5</td> <td>t ˦ </td> <td colspan="3">(unmarked) ˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td>s ˩˧̤ </td> <td colspan="2">g ˧˩̤ </td> <td>l </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">入 or D </td> <td>7</td> <td>k ˧ </td> <td colspan="2">s ˩ </td> <td>s </td></tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td>f ˨˦ </td> <td colspan="2">m ˩̰ ~ d ˨˩˧ </td> <td>v ~ k </td></tr></tbody></table> Tones 4 and 7 merged in Hmoob Dawb, whereas tones 4 and 6 merged in Mong Leeg.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Example: lus Hmoob /̤ lṳ˧˩ m̥̥õ˦ / <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄧𞄴𞄀𞄄𞄰𞄩‎ / (White Hmong) / lug Moob / <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄧𞄵𞄀𞄩𞄰‎ / (Mong Leng) / lol Hmongb (Dananshan) / lus Hmôngz (Vietnamese) "Hmong language". </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Grammar" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> Hmong is an <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a> <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">SVO</a> language in which <a href="/wiki/Adjectives" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjectives">adjectives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstratives</a> follow the <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nouns" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Noun phrases can contain the following elements (parentheses indicate optional elements):<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> (possessive) + (quantifier) + (classifier) + noun + (adjective) + (demonstrative) The Hmong pronominal system distinguishes between three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">grammatical persons</a> and three numbers – singular, dual, and plural. They are not marked for case, that is, the same word is used to translate both "I" and "me", "she" and "her", and so forth. These are the <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a> of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg: <ol><li>1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA</li> <li>2nd Row: Vietnamese Hmong</li> <li>3rd Row: Pahawh Hmong</li> <li>4th Row: Nyiakeng Puachue</li></ol> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>White Hmong Pronouns </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Number:</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Dual</th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>First </th> <td>kuv cur <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ </td> <td>wb ưz <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬘𖬰𖬮𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄬𞄰‎ </td> <td>peb pêz <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄪𞄰‎ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Second </th> <td>koj cox <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄨𞄲‎ </td> <td>neb nêz <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬰𖬬 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄪𞄰‎ </td> <td>nej nêx <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬲𖬬 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄪𞄲‎ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Third </th> <td>nws nưs <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬙𖬲𖬬 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄬𞄴‎ </td> <td>nkawd gơưk <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬱𖬢 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄇𞄤𞄶𞄬‎ </td> <td>lawv lơưr <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬶𖬞 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬‎ </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Green Hmong Pronouns </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Number:</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Dual</th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>First </th> <td>kuv cur <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ </td> <td>ib iz <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄦𞄰‎ </td> <td>peb pêz <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄪𞄰‎ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Second </th> <td>koj cox <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄨𞄲‎ </td> <td>meb mêz <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬰𖬦 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄪𞄰‎ </td> <td>mej mêx <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬲𖬦 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄪𞄲‎ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Third </th> <td>nwg nưs <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬙𖬶𖬬 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄬𞄵‎ </td> <td>ob tug oz tus <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄨𞄰𞄃𞄧𞄵‎ </td> <td>puab puôz <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬶𖬪𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄧𞄰𞄤‎ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classifiers">Classifiers</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Classifiers" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifiers</a> are one of the features recurrently found in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia_linguistic_area" title="Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area">languages of Southeast Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnfield201817-26">[26]</a> In Hmong, the noun does not directly follow a <a href="/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">numeral</a>, and a classifier or an adjective is required to count objects. Here are examples from Mong Leeg (Green Hmong):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019624%E2%80%93625-27">[27]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ob<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄨𞄰‎two</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tug<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄶‎CLF</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlev<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎dog</div>ob tug dlev<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄨𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄶‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎two CLF dog'two dogs'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ob<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄨𞄰‎two</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(tug)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">(𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">(𞄃𞄧𞄶)‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nyuas<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄐𞄧𞄤𞄴‎little</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlev<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎dog</div>ob (tug) nyuas dlev<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">(𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄨𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">(𞄃𞄧𞄶)‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄐𞄧𞄤𞄴‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎two CLF little dog'two little dogs'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Also, classifiers may occur with a noun without any numerals for <a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">definite</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Specificity_(linguistics)" title="Specificity (linguistics)">specific</a> reference in Hmong.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisang199322%E2%80%9326-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpsonSohNomoto2011175-29">[29]</a> The following examples are again from Green Hmong:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019625%E2%80%93626-30">[30]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎1SG</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">pum<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬪𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄧𞄱‎see</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlev<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎dog</div>kuv pum dlev<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬪𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄧𞄱‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎1SG see dog'I saw dogs/a dog.' (indefinite and non-specific)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">pum<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬪𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄧𞄱‎see</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tug<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄶‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlev<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎dog</div>kuv pum tug dlev<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬪𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄧𞄱‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄶‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎1SG see CLF dog'I saw the dog.' (definite and specific)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎1SG</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">pum<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬪𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄧𞄱‎see</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ib<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄦𞄰‎one</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tug<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄶‎CLF</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlev<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎dog</div>kuv pum ib tug dlev<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬪𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄧𞄱‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄦𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄶‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎1SG see one CLF dog'I saw a (specific) dog.' (indefinite and specific)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎1SG</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">pum<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬪𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄧𞄱‎see</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ob<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄨𞄰‎two</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tug<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄶‎CLF</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlev<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎dog</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">hov<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬶𖬟<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄄𞄨𞄳‎DEM:3</div>kuv pum ob tug dlev hov<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬪𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉𖬭𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬶𖬟<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄧𞄱‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄨𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄶‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄝𞄪𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄄𞄨𞄳‎1SG see two CLF dog DEM:3'I saw those two dogs.' (definite and specific)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Moreover, nominal possessive phrases are expressed with a classifier;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019622%E2%80%93624-31">[31]</a> however, it may be omitted when the referent of the possessed noun is <a href="/wiki/Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">inalienable</a> from the possessor as shown in the following Hmong Daw (White Hmong) phrases:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisang199327-32">[32]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nws<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬙𖬲𖬬<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄬𞄴‎3SG</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">rab<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬲𖬡<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄖𞄤𞄰‎CLF</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ntaj<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬰𖬩𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄂𞄤𞄲‎sword</div>nws rab ntaj<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬙𖬲𖬬 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬲𖬡 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬰𖬩𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄬𞄴‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄖𞄤𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄂𞄤𞄲‎3SG CLF sword'his sword'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎1SG</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">txiv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬶𖬯𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄔𞄦𞄳‎father</div>kuv txiv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬶𖬯𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄔𞄦𞄳‎1SG father'my father'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relativization</a> is also expressed with classifiers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisang199327-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019623-33">[33]</a> Although absent in <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a>, definite reference by bare classifier constructions are found in <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai languages">Kra-dai</a>), which is the case for possessive classifier constructions as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthews2007230%E2%80%93231-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Verbs" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Hmong is an <a href="/wiki/Isolating_language" title="Isolating language">isolating language</a> in which most morphemes are monosyllables. As a result, verbs are not overtly <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflected</a>. <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">Tense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a> are indicated lexically.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Serial_verb_construction">Serial verb construction</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Serial verb construction" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Hmong verbs can be <a href="/wiki/Serial_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial verb">serialized</a>, with two or more verbs combined in one clause. It is common for as many as five verbs to be strung together, sharing the same subject. Here is an example from White Hmong: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">YamZav<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬤<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄤𞄱‎Thing</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">zoojông<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬍𖬥𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄋𞄩‎best</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tshajtshax<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄲‎very</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">plaws,plơưs,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬏𖬰𖬟𖬵,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄡𞄤𞄬𞄴‎,full,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nejnêx<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬲𖬬<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄪𞄲‎2PL</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">yuavzuôr<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬲𖬤<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄧𞄤𞄳‎IRR</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tsumtsuv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬝𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄧𞄱‎must</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">mus,mus,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬦,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄧𞄴‎,go,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nrhiav,nriêz,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔𖬲𖬨𖬰,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄑𞄄𞄦𞄤𞄳‎,seek,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nug,nuv,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬬,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄧𞄶‎,ask,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">xyuas,shuôs,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬲𖬧𖬰,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄛𞄧𞄤𞄴‎,examine,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">saibsaiz<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬊𖬰𖬤𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄊𞄤𞄦𞄰‎look</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">luagluôv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬶𖬞<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄧𞄤𞄶‎others</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">muajmuôj<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬰𖬦<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄧𞄤𞄲‎have</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kevcêr<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄪𞄳‎services</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">pabpaz<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬲𖬪𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄤𞄰‎variations</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">homhov<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬟<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄄𞄨𞄱‎type</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dab_tsiđaz_tsi<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬲𖬞𖬰_<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬝𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄏𞄤𞄰‎_<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄦‎what</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nyobnhoz<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄐𞄨𞄰‎be.at</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ncigndil<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬲𖬤𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄌𞄦𞄶‎around</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ibib<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄦𞄰‎one</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">cheeb_tsamqênhz_tsav<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬀𖬶𖬧_<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬝𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄈𞄄𞄫𞄰‎_<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄤𞄱‎area</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ntawmntơưv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄂𞄤𞄬𞄱‎at</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nej.nêx.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬲𖬬.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄪𞄲‎.2PL</div>Yam zoo tshaj plaws, nej yuav tsum mus, nrhiav, nug, xyuas, saib luag muaj kev pab hom dab_tsi nyob ncig ib cheeb_tsam ntawm nej.Zav jông tshax plơưs, nêx zuôr tsuv mus, nriêz, nuv, shuôs, saiz luôv muôj cêr paz hov đaz_tsi nhoz ndil ib qênhz_tsav ntơưv nêx.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬤 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬍𖬥𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬏𖬰𖬟𖬵, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬲𖬬 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬲𖬤 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬝𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬦, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔𖬲𖬨𖬰, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬬, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬲𖬧𖬰, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬊𖬰𖬤𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬶𖬞 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬰𖬦 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬉 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬲𖬪𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬟 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬲𖬞𖬰_<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬝𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬲𖬤𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬀𖬶𖬧_<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬝𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬲𖬬.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄤𞄱‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄋𞄩‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄲‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄡𞄤𞄬𞄴‎, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄪𞄲‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄧𞄤𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄧𞄱‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄧𞄴‎, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄑𞄄𞄦𞄤𞄳‎, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄧𞄶‎, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄛𞄧𞄤𞄴‎, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄊𞄤𞄦𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄧𞄤𞄶‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄧𞄤𞄲‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄪𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄤𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄄𞄨𞄱‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄏𞄤𞄰‎_<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄦‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄐𞄨𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄌𞄦𞄶‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄦𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄈𞄄𞄫𞄰‎_<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄤𞄱‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄂𞄤𞄬𞄱‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄪𞄲‎.Thing best very full, 2PL IRR must go, seek, ask, examine, look others have services variations type what be.at around one area at 2PL'The best thing you can do is to explore your neighborhood and find out what services are available.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tense">Tense</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Tense" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Because the verb form in Hmong does not change to indicate tense, the simplest way to indicate the time of an event is to use temporal adverb phrases like "last year," "today," or "next week." Here is an example from White Hmong: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Nag hmoNav hmo<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬶𖬬 𖬓𖬰𖬣𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄤𞄵 𞄀𞄄𞄨‎yesterday</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuvcur<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎I</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">musmus<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬦<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄧𞄴‎go</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tomtov<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄨𞄱‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">khw.khư.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬙𖬰𖬩𖬰.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄄𞄬‎.market</div>{Nag hmo} kuv mus tom khw.{Nav hmo} cur mus tov khư.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬶𖬬 𖬓𖬰𖬣𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬦 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬙𖬰𖬩𖬰.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄤𞄵 𞄀𞄄𞄨‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄧𞄴‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄨𞄱‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄄𞄬‎.yesterday I go LOC market'I went to the market yesterday.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aspect">Aspect</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Aspect" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Aspectual differences are indicated by a number of verbal modifiers. Here are the most common ones: Progressive: (Mong Leeg) taab tom + verb, (White Hmong) tab tom + verb = situation in progress <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">PuabPuôz<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬶𖬪𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄧𞄰𞄤‎they</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">taab tomtangz tov<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬚𖬲𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄥𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄨𞄱‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="progressive aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">haushâus<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬅𖬰𖬟<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄨‎drink</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlej.đrêx<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬲𖬭.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄏𞄪𞄲‎.water</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(Mong Leeg) </div>Puab {taab tom} haus dlej.Puôz {tangz tov} hâus đrêx<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬶𖬪𖬵 {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬚𖬲𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬧𖬵} <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬅𖬰𖬟 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬲𖬭.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄧𞄰𞄤‎ {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄥𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄨𞄱‎} <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄨‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄏𞄪𞄲‎.they PROG drink water'They are drinking water.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Taab/tab tom + verb can also be used to indicate a situation that is about to start. That is clearest when taab/tab tom occurs in conjunction with the irrealis marker yuav. Note that the taab tom construction is not used if it is clear from the context that a situation is ongoing or about to begin. Perfective: sentence/clause + lawm = completed situation <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">KuvCur<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎I</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nojnox<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬲𖬬<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄨𞄲‎eat</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">movmor<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬶𖬦<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄨𞄳‎rice</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">lawm.lơưv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬰𖬞.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬‎.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PERF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(Leeg and White Hmong) </div>Kuv noj mov lawm.Cur nox mor lơưv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬲𖬬 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬶𖬦 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬰𖬞.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄨𞄲‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄨𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬‎.I eat rice PERF'I am finished/I am done eating rice.' / 'I have already eaten "rice".'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Lawm at the end of a sentence can also indicate that an action is underway: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Tus<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄴‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tub<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬰𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄰‎boy</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tau<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄤𞄨‎get</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">rab<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬲𖬡<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄖𞄤𞄰‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">hneev,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬀𖬲𖬩,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄫‎,crossbow</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nws<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬙𖬲𖬬<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄬𞄴‎he</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">thiaj<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤‎then</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">mus<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬦<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄧𞄴‎go</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ua si<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬮𖬰 𖬃𖬤𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄧𞄤‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄊𞄦‎play</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">lawm.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬰𖬞.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬‎.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(White Hmong) </div>Tus tub tau rab hneev, nws thiaj mus {ua si} lawm.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬰𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬲𖬡 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬀𖬲𖬩, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬙𖬲𖬬 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬦 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬮𖬰 𖬃𖬤𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬰𖬞.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄴‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄤𞄨‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄖𞄤𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄫‎, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄬𞄴‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄧𞄴‎ {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄧𞄤‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄊𞄦‎} <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬‎.CLF boy get CLF crossbow he then go play PFV'The boy got the crossbow and went off to play.' / 'The boy went off to play because he got the bow.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Another common way to indicate the accomplishment of an action or attainment is by using tau, which, as a main verb, means 'to get/obtain.' It takes on different connotations when it is combined with other verbs. When it occurs before the main verb (i.e. tau + verb), it conveys the attainment or fulfillment of a situation. Whether the situation took place in the past, the present, or the future is indicated at the discourse level rather than the sentence level. If the event took place in the past, tau + verb translates to the past tense in English. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Lawv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬶𖬞<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬‎they</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tau<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄤𞄨‎attain</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">noj<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬲𖬬<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄨𞄲‎eat</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nqaij<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬊𖬶𖬬𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄙𞄤𞄲𞄦‎meat</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nyug.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬮𖬵.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄐𞄧𞄵‎.beef</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(White Hmong) </div>Lawv tau noj nqaij nyug.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬶𖬞 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬲𖬬 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬊𖬶𖬬𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬲𖬮𖬵.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄤𞄨‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄨𞄲‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄙𞄤𞄲𞄦‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄐𞄧𞄵‎.they attain eat meat beef'They ate beef.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Tau is optional if an explicit past time marker is present (e.g. nag hmo, last night). Tau can also mark the fulfillment of a situation in the future: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Thaum<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄𖬟𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄄𞄤𞄱𞄨‎when</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">txog<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬓𖬯𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄔𞄨𞄵‎arrive</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">peb<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄪𞄰‎New</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">caug<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬅𖬲𖬯<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄈𞄤𞄵𞄨‎Year</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">lawm<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬰𖬞<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">sawv daws<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬶𖬤𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬏𖬰𖬞𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄊𞄤𞄳𞄬‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄏𞄤𞄴𞄬‎everybody</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">thiaj<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤‎then</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tau<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄤𞄨‎attain</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">hnav<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬩<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄤‎wear</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">khaub ncaws<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄𖬰𖬩𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬏𖬰𖬤𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄨‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄌𞄤𞄴𞄬‎clothes</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tshiab.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔𖬪𖬰.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤‎.new</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(White Hmong) </div>Thaum txog peb caug lawm {sawv daws} thiaj tau hnav {khaub ncaws} tshiab.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄𖬟𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬓𖬯𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬅𖬲𖬯 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬰𖬞 {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬶𖬤𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬏𖬰𖬞𖬰} <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬩 {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄𖬰𖬩𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬏𖬰𖬤𖬰} <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔𖬪𖬰.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄄𞄤𞄱𞄨‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄔𞄨𞄵‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄪𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄈𞄤𞄵𞄨‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬‎ {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄊𞄤𞄳𞄬‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄏𞄤𞄴𞄬‎} <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄤𞄨‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄤‎ {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄨‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄌𞄤𞄴𞄬‎} <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤‎.when arrive New Year PFV everybody then attain wear clothes new'So when the New Year arrives, everybody gets to wear new clothes.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> When tau follows the main verb (i.e. verb + tau), it indicates the accomplishment of the purpose of an action. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Kuv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎I</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">xaav<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬛𖬮<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄆𞄥𞄳‎think</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">xaav<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬛𖬮<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄆𞄥𞄳‎think</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ib plag,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬶𖬟𖬵,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄦𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄡𞄤𞄵‎,awhile,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎I</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">xaav<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬛𖬮<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄆𞄥𞄳‎think</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tau<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄤𞄨‎get</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tswv yim.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬙𖬝𖬰 𖬂𖬤.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄬𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄦𞄱‎.idea</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(Mong Leeg) </div>Kuv xaav xaav {ib plag}, kuv xaav tau {tswv yim}.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬛𖬮 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬛𖬮 {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬶𖬟𖬵}, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬛𖬮 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬙𖬝𖬰 𖬂𖬤.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄆𞄥𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄆𞄥𞄳‎ {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄦𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄡𞄤𞄵‎}, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄆𞄥𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄤𞄨‎ {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄬𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄦𞄱‎}.I think think awhile, I think get idea'I thought it over and got an idea.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Tau is also common in serial verb constructions that are made up of a verb, followed by an accomplishment: (White Hmong) nrhiav tau, to look for; caum tau, to chase; yug tau, to give birth. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mood">Mood</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Mood" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The grammatical marker yuav is analyzed by some scholars as a future tense marker<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMottin1978-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaisser1984-37">[37]</a> when it appears preceding a verb: <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_21" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="2" data-mwtitle="Kuv_yuav_moog.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Kuv_yuav_moog.wav"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/63/Kuv_yuav_moog.wav/Kuv_yuav_moog.wav.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/63/Kuv_yuav_moog.wav/Kuv_yuav_moog.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Kuv_yuav_moog.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio><figcaption>Kuv yuav moog.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Kuv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">yuav<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬲𖬤<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤‎</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">moog.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬍𖬶𖬦.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄩𞄵‎.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(Mong Leeg) </div>Kuv yuav moog.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬲𖬤 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬍𖬶𖬦.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄀𞄩𞄵‎.'I will be going.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Yuav can also be analyzed as a marker of <a href="/wiki/Irrealis_mood" title="Irrealis mood">irrealis mood</a>, for situations that are unfulfilled or unrealized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite201480%E2%80%9381-38">[38]</a> That includes hypothetical or non-occurring situations with past, present, or future time references: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Tus<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄴‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Tsov<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬶𖬝𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄨𞄳‎Tiger</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">hais tias,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬋𖬰𖬟 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬕𖬰𖬧𖬵,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄦‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄦𞄴𞄤‎,say,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">"Kuv"<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲"<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎I</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tshaib<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦‎hungry</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tshaib<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦‎hungry</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">plab<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬲𖬟𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄡𞄤𞄰‎stomach</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">li<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬞<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄦‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="intensifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INT</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎I</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">yuav<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬲𖬤<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="irrealis mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IRR</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">noj<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬲𖬬<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄨𞄲‎eat</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">koj".<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬲."<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄨𞄲‎".you</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(from a White Hmong folk tale) </div>Tus Tsov {hais tias}, "Kuv tshaib tshaib plab li kuv yuav noj koj".<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬶𖬝𖬰 {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬋𖬰𖬟 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬕𖬰𖬧𖬵}, "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬲𖬟𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬞 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬲 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬲𖬤 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬲𖬬 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬲."<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄴‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄨𞄳‎ {<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄦‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄦𞄴𞄤‎}, "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄡𞄤𞄰‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄦‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄅𞄨𞄲‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄎𞄨𞄲‎".CLF Tiger say, I hungry hungry stomach INT I IRR eat you'The Tiger said, "I'm very hungry and I'm going to eat you.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Tus<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄴‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Qav<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬦𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄗𞄤𞄳‎Frog</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tsis<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬰𖬝𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄦𞄴‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">paub<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄𖬰𖬪𖬵<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄤𞄰𞄨‎know</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">yuav<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬲𖬤<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="irrealis mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IRR</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ua<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬮𖬰<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄧𞄤‎do</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">li<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬞<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄦‎ </div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">cas<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬲𖬯<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄈𞄤𞄴‎what</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">li.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬞.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄦‎.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="intensifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INT</abbr></div>Tus Qav tsis paub yuav ua li cas li.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬦𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬰𖬝𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄𖬰𖬪𖬵 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬲𖬤 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬮𖬰 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬞 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬲𖬯 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬃𖬞.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄃𞄧𞄴‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄗𞄤𞄳‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄁𞄦𞄴‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄚𞄤𞄰𞄨‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄧𞄤‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄦‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄈𞄤𞄴‎ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄉𞄦‎.CLF Frog NEG know IRR do {} what INT'The frog didn't know what to do.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Vocabulary" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Overview" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Hmong vocabulary comes from several sources: native Hmongic words, Chinese borrowings, and Tibeto-Burman borrowings,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatliff2010242-39">[39]</a> as well as additional borrowings from the national languages where Hmong communities live outside China, including borrowings from Thai/Lao and English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2021164-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domains">Domains</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Domains" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colors">Colors</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Colors" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Many Hmong and non-Hmong people who are learning the Hmong language tend to use the word xim (a borrowing from Thai/Lao) as the word for 'color', while the native Hmong word for 'color' is kob. For example, xim appears in the sentence Liab yog xim ntawm kev phom sij with the meaning "Red is the color of danger / The red color is of danger". List of colors: The following color terms are given as in (Laotian) Hmong Daw. <div style="float:left;display:inline;font-size:90%;margin:1px 5px 1px 5px;width:11em; height:6em;text-align:center;padding:auto;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔𖬞 liab 'red' </div> <div style="float:left;display:inline;font-size:90%;margin:1px 5px 1px 5px;width:11em; height:6em;text-align:center;padding:auto;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬶𖬝 ntsuab 'green' </div> <div style="float:left;display:inline;font-size:90%;margin:1px 5px 1px 5px;width:11em; height:6em;text-align:center;padding:auto;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬝𖬰 𖬈𖬮 tsam xem 'purple' </div> <div style="float:left;display:inline;font-size:90%;margin:1px 5px 1px 5px;width:11em; height:6em;text-align:center;padding:auto;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬰𖬞𖬰 dub 'black' </div> <div style="float:left;display:inline;font-size:90%;margin:1px 5px 1px 5px;width:11em; height:6em;text-align:center;padding:auto;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔𖬲𖬮 xiav 'blue' </div> <div style="float:left;display:inline;font-size:90%;margin:1px 5px 1px 5px;width:11em; height:6em;text-align:center;padding:auto;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬎𖬞𖬰 dawb 'white' </div> <div style="float:left;display:inline;font-size:90%;margin:1px 5px 1px 5px;width:11em; height:6em;text-align:center;padding:auto;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬮𖬰 / 𖬗𖬲 𖬉𖬲𖬜𖬵 av / kas fes 'brown' </div> <div style="float:left;display:inline;font-size:90%;margin:1px 5px 1px 5px;width:11em; height:6em;text-align:center;padding:auto;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬰𖬞𖬰 daj 'yellow' </div> <div style="float:left;display:inline;font-size:90%;margin:1px 5px 1px 5px;width:11em; height:6em;text-align:center;padding:auto;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬓𖬰𖬦𖬰 txho 'grey' </div> <div style="float:left;display:inline;font-size:90%;margin:1px 5px 1px 5px;width:11em; height:6em;text-align:center;padding:auto;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬲 𖬙𖬢𖬰 kab ntxwv 'orange' </div> <div style="float:left;display:inline;font-size:90%;margin:1px 5px 1px 5px;width:11em; height:6em;text-align:center;padding:auto;"> <p title="𝗛𝗦𝗩 (349.5°° 24.7% 100%) 𝗥𝗚𝗕 (255 192 203) 𝗛𝗘𝗫 #FFC0CB" style="width:10em;height:1em; padding:5px;margin:auto; background-color:rgb(255,192,203); border:solid 1px #ccc;text-align:right;cursor:help;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬀𖬶𖬤 paj yeeb 'pink' </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> Several of the Hmong terms for colors are native roots that date back to at least the Proto-Hmongic period, such as dub 'black', dawb 'white', and liab 'red', while daj 'yellow' was a very early borrowing from Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatliff2010243-41">[41]</a> Several other terms are more recent innovations. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Numbers">Numbers</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Numbers" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Numeral</th> <th>Hmong Numeral</th> <th>Pahawh Hmong</th> <th>Hmong RPA</th> <th>Hmong Loanwords</th> <th>Pahawh Symbols </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>0</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬊𖬲𖬢𖬰</td> <td>Ntxaiv</td> <td>Xoom (term from Thai/Lao)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2021166-42">[42]</a></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭐 (Ones) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>1</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰</td> <td>Ib</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>2</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭒</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰</td> <td>Ob</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>3</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭓</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵</td> <td>Peb</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>4</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭔</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄𖬰𖬟𖬵</td> <td>Plaub</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>5</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭕</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬝𖬰</td> <td>Tsib</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>6</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭖</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬡</td> <td>Rau</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>7</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭗</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬰𖬧𖬰</td> <td>Xya</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>8</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭘</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬤</td> <td>Yim</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>9</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭙</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬰𖬯</td> <td>Cuaj</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>10</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄</td> <td>Kaum</td> <td></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭛 (Tens) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>11</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑𖭑</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰</td> <td>Kaum ib</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>20</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭒𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬁𖬰𖬬 𖬄𖬢</td> <td>Nees nkaum</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>21</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭒𖭑</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬁𖬰𖬬 𖬄𖬢 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰</td> <td>Nees nkaum ib</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>30</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭓𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯</td> <td>Peb caug</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>31</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭓𖭑</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰</td> <td>Peb caug ib</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>40</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭔𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄𖬰𖬟𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯</td> <td>Plaub caug</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>41</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭔𖭑</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄𖬰𖬟𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰</td> <td>Plaub caug ib</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>50</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭕𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬝𖬰 𖬅𖬲𖬯</td> <td>Tsib caug</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>51</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭕𖭑</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬝𖬰 𖬅𖬲𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰</td> <td>Tsib caug ib</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>60</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭖𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬡 𖬄𖬯</td> <td>Rau caum</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>61</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭖𖭑</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬡 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰</td> <td>Rau caum ib</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>70</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭗𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬰𖬧𖬰 𖬄𖬯</td> <td>Xya caum</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>71</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭗𖭑</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬗𖬰𖬧𖬰 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰</td> <td>Xya caum ib</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>80</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭘𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬤 𖬄𖬯</td> <td>Yim caum</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>81</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭘𖭑</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬤 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰</td> <td>Yim caum ib</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>90</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭙𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬰𖬯 𖬄𖬯</td> <td>Cuaj caum</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>91</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭙𖭑</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬰𖬯 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰</td> <td>Cuaj caum ib</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>100</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵</td> <td>Ib puas</td> <td></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭜 (Hundreds) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>1,000</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬔𖬦𖬰</td> <td>Ib txhiab</td> <td>Ib phav (Thai/Lao word)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭜𖭐 (Thousands) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>10,000</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄 𖬔𖬦𖬰</td> <td>Kaum txhiab</td> <td>Kaum phav (Thai/Lao word)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭝 (Ten thousand) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>100,000</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬔𖬦𖬰</td> <td>Ib puas txhiab</td> <td>Ib puas phav (Thai/Lao word)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭝𖭐 (Hundred Thousands) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>1,000,000</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬌𖬡</td> <td>Ib roob</td> <td>Ib lab (Thai/Lao word)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭞 (Millions) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>10,000,000</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄 𖬌𖬡</td> <td>Kaum roob</td> <td>Kaum lab (Thai/Lao word)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭞𖭐 (Ten Millions) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>100,000,000</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬌𖬡</td> <td>Ib puas roob</td> <td>Ib puas lab (Thai/Lao word)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭟 (Hundred Millions) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>1,000,000,000</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬈</td> <td>Ib kem</td> <td>Ib phav lab (Thai/Lao word)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭟𖭐 (Billions) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>10,000,000,000</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬄 𖬈</td> <td>Kaum kem</td> <td>Kaum phav lab (Thai/Lao word)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭠 (Ten Billions) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>100,000,000,000</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬈</td> <td>Ib puas kem</td> <td>Ib puas phav lab (Thai/Lao word)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭠𖭐 (Hundred Billions) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>1,000,000,000,000</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬗𖬧𖬵</td> <td>Ib tas</td> <td>Ib lab lab (Thai/Lao word)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭡 (Trillions) </td></tr> </tbody></table> The number 57023 would be written as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖭕𖭗𖭐𖭒𖭓. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Days_of_the_Week">Days of the Week</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Days of the Week" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr align="center"> <th>Days</th> <th>Pahawh Hmong</th> <th>Hmong RPA</th> <th>Hmong Loanwords (from Thai/Lao) </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>Sunday</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬆𖬰𖬩</td> <td>Zwj hnub</td> <td>Vas thiv </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>Monday</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬃𖬥</td> <td>Zwj hli</td> <td>Vas cas </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>Tuesday</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬑𖬶𖬦𖬵</td> <td>Zwj quag</td> <td>Vas as qhas </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>Wednesday</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬜𖬵</td> <td>Zwj feeb</td> <td>Vas phuv </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>Thursday</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬧𖬵</td> <td>Zwj teeb</td> <td>Vas phab hav </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>Friday</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬐𖬶</td> <td>Zwj kuab</td> <td>Vas xuv </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>Saturday</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬗𖬶𖬯</td> <td>Zwj cag</td> <td>Vas xom ~ Vas xaum<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> A sentence like "Today is Monday", using only non-borrowed, non-calqued terms, would be said Hnub no yog zwj hli, rather than Hnub no yog hnub ib/Monday in Hmong. However, Hmong speakers in English-speaking countries sometimes use Thai/Lao loanwords or English terms for the days of the week instead, as in Mong Leng ua ntej nub Saturday 'before Saturday'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2021167-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Months_of_the_Year">Months of the Year</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Months of the Year" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr align="center"> <th>Months</th> <th>Pahawh Hmong (Formal)</th> <th>Hmong RPA</th> <th>Informal </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>January</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬀𖬰𖬤 𖬀𖬶𖬯</td> <td>Yeej ceeb</td> <td>[Lub] Ib hlis </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>February</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬮</td> <td>Kub xeeb</td> <td>[Lub] Ob hlis </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>March</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬖𖬰𖬤 𖬔𖬲</td> <td>Yaj kiav</td> <td>[Lub] Peb hlis </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>April</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬀 𖬒𖬯</td> <td>Keem com</td> <td>[Lub] Plaub hlis </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>May</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬆𖬰 𖬆𖬶𖬬</td> <td>Kub nuj</td> <td>[Lub] Tsib hlis </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>June</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬒𖬶𖬧𖬵 𖬔𖬶𖬞</td> <td>Tov liaj</td> <td>[Lub] Rau hlis </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>July</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬐𖬰𖬟 𖬀𖬶𖬮</td> <td>Huaj xeeb</td> <td>[Lub] Xya hlis </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>August</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬀𖬶𖬯 𖬑𖬯</td> <td>Ceeb cua</td> <td>[Lub] Yim hlis </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>September</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬔𖬝𖬰 𖬆𖬰 𖬀𖬰𖬞</td> <td>Tsiab kub leej</td> <td>[Lub] Cuaj hlis </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>October</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬀𖬪𖬵 𖬋𖬰𖬪𖬰</td> <td>Peem tshais</td> <td>[Lub] Kaum hlis </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>November</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬌𖬲𖬞 𖬀𖬲 𖬀𖬦𖬰</td> <td>Looj keev txheem</td> <td>[Lub] Kaum ib hlis </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td>December</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬶𖬨𖬵 𖬎𖬯</td> <td>Npuag cawb</td> <td>[Lub] Kaum ob hlis </td></tr> </tbody></table> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Worldwide_usage">Worldwide usage</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Worldwide usage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Presence_in_Community_and_Education">Presence in Community and Education</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Presence in Community and Education" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Hmong language has found a significant presence in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>. The Hmong people first arrived in Minnesota in late 1975 following the communist seizure of power in Indochina. Many educated Hmong elites with leadership experience and English-language skills were among the first to be welcomed by Minnesotans. These elites worked to solidify the social services targeted to refugees, attracting others to migrate to the region. The first Hmong family arrived in Minnesota on 5 November 1975.<a href="#cite_note-MNopedia_a771-45">[45]</a> The Hmong language program in the Department of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a> is one of the first programs in the United States to teach language-accredited Hmong classes.<a href="#cite_note-College_of_Liberal_Arts-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translation">Translation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Translation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In February 2012, Microsoft released "Hmong Daw" as an option in <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Translator" title="Microsoft Translator">Bing Translator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In May 2013, <a href="/wiki/Google_Translate" title="Google Translate">Google Translate</a> introduced support for Hmong Daw (referred to only as Hmong).<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Research in nursing shows that when translating from English to Hmong, the translator must take into account that Hmong comes from an <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> and equivalent concepts may not exist. For example, the word and concept for "prostate" does not exist.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Sample_texts">Sample texts</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sample texts" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> Article 1 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> in Hmong:<blockquote><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a>:<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><blockquote><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬑𖬦𖬰 𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬇𖬲𖬤 𖬓𖬲𖬞 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬉 𖬘𖬲𖬤 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬨𖬵 𖬓𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬄𖬲𖬟 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬋𖬯. 𖬎𖬶𖬞 𖬖𖬰𖬮 𖬓𖬜𖬰 𖬆𖬰𖬞 𖬖𖬞𖬰 𖬎𖬲𖬟𖬰 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬆𖬰𖬞 𖬔𖬤𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬮𖬰 𖬁𖬲𖬞 𖬐𖬲𖬤 𖬆𖬝𖬰 𖬒𖬲𖬯 𖬅𖬮𖬰 𖬉𖬰 𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬁𖬲𖬞 𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬅𖬮𖬰 𖬙 𖬂𖬰𖬧𖬵.</blockquote><a href="/wiki/Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong" title="Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong">Nyiakeng Puachue</a>:<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><blockquote><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1234443428">𞄔𞄄𞄧𞄤𞄃𞄧𞄴𞄅𞄫𞄵𞄘𞄧𞄵𞄉𞄨𞄴 𞄀𞄧𞄲𞄤𞄎𞄪𞄳𞄘𞄬𞄲𞄚𞄄𞄲𞄫𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤 𞄊𞄦𞄰𞄜𞄤𞄵𞄨𞄋𞄨𞄴 𞄄𞄤𞄳𞄨𞄔𞄨𞄲𞄈𞄤𞄦. 𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬𞄆𞄤𞄲 𞄑𞄨𞄵𞄉𞄧𞄰𞄉𞄤𞄲𞄃𞄄𞄤𞄲𞄬 𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤𞄉𞄧𞄰𞄊𞄦𞄰𞄤𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤 𞄦𞄰𞄉𞄫𞄵𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤𞄁𞄧𞄱𞄈𞄨𞄲 𞄧𞄤 𞄎𞄪𞄂𞄤𞄱𞄬𞄦𞄰𞄉𞄫𞄵𞄂𞄤𞄱𞄬𞄔𞄨𞄲𞄎𞄪𞄧𞄳 𞄧𞄤𞄎𞄬𞄳𞄃𞄦𞄲.‎</blockquote><a href="/wiki/Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">Hmong RPA</a>:<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><blockquote>Txhua tus neeg yug los muaj kev ywj pheej thiab sib npaug zos hauv txoj cai. Lawv xaj nrog lub laj thawj thiab lub siab thiab ib leeg yuav tsum coj ua ke ntawm ib leeg ntawm txoj kev ua kwv tij.</blockquote>Vietnamese Hmong:<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><blockquote>Cxuô tus nênhl zul los muôx cêr zưx fênhx thiêz siz npâul jôs hâur txox chai. Lơưr xax ndol luz lax thơưx thiêz luz siêz thiêz iz lênhl zuôr tsuv chox uô cê ntơưv iz lênhl ntơưv txôx cêr uô cưr tiz.</blockquote><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Hmong" title="Help:IPA/Hmong">Hmong IPA</a>:<blockquote>tsʰuə˧ tu˩ neŋ˧˩̤ ʝu˧˩̤ lɒ˩ muə˥˧ ke˧˧˦ ʝɨ˥˧ pʰeŋ˥˧ tʰiə˦ ʂi˦ ᵐbau˧˩̤ ʐɒ˩ hau˧˦ tsɒ˥˧ cai˧. Laɨ˧˦ sa˥˧ ᶯɖɒ˧˩̤ lu˦ la˥˧ tʰaɨ˥˧ tʰiə˦ lu˦ ʂiə˦ tʰiə˦ i˦ leŋ˧˩̤ ʝuə˧˦ tʂu˩̰ cɒ˥˧ uə˧ ke˧ ⁿdaɨ˩̰ i˦ leŋ˧˩̤ ⁿdaɨ˩̰ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˧˦ uə˧ kɨ˧˦ ti˥˧.</blockquote>English:<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><blockquote>All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.</blockquote></blockquote> Sample text in Hmong RPA, Pahawh Hmong, and Hmong IPA:<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><blockquote>Hmong RPA:<blockquote>Hmoob yog ib nywj keeb neeg uas yeej nrog ntiaj teb neeg tib txhij tshwm sim los. Niaj hnoob tam sim no tseem muaj nyob thoob plaws hauv ntiaj teb, xws: es xias, yus lauv, auv tas lias, thiab as mes lis kas. Hom neeg Hmoob no yog thooj li cov neeg nyob sab es xias. Tab sis nws muaj nws puav pheej teej tug, moj kuab, txuj ci, mooj kav moj coj, thiab txheeb meem mooj meej kheej ib yam nkaus li lwm haiv neeg. Hmoob yog ib hom neeg uas nyiam txoj kev ncaj ncees, nyiam kev ywj pheej, nyiam phooj ywg, muaj kev cam hwm, muaj txoj kev sib hlub, sib pab thiab sib tshua heev.</blockquote>Pahawh Hmong:<blockquote><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009642731">𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬤 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬘𖬲𖬮𖬵 𖬀𖬶 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬀𖬰𖬤 𖬓𖬜𖬰 𖬔𖬶𖬩𖬵 𖬈𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬂𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬂𖬰𖬦𖬰 𖬘𖬪𖬰 𖬂𖬤𖬵 𖬓𖬲𖬞. 𖬔𖬶𖬬 𖬌𖬩 𖬖𖬧𖬵 𖬂𖬤𖬵 𖬓𖬰𖬬 𖬓𖬲𖬞 𖬀𖬝𖬰 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬌𖬟𖬰 𖬏𖬰𖬟𖬵 𖬄𖬲𖬟 𖬔𖬶𖬩𖬵 𖬈𖬰𖬧𖬵, 𖬙𖬲𖬮 𖬃𖬞: 𖬉𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬕𖬰𖬮, 𖬇𖬰𖬤 𖬄𖬲𖬞, 𖬄𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬗𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬕𖬰𖬞, 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬗𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬉𖬲𖬦 𖬃𖬰𖬞 𖬗𖬲. 𖬒𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬰𖬬 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬲𖬟𖬰 𖬃𖬞 𖬒𖬶𖬯 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬖𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬉𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬕𖬰𖬮. 𖬖𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬃𖬰𖬤𖬵 𖬙𖬲𖬬 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬙𖬲𖬬 𖬐𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵 𖬀𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵, 𖬒𖬲𖬦 𖬐𖬶, 𖬆𖬶𖬯𖬵 𖬃𖬯, 𖬌𖬲𖬦 𖬗 𖬒𖬲𖬦 𖬒𖬲𖬯, 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬦𖬰 𖬀𖬦 𖬌𖬲𖬦 𖬀𖬰𖬦 𖬀𖬰𖬩𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬖𖬤 𖬅𖬰𖬢 𖬃𖬞 𖬘𖬞 𖬊𖬲𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬. 𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬤 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬒𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬖𖬰𖬤𖬰 𖬁𖬰𖬤𖬰, 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬉 𖬘𖬲𖬤 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵, 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬌𖬲𖬝𖬵 𖬙𖬶𖬤, 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬉 𖬖𖬯 𖬘𖬟, 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬆𖬰𖬥, 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬖𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬑𖬪𖬰 𖬀𖬲𖬟.</blockquote> Hmong IPA:<blockquote>mɒŋ˦ ʝɒ˧˩̤ i˦ ɲɨ˥˧ keŋ˦ neŋ˧˩̤ uə˩ ʝeŋ˥˧ ᶯɖɒ˧˩̤ ⁿdiə˥˧ te˦ neŋ˧˩̤ ti˦ tsʰi˥˧ tʂʰɨ˩̰ ʂi˩̰ lɒ˩. Niə˥˧ n̥ɒŋ˦ ta˩̰ ʂi˩̰ nɒ˧ tʂeŋ˩̰ muə˥˧ ɲɒ˦ tʰɒŋ˦ pˡaɨ˩ hau˧˦ ⁿdiə˥˧ te˦, sɨ˩: e˩ siə˩, ʝu˩ lau˧˦, au˧˦ ta˩ li˧ə˩, tʰiə˦ a˩ me˩ li˧˩ ka˩. Hɒ˩̰ neŋ˧˩̤ M̥ɒŋ˦ nɒ˧ ʝɒ˧˩̤ tʰɒŋ˥˧ li˧ cɒ˧˦ neŋ˧˩̤ ɲɒ˦ ʂa˦ e˩ siə˩. Ta˦ ʂi˩ nɨ˩ muə˥˧ nɨ˩ puə˧˦ pʰeŋ˥˧ teŋ˥˧ tu˧˩̤, mɒ˥˧ kuə˦, tsu˥˧ ci˧, mɒŋ˥˧ ka˧˦ mɒ˥˧ cɒ˥˧, tʰiə˦ tsʰeŋ˦ meŋ˩̰ mɒŋ˥˧ meŋ˥˧ kʰeŋ˥˧ i˦ ʝa˩̰ ᵑɡau˩ li˧ lɨ˩̰ hai˧˦ neŋ˧˩̤. M̥ɒŋ˦ ʝɒ˧˩̤ i˦ Hɒ˩̰ neŋ˧˩̤ uə˩ ɲiə˩̰ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˦ ᶮɟa˥˧ ᶮɟeŋ˩, ɲiə˩̰ ke˧˦ ʝɨ˥˧ pʰeŋ˥˧, ɲiə˩̰ pʰɒŋ˥˧ ʝɨ˧˩̤, muə˥˧ ke˧˦ ca˩̰ hɨ˩̰, muə˥˧ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˦ ʂi˦ l̥u˦, ʂi˦ pa˦ tʰiə˦ ʂi˦ tʂʰuə˧ heŋ˧˦.</blockquote></blockquote> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: In popular culture" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> The 2008 film <a href="/wiki/Gran_Torino" title="Gran Torino">Gran Torino</a> by <a href="/wiki/Clint_Eastwood" title="Clint Eastwood">Clint Eastwood</a> features a large <a href="/wiki/Hmong_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Hmong American">American Hmong</a> speaking cast.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The screenplay was written in English and the actors improvised the Hmong parts of the script. The decision to cast Hmong actors received a positive reception in Hmong communities.<a href="#cite_note-OBrienSchein-60">[60]</a> The film also gained recognition and collected awards such as the <a href="/wiki/American_Film_Institute_Awards_2008" class="mw-redirect" title="American Film Institute Awards 2008">Ten Best Films of 2008</a> from the <a href="/wiki/American_Film_Institute" title="American Film Institute">American Film Institute</a> and a <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Awards" title="César Awards">César Award</a> in France for <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Award_for_Best_Foreign_Film" title="César Award for Best Foreign Film">Best Foreign Film</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Films">Films</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Films" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> The following films feature the Hmong language: <ul><li>2008 – "<a href="/wiki/Gran_Torino" title="Gran Torino">Gran Torino</a>". Directed by Clint Eastwood; produced by Clint Eastwood, Bill Gerber, Robert Lorenz. The story follows Walt Kowalski, a recently widowed Korean War veteran alienated from his family and angry at the world. Walt's young neighbor, Thao Vang Lor, is pressured by his cousin into trying to steal Walt's prized 1972 Ford Torino for his initiation into a gang. Walt thwarts the theft and subsequently develops a relationship with the boy and his family.</li> <li>2011 – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1986783/?ref_=kw_li_tt">"Bittersweet Tears (Kua Muag Iab)"</a>. Directors by Kelly Vang & Mandy Xiong; Writer: Kelly Vang. Bittersweet Tears is a romantic comedy about a vengeful and bittersweet love between Gaomao (Jenny Lor) and Vong (Beng Hang). Vong is the only son of Chong Yee (Billy Yang). Having lost everything Gaomao swears vengeance on Chong Yee, the man whom she claims to be responsible for her loss. Will Gaomao be able to overcome her own heart and take her revenge?</li> <li>2016 – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5932546/?ref_=kw_li_tt">"1985"</a>. Director and writer by Kang Vang. When an adventurous Hmong teen discovers a secret map to a mythical dragon, he and his three best friends decide to go on a quest that leads them on a journey filled with danger, excitement, and self-discovery.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 28px;height: 28px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="28" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/42px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/56px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 28px;height: 28px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="28" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Languages">Languages portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong" title="Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong">Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">Romanized Popular Alphabet</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562">a Ethnologue uses the term "Hmong" as a "macrolanguage", i.e., along the lines of the Chinese 苗语 Miáoyǔ "Miao language", to handle the fact that some mainland Chinese academic sources lump many individual languages together into single "language" categories, while international sources almost universally keep these languages distinct.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> As the current article is focused on the Hmong language proper as found in international published sources, the population figure here reflects this. Ethnologue (17th edition) lists the population of the larger macrolanguage at 8.1 million. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJarkey201511-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJarkey201511_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJarkey2015">Jarkey 2015</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRatliff1992" class="citation book cs1">Ratliff, Martha (1992). Meaningful Tone: A Study of Tonal Morphology in Compounds, Form Classes, and Expressive Phrases in White Hmong. Dekalb, Illinois: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Meaningful+Tone%3A+A+Study+of+Tonal+Morphology+in+Compounds%2C+Form+Classes%2C+and+Expressive+Phrases+in+White+Hmong&rft.place=Dekalb%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=Center+for+Southeast+Asian+Studies%2C+Northern+Illinois+University&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Ratliff&rft.aufirst=Martha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jarkey_2015-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Jarkey_2015_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJarkey2015" class="citation book cs1">Jarkey, Nerida (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=glTFCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">Serial Verbs in White Hmong</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29239-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29239-0"><bdi>978-90-04-29239-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Serial+Verbs+in+White+Hmong&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-29239-0&rft.aulast=Jarkey&rft.aufirst=Nerida&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DglTFCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoeffelRastogiKimShahid2012" class="citation web cs1">Hoeffel, Elizabeth M.; Rastogi, Sonya; Kim, Myoung Ouk; Shahid, Hasan (March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-11.pdf">"The Asian Population: 2010"</a> (PDF). 2010 Census Briefs. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 20 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=2010+Census+Briefs&rft.atitle=The+Asian+Population%3A+2010&rft.date=2012-03&rft.aulast=Hoeffel&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+M.&rft.au=Rastogi%2C+Sonya&rft.au=Kim%2C+Myoung+Ouk&rft.au=Shahid%2C+Hasan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fprod%2Fcen2010%2Fbriefs%2Fc2010br-11.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Not of Chinese Miao as a whole for which the standard language is based on <a href="/wiki/Hmu_language" title="Hmu language">Hmu</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/chg_detail.asp?id=2007-188">"2007-188 - ISO 639-3"</a>. www.sil.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.sil.org&rft.atitle=2007-188+-+ISO+639-3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sil.org%2Fiso639-3%2Fchg_detail.asp%3Fid%3D2007-188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chap2Overview-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chap2Overview_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chap2Overview_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chap2Overview_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chap2Overview_7-3">d</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/guidestoolkits/ethnographicguides/hmong/chapters/chapter2.pdf">Chapter 2. Overview of Lao Hmong Culture</a>." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130418014450/http://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/guidestoolkits/ethnographicguides/hmong/chapters/chapter2.pdf">Archive</a>) Promoting Cultural Sensitivity: Hmong Guide. <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>. p. 14. Retrieved on 5 May 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Note however that "Black Miao" is more commonly used for <a href="/wiki/Hmu_language" title="Hmu language">Hmu</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/cr_files/2007-188_cqd.pdf">"ISO 639-3 New Code Request"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 30 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ISO+639-3+New+Code+Request&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sil.org%2Fiso639-3%2Fcr_files%2F2007-188_cqd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolstonPhong_Yang2001" class="citation book cs1">Golston, Chris; Phong Yang (2001). "Hmong loanword phonology". In C. Féry; A. D. Green; R. van de Vijver (eds.). Proceedings of HILP 5 (Linguistics in Potsdam 12 ed.). Potsdam: University of Potsdam. pp. 40–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-935024-27-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-935024-27-4"><bdi>3-935024-27-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hmong+loanword+phonology&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+HILP+5&rft.place=Potsdam&rft.pages=40-57&rft.edition=Linguistics+in+Potsdam+12&rft.pub=University+of+Potsdam&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=3-935024-27-4&rft.aulast=Golston&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Phong+Yang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~chrisg/index_files/Golston%26Yang.pdf">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Smalley, William et al. Mother of Writing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. p. 48-51. See also: Mortensen, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pitt.edu/~drm31/mong_leng_phonology.pdf">“Preliminaries to Mong Leng (Mong Njua) Phonology”</a> Unpublished, UC Berkeley. 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121029161008/http://www.pitt.edu/~drm31/mong_leng_phonology.pdf">Archived</a> 29 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> 王辅世主编，《苗语简志》，民族出版社，1985年。 </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hmongdictionary.com/vowel.php">"Hmong Dictionary - Dictionary Hmong"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hmong+Dictionary+-+Dictionary+Hmong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hmongdictionary.com%2Fvowel.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020216-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2020216_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2020">White 2020</a>, p. 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Even the landmark book <a href="/wiki/The_Sounds_of_the_World%27s_Languages" title="The Sounds of the World's Languages">The Sounds of the World's Languages</a> specifically describes lateral release as involving a <a href="/wiki/Homorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Homorganic">homorganic</a> consonant. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020220-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2020220_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2020">White 2020</a>, p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020214-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2020214_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2020">White 2020</a>, p. 214. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Examples taken from: Heimbach, Ernest H. White Hmong–English Dictionary [White Meo-English Dictionary]. 2003 ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications, 1969. Note that many of these words have multiple meanings. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobson" class="citation web cs1">Robson, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170525-the-people-who-speak-in-whistles">"The beautiful languages of the people who talk like birds"</a>. BBC Future. Retrieved 25 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Future&rft.atitle=The+beautiful+languages+of+the+people+who+talk+like+birds&rft.aulast=Robson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Ffuture%2Farticle%2F20170525-the-people-who-speak-in-whistles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fadiman291-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fadiman291_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fadiman291_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fadiman291_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fadiman291_20-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFadiman1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anne_Fadiman" title="Anne Fadiman">Fadiman, Anne</a> (1998). The spirit catches you and you fall down: a Hmong child, her American doctors, and the collision of two cultures. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 292. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-52564-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-52564-4"><bdi>978-0-374-52564-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+spirit+catches+you+and+you+fall+down%3A+a+Hmong+child%2C+her+American+doctors%2C+and+the+collision+of+two+cultures&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=292&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-374-52564-4&rft.aulast=Fadiman&rft.aufirst=Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SmithNJp44-21"><a href="#cite_ref-SmithNJp44_21-0">^</a> Smith, Natalie Jill. "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)" (PhD dissertation). <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a>, 2001. p. 225. UMI Number: 3024065. Cites: Hamilton-Merritt, 1993 and Faderman [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>], 1998 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverson2017" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Everson" title="Michael Everson">Everson, Michael</a> (15 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17002r3-n4780r3-nyiakeng-puachue-hmong.pdf">"L2/17-002R3: Proposal to encode the Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script in the UCS"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L2%2F17-002R3%3A+Proposal+to+encode+the+Nyiakeng+Puachue+Hmong+script+in+the+UCS&rft.date=2017-02-15&rft.aulast=Everson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2017%2F17002r3-n4780r3-nyiakeng-puachue-hmong.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.hmonglanguage.net">http://www.hmonglanguage.net</a> Hmong Language online encyclopedia. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Mortensen (2004) </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRatliff1997" class="citation journal cs1">Ratliff, Martha (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120218232210/http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/27:317-328.pdf">"Hmong–Mien demonstratives and pattern persistence"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Mon-Khmer_Studies" title="Mon-Khmer Studies">Mon-Khmer Studies</a>. 27: 317–328. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/27%3A317-328.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 18 February 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mon-Khmer+Studies&rft.atitle=Hmong%E2%80%93Mien+demonstratives+and+pattern+persistence&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=317-328&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Ratliff&rft.aufirst=Martha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sealang.net%2Farchives%2Fmks%2Fpdf%2F27%253A317-328.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> () </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnfield201817-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnfield201817_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEnfield2018">Enfield 2018</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019624–625-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019624%E2%80%93625_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMortensen2019">Mortensen 2019</a>, pp. 624–625. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisang199322–26-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisang199322%E2%80%9326_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBisang1993">Bisang 1993</a>, pp. 22–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpsonSohNomoto2011175-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpsonSohNomoto2011175_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpsonSohNomoto2011">Simpson, Soh & Nomoto 2011</a>, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019625–626-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019625%E2%80%93626_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMortensen2019">Mortensen 2019</a>, pp. 625–626. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019622–624-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019622%E2%80%93624_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMortensen2019">Mortensen 2019</a>, pp. 622–624. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisang199327-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisang199327_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisang199327_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBisang1993">Bisang 1993</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019623-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019623_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMortensen2019">Mortensen 2019</a>, p. 623. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthews2007230–231-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthews2007230%E2%80%93231_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatthews2007">Matthews 2007</a>, pp. 230–231. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Strecker, David and Lopao Vang. White Hmong Grammar. 1986. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMottin1978-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMottin1978_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMottin1978">Mottin 1978</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaisser1984-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaisser1984_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJaisser1984">Jaisser 1984</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite201480–81-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite201480%E2%80%9381_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2014">White 2014</a>, pp. 80–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERatliff2010242-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatliff2010242_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRatliff2010">Ratliff 2010</a>, p. 242. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2021164-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2021164_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2021">White 2021</a>, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERatliff2010243-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatliff2010243_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRatliff2010">Ratliff 2010</a>, p. 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2021166-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2021166_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2021">White 2021</a>, p. 166. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wold.clld.org/word/76151732559039432">"World Loanword Database (WOLD): hnub vas xaum"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+Loanword+Database+%28WOLD%29%3A+hnub+vas+xaum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwold.clld.org%2Fword%2F76151732559039432&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2021167-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2021167_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2021">White 2021</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-MNopedia_a771-45"><a href="#cite_ref-MNopedia_a771_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mnopedia.org/hmong-and-hmong-americans-minnesota">"Hmong and Hmong Americans in Minnesota"</a>. 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Retrieved 12 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Microsoft+Translator+Blog&rft.atitle=Microsoft+Translator+celebrates+International+Mother+Language+Day+with+the+release+of+Hmong&rft.date=2012-02-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Ftranslator%2Fblog%2F2012%2F02%2F21%2Fmicrosoft-translator-celebrates-international-mother-language-day-with-the-release-of-hmong%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_Melanson2013" class="citation web cs1">Donald Melanson (8 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.engadget.com/2013/05/08/google-translate-gets-five-new-languages/">"Google Translate adds five more languages to its repertoire"</a>. Engadget. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 220–236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780199207831.003.0009">10.1093/oso/9780199207831.003.0009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920783-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920783-1"><bdi>978-0-19-920783-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cantonese+Grammar+in+Areal+Perspective&rft.btitle=Grammars+in+Contact%3A+A+Cross-Linguistic+Typology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=220-236&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780199207831.003.0009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-920783-1&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMortensen2019" class="citation book cs1">Mortensen, David (2019). "Hmong (Mong Leng)". In Vittrant, Alice; Watkins, Justin (eds.). The Mainland Southeast Asia Linguistic Area. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 609–652. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110401981-014">10.1515/9783110401981-014</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-040198-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-040198-1"><bdi>978-3-11-040198-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195399573">195399573</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hmong+%28Mong+Leng%29&rft.btitle=The+Mainland+Southeast+Asia+Linguistic+Area&rft.place=Berlin+and+New+York&rft.pages=609-652&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A195399573%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110401981-014&rft.isbn=978-3-11-040198-1&rft.aulast=Mortensen&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMottin1978" class="citation book cs1">Mottin, Jean (1978). Éléments de grammaire Hmong Blanc. Bangkok: Don Bosco Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%89l%C3%A9ments+de+grammaire+Hmong+Blanc&rft.place=Bangkok&rft.pub=Don+Bosco+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Mottin&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRatliff2010" class="citation book cs1">Ratliff, Martha (2010). Hmong-Mien Language History. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hmong-Mien+Language+History&rft.place=Canberra&rft.pub=Pacific+Linguistics&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Ratliff&rft.aufirst=Martha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpsonSohNomoto2011" class="citation journal cs1">Simpson, Andrew; Soh, Hooi Ling; Nomoto, Hiroki (2011). "Bare Classifiers and Definiteness: A Cross-linguistic Investigation". Studies in Language. 35 (1). John Benjamins Publishing Company: 168–193.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Language&rft.atitle=Bare+Classifiers+and+Definiteness%3A+A+Cross-linguistic+Investigation&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=168-193&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Soh%2C+Hooi+Ling&rft.au=Nomoto%2C+Hiroki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThao1999" class="citation book cs1">Thao, Paoze (1999). Mong Education at the Crossroads. New York: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_America" title="University Press of America">University Press of America</a>. pp. 12–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mong+Education+at+the+Crossroads&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=12-13&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Thao&rft.aufirst=Paoze&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2014" class="citation thesis cs1">White, Nathan (2014). Non-spatial Setting in White Hmong (MA thesis). Trinity Western University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Non-spatial+Setting+in+White+Hmong&rft.degree=MA&rft.inst=Trinity+Western+University&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2020" class="citation book cs1">White, Nathan (2020). "Word in Hmong". In Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.; Dixon, R. M. W.; White, Nathan (eds.). Phonological Word and Grammatical Word: A Cross-linguistic Typology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 213–259.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Word+in+Hmong&rft.btitle=Phonological+Word+and+Grammatical+Word%3A+A+Cross-linguistic+Typology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=213-259&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2021" class="citation journal cs1">White, Nathan (2021). "Language and variety mixing in diasporic Hmong". Italian Journal of Linguistics. 33 (1): 157–180. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26346%2F1120-2726-172">10.26346/1120-2726-172</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Italian+Journal+of+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Language+and+variety+mixing+in+diasporic+Hmong&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=157-180&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.26346%2F1120-2726-172&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiongCohen2005" class="citation book cs1">Xiong, Yuyou; Cohen, Diana (2005). Student's Practical Miao–Chinese–English Handbook / Npout Ndeud Xof Geuf Lol Hmongb Lol Shuad Lol Yenb. Yunnan Nationalities Publishing House. p. 539. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5367-3287-2" title="Special:BookSources/7-5367-3287-2"><bdi>7-5367-3287-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Student%27s+Practical+Miao%E2%80%93Chinese%E2%80%93English+Handbook+%2F+Npout+Ndeud+Xof+Geuf+Lol+Hmongb+Lol+Shuad+Lol+Yenb&rft.pages=539&rft.pub=Yunnan+Nationalities+Publishing+House&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=7-5367-3287-2&rft.aulast=Xiong&rft.aufirst=Yuyou&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHmong+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <ul><li>Enwall, Joakim. Hmong Writing Systems in Vietnam: A Case Study of Vietnam's Minority Language Policy. Stockholm, Sweden: Center for Pacific Asian Studies, 1995.</li> <li>Lyman, Thomas Amis (<a href="/wiki/Chulalongkorn_University" title="Chulalongkorn University">Chulalongkorn University</a>). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1981/JSS_078_1f_Lyman_MongGreenMiaoAndLanguage.pdf">The Mong (Leeg Miao) and their Language: A Brief Compendium</a>" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140903145653/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1981/JSS_078_1f_Lyman_MongGreenMiaoAndLanguage.pdf">Archive</a>). p. 63–66.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/110618.htm#06152359">Unicode 6.1: the Old Miao script</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/120721.htm">Anglo-Hmong tonology</a>.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(15)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-15 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-15"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 32px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="32" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/mww" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/mww">Hmong Daw test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wold.clld.org/vocabulary/25">White Hmong Vocabulary List</a> (from the World Loanword Database)</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:White_Hmong_Swadesh_list">White Hmong Swadesh List on Wiktionary</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hmong.lomation.com/reader/">Lomation's Hmong Text Reader</a> – free online program that can read Hmong words/text.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hmongdictionary.com">Online Hmong dictionary</a> (including audio clips)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061214070244/http://www.moob.org/">Mong Literacy</a>: consonants, vowels, tones of Mong Njua and Hmong Daw</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ferazelhosting.net/~bryce/hmong.html">Hmong Resources</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100%5Chmo%5Chmo&first=0">Hmong basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hmongdictionary.us/Hmong_spell_chk_mb.php/">Hmong text reader</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://rpa.oneoffcoder.com/cvt.html">https://rpa.oneoffcoder.com/cvt.html</a> Romanized Popular Alphabet</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED203687">English-Hmong Phrasebook with Useful Wordlist (for Hmong Speakers)</a>, Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&oldid=1259276980">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&oldid=1259276980</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Hmong_language&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 24 November 2024, at 08:27 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%80%8C%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%82_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="‌মং ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="‌মং ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong_(llengua)" title="Hmong (llengua) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Hmong (llengua)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong%C5%A1tina" title="Hmongština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hmongština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_hmong" title="Idioma hmong – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma hmong" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miaa_lingvo" title="Miaa lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Miaa lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%87%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86%DA%AF" title="زبان همونگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان همونگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong_bhasa" title="Hmong bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Hmong bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_hm%C3%B3ngicas_occidentais" title="Linguas hmóngicas occidentais – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguas hmóngicas occidentais" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%BD%EC%96%B4" title="몽어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="몽어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Mong" title="Bahasa Mong – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Mong" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_hmong" title="Lingua hmong – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua hmong" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3_(%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2)" title="Хмонг (кыв) – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Хмонг (кыв)" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98_(%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90)" title="ჰმონგი (ნინა) – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჰმონგი (ნინა)" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="မှောင်ညိုဘာသာစကား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မှောင်ညိုဘာသာစကား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9F%E3%83%A3%E3%82%AA%E8%AA%9E" title="ミャオ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ミャオ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_hmong" title="Język hmong – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język hmong" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_hmong" title="Língua hmong – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua hmong" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3_(%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA)" title="Хмонг (язык) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Хмонг (язык)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miwcu_a_kamu" title="Miwcu a kamu – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Miwcu a kamu" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong_leid" title="Hmong leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Hmong leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Hmong language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Hmong" title="Wikang Hmong – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Hmong" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Хмонг теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Хмонг теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%87" title="ภาษาม้ง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาม้ง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong_dili" title="Hmong dili – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hmong dili" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Hm%C3%B4ng" title="Tiếng Hmông – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Hmông" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%97%E8%AF%AD%E5%B7%9D%E9%BB%94%E6%BB%87%E6%AC%A1%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80" title="苗语川黔滇次方言 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="苗语川黔滇次方言" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 November 2024, at 08:27 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a 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