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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_partition_plans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Proposed partition plans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposed_partition_plans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renewal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renewal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Renewal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renewal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Significance_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significance_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Significance in the United States</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Significance_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Significance in the United States subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Significance_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regional_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Regional activities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Floyd" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Floyd"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>John Floyd</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Floyd-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1844_presidential_election" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1844_presidential_election"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>1844 presidential election</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1844_presidential_election-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Fifty-four_Forty_or_Fight!"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Fifty-four_Forty_or_Fight!""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>"Fifty-four Forty or Fight!"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Fifty-four_Forty_or_Fight!"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_interest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_interest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>British interest</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-British_interest-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle British interest subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-British_interest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hudson's_Bay_Company" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hudson's_Bay_Company"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Hudson's Bay Company</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hudson's_Bay_Company-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domestic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Domestic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naval_presence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naval_presence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Naval presence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naval_presence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_efforts_during_Tyler_presidency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_efforts_during_Tyler_presidency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Political efforts during Tyler presidency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_efforts_during_Tyler_presidency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polk_presidency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polk_presidency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Polk presidency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polk_presidency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>War crisis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War_crisis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle War crisis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-War_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Congressional_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congressional_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Congressional pressure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congressional_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>British reaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pacific_naval_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_naval_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Pacific naval forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_naval_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_plan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_plan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>War plan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_plan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Resolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oregon_Treaty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oregon_Treaty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Oregon Treaty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oregon_Treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_maps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_maps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Historical maps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_maps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Party_platform_and_speeches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Party_platform_and_speeches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Party platform and speeches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Party_platform_and_speeches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_cartoons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_cartoons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Political cartoons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_cartoons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" 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table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Oregon boundary dispute</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_Boundary_Dispute" title="Oregon Boundary Dispute – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Oregon Boundary Dispute" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litige_sur_la_fronti%C3%A8re_de_l%27Oregon" title="Litige sur la frontière de l'Oregon – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Litige sur la frontière de l'Oregon" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grensconflict_van_Oregon" title="Grensconflict van Oregon – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Grensconflict van Oregon" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%AC%E3%82%B4%E3%83%B3%E5%A2%83%E7%95%8C%E7%B4%9B%E4%BA%89" title="オレゴン境界紛争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オレゴン境界紛争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregonsp%C3%B8rsm%C3%A5let" title="Oregonspørsmålet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oregonspørsmålet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%BE_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5_%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Спор о границе Орегона – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Спор о границе Орегона" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregonin_rajakiista" title="Oregonin rajakiista – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Oregonin rajakiista" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregonfr%C3%A5gan" title="Oregonfrågan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Oregonfrågan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"54-40" and "54°40' or fight!" redirect here. For the band, see <a href="/wiki/54-40_(band)" title="54-40 (band)">54-40 (band)</a>. For the book, see <a href="/wiki/54-40_or_Fight_(book)" title="54-40 or Fight (book)">54-40 or Fight (book)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the proposal to move the Oregon-Idaho border, see <a href="/wiki/Greater_Idaho_movement" title="Greater Idaho movement">Greater Idaho movement</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oregoncountry.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Oregoncountry.png/310px-Oregoncountry.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Oregoncountry.png/465px-Oregoncountry.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Oregoncountry.png/620px-Oregoncountry.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1019" /></a><figcaption>The Oregon Country/Columbia District stretched from 42°N to 54°40′N. The most heavily disputed portion is highlighted.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Oregon boundary dispute</b> or the <b>Oregon Question</b> was a 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Territorial_dispute" title="Territorial dispute">territorial dispute</a> over the political division of the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a> of <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> between several nations that had competing territorial and commercial aspirations in the region. </p><p>Expansionist competition into the region began in the 18th century, with participants including the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, the Oregon dispute took on increased importance for diplomatic relations between the British Empire and the fledgling American republic. In the mid-1820s, the Russians signed the <a href="/wiki/Russo-American_Treaty_of_1824" title="Russo-American Treaty of 1824">Russo-American Treaty of 1824</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russo-British_Treaty_of_1825" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-British Treaty of 1825">Russo-British Treaty of 1825</a>, and the Spanish signed the <a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a> of 1819, by which Russia and Spain formally withdrew their respective territorial claims in the region, and the British and the Americans acquired residual territorial rights in the disputed area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackie199729,_124–126,_140_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie199729,_124–126,_140-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the question of sovereignty over a portion of the North American <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> coast was still contested between the United Kingdom and the United States. The disputed area was defined as the region west of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Divide_of_the_Americas" title="Continental Divide of the Americas">Continental Divide of the Americas</a>, north of Mexico's <a href="/wiki/Alta_California" title="Alta California">Alta California</a> border of <a href="/wiki/42nd_parallel_north" title="42nd parallel north">42nd parallel north</a>, and south of <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a> at parallel 54°40′ north. The British generally called this region the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_District" title="Columbia District">Columbia District</a> and the Americans generally called it <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Country" title="Oregon Country">Oregon Country</a>. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/1844_United_States_presidential_election" title="1844 United States presidential election">1844 United States presidential election</a> campaign, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> proposed ending the Oregon Question by annexing the entire area. The <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">U.S. Whig Party</a>, in contrast, evinced no interest in the question – due, some scholars have claimed, to the Whig view that it was unimportant compared to other domestic problems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles1957_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles1957-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Democratic candidate, <a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a>, invoked the popular theme of <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">manifest destiny</a> and appealed to voters' <a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">expansionist</a> sentiments in pressing for annexation, and defeated the Whig candidate, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a>. Polk then sent the British government an offer to agree on a partition along the <a href="/wiki/49th_parallel_north" title="49th parallel north">49th parallel</a> (which had been previously offered). </p><p>However, the resulting negotiations soon faltered: the British still pressed for a border along the Columbia River. Tensions grew as American expansionists, such as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senator</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_A._Hannegan" title="Edward A. Hannegan">Edward A. Hannegan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">Representative</a> <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Henly_Sims" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonard Henly Sims">Leonard Henly Sims</a> of <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, urged Polk to annex the entire Pacific Northwest all the way to the 54°40′ parallel north (which is what the Democrats had called for during the presidential campaign). These tensions gave rise to <a href="/wiki/Political_slogan" class="mw-redirect" title="Political slogan">slogans</a> such as "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" At the same time, U.S. relations with <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> were rapidly deteriorating as a result of the recent U.S. <a href="/wiki/Texas_annexation" title="Texas annexation">annexation of Texas</a>. This gave rise to a concern that the U.S. might have to fight two wars on two fronts at the same time. Thus, just before the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a>, Polk retreated to his earlier position, calling for the Oregon border to run along the 49th parallel. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ultimatum_on_the_Oregon_question_LCCN2008661460.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Ultimatum_on_the_Oregon_question_LCCN2008661460.jpg/250px-Ultimatum_on_the_Oregon_question_LCCN2008661460.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Ultimatum_on_the_Oregon_question_LCCN2008661460.jpg/375px-Ultimatum_on_the_Oregon_question_LCCN2008661460.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Ultimatum_on_the_Oregon_question_LCCN2008661460.jpg/500px-Ultimatum_on_the_Oregon_question_LCCN2008661460.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1032" /></a><figcaption>Ultimatum on the Oregon question, 1846 cartoon</figcaption></figure> <p>The 1846 <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Treaty" title="Oregon Treaty">Oregon Treaty</a> established the border between <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a> and the United States along the 49th parallel until the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Georgia" title="Strait of Georgia">Strait of Georgia</a>, where the marine boundary curved south to exclude <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Islands" title="Gulf Islands">Gulf Islands</a> from the United States. As a result, a small portion of the <a href="/wiki/Tsawwassen,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsawwassen, British Columbia">Tsawwassen Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Point_Roberts,_Washington" title="Point Roberts, Washington">Point Roberts</a>, became an <a href="/wiki/Exclave" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclave">exclave</a> of the United States. Vague wording in the treaty left the ownership of the <a href="/wiki/San_Juan_Islands" title="San Juan Islands">San Juan Islands</a> in doubt, as the division was to follow "through the middle of the said channel"<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Juan_de_Fuca" title="Strait of Juan de Fuca">Strait of Juan de Fuca</a>. During the so-called <a href="/wiki/Pig_War_(1859)" title="Pig War (1859)">Pig War</a>, both nations agreed to a joint military occupation of the islands. Kaiser <a href="/wiki/William_I,_German_Emperor" title="William I, German Emperor">Wilhelm I</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> was selected as an arbitrator to end the dispute, with a three-man commission ruling in favor of the United States in 1872. There the <a href="/wiki/Haro_Strait" title="Haro Strait">Haro Strait</a> became the border line, rather than the British-favored <a href="/wiki/Rosario_Strait" title="Rosario Strait">Rosario Strait</a>. The border established by the Oregon Treaty and finalized by the arbitration in 1872 remains the boundary between the United States and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> in the Pacific Northwest. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Oregon Question originated in the 18th century during the early European or American exploration of the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a>. Various empires began to consider the area suitable for colonial expansion, including the Americans, Russians, Spanish and British. Naval captains such as the Spanish <a href="/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_P%C3%A9rez_Hern%C3%A1ndez" title="Juan José Pérez Hernández">Juan José Pérez Hernández</a>, British <a href="/wiki/George_Vancouver" title="George Vancouver">George Vancouver</a> and American <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gray_(sea-captain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Gray (sea-captain)">Robert Gray</a> gave defining regional water formations like the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound" title="Puget Sound">Puget Sound</a> their modern names and charted them in the 1790s. Overland explorations were commenced by the British <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mackenzie_(explorer)" title="Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)">Alexander Mackenzie</a> in 1792 and later followed by the American <a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis and Clark">Lewis and Clark</a> expedition, which reached the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a> in 1805. These explorers often claimed in the name of their respective governments sovereignty over the Northwest Coast. The knowledge of fur-bearing animal populations like the <a href="/wiki/California_sea_lion" title="California sea lion">California sea lion</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_American_beaver" title="North American beaver">North American beaver</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Northern_fur_seal" title="Northern fur seal">Northern fur seal</a> were used to create an economic network called the <a href="/wiki/Maritime_fur_trade" title="Maritime fur trade">maritime fur trade</a>. The <a href="/wiki/North_American_fur_trade" title="North American fur trade">fur trade</a> would remain the main economic interest that drew Euro-Americans to the Pacific Northwest for decades. Merchants exchanged goods for fur pelts along the coast with indigenous nations such as the <a href="/wiki/Chinookan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinookan people">Chinookan people</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aleut" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleut">Aleuts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth" title="Nuu-chah-nulth">Nuu-chah-nulth</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Columbiarivermap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Columbiarivermap.png/350px-Columbiarivermap.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Columbiarivermap.png/525px-Columbiarivermap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Columbiarivermap.png/700px-Columbiarivermap.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Columbia River and its tributaries, showing modern political boundaries and cities.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish_colonization">Spanish colonization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Spanish colonization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A series of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">expeditions to the Pacific Northwest</a> were financed by the Spanish to strengthen their claims to the region. Creating a colony called <a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_de_Nuca" title="Santa Cruz de Nuca">Santa Cruz de Nuca</a> on <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a>, the Spanish were the first European colonisers of the Pacific Northwest outside Russian America to the north. A period of tensions with the United Kingdom, called the <a href="/wiki/Nootka_Crisis" title="Nootka Crisis">Nootka Crisis</a>, arose after the Spanish seized a British vessel. However the three <a href="/wiki/Nootka_Convention" title="Nootka Convention">Nootka Conventions</a> averted conflict, with both countries agreeing to protect their mutual access to <a href="/wiki/Friendly_Cove" class="mw-redirect" title="Friendly Cove">Friendly Cove</a> against outside powers. While the Spanish colony was abandoned, a border delineating the northern reaches of <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> was not included. Despite the Nootka Conventions still allowing the Spanish to establish colonies in the region, no more attempts were made as other geopolitical and domestic matters drew the attention of the authorities. With the <a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a> of 1819, the Spanish formally withdrew all formal claims to lands north of the <a href="/wiki/42nd_parallel_north" title="42nd parallel north">42° north</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_interest">Russian interest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Russian interest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russian government">Imperial Russian government</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Russian-American_Company" title="Russian-American Company">Russian-American Company</a> in 1799, a monopoly among Russian subjects for fur trading operations in <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Ukase_of_1799" title="Ukase of 1799">Ukase of 1799</a>. In part from the growing Russian activities to the north, the Spanish created the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California" title="Spanish missions in California">Catholic Missions</a> to create colonies in <a href="/wiki/Alta_California" title="Alta California">Alta California</a>. Plans for creating Russian colonies in what became the modern American states of <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> were formulated by <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Rezanov" title="Nikolai Rezanov">Nikolai Rezanov</a>. He aimed to relocate the primary colony of Russian America to the entrance of the Columbia River, but was unable to enter the river in 1806 and the plan was abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangsdorff192721_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangsdorff192721-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1808 <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Andreyevich_Baranov" title="Alexander Andreyevich Baranov">Alexander Andreyevich Baranov</a> sent the <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_schooner_Nikolai" title="Russian schooner Nikolai">Nikolai</a></i>, with the captain "ordered to explore the coast south of Vancouver Island, barter with the natives for sea otter pelts, and if possible discover a site for a permanent Russian post in the Oregon Country."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonnelly19854_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly19854-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ship wrecked on the <a href="/wiki/Olympic_Peninsula" title="Olympic Peninsula">Olympic Peninsula</a> and the surviving crew did not return to <a href="/wiki/New_Archangel" class="mw-redirect" title="New Archangel">New Archangel</a> for two years. The failure of the vessel to find a suitable location led to the Russians to not consider much of the Northwest coast worth colonizing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonnelly198530_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly198530-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their interest in the Puget Sound and the Columbia River was diverted to Alta California, with <a href="/wiki/Fort_Ross" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Ross">Fort Ross</a> soon established. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Russo-American_Treaty_of_1824" title="Russo-American Treaty of 1824">Russo-American Treaty of 1824</a> and the 1825 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1825)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg</a> with the British formally created the southern border of Russian America at parallel 54°40′ north. Specifically, it was agreed, in the 1824 treaty, that no American settlement would be established on the coast or adjacent island north of 54°40′, and no Russian settlement to the south (Russian <a href="/wiki/Fort_Ross" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Ross">Fort Ross</a> was in <a href="/wiki/Alta_California" title="Alta California">Alta California</a>, Mexico, and was outside the purview of the treaty). The treaty did not make any explicit statements about sovereignty or territorial claims. The 1825 treaty with Britain was more strongly worded and defined the boundary between Russian and <a href="/wiki/British_possessions" class="mw-redirect" title="British possessions">British possessions</a> in North America, which ran north from 54°40′ through what is now the <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Panhandle" class="mw-redirect" title="Alaska Panhandle">Alaska Panhandle</a> to the <a href="/wiki/141st_meridian_west" title="141st meridian west">141st meridian west</a>, then along that line north to the Arctic Ocean. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Anglo-American_competition">Early Anglo-American competition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early Anglo-American competition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neither the Russian nor Spanish empires held significant plans at promoting colonies along the Northwest Coast by the 1810s. The British and the Americans were the remaining two nations with citizens active in commercial operations in the region. Starting with a party of the <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>-based <a href="/wiki/North_West_Company" title="North West Company">North West Company</a> (NWC) employees led by <a href="/wiki/David_Thompson_(explorer)" title="David Thompson (explorer)">David Thompson</a> in 1807, the British began land-based operations and opened trading posts throughout the region. Thompson extensively explored the Columbia River watershed. While at the junction of Columbia and <a href="/wiki/Snake_River" title="Snake River">Snake</a> Rivers, he erected a pole on July 9, 1811, with a notice stating "Know hereby that this country is claimed by Great Britain as part of its territories ..." and additionally stated the intention of the NWC to build a trading post there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott1911_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fort_Nez_Perc%C3%A9s" title="Fort Nez Percés">Fort Nez Percés</a> was later established at the location in 1818. The American <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Fur_Company" title="Pacific Fur Company">Pacific Fur Company</a> (PFC) began operations in 1811 at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Astoria" title="Fort Astoria">Fort Astoria</a>, constructed at the entrance of the Columbia River. The eruption of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> did not lead to a violent confrontation in the Pacific Northwest between the competing companies. Led by <a href="/wiki/Donald_Mackenzie_(explorer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Mackenzie (explorer)">Donald Mackenzie</a>, PFC officers agreed to liquidate its assets to their NWC competitors, with an agreement signed on 23 November 1813.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChittenden1902222–223_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChittenden1902222–223-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/HMS_Racoon_(1808)" title="HMS Racoon (1808)">HMS <i>Racoon</i></a> was ordered to capture Fort Astoria, though by the time it arrived, the post was already under NWC management. After the collapse of the PFC, American <a href="/wiki/Mountain_men" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountain men">mountain men</a> operated in small groups in the region, typically based east of the Rocky Mountains, only to meet once a year at the annual <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Rendezvous" title="Rocky Mountain Rendezvous">Rocky Mountain Rendezvous</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Joint_occupation">Joint occupation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Joint occupation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treaty_of_1818">Treaty of 1818</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Treaty of 1818"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_1818" title="Treaty of 1818">Treaty of 1818</a></div> <p>In 1818, diplomats of the two countries attempted to negotiate a boundary between the rival claims. The Americans suggested dividing the Pacific Northwest along the <a href="/wiki/49th_parallel_north" title="49th parallel north">49th parallel</a>, which was the border between the United States and <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a> east of the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a>. The lack of accurate cartographic knowledge led American diplomats to declare the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> gave them an incontestable claim to the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1950_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1950-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British diplomats wanted a border further south along the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a>, so as to maintain the <a href="/wiki/North_West_Company" title="North West Company">North West Company</a>'s (later the <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a>'s (HBC)) control of the lucrative <a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">fur trade</a> along that river.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1950_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1950-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The diplomatic teams could not agree upon mutually satisfactory terms and remained in deadlock by October. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Gallatin" title="Albert Gallatin">Albert Gallatin</a>, the main American negotiator, had previously instructed to have a tentative agreement by the convening of the third session of the <a href="/wiki/15th_United_States_Congress" title="15th United States Congress">15th United States Congress</a>, set for 16 November. </p><p>A final proposition was made to the British <a href="/wiki/Plenipotentiary" title="Plenipotentiary">plenipotentiary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_John_Robinson,_1st_Earl_of_Ripon" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick John Robinson, 1st Earl of Ripon">Frederick John Robinson</a>, for the continuation of the 49th parallel west while leaving the United Kingdom, as Gallatin stated, "all the waters emptying in the sound called the Gulf of Georgia."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1950_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1950-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This would have awarded "all the territory draining west from the <a href="/wiki/Cascade_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Cascade Mountains">Cascade</a> divide and north from the Columbia River divide into the gulf" and the entirety of the <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound" title="Puget Sound">Puget Sound</a> along with the Straits of <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Georgia" title="Strait of Georgia">Georgia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Juan_de_Fuca" title="Strait of Juan de Fuca">Juan de Fuca</a> to the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1950_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1950-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Robinson demurred from the proposal. However, the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, which settled most other disputes from the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, called for the joint occupation of the region for ten years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proposed_partition_plans">Proposed partition plans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Proposed partition plans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the expiration of the Joint Occupation treaty approached, a second round of negotiations commenced in 1824. American Minister <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rush" title="Richard Rush">Richard Rush</a> offered for the extension of agreement with an additional clause on 2 April. The 51° parallel would be a provisional border within the Pacific Northwest, with no British additional settlements to be established south of the line, nor any American settlements north of it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1911166_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1911166-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite Rush's offering to modify the temporary border to the 49° parallel, the British negotiators rejected his offer. His proposal was seen as the likely basis for the eventual division of the Pacific Northwest. The British plenipotentiaries <a href="/wiki/William_Huskisson" title="William Huskisson">William Huskisson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stratford_Canning,_1st_Viscount_Stratford_de_Redcliffe" title="Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe">Stratford Canning</a> on 29 June pressed instead for a permanent line along the 49° parallel west until the main branch of the Columbia River. With the British formally abandoning claims south or east of the Columbia River, the Oregon Question thence became focused on what later became Western <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> and the southern portion of Vancouver Island.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1911166_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1911166-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rush reacted to the British proposal as unfavorably as they had to his own offer, leaving the talks at a stalemate. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Canning_by_Richard_Evans_-_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/George_Canning_by_Richard_Evans_-_detail.jpg/170px-George_Canning_by_Richard_Evans_-_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/George_Canning_by_Richard_Evans_-_detail.jpg/255px-George_Canning_by_Richard_Evans_-_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/George_Canning_by_Richard_Evans_-_detail.jpg/340px-George_Canning_by_Richard_Evans_-_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_Canning" title="George Canning">George Canning</a> has been appraised the most active Secretary of Foreign Affairs in maintaining the British claims of a division along the Columbia River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout 1825, <a href="/wiki/George_Canning" title="George Canning">George Canning</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Foreign_Affairs_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)">Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs</a>, held discussions with <a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Pelly,_1st_Baronet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir John Pelly, 1st Baronet">Governor Pelly</a> of the HBC as to a potential settlement with the United States. Pelly felt a border along the <a href="/wiki/Snake_River" title="Snake River">Snake</a> and Columbia Rivers was advantageous for the United Kingdom and his company.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contacting American minister <a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a> in April 1826, Canning requested that a settlement be reached over the Oregon dispute. Gallatin was appointed <a href="/wiki/United_States_Minister_to_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Minister to the United Kingdom">Ambassador to the United Kingdom</a> and given instructions by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> in July 1826 to offer a division of the Pacific Northwest along the 49th parallel to the Pacific Ocean to the British.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeany1914_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeany1914-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a letter to Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Robert_Jenkinson,_2nd_Earl_of_Liverpool" title="Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool">Lord Liverpool</a> in 1826, Canning presented the possibilities of trade with the <a href="/wiki/Qing_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing Empire">Qing Empire</a> if a division of the Pacific Northwest was to be made with the Americans. He felt the recognition of American rights to ownership of Astoria, despite its continued use by the NWC and later HBC, was "absolutely unjustifiable".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanning188771–74_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanning188771–74-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This diplomatic courtesy Canning felt weakened the territorial claims of the United Kingdom. A border along the Columbia River would give "an immense direct intercourse between China and what may be, if we resolve not yield them up, her boundless establishments on the N. W. Coast of America".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanning188771–74_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanning188771–74-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renewal">Renewal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Renewal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Huskisson was appointed along with <a href="/wiki/Henry_Unwin_Addington" title="Henry Unwin Addington">Henry Unwin Addington</a> to negotiate with Gallatin. Unlike his superior, Canning, Huskisson held a negative view of the HBC monopoly and found the region held in dispute with the Americans "of little consequence to the British".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time the HBC's staff were the only continuous white occupants in the region, though their economic activities were not utilized by Huskinisson in exchanges with Gallatin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The division suggested by Pelly and Canning's 1824 offer of a Columbia River boundary was rejected. The argument used to counter these offers was the same as in 1824, that a boundary along the Columbia would deny the U.S. an easily accessible deep water port on the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>. The British negotiators to allay this attack offered a detached <a href="/wiki/Olympic_Peninsula" title="Olympic Peninsula">Olympic Peninsula</a> as American territory, giving access to both the Straits of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was seen as unsatisfactory by the Americans however. The diplomatic talks were continued but failed to divide the region in a satisfactory manner for both nations. The Treaty of 1818 was renewed on 7 August 1827,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a clause added by Gallatin that a one-year notice had to be given when either party intended to abrogate the agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeany1914_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeany1914-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the death of Canning and the failure to find a satisfactory division of the region with the Americans, "Oregon had been almost forgotten by the [British] politicians".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance_in_the_United_States">Significance in the United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Significance in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_activities">Regional activities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Regional activities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>American Protestant missionaries began to arrive in the 1830s and established the <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist Mission">Methodist Mission</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Willamette_Valley" title="Willamette Valley">Willamette Valley</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Whitman_Mission_National_Historic_Site" title="Whitman Mission National Historic Site">Whitman Mission</a> east of the <a href="/wiki/Cascade_Range" title="Cascade Range">Cascades</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ewing_Young" title="Ewing Young">Ewing Young</a> created a <a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">saw mill</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a <a href="/wiki/Gristmill" title="Gristmill">grist mill</a> in the Willamette Valley early in the 1830s.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He and several other American colonists formed the <a href="/wiki/Willamette_Cattle_Company" title="Willamette Cattle Company">Willamette Cattle Company</a> in 1837 to bring over 600 head of cattle to the Willamette Valley, with about half of its shares purchased by McLoughlin. Over 700 U.S settlers arrived via the Oregon Trail in the "<a href="/wiki/Oregon_Trail#Great_Migration_of_1843" title="Oregon Trail">Great Migration of 1843</a>". The <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_Oregon" title="Provisional Government of Oregon">Provisional Government of Oregon</a> was established in the Willamette Valley during 1843 as well. Its rule was limited to those interested Americans and former <a href="/wiki/French-Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="French-Canadian">French-Canadian</a> HBC employees in the valley. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Floyd">John Floyd</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: John Floyd"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first attempts by the American Government for proactive action in colonising the Pacific Northwest began in 1820 during the 2nd session of the <a href="/wiki/16th_United_States_Congress" title="16th United States Congress">16th Congress</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Floyd_(Virginia_politician)" title="John Floyd (Virginia politician)">John Floyd</a>, a <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">Representative</a> from <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, spearheaded a report that would "authorize the occupation of the Columbia River, and to regulated trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes thereon."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton185413–14_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton185413–14-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally the bill called for cultivating commercial relations with the <a href="/wiki/Qing_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing Empire">Qing Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa shogunate</a>. His interest in the distant region likely began after meeting former PFC employee <a href="/wiki/Russell_Farnham" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell Farnham">Russell Farnham</a>. Floyd had the support of fellow Virginian Representative <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Van_Swearingen" title="Thomas Van Swearingen">Thomas Van Swearingen</a> and Representative <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Metcalfe_(Kentucky)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Metcalfe (Kentucky)">Thomas Metcalfe</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a>. The bill was presented to both the House and to <a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">President Monroe</a>. In the House, Floyd's bill was defended by one member who stated that it did not "attempt a colonial settlement. The territory proposed to be occupied is already a part of the United States."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1900_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1900-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monroe inquired the opinion of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> for potential revisions. Adams retorted that "The paper was a tissue of errors in fact and abortive reasoning, of invidious reflections and rude invectives. There was nothing could purify it but the fire."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1875238_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1875238-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Read twice before the legislature, "most of the members not considering it a serious proceeding", it did not pass.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton185413–14_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton185413–14-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Floyd_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/John_Floyd_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-John_Floyd_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/John_Floyd_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-John_Floyd_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/John_Floyd_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-John_Floyd_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1406" data-file-height="1853" /></a><figcaption>Representative <a href="/wiki/John_Floyd_(Virginia_politician)" title="John Floyd (Virginia politician)">John Floyd</a> was the most prominent early Congressional member in favor of extensive American claims in the Pacific Northwest.</figcaption></figure> <p>Floyd continued to authorise legislation calling for an American colony on the Pacific. His career as a Representative ended in 1829, with the Oregon Question not discussed at Congress until 1837. The northern border proposed by Floyd was at first the <a href="/wiki/53rd_parallel_north" title="53rd parallel north">53°</a>, and later 54°40′.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These bills were still met with the apathy or opposition of other Congressional members, one in particular being tabled for consideration by a vote of 100 to 61.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> Senator <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hart_Benton_(politician)" title="Thomas Hart Benton (politician)">Thomas H. Benton</a> became a vocal supporter of Floyd's efforts, and thought that they would "plant the germ of a powerful and independent Power beyond the Rockies".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a>, then <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a>, while somewhat interested in Floyd's considered bills, gave his opinion to that the HBC was an economic threat to American commercial interests in the west. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... so long as the traders of the British Fur Company have free access to the region of the Rocky Mountains from the various posts ... they will in great measure monopolize the Fur Trade West of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a>, to the almost entire exclusion in the next few years of our trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1844_presidential_election">1844 presidential election</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1844 presidential election"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/1844_United_States_presidential_election" title="1844 United States presidential election">1844 presidential election</a> was a definitive turning point for the United States. Admitting the <a href="/wiki/Texas_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Texas Republic">Texas Republic</a> by diplomatic negotiations to begin a process of <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation of Texas">annexation of Texas</a> into the nation was a contentious topic. At the same time, the Oregon Question "became a weapon in a struggle for domestic political power".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraebner195535_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraebner195535-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/1844_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1844 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Party_platform" title="Party platform">party platform</a> asserted "That our title to the whole of the Territory of Oregon is clear and unquestionable; that no portion of the same ought to be ceded to England or any other power, and that the reoccupation of Oregon and the re-annexation of Texas at the earliest practicable period are great American measures".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By tying the Oregon dispute to the more controversial Texas debate, the Democrats appealed to expansionist members from both the Northern and Southern states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraebner195535_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraebner195535-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enlargement in the Pacific Northwest offered a means of mollifying Northern fears of allowing Texas, another <a href="/wiki/Slave_and_free_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave and free states">slave state</a>, by a counterbalance of additional free states. Democratic candidate <a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a> went on to win a narrow victory over <a href="/wiki/United_States_Whig_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Whig Party">Whig</a> candidate <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a>, in part because Clay had taken a stand against immediate expansion in Texas. Despite the use of the Oregon Question in the election, according to Edward Miles, the topic was not "a significant campaign issue" as "the Whigs would have been forced to discuss it".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles1957_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles1957-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Fifty-four_Forty_or_Fight!""><span id=".22Fifty-four_Forty_or_Fight.21.22"></span>"Fifty-four Forty or Fight!"</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A popular slogan later associated with Polk and his campaign of 1844, "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" was not actually coined during the election but appeared only by January 1846 and was promoted and driven in part by the press associated with the Democratic Party. The phrase has since become frequently misidentified as a Polk campaign slogan, even in many textbooks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles1957_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles1957-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenboom1970132_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenboom1970132-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973223_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973223-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperber19575–11_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperber19575–11-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Bartlett%27s_Familiar_Quotations" title="Bartlett's Familiar Quotations">Bartlett's Familiar Quotations</a></i> attributes the slogan to William Allen. 54°40′ was the southern boundary of <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a> and considered the northernmost limit of the Pacific Northwest. One actual Democratic campaign slogan from the election (used in <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>) was the more mundane "Polk, <a href="/wiki/George_M._Dallas" title="George M. Dallas">Dallas</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1842" title="Tariff of 1842">Tariff of '42</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenboom1970132_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenboom1970132-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The southernmost border of <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> remains 54°40′ since the purchase from Russia on October 18, 1867, with <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, established as the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_British_Columbia_(1858%E2%80%931866)" title="Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)">Colony of British Columbia</a> on August 2, 1858. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_interest">British interest</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: British interest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hudson's_Bay_Company"><span id="Hudson.27s_Bay_Company"></span>Hudson's Bay Company</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hudson's Bay Company"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbia Department">Columbia Department</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_George_Simpson_Resized.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sir_George_Simpson_Resized.jpg/170px-Sir_George_Simpson_Resized.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sir_George_Simpson_Resized.jpg/255px-Sir_George_Simpson_Resized.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sir_George_Simpson_Resized.jpg/340px-Sir_George_Simpson_Resized.jpg 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="505" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_Simpson_(administrator)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Simpson (administrator)">George Simpson</a>, manager of HBC operations in North America, reported in 1837 that the Pacific Northwest "may become an object of very great importance, and we are strengthening that claim to it ... by forming the nucleus of a colony through the establishment of farms, and the settlement of some of our retiring officers and servants as agriculturalists."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1968339_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1968339-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a> (HBC) merged with the North West Company in 1821 and assumed its various fur trading stations. The HBC held a license among British subjects to trade with the populous aboriginal peoples of the region, and its network of trading posts and routes extended southward from <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia_(Canada)" title="New Caledonia (Canada)">New Caledonia</a>, another HBC fur-trade district, into the Columbia basin (most of New Caledonia lay south of 54°40'N). The HBC's headquarters for the entire region became established at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Vancouver" title="Fort Vancouver">Fort Vancouver</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Vancouver,_Washington" title="Vancouver, Washington">Vancouver, Washington</a>) in 1824. During that year <a href="/wiki/George_Simpson_(administrator)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Simpson (administrator)">George Simpson</a> while discussing the company's "uncertain tenure of the Columbia" with <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Colville" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew Colville">Governor Colville</a>, discussed the possibility of closing operations along the river.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1968339_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1968339-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "If the Americans settle on the mouth of the Columbia it would in my opinion be necessary to abandon the Coast [south of the river]". Simpson stated, with the company posts to "move to the Northward".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1932653–677_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1932653–677-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its pinnacle in the late 1830s and early 1840s, Fort Vancouver watched over 34 outposts, 24 ports, six ships, and 600 employees. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic">Domestic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Domestic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_Review#Edinburgh_Review,_1802–1929" title="Edinburgh Review">Edinburgh Review</a></i> declared the Pacific Northwest "the last corner of the earth left free for the occupation of a civilized race. When Oregon shall be colonised, the map of the world may be considered as filled up."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdinburgh_Review1843185_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdinburgh_Review1843185-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naval_presence">Naval presence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Naval presence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> ships were dispatched to the Pacific Northwest throughout the decades, to both expand cartographical knowledge and protect fur trading stations. The British established the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Station" title="Pacific Station">Pacific Station</a> in 1826 at <a href="/wiki/Valpara%C3%ADso" title="Valparaíso">Valparaíso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, increasing the strategic capabilities of their navy. A squadron was moved there and later vessels sent to the Pacific Northwest were based out of the port. <a href="/wiki/HMS_Blossom_(1806)" title="HMS Blossom (1806)">HMS <i>Blossom</i></a> was in the region during 1818. The next surveying expedition was commenced by <a href="/wiki/HMS_Sulphur_(1826)" title="HMS Sulphur (1826)">HMS <i>Sulphur</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Starling_(1829)" title="HMS Starling (1829)">HMS <i>Starling</i></a> in 1837, with operations lasting until 1839. Dispatched from the Pacific Station to gather intelligence on the HBC posts, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Modeste_(1837)" title="HMS Modeste (1837)">HMS <i>Modeste</i></a> arrived at the Columbia River in July 1844. Chief Factor <a href="/wiki/James_Douglas_(governor)" title="James Douglas (governor)">James Douglas</a> complained that the naval officers "had more taste for a <a href="/wiki/Lark" title="Lark">lark</a> than a 'musty' lecture on politics or the greater national interests in question."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLoughlin1944180_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLoughlin1944180-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Modeste</i> visited the HBC trading posts of Forts George, Vancouver, Victoria and <a href="/wiki/Fort_Simpson_(Columbia_Department)" title="Fort Simpson (Columbia Department)">Simpson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_efforts_during_Tyler_presidency">Political efforts during Tyler presidency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Political efforts during Tyler presidency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Missouri Senator <a href="/wiki/Lewis_F._Linn" title="Lewis F. Linn">Lewis Linn</a> tabled legislation in 1842, inspired in part by Floyd's previous efforts. Linn's bill called for the government to create land grants for men interested in settling the Pacific Northwest. The arrival of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Baring,_1st_Baron_Ashburton" title="Alexander Baring, 1st Baron Ashburton">Baron Ashburton</a> in April 1842, sent to resolve several territorial disputes with the United States, delayed Linn's legislation. Initially focusing on the Pacific Northwest, Ashburton presented <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Webster" title="Daniel Webster">Daniel Webster</a> the 1824 partition proposal made by Canning of a division along the Columbia River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Webster rejected the offer for the same reasons it was previously repudiated; the division would leave the United States with no suitable locations for a large Pacific port. Webster suggested that Ashburton's proposal may have been found acceptable by the Americans, if the United States could be compensated with the <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexican</a> owned <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay" title="San Francisco Bay">San Francisco Bay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ashburton passed on the offer to his superiors, but no further action was taken. Both diplomats became focused on settling the <a href="/wiki/Aroostook_War" title="Aroostook War">Aroostook War</a> and formulated the <a href="/wiki/Webster%E2%80%93Ashburton_Treaty" title="Webster–Ashburton Treaty">Webster–Ashburton Treaty</a>. </p><p>At the final session of the <a href="/wiki/27th_United_States_Congress" title="27th United States Congress">27th Congress</a> on 19 December 1842, Linn presented a similar bill to colonize the Pacific Northwest, as he put it, "by the Anglo-American race, which will extend our limits from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1900_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1900-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguments over the bill lasted over a month, and it was eventually passed in the Senate 24–22.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1900_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1900-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In opposition to Linn's bill, Calhoun famously declared that the U.S. government should pursue a policy of "wise and masterly inactivity"<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Oregon, letting settlement determine the eventual boundary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1900_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1900-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of Calhoun's fellow <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a>, however, soon began to advocate a more direct approach.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973109–110_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973109–110-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By early 1843, Webster returned to the Oregon Question, formalising a plan that included the 1826 British offer of the Olympic Peninsula enclave and the purchase of <a href="/wiki/Alta_California" title="Alta California">Alta California</a> from Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increasing hostility President Tyler had with the <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a> led to Webster's disinterest in continuing to act as the Secretary of State and his plan was shelved. The American minister to the UK, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Everett" title="Edward Everett">Edward Everett</a>, was given authority to negotiate with British officials to settle the Oregon Question in October 1843. Meeting with Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Robert Peel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Foreign_Affairs_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)">Foreign Secretary</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Hamilton-Gordon,_4th_Earl_of_Aberdeen" title="George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen">Earl of Aberdeen</a> on 29 November, Everett presented the terms considered by President <a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a>. The old offer of the 49th parallel was once more presented, along with a guarantee to free access to the Columbia River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_Printing_Office18726–11_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGovernment_Printing_Office18726–11-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However during President Tyler's <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union</a> address that year on 6 December, he claimed "the entire region of country lying on the Pacific and embraced within 42° and 54°40′ of north latitude".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After receiving this declaration, Aberdeen began to consult with the committee and Governor Pelly, previously left out of the most recent diplomatic exchanges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957231_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957231-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Polk_presidency">Polk presidency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Polk presidency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JamesKnoxPolk.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/JamesKnoxPolk.png/170px-JamesKnoxPolk.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/JamesKnoxPolk.png/255px-JamesKnoxPolk.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/JamesKnoxPolk.png/340px-JamesKnoxPolk.png 2x" data-file-width="423" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>President James K. Polk was elected in 1844 in part from his support for substantial claims against the British. Much of this rhetoric was to make the United Kingdom accept the long tabled proposed division along the 49th parallel.</figcaption></figure> <p>In his March 1845 <a href="/wiki/Inauguration_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Inauguration Day">inaugural address</a>, President Polk quoted from the party platform, saying that the U.S. title to Oregon was "clear and unquestionable".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolk2014_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolk2014-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tensions grew, with both sides moving to strengthen border fortifications in anticipation of war. Despite Polk's bold language, he was actually prepared to compromise, and had no real desire to go to war over Oregon. He believed that a firm stance would compel the British to accept a resolution agreeable to the United States. While meeting with Representative <a href="/wiki/James_A._Black" title="James A. Black">James A. Black</a> on 4 January 1846, Polk stated that "the only way to treat <a href="/wiki/John_Bull" title="John Bull">John Bull</a> was to look him straight in the eye ... if Congress faultered  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] ... John Bull would immediately become arrogant and more grasping in his demands".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolk1910153–155_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolk1910153–155-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But Polk's position on Oregon was not mere posturing: he genuinely believed that the U.S. had a legitimate claim to the entire region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997118–120_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997118–120-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He rejected British offers to settle the dispute through arbitration, fearing that no impartial third party could be found.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973322_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973322-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many newspaper editors in the United States clamored for Polk to claim the entire region as the Democrats had proposed in the 1844 campaign. Headlines like "The Whole of Oregon or None" by <i><a href="/wiki/The_Union_(newspaper)" title="The Union (newspaper)">The Union</a></i> editor <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ritchie_(journalist)" title="Thomas Ritchie (journalist)">Thomas Ritchie</a> appeared on 6 November 1845.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles1957_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles1957-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a column in the <i>New York Morning News</i> on December 27, 1845, editor <a href="/wiki/John_L._O%27Sullivan" title="John L. O'Sullivan">John L. O'Sullivan</a> argued that the United States should claim all of Oregon "by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorsman1981_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorsman1981-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon afterwards, the term "<a href="/wiki/Manifest_Destiny" class="mw-redirect" title="Manifest Destiny">Manifest Destiny</a>" became a standard phrase for expansionists, and a permanent part of the American lexicon. O'Sullivan's version of "Manifest Destiny" was not a call for war, but such calls were soon forthcoming. </p><p>After Polk's inauguration, British diplomats began to receive instructions influenced from HBC officials like Simpson, whose suggestions were transmitted through Pelly and then Aberdeen to the <a href="/wiki/British_Ambassador_to_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="British Ambassador to the United States">British Ambassador</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pakenham" title="Richard Pakenham">Richard Pakenham</a>. In a letter written to Calhoun in August 1844, Pakenham pressed for a border along the Columbia River. He made an offer that likely originated from Simpson: Americans could select naval bases on the portion of Vancouver Island south of the 49th parallel or along the Strait of Juan de Fuca in return.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957231_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957231-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diplomatic channels continued negotiations throughout 1844; by early 1845 Everett reported the willingness of Aberdeen to accept the 49th parallel, provided the southern portion of <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a> would become British territory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_Printing_Office18726–11_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGovernment_Printing_Office18726–11-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the summer of 1845, the Polk administration renewed the proposal to divide Oregon along the 49th parallel to the Pacific Ocean. U.S. Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a> on 12 July<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957240_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957240-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> offered the British any desired ports on the portion of Vancouver Island south of this line,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1900_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1900-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though navigation rights of the Columbia River were not included. Because this proposal fell short of the Tyler administration's earlier offer, Pakenham rejected the offer without first contacting London.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957240_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957240-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Offended, Polk officially withdrew the proposal on August 30, 1845, and broke off negotiations. Aberdeen censured Pakenham for this diplomatic blunder, and attempted to renew the dialogue. By then, however, Polk was suspicious of British intentions, and under increasing political pressure not to compromise. He declined to reopen negotiations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997322_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997322-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973237–249,_296–300_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973237–249,_296–300-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_crisis">War crisis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: War crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; float:right"> <caption>Important figures in the Oregon Question </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>United States </th> <th>United Kingdom </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a><br /><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Robert Peel</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a><br /><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/George_Hamilton-Gordon,_4th_Earl_of_Aberdeen" title="George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen">Earl of Aberdeen</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Foreign_Affairs_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)">Foreign Secretary</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Louis_McLane" title="Louis McLane">Louis McLane</a><br /><a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom">Minister to the UK</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pakenham" title="Richard Pakenham">Richard Pakenham</a><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_Ambassadors_to_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of British Ambassadors to the United States">Minister in Washington</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congressional_pressure">Congressional pressure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Congressional pressure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lewis_Cass_-_Brady-Handy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Lewis_Cass_-_Brady-Handy.jpg/170px-Lewis_Cass_-_Brady-Handy.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Lewis_Cass_-_Brady-Handy.jpg/255px-Lewis_Cass_-_Brady-Handy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Lewis_Cass_-_Brady-Handy.jpg/340px-Lewis_Cass_-_Brady-Handy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2696" data-file-height="4056" /></a><figcaption>Senator <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Lewis Cass</a> was a leading advocate of 54°40′, but backed away from the claim when it became untenable. Like <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a>, Cass had presidential ambitions and did not want to alienate Americans on either side of the Oregon Question.</figcaption></figure> <p>In his <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="State of the Union Address">annual address</a> to Congress on December 2, 1845, Polk recommended giving the British the required one-year notice of the termination of the joint occupation agreement. Democratic expansionists in Congress from the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a>, led by Senators <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Lewis Cass</a> of <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_A._Hannegan" title="Edward A. Hannegan">Edward A. Hannegan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Allen_(governor)" title="William Allen (governor)">William Allen</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, called for war with the United Kingdom rather than accepting anything short of all of Oregon up to <a href="/wiki/Parallel_54%C2%B040%E2%80%B2_north" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallel 54°40′ north">Parallel 54°40′ north</a>. These pronouncements were fueled by a number of factors, including traditional <a href="/wiki/Anglophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglophobia">distrust of the British</a> and a belief that the U.S. had the better claim and would make better use of the land. </p><p>The debate was not strictly divided along party or sectional lines, with many who clamored for the 54°40′ border were Northerners upset at Polk's willingness to compromise on the Pacific Northwest border. Polk's uncompromising pursuit of Texas, an acquisition seen favorable for Southern slave owners, angered many advocates of 54°40′, as the President was a Southerner and a slave owner. As historian <a href="/wiki/David_M._Pletcher" title="David M. Pletcher">David M. Pletcher</a> noted, "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" seemed to be directed at the southern aristocracy in the U.S. as much as at the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973335–337_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973335–337-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moderates like Webster warned that the U.S. could not win a war against the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, and that negotiation could still achieve U.S. territorial goals. Webster confided to <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Denison,_1st_Viscount_Ossington" title="Evelyn Denison, 1st Viscount Ossington">Viscount Ossington</a>, a personal friend, on 26 February 1846, that it would be a "stupendous folly and enormous crime" for the two nations to declare war over the Pacific Northwest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiltse1973_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiltse1973-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_reaction">British reaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: British reaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georgehamiltongordonaberdeen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Georgehamiltongordonaberdeen.jpg/170px-Georgehamiltongordonaberdeen.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Georgehamiltongordonaberdeen.jpg/255px-Georgehamiltongordonaberdeen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Georgehamiltongordonaberdeen.jpg/340px-Georgehamiltongordonaberdeen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="587" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Lord_Aberdeen" title="Portrait of Lord Aberdeen">Portrait of Lord Aberdeen</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lawrence" title="Thomas Lawrence">Thomas Lawrence</a>, 1830. Foreign Secretary <a href="/wiki/George_Hamilton-Gordon,_4th_Earl_of_Aberdeen" title="George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen">Lord Aberdeen</a> was committed to maintaining peaceable relations with the Americans, evaluating the disputed territory in the Oregon Question as unimportant.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pacific_naval_forces">Pacific naval forces</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Pacific naval forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the height of tensions with the United States in 1845 and 1846, there were at least five Royal Navy vessels operating in the Pacific Northwest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 80-gun ship-of-the-line <a href="/wiki/HMS_Collingwood_(1841)" title="HMS Collingwood (1841)">HMS <i>Collingwood</i></a> was deployed to Valparaíso under the commander in chief, Rear Admiral Sir <a href="/wiki/George_Francis_Seymour" class="mw-redirect" title="George Francis Seymour">George Seymour</a>, in 1845, with orders to report on the situation in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/HMS_America_(1810)" title="HMS America (1810)">HMS <i>America</i></a>, under the command of Captain John Gordon (younger brother Foreign Secretary Aberdeen), was therefore sent north that year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roderick_Finlayson" title="Roderick Finlayson">Roderick Finlayson</a> gave a tour of Vancouver Island to the visiting naval officers, where Gordon aired his negative appraisal of the Northwest region. During a deer hunt on the island, Gordon informed Finlayson that he "would not give one of the barren hills of Scotland for all he saw around him".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinlayson189115_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinlayson189115-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>America</i> departed from the Strait of Juan de Fuca on October 1. <i>Modeste</i> entered the Columbia River and arrived at Fort Vancouver on November 30, 1845,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where it remained until May 4, 1847.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Modeste</i> was not favorably viewed by American colonists in the Willamette Valley, threatened by the large warship. Relations were improved when the officers organised a <a href="/wiki/Ball_(dance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ball (dance)">ball</a> at Vancouver on February 3, 1846,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> later theatrical performances by the ship's crew, including <i><a href="/wiki/Love_in_a_Village" title="Love in a Village">Love in a Village</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mock_Doctor" title="The Mock Doctor">The Mock Doctor</a></i>, along with <a href="/wiki/Picnic" title="Picnic">picnics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/HMS_Fisgard_(1819)" title="HMS Fisgard (1819)">HMS <i>Fisgard</i></a> was the first reinforcement, ordered from the Pacific Station by Rear Admiral Seymour in January 1846. Captain Duntze was to "afford Protection to Her Majesty's Subjects in Oregon and the North West Coast" and avoid any potential confrontations with American settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On May 5, <i>Fisgard</i> reached Fort Victoria, later moving to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Nisqually" title="Fort Nisqually">Fort Nisqually</a> on the 18th, where it remained until October. Sent to aid other British vessels navigate difficult channels and rivers, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Cormorant_(1842)" title="HMS Cormorant (1842)">HMS <i>Cormorant</i></a>, a <a href="/wiki/Paddle_steamer" title="Paddle steamer">paddle steamer</a>, arrived at the Strait of Juan de Fuca in June.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two survey ships were dispatched from <a href="/wiki/Plymouth" title="Plymouth">Plymouth</a> in June 1845, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Herald_(1824)" title="HMS Herald (1824)">HMS <i>Herald</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Pandora_(1833)" title="HMS Pandora (1833)">HMS <i>Pandora</i></a>, for charting the coast of the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vessels reached <a href="/wiki/Cape_Flattery" title="Cape Flattery">Cape Flattery</a> on 24 June 1846. <i>Cormorant</i> towed <i>Herald</i> to Fort Victoria three days later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeemann1853100_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeemann1853100-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Herald</i> and <i>Pandora</i> spent several months charting Puget Sound and Vancouver Island until 2 September, when the vessels sailed for Alta California.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeemann1853112_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeemann1853112-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Fisgard</i> and <i>Cormorant</i> both departed for Valparaíso in October.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <i>Modeste</i> was the only British ship in the region during 1847, the Oregon Treaty "seemed to have taken the edge off of the Royal Navy's interest in the Northwest Coast".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War_plan">War plan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: War plan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to his extensive travels throughout the western stations of the HBC, Governor Pelly instructed <a href="/wiki/George_Simpson_(administrator)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Simpson (administrator)">George Simpson</a> to draft a plan for the British Government if hostilities were to arise with the Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finalizing the proposal on March 29, 1845, Simpson called for two areas to launch offensives. The <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Colony" title="Red River Colony">Red River Colony</a> would be the base of operations for forays into the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a>, an expansive region then only lightly colonized by Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A militia composed of <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_people_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis people (Canada)">Métis</a> riflemen and neighboring <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a> would be created, along with a garrison of <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">Regular Army</a> infantry. To secure the Pacific Northwest and the Columbia River, Simpson felt <a href="/wiki/Cape_Disappointment_(Washington)" title="Cape Disappointment (Washington)">Cape Disappointment</a> was of critical importance. A naval force of two <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboats</a> and two <a href="/wiki/Ship_of_the_line" title="Ship of the line">ships of the line</a> would bring a detachment of <a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a> to create a <a href="/wiki/Coastal_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal battery">coastal battery</a> there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recruitment was hoped by Simpson to gain a force led by Regular Army officers of 2,000 Métis and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest">indigenous peoples</a> in the region. His proposal quickly earned the interest of the British Government as he met with Prime Minister Peel and Foreign Secretary Aberdeen on April 2. <a href="/wiki/British_pound" class="mw-redirect" title="British pound">£</a>1,000 was awarded to lay the ground work for defensive operations in the Pacific Northwest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Smith-Stanley,_14th_Earl_of_Derby" title="Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby">Lord Stanley</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_War_and_the_Colonies" title="Secretary of State for War and the Colonies">Secretary of State for War and the Colonies</a>, favored the plan, declaring that the HBC had to finance military operations west of <a href="/wiki/Sault_Ste._Marie,_Ontario" title="Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario">Sault Ste. Marie</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957240_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957240-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resolution">Resolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Resolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aberdeen had no intention of going to war over a region that was of diminishing economic value to the United Kingdom. Furthermore the United States was an important trading partner, especially with the need of American wheat in the onset of <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">famine in Ireland</a>. Aberdeen and Pakenham were negotiating from a position of strength. The key was the overwhelming naval power which Britain could have brought to bear against the United States, combined with a diplomatic and political landscape that ultimately favored the British government's aim of protecting their interests robustly but without resort to armed conflict. Ultimately British politicians and naval officers recognized that any conflict over the Oregon boundary, however undesirable, would be decided, like the War of 1812, on the Eastern Seaboard of the U.S. and the Great Lakes. The Royal Navy's presence on the Atlantic seaboard was not as numerically prominent as the American forces, yet its overall superiority to the U.S. Navy was decisive upon American decision-making during the crisis, especially their decision to compromise.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGough197170–83_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGough197170–83-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Louis_McLane" title="Louis McLane">Louis McLane</a>, the American minister in the United Kingdom, reported to Buchanan on 2 February that the British were prepared "to commission immediately some thirty ships-of-the-line in addition to steamers and other vessels held in reserve".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller193758_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller193758-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polk's bluff had been called. </p><p>American diplomat <a href="/wiki/Edward_Everett" title="Edward Everett">Edward Everett</a> contacted the <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whig</a> leader <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">John Russell</a> on 28 December 1845, supporting a revision of the American offer so as to allow the British to keep the entirety of Vancouver Island. He warned Russell that influence among the Whigs could stifle the negotiations. "If you choose to rally the public opinion of England against this basis of compromise, it will not be easy for Sir R. Peel and Lord Aberdeen to agree to it."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1932653–677_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1932653–677-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While still considering the Columbia River important for British interests, Russell assured Aberdeen of his support in settling the Oregon Question. While Everett's was influential in this political move, Russell felt it was, as Frederick Merk stated, "prudent Whig policy" to support Aberdeen in this case.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1968339_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1968339-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although Polk had called on Congress in December 1845 to pass a resolution notifying the British of the termination of joint occupancy agreement, it was not until April 23, 1846 that both houses complied. The passage was delayed especially in the Senate by contentious debate. Several Southern Senators, like <a href="/wiki/William_S._Archer" title="William S. Archer">William S. Archer</a><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/John_M._Berrien" title="John M. Berrien">John M. Berrien</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were wary of military capabilities of the British Empire. Ultimately a mild resolution was approved, the text of which called on both governments to settle the matter amicably. </p><p>By a large margin, moderation had won out over calls for war. Unlike Western Democrats, most Congressmen—like Polk—did not want to fight for 54° 40′.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973351_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973351-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Polk administration then made it known that the British government should offer terms to settle the dispute. Despite the cooling diplomatic relations, a repeat of the War of 1812 was not popular with either nation's government. Time was of the essence, because it was well known that the <a href="/wiki/Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Peel government</a> would fall with the impending repeal of the <a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a> in the United Kingdom, and then negotiations would have to begin again with a new ministry. At a time when the European continental balance was a far more pressing problem, a costly war with a major trading partner was not popular with the British government. Aberdeen and McLane quickly worked out a compromise and sent it to the United States. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oregon_Treaty">Oregon Treaty</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Oregon Treaty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Treaty" title="Oregon Treaty">Oregon Treaty</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Wpdms_oregon_territory_1848.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Wpdms_oregon_territory_1848.png" decoding="async" width="285" height="219" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="285" data-file-height="219" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Territory" title="Oregon Territory">Oregon Territory</a>, as established after the <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Treaty" title="Oregon Treaty">Oregon Treaty</a>, superimposed over the current state boundaries.</figcaption></figure> <p>Pakenham and Buchanan drew up a formal treaty, known as the Oregon Treaty, which was ratified by the Senate on June 18, 1846, by a vote of 41–14. The mainland border was set at the 49th parallel, the original U.S. proposal, with navigation rights on the Columbia River granted to British subjects living in the area. Senator William Allen, one of the most outspoken advocates of the 54° 40′ claim, felt betrayed by Polk and resigned his chairmanship of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Senate_Committee_on_Foreign_Relations" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations">Foreign Relations Committee</a>. The signing of the treaty ended the joint occupation with the United Kingdom, making most Oregonians south of the 49th parallel U.S. citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker199960_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker199960-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Henry Commager appraised the factors leading to the settlement as "a combination of temporary, fortuitous, and circumstantial phenomena, extraneous to the local situation, largely outside of American control, and foreign to American influence."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommager1927_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommager1927-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Canadian <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Llewellyn_Keenleyside" title="Hugh Llewellyn Keenleyside">Hugh Ll. Keenleyside</a> and American Gerald S. Brown wrote a century after the treaty that </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>under the existing conditions, [it] was just and equitable. <i>Neither nation had a clear legal title to any of the territory</i>, and the result was practically an equal division. Great Britain was given the better harbors, and greater resources in minerals, timber, and fish; the United States received much more agricultural land, and a district that has, on the whole, a better climate. This decision, moreover, is almost unique among the solutions of American boundary troubles, in that it has been accepted with reasonable satisfaction by both nations. A better proof of its justice could hardly be demanded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeenleysideBrown1952171_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeenleysideBrown1952171-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><small>[emphasis in original]</small></p></blockquote> <p>The terms of the Oregon Treaty were essentially the same ones that had been offered earlier by the Tyler administration, and thus represented a diplomatic victory for Polk.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997136_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997136-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Polk has often been criticized for his handling of the Oregon Question. Historian Sam W. Haynes characterizes Polk's policy as "<a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship" title="Brinkmanship">brinkmanship</a>" which "brought the United States perilously close to a needless and potentially disastrous conflict".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997194_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997194-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David M. Pletcher notes that while Polk's bellicose stance was the by-product of internal American politics, the war crisis was "largely of his own creation" and might have been avoided "with more sophisticated diplomacy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973592_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973592-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Jesse Reeves, "Had <a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Palmerston</a> been in Aberdeen's position at the time of Polk's 'firm' pronouncement, Polk might have lost Oregon."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReeves1907263_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReeves1907263-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aberdeen's desire for peace and good relations with the United States "are responsible for the settlement that Polk thought to gain by a firm policy. That Aberdeen was 'bluffed' by Polk is absurd."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReeves1907263_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReeves1907263-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The treaty set the mainland boundary at the 49th parallel and retained Vancouver Island as British territory, but it was ambiguously phrased about the route of the boundary through the water. The treaty provided that the marine boundary would follow "the deepest channel" out to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, which left the fate of the <a href="/wiki/San_Juan_Islands" title="San Juan Islands">San Juan Islands</a> in question. After the "<a href="/wiki/Pig_War_(1859)" title="Pig War (1859)">Pig War</a>", arbitration by <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of Germany">Kaiser William I</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Washington_(1871)" title="Treaty of Washington (1871)">Treaty of Washington</a>, which awarded the United States all the islands. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada" title="Upper Canada">Upper Canada</a> politicians and public, already angry with the Oregon Treaty, were once again upset that Britain had not looked after their interests and sought greater autonomy in international affairs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_maps">Historical maps</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Historical maps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The boundary between British and American territory was shown differently in maps at the time: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed nochecker whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 181.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 179.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:OrBoundaryMapDetached.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The 1826 proposal of Huskisson and Addington"><img alt="The 1826 proposal of Huskisson and Addington" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/OrBoundaryMapDetached.jpg/269px-OrBoundaryMapDetached.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/OrBoundaryMapDetached.jpg/404px-OrBoundaryMapDetached.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/OrBoundaryMapDetached.jpg/539px-OrBoundaryMapDetached.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2324" data-file-height="2201" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The 1826 proposal of Huskisson and Addington</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 253.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 251.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1841_map_of_the_Oregon_Territory.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An 1841 American map showing the 54°40′ line near Fort Simpson as the boundary"><img alt="An 1841 American map showing the 54°40′ line near Fort Simpson as the boundary" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/1841_map_of_the_Oregon_Territory.jpg" decoding="async" width="252" height="170" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="322" data-file-height="218" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">An 1841 American map showing the 54°40′ line near <a href="/wiki/Fort_Simpson,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Simpson, British Columbia">Fort Simpson</a> as the boundary</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 148px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arrowsmith_Oregon_Country.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An 1844 British map showing the Columbia River as the boundary"><img alt="An 1844 British map showing the Columbia River as the boundary" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Arrowsmith_Oregon_Country.jpg/222px-Arrowsmith_Oregon_Country.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Arrowsmith_Oregon_Country.jpg/334px-Arrowsmith_Oregon_Country.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Arrowsmith_Oregon_Country.jpg/445px-Arrowsmith_Oregon_Country.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2552" data-file-height="2926" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">An 1844 British map showing the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a> as the boundary</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 189.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 187.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1846_Oregon_territory.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An 1846 map showing the 49th parallel as the boundary through Vancouver Island"><img alt="An 1846 map showing the 49th parallel as the boundary through Vancouver Island" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1846_Oregon_territory.jpg/281px-1846_Oregon_territory.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1846_Oregon_territory.jpg/423px-1846_Oregon_territory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1846_Oregon_territory.jpg/563px-1846_Oregon_territory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2218" data-file-height="2010" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">An 1846 map showing the 49th parallel as the boundary through <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a></div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_K._Polk" title="Presidency of James K. Polk">Presidency of James K. Polk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="United Kingdom–United States relations">United Kingdom–United States relations</a></li> <li><i><b><small><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Abies_lasiocarpa_0775.JPG/32px-Abies_lasiocarpa_0775.JPG" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Abies_lasiocarpa_0775.JPG/48px-Abies_lasiocarpa_0775.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Abies_lasiocarpa_0775.JPG/64px-Abies_lasiocarpa_0775.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Pacific_Northwest" title="Portal:Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest portal</a></small></b></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie199729,_124–126,_140-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackie199729,_124–126,_140_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackie1997">Mackie 1997</a>, p. 29, 124–126, 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles1957-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles1957_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles1957_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles1957_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles1957_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiles1957">Miles 1957</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Oregon_Treaty" class="extiw" title="s:Oregon Treaty">Oregon Treaty</a> from Wikisource. Accessed 12 February 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELangsdorff192721-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangsdorff192721_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLangsdorff1927">Langsdorff 1927</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly19854-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonnelly19854_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonnelly1985">Donnelly 1985</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly198530-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonnelly198530_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonnelly1985">Donnelly 1985</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott1911-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott1911_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott1911">Elliott 1911</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChittenden1902222–223-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChittenden1902222–223_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChittenden1902">Chittenden 1902</a>, pp. 222–223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1950-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1950_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1950_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1950_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1950_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMerk1950">Merk 1950</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1911166-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1911166_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1911166_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarshall1911">Marshall 1911</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957184–188_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGalbraith1957">Galbraith 1957</a>, pp. 184–188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeany1914-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeany1914_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeany1914_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeany1914">Meany 1914</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanning188771–74-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanning188771–74_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanning188771–74_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCanning1887">Canning 1887</a>, pp. 71–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShewmaker1982_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShewmaker1982">Shewmaker 1982</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sos.oregon.gov/blue-book/Pages/facts/history/pre-land.aspx">Oregon History: Land-based Fur Trade and Exploration</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.endoftheoregontrail.org/oregontrails/ewingyoung.html">Ewing Young Route</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061210200749/http://www.endoftheoregontrail.org/oregontrails/ewingyoung.html">Archived</a> 2006-12-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. compiled by Karen Bassett, Jim Renner, and Joyce White.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salemhistory.net/people/historic_figures.htm">Salem Online History: Salem's Historic Figures</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton185413–14-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton185413–14_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton185413–14_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBenton1854">Benton 1854</a>, pp. 13–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1900-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1900_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1900_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1900_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1900_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1900_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson1900">Wilson 1900</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1875238-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1875238_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1875">Adams 1875</a>, p. 238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippee1918118_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShippee1918">Shippee 1918</a>, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraebner195535-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraebner195535_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraebner195535_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraebner1955">Graebner 1955</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29573">"Democratic Party Platform of 1844"</a>. <i>The American Presidency Project</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Presidency+Project&rft.atitle=Democratic+Party+Platform+of+1844&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2F%3Fpid%3D29573&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenboom1970132-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenboom1970132_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenboom1970132_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosenboom1970">Rosenboom 1970</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973223-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973223_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPletcher1973">Pletcher 1973</a>, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperber19575–11-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperber19575–11_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSperber1957">Sperber 1957</a>, pp. 5–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1968339-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1968339_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1968339_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1968339_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMerk1968">Merk 1968</a>, p. 339.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerk1932653–677-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1932653–677_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerk1932653–677_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMerk1932">Merk 1932</a>, pp. 653–677.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdinburgh_Review1843185-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdinburgh_Review1843185_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdinburgh_Review1843">Edinburgh Review 1843</a>, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLoughlin1944180-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLoughlin1944180_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLoughlin1944">McLoughlin 1944</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945a_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongstaffLamb1945a">Longstaff & Lamb 1945a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The phrase "wise and masterly inactivity", which Calhoun used more than once, originated with Sir <a href="/wiki/James_Mackintosh" title="James Mackintosh">James Mackintosh</a>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/73/1038.html">source</a>)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (February 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973109–110-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973109–110_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPletcher1973">Pletcher 1973</a>, pp. 109–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGovernment_Printing_Office18726–11-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_Printing_Office18726–11_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_Printing_Office18726–11_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGovernment_Printing_Office1872">Government Printing Office 1872</a>, pp. 6–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29647"><i>1843 State of the Union Address</i></a>. Accessed 6 November 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957231-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957231_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957231_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGalbraith1957">Galbraith 1957</a>, p. 231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolk2014-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolk2014_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPolk2014">Polk 2014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolk1910153–155-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolk1910153–155_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPolk1910">Polk 1910</a>, pp. 153–155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997118–120-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997118–120_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaynes1997">Haynes 1997</a>, pp. 118–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973322-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973322_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPletcher1973">Pletcher 1973</a>, p. 322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorsman1981-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorsman1981_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorsman1981">Horsman 1981</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957240-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957240_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957240_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957240_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGalbraith1957">Galbraith 1957</a>, p. 240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997322-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997322_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaynes1997">Haynes 1997</a>, p. 322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973237–249,_296–300-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973237–249,_296–300_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPletcher1973">Pletcher 1973</a>, pp. 237–249, 296–300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973335–337-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973335–337_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPletcher1973">Pletcher 1973</a>, pp. 335–337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiltse1973-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiltse1973_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiltse1973">Wiltse 1973</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongstaffLamb1945b_47-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongstaffLamb1945b">Longstaff & Lamb 1945b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinlayson189115-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinlayson189115_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFinlayson1891">Finlayson 1891</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022662/1846-02-19/ed-1/seq-2/">"Ball at Vancouver"</a>. <i>The <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Spectator" title="Oregon Spectator">Oregon Spectator</a></i> (Oregon City, Oregon), 19 February 1846, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">'<i><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a><b></b></i></span><i><b> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022662/1846-05-14/ed-1/seq-2/">"Theatre at Vancouver"</a>. </span></b></i><b><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Spectator" title="Oregon Spectator">Oregon Spectator</a></b> (Oregon City, Oregon), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151124034707/http://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022662/1846-05-14/ed-1/seq-2/">Archived</a> 2015-11-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> May 14, 1846, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeemann1853100-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeemann1853100_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeemann1853">Seemann 1853</a>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeemann1853112-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeemann1853112_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeemann1853">Seemann 1853</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalbraith1957236–237_53-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGalbraith1957">Galbraith 1957</a>, pp. 236–237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGough197170–83-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGough197170–83_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGough1971">Gough 1971</a>, pp. 70–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller193758-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller193758_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller1937">Miller 1937</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cong. Globe, 28th Cong., 1st Sess. 520 (1846)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cong. Globe, 28th Cong., 1st Sess. 511 (1846)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973351-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973351_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPletcher1973">Pletcher 1973</a>, p. 351.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker199960-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker199960_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalker1999">Walker 1999</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECommager1927-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommager1927_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCommager1927">Commager 1927</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeenleysideBrown1952171-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeenleysideBrown1952171_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeenleysideBrown1952">Keenleyside & Brown 1952</a>, p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997136-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997136_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaynes1997">Haynes 1997</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997194-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaynes1997194_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaynes1997">Haynes 1997</a>, p. 194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973592-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher1973592_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPletcher1973">Pletcher 1973</a>, p. 592.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReeves1907263-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReeves1907263_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReeves1907263_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReeves1907">Reeves 1907</a>, p. 263.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1875" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">Adams, John Quincy</a> (1875), Adams, Charles F. (ed.), <i>Memoirs of John Quincy Adams</i>, vol. 5, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+John+Quincy+Adams&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=J.B.+Lippincott+and+Co.&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=John+Quincy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenton1854" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hart_Benton_(politician)" title="Thomas Hart Benton (politician)">Benton, Thomas H.</a> (1854), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thirtyyearsview01inbent"><i>Thirty years' view</i></a>, vol. 1, New York: D. Appleton and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thirty+years%27+view&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+Co.&rft.date=1854&rft.aulast=Benton&rft.aufirst=Thomas+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthirtyyearsview01inbent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanning1887" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/George_Canning" title="George Canning">Canning, George</a> (1887), Stapleton, Edward J. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=24PFAAAAMAAJ"><i>Some Official Correspondence of George Canning</i></a>, vol. II, London: Longmans, Green and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+Official+Correspondence+of+George+Canning&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+and+Co.&rft.date=1887&rft.aulast=Canning&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D24PFAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonnelly1985" class="citation cs2">Owens, Kenneth N., ed. (1985), <i>The Wreck of the Sv. Nikolai</i>, translated by Donnelly, Alton S., Portland, OR: The Press of the Oregon Historical Society</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wreck+of+the+Sv.+Nikolai&rft.place=Portland%2C+OR&rft.pub=The+Press+of+the+Oregon+Historical+Society&rft.date=1985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdinburgh_Review1843" class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WFA7AQAAMAAJ"><i>The Edinburgh Review or Critical Journal: For July, 1843.... 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(ed.), <i>The Letters of John McLoughlin from Fort Vancouver to the Governor and Committee, Third Series, 1844–1846</i>, London</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Letters+of+John+McLoughlin+from+Fort+Vancouver+to+the+Governor+and+Committee%2C+Third+Series%2C+1844%E2%80%931846&rft.place=London&rft.date=1944&rft.aulast=McLoughlin&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerk1968" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Merk" title="Frederick Merk">Merk, Frederick</a> (1968), <i>Fur Trade and Empire; George Simpson's Journal 1824–25</i>, Cambridge, MA: Belknap</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fur+Trade+and+Empire%3B+George+Simpson%27s+Journal+1824%E2%80%9325&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Belknap&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Merk&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1937" class="citation cs2">Miller, Hunter, ed. 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Polk">Polk, James K.</a> (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320005737/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/polk.asp">"Inaugural Address of James Knox Polk"</a>, <i>The Avalon Project</i>, Yale Law School, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/polk.asp">the original</a> on 20 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 November</span> 2014</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Avalon+Project&rft.atitle=Inaugural+Address+of+James+Knox+Polk&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Polk&rft.aufirst=James+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.avalon.law.yale.edu%2F19th_century%2Fpolk.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolk1910" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">Polk, James K.</a> (1910), Quaife, Milo M. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wxMOAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Diary of James K. Polk during his Presidency, 1845 to 1849</i></a>, vol. 1, Chicago: A. C. 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Herald during the years 1845–51</i></a>, London: Reeve & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Narrative+of+the+Voyage+of+the+H.M.S.+Herald+during+the+years+1845%E2%80%9351&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Reeve+%26+Co.&rft.date=1853&rft.aulast=Seemann&rft.aufirst=Berthold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnarrativevoyage01seemgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChittenden1902" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Hiram_M._Chittenden" title="Hiram M. Chittenden">Chittenden, Hiram M.</a> (1902), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanfurtrade01chit"><i>The American Fur Trade in the Far West</i></a>, vol. 1, New York City: Francis P. Harper</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Fur+Trade+in+the+Far+West&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Francis+P.+Harper&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Chittenden&rft.aufirst=Hiram+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanfurtrade01chit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nosracines.ca/page.aspx?id=607082&qryID=3e0b2f50-86b2-4a0a-9888-27c93e4a4a6d"><i>Sir James Douglas, Chapter V The Oregon Boundary</i></a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2020">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>, Robert Hamilton Coats and R. Edward Gosnell, publ. Morang, Toronto, 1908</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommager1927" class="citation cs2">Commager, Henry (1927), "England and Oregon Treaty of 1846", <i>Oregon Historical Quarterly</i>, <b>28</b> (1), Oregon Historical Society: 18–38</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oregon+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=England+and+Oregon+Treaty+of+1846&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18-38&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Commager&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott1911" class="citation cs2">Elliott, T. C. (1911), "David Thompson, Pathfinder and the Columbia River", <i>The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society</i>, <b>12</b> (3): 195–205, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20609875">20609875</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+of+the+Oregon+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=David+Thompson%2C+Pathfinder+and+the+Columbia+River&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=195-205&rft.date=1911&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20609875%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=T.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalbraith1957" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Semple_Galbraith" title="John Semple Galbraith">Galbraith, John S.</a> (1957), <i>The Hudson's Bay Company as an Imperial Factor, 1821–1869</i>, Toronto: University of Toronto Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hudson%27s+Bay+Company+as+an+Imperial+Factor%2C+1821%E2%80%931869&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Galbraith&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGough1971" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Barry_M._Gough" title="Barry M. Gough">Gough, Barry M.</a> (1971), <i>The Royal Navy and the Northwest Coast of North America, 1810–1914</i>, Vancouver, B.C.: University of British Columbia Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Royal+Navy+and+the+Northwest+Coast+of+North+America%2C+1810%E2%80%931914&rft.place=Vancouver%2C+B.C.&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Gough&rft.aufirst=Barry+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraebner1955" class="citation cs2">Graebner, Norman A. 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Polk and the Expansionist Impulse</i>, Arlington: University of Texas</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=James+K.+Polk+and+the+Expansionist+Impulse&rft.place=Arlington&rft.pub=University+of+Texas&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Haynes&rft.aufirst=Sam+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorsman1981" class="citation cs2">Horsman, Reginald (1981), <i>Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism</i>, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+Manifest+Destiny%3A+The+Origins+of+American+Racial+Anglo-Saxonism&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Horsman&rft.aufirst=Reginald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeenleysideBrown1952" class="citation cs2">Keenleyside, Hugh Ll.; Brown, Gerald S. (1952) [1929], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL13524947M/Canada_and_the_United_States"><i>Canada and the United States: Some Aspects of Their Historical Relations</i></a> (2nd ed.), Alfred A. 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(1945a), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.ubc.ca/archives/pdfs/bchf/bchq_1945_1.pdf">"The Royal Navy on the Northwest Coast, 1813–1850. Part 1."</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>The British Columbia Historical Quarterly</i>, <b>9</b> (1): 1–24</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Columbia+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Royal+Navy+on+the+Northwest+Coast%2C+1813%E2%80%931850.+Part+1.&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-24&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Longstaff&rft.aufirst=F.+V.&rft.au=Lamb%2C+W.+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.library.ubc.ca%2Farchives%2Fpdfs%2Fbchf%2Fbchq_1945_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongstaffLamb1945b" class="citation cs2">Longstaff, F. V.; Lamb, W. K. (1945b), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.ubc.ca/archives/pdfs/bchf/bchq_1945_2.pdf">"The Royal Navy on the Northwest Coast, 1813–1850. Part 2."</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>The British Columbia Historical Quarterly</i>, <b>9</b> (2): 113–128</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Columbia+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Royal+Navy+on+the+Northwest+Coast%2C+1813%E2%80%931850.+Part+2.&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=113-128&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Longstaff&rft.aufirst=F.+V.&rft.au=Lamb%2C+W.+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.library.ubc.ca%2Farchives%2Fpdfs%2Fbchf%2Fbchq_1945_2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackie1997" class="citation cs2">Mackie, Richard Somerset (1997), <i>Trading Beyond the Mountains: The British Fur Trade on the Pacific 1793–1843</i>, Vancouver [B.C.]: UBC Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0559-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0559-9"><bdi>978-0-7748-0559-9</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/180704193">180704193</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trading+Beyond+the+Mountains%3A+The+British+Fur+Trade+on+the+Pacific+1793%E2%80%931843&rft.place=Vancouver+%5BB.C.%5D&rft.pub=UBC+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F180704193&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0559-9&rft.aulast=Mackie&rft.aufirst=Richard+Somerset&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerk1932" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Merk" title="Frederick Merk">Merk, Frederick</a> (1932), "British Party Politics and the Oregon Treaty", <i>The American Historical Review</i>, <b>37</b> (4): 653–677, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1843332">10.2307/1843332</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1843332">1843332</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=British+Party+Politics+and+the+Oregon+Treaty&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=653-677&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1843332&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1843332%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Merk&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerk1950" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Merk" title="Frederick Merk">Merk, Frederick</a> (1950), "The Ghost River Caledonia in the Oregon Negotiation of 1818", <i>The American Historical Review</i>, <b>50</b> (3): 530–551, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1843497">10.2307/1843497</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1843497">1843497</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Ghost+River+Caledonia+in+the+Oregon+Negotiation+of+1818&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=530-551&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1843497&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1843497%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Merk&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall1911" class="citation cs2">Marshall, William I. (1911), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/acquisitionoreg04marsgoog"><i>Acquisition of Oregon and the Long Suppressed Evidence about Marcus Whitman</i></a>, vol. 1, Seattle: Lowman & Hanford Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Acquisition+of+Oregon+and+the+Long+Suppressed+Evidence+about+Marcus+Whitman&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pub=Lowman+%26+Hanford+Co.&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=William+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Facquisitionoreg04marsgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeany1914" class="citation cs2">Meany, Edmond S. (1914), "Three Diplomats Prominent in the Oregon Question", <i>The Washington Historical Quarterly</i>, <b>5</b> (3), University of Washington: 207–214, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40474377">40474377</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Three+Diplomats+Prominent+in+the+Oregon+Question&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=207-214&rft.date=1914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40474377%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Meany&rft.aufirst=Edmond+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles1957" class="citation cs2">Miles, E.A. (1957), "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Fifty-Four Forty or Fight' – An American Political Legend", <i>Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i>, <b>44</b> (2): 291–309, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1887191">10.2307/1887191</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1887191">1887191</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mississippi+Valley+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=%27Fifty-Four+Forty+or+Fight%27+%E2%80%93+An+American+Political+Legend&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=291-309&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1887191&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1887191%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Miles&rft.aufirst=E.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rakestraw, Donald A. <i>For Honor or Destiny: The Anglo-American Crisis over the Oregon Territory</i> (Peter Lang Publishing, 1995)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPletcher1973" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_M._Pletcher" title="David M. Pletcher">Pletcher, David M.</a> (1973), <i>The Diplomacy of Annexation: Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War</i>, Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diplomacy+of+Annexation%3A+Texas%2C+Oregon%2C+and+the+Mexican+War&rft.place=Columbia%2C+MO&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Pletcher&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReeves1907" class="citation cs2">Reeves, Jesse S. (1907), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jHd2AAAAMAAJ"><i>American Diplomacy under Tyler and Polk</i></a>, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780722288580" title="Special:BookSources/9780722288580"><bdi>9780722288580</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Diplomacy+under+Tyler+and+Polk&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1907&rft.isbn=9780722288580&rft.aulast=Reeves&rft.aufirst=Jesse+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjHd2AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenboom1970" class="citation cs2">Rosenboom, Eugene H. (1970), <i>A History of Presidential Elections: From George Washington to Richard M. Nixon</i> (3rd ed.), New York: Macmillan</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Presidential+Elections%3A+From+George+Washington+to+Richard+M.+Nixon&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Rosenboom&rft.aufirst=Eugene+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nosracines.ca/page.aspx?id=786037&qryID=fdd28732-abe2-4ce9-98e4-195d198530be"><i>A history of British Columbia</i>, Chapter IX "The Oregon Boundary", pp. 89–96, E.O.S. Scholefield, British Columbia Historical Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, 1913</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2020">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShewmaker1982" class="citation cs2">Shewmaker, Kenneth E. (1982), "Daniel Webster and the Oregon Question", <i>Pacific Historical Review</i>, <b>51</b> (2): 195–201, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3638529">10.2307/3638529</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3638529">3638529</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pacific+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Daniel+Webster+and+the+Oregon+Question&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=195-201&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3638529&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3638529%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Shewmaker&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShippee1918" class="citation cs2">Shippee, Lester B. (1918), "The Federal Relations of Oregon", <i>The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society</i>, <b>19</b> (2), Oregon Historical Society: 89–133, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20610098">20610098</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+of+the+Oregon+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Federal+Relations+of+Oregon&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=89-133&rft.date=1918&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20610098%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Shippee&rft.aufirst=Lester+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperber1957" class="citation cs2">Sperber, Hans (1957), "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Fifty-four Forty or Fight": Facts and Fictions", <i>American Speech</i>, <b>32</b> (1): 5–11, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F454081">10.2307/454081</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/454081">454081</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Speech&rft.atitle=%22Fifty-four+Forty+or+Fight%22%3A+Facts+and+Fictions&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-11&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F454081&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F454081%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sperber&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1999" class="citation cs2">Walker, Dale L. (1999), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bearflagrisingco00walk_0"><i>Bear Flag Rising: The Conquest of California, 1846</i></a></span>, New York: Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0312866852" title="Special:BookSources/0312866852"><bdi>0312866852</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bear+Flag+Rising%3A+The+Conquest+of+California%2C+1846&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0312866852&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Dale+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbearflagrisingco00walk_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1900" class="citation cs2">Wilson, Joseph R. (1900), "The Oregon Question. II", <i>The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society</i>, <b>1</b> (3), Oregon Historical Society: 213–252, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20609465">20609465</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+of+the+Oregon+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Oregon+Question.+II&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=213-252&rft.date=1900&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20609465%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Joseph+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiltse1973" class="citation cs2">Wiltse, Charles M. (1973), "Daniel Webster and the British Experience", <i>Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society</i>, <b>85</b>: 58–77</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Massachusetts+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Daniel+Webster+and+the+British+Experience&rft.volume=85&rft.pages=58-77&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Wiltse&rft.aufirst=Charles+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOregon+boundary+dispute" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Party_platform_and_speeches">Party platform and speeches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Party platform and speeches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=25814">Polk's March 1845 inaugural address</a>, in which he reasserted the "clear and unquestionable" claim</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29486">Polk's December 1845 message to Congress</a>, in which he called for the end of the joint occupation of Oregon</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_cartoons">Political cartoons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Political cartoons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From <a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Weekly" title="Harper's Weekly">Harper's Weekly</a>, 1846: </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=9&Year=1846">"Polk's Dream"</a>, in which the Devil, disguised as Andrew Jackson, advises Polk to fight for the 54°40′ line</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=10&Year=1846">"Present Presidential Position"</a>, in which the Democratic Party's "jackass" is standing on the 54°40′ line</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/DisplayCartoonMedium.asp?MaxID=77&UniqueID=13&Year=1846&YearMark=1843">"Ultimatum on the Oregon Question"</a>, Polk talks with Queen Victoria, while others make comments</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=15&Year=1846">"War! or No War!"</a>, two Irish immigrants face off over the boundary question</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa031600a.htm"><i>Fifty-Four Forty or Fight</i></a> at About.com, an example of a reference that mistakenly describes the phrase as an 1844 campaign slogan</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070107232458/http://earlywomenmasters.net/quilts/f/54_40/index.html"><i>54-40 or Fight</i></a> shows the <a href="/wiki/Quilt_block" class="mw-redirect" title="Quilt block">quilt block</a> named after the slogan. In this time period, women frequently used quilts to express their political views.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pioneer_history_of_Oregon_(1806–1890)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Oregon_Pioneer_History" title="Template:Oregon Pioneer History"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Oregon_Pioneer_History" title="Template talk:Oregon Pioneer History"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Oregon_Pioneer_History" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Oregon Pioneer History"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pioneer_history_of_Oregon_(1806–1890)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Pioneer history of Oregon (1806–1890)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Fur_Company" title="American Fur Company">American Fur Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Committee_(Oregon_Country)" title="Executive Committee (Oregon Country)">Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_ferries_in_Oregon" title="Historic ferries in Oregon">Ferries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_and_California_Railroad" title="Oregon and California Railroad">Oregon & California Railroad</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oregon boundary dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Country" title="Oregon Country">Oregon Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Lyceum" title="Oregon Lyceum">Oregon Lyceum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_missionaries" title="Oregon missionaries">Oregon missionaries</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Spectator" title="Oregon Spectator">Oregon Spectator</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Territory" title="Oregon Territory">Oregon Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Trail" title="Oregon Trail">Oregon Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Treaty" title="Oregon Treaty">Oregon Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_Laws_of_Oregon" title="Organic Laws of Oregon">Organic Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Fur_Company" title="Pacific Fur Company">Pacific Fur Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_Oregon" title="Provisional Government of Oregon">Provisional Government</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oregon_Provisional_Government_Seal.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Provisional Government of Oregon seal"><img alt="Provisional Government of Oregon seal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Oregon_Provisional_Government_Seal.png/49px-Oregon_Provisional_Government_Seal.png" decoding="async" width="49" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Oregon_Provisional_Government_Seal.png/74px-Oregon_Provisional_Government_Seal.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Oregon_Provisional_Government_Seal.png/98px-Oregon_Provisional_Government_Seal.png 2x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="250" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_1818" title="Treaty of 1818">Treaty of 1818</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-American_Treaty_of_1824" title="Russo-American Treaty of 1824">Russo-American Treaty of 1824</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willamette_Cattle_Company" title="Willamette Cattle Company">Willamette Cattle Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champoeg_Meetings" title="Champoeg Meetings">Champoeg Meetings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_of_Oregon_(event)" title="Star of Oregon (event)">Star of Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitman_massacre" title="Whitman massacre">Whitman massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donation_Land_Claim_Act" title="Donation Land Claim Act">Donation Land Claim Act</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Holmes_v._Ford" title="Holmes v. Ford">Holmes v. Ford</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Constitutional_Convention" title="Oregon Constitutional Convention">Constitutional Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Gale_of_1880" title="Great Gale of 1880">Great Gale of 1880</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albina,_Oregon" title="Albina, Oregon">Albina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applegate_Trail" title="Applegate Trail">Applegate Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barlow_Road" title="Barlow Road">Barlow Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canemah,_Oregon" title="Canemah, Oregon">Canemah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champoeg,_Oregon" title="Champoeg, Oregon">Champoeg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Cutoff" title="Elliott Cutoff">Elliott Cutoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Astoria" title="Fort Astoria">Fort Astoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Dalles" title="Fort Dalles">Fort Dalles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Vancouver" title="Fort Vancouver">Fort Vancouver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_William_(Oregon)" title="Fort William (Oregon)">Fort William</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Prairie" title="French Prairie">French Prairie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linn_City,_Oregon" title="Linn City, Oregon">Linn City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meek_Cutoff" title="Meek Cutoff">Meek Cutoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodist_Mission_in_Oregon" title="Methodist Mission in Oregon">Methodist Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_City,_Oregon" title="Oregon City, Oregon">Oregon City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Institute" title="Oregon Institute">Oregon Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Foster_Farm" title="Philip Foster Farm">Philip Foster Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_and_Ruckle_Road" title="Thomas and Ruckle Road">Thomas and Ruckle Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tualatin_Academy" title="Tualatin Academy">Tualatin Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitman_Mission_National_Historic_Site" title="Whitman Mission National Historic Site">Whitman Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willamette_Trading_Post" title="Willamette Trading Post">Willamette Trading Post</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Abernethy" title="George Abernethy">George Abernethy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Applegate" title="Jesse Applegate">Jesse Applegate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_Babcock" title="Ira Babcock">Ira Babcock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Barlow_(pioneer)" title="Sam Barlow (pioneer)">Sam Barlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Norbert_Blanchet" title="François Norbert Blanchet">François Blanchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Boring" title="William H. Boring">William H. Boring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Bristow" title="Elijah Bristow">Elijah Bristow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabitha_Moffatt_Brown" title="Tabitha Moffatt Brown">Tabitha Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Deady" title="Matthew Deady">Matthew Deady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Scott_Duniway" title="Abigail Scott Duniway">Abigail Scott Duniway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lamb_Eliot" title="Thomas Lamb Eliot">Thomas Lamb Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Foster" title="Philip Foster">Philip Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_French" title="Peter French">Peter French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gale" title="Joseph Gale">Joseph Gale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Gilliam" title="Cornelius Gilliam">Cornelius Gilliam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hill_(Oregon_politician)" title="David Hill (Oregon politician)">David Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Joseph" title="Chief Joseph">Chief Joseph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kellogg" title="Joseph Kellogg">Joseph Kellogg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._G._Lee" title="Henry A. G. Lee">H.A.G. Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_Lee_(missionary)" title="Jason Lee (missionary)">Jason Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Thomas_Lenox" title="David Thomas Lenox">David Thomas Lenox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Lovejoy" title="Asa Lovejoy">Asa Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_M._McCarver" title="Morton M. McCarver">Morton M. McCarver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McLoughlin" title="John McLoughlin">John McLoughlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Meek" title="Joseph Meek">Joseph Meek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Meeker" title="Ezra Meeker">Ezra Meeker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_D._Miller" title="James D. Miller">James D. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Minto_(Oregon_pioneer)" title="John Minto (Oregon pioneer)">John Minto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Newell_(politician)" title="Robert Newell (politician)">Robert Newell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Palmer" title="Joel Palmer">Joel Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osborne_Russell" title="Osborne Russell">Osborne Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sager_orphans" title="Sager orphans">Sager orphans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Scott_(Oregon_politician)" title="Levi Scott (Oregon politician)">Levi Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliza_Hart_Spalding" title="Eliza Hart Spalding">Eliza Hart Spalding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Spalding" title="Henry H. Spalding">Henry Spalding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Vandevert" title="William Vandevert">William Vandevert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_White" title="Elijah White">Elijah White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Whitman" title="Marcus Whitman">Marcus Whitman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissa_Whitman" title="Narcissa Whitman">Narcissa Whitman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Williams" title="George Henry Williams">Geo. H. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ewing_Young" title="Ewing Young">Ewing Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transportation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(sidewheeler_1850)" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbia (sidewheeler 1850)"><i>Columbia</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lot_Whitcomb_(sidewheeler)" title="Lot Whitcomb (sidewheeler)">Lot Whitcomb</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canemah_(sidewheeler)" title="Canemah (sidewheeler)"><i>Canemah</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Colonel_Wright_(sternwheeler)" title="Colonel Wright (sternwheeler)">Colonel Wright</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gazelle_(sidewheeler_1854)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gazelle (sidewheeler 1854)">Gazelle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Steam_Navigation_Company" title="Oregon Steam Navigation Company">Oregon Steam Navigation Company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Native peoples history</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_history_to_1806&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oregon history to 1806 (page does not exist)">History to 1806</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_pioneer_history" title="Oregon pioneer history">Pioneer history</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oregon_modern_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oregon modern history (page does not exist)">Modern history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="James_K._Polk" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:James_K._Polk" title="Template:James K. Polk"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:James_K._Polk" title="Template talk:James K. Polk"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:James_K._Polk" title="Special:EditPage/Template:James K. Polk"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="James_K._Polk" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">11th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1845–1849)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Tennessee" title="List of governors of Tennessee">9th</a> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Tennessee" title="Governor of Tennessee">Governor of Tennessee</a> (1839–1841)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of speakers of the United States House of Representatives">13th</a> <a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives</a> (1835–1839)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Tennessee" title="List of United States representatives from Tennessee">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Tennessee%27s_9th_congressional_district" title="Tennessee's 9th congressional district">TN–9</a> (1833–1839)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Tennessee" title="List of United States representatives from Tennessee">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Tennessee%27s_6th_congressional_district" title="Tennessee's 6th congressional district">TN–6</a> (1825–1833)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_War" title="Bank War">Bank War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specie_Circular" title="Specie Circular">Specie Circular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1840_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1840 Democratic National Convention">1840 Democratic National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1840_United_States_presidential_election" title="1840 United States presidential election">1840 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk_1844_presidential_campaign" title="James K. Polk 1844 presidential campaign">James K. Polk 1844 presidential campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1844_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1844 Democratic National Convention">1844 Democratic National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1844_United_States_presidential_election" title="1844 United States presidential election">1844 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_horse" title="Dark horse">Dark horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polk_Place" title="Polk Place">Polk Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_State_Capitol" title="Tennessee State Capitol">Tennessee State Capitol</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polk_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Polk_crop.jpg/100px-Polk_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Polk_crop.jpg/150px-Polk_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Polk_crop.jpg/200px-Polk_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1353" data-file-height="1700" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_K._Polk" title="Presidency of James K. Polk">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_James_K._Polk" title="Inauguration of James K. Polk">Inauguration of James K. Polk</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oregon boundary dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Treaty" title="Oregon Treaty">Oregon Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_annexation" title="Texas annexation">Texas annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thornton_Affair" title="Thornton Affair">Thornton Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_of_Mexico_Movement" title="All of Mexico Movement">All of Mexico Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Guadalupe_Hidalgo" title="Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo">Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walker_tariff" title="Walker tariff">Walker tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivers_and_Harbors_Bill" title="Rivers and Harbors Bill">Rivers and Harbors Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_James_K._Polk" title="List of federal judges appointed by James K. Polk">List of federal judges appointed by James K. Polk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_James_K._Polk_Historic_Site" title="President James K. Polk Historic Site">President James K. Polk Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_James_K._Polk_Home_%26_Museum" title="President James K. Polk Home & Museum">President James K. Polk Home & Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_James_K._Polk" title="List of memorials to James K. Polk">List of memorials to James K. Polk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Childress_Polk" title="Sarah Childress Polk">Sarah Childress Polk</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezekiel_Polk" title="Ezekiel Polk">Ezekiel Polk</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Polk" title="Samuel Polk">Samuel Polk</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hawkins_Polk" title="William Hawkins Polk">William Hawkins Polk</a> (brother)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">← John Tyler</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:James_K._Polk" title="Category:James K. Polk">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q781474#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85095441">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007550826305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&oldid=1247814689#"Fifty-four_Forty_or_Fight!"">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oregon_boundary_dispute&oldid=1247814689#"Fifty-four_Forty_or_Fight!"</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1840s_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:1840s in the United Kingdom">1840s in the United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1840s_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1840s in the United States">1840s in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th_century_in_international_relations" title="Category:19th century in international relations">19th century in international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canada%E2%80%93United_States_border_disputes" title="Category:Canada–United States border disputes">Canada–United States border disputes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pre-Confederation_British_Columbia" title="Category:Pre-Confederation British Columbia">Pre-Confederation British Columbia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Category:History of the Pacific Northwest">History of the Pacific Northwest</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_United_States_expansionism" title="Category:History of United States expansionism">History of United States expansionism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:National_questions" title="Category:National questions">National questions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oregon_Country" title="Category:Oregon Country">Oregon Country</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidency_of_James_K._Polk" title="Category:Presidency of James K. 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