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id="toc-The_first_canti_(1818)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Idilli_(1819–1821)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Idilli_(1819–1821)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>The <i>Idilli</i> (1819–1821)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Idilli_(1819–1821)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-L'Infinito" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#L'Infinito"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span><i>L'Infinito</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-L'Infinito-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Canzoni_(1820–1823)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Canzoni_(1820–1823)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>The <i>Canzoni</i> (1820–1823)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Canzoni_(1820–1823)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ad_Angelo_Mai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ad_Angelo_Mai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span><i>Ad Angelo Mai</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ad_Angelo_Mai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nelle_nozze_della_sorella_Paolina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nelle_nozze_della_sorella_Paolina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span><i>Nelle nozze della sorella Paolina</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nelle_nozze_della_sorella_Paolina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ad_un_vincitor_di_pallone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ad_un_vincitor_di_pallone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span><i>Ad un vincitor di pallone</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ad_un_vincitor_di_pallone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bruto_minore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bruto_minore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.4</span> <span><i>Bruto minore</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bruto_minore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ultimo_canto_di_Saffo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ultimo_canto_di_Saffo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.5</span> <span><i>Ultimo canto di Saffo</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ultimo_canto_di_Saffo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alla_primavera_and_Al_conte_Carlo_Pepoli" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alla_primavera_and_Al_conte_Carlo_Pepoli"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.6</span> <span><i>Alla primavera</i> and <i>Al conte Carlo Pepoli</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alla_primavera_and_Al_conte_Carlo_Pepoli-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alla_sua_donna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alla_sua_donna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.7</span> <span><i>Alla sua donna</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alla_sua_donna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operette_morali_(1824)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operette_morali_(1824)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span><i>Operette morali</i> (1824)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operette_morali_(1824)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canti_Pisano-Recanatesi_(1823–1832)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canti_Pisano-Recanatesi_(1823–1832)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span><i>Canti Pisano-Recanatesi</i> (1823–1832)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canti_Pisano-Recanatesi_(1823–1832)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Il_Risorgimento" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Il_Risorgimento"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1</span> <span><i>Il Risorgimento</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Il_Risorgimento-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_Silvia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_Silvia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.2</span> <span><i>A Silvia</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_Silvia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Il_passero_solitario" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Il_passero_solitario"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.3</span> <span><i>Il passero solitario</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Il_passero_solitario-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Le_Ricordanze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Le_Ricordanze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.4</span> <span><i>Le Ricordanze</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Le_Ricordanze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-La_quiete_dopo_la_tempesta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#La_quiete_dopo_la_tempesta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.5</span> <span><i>La quiete dopo la tempesta</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-La_quiete_dopo_la_tempesta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Il_sabato_del_villaggio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Il_sabato_del_villaggio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.6</span> <span><i>Il sabato del villaggio</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Il_sabato_del_villaggio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canto_notturno_di_un_pastore_errante_dell'Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canto_notturno_di_un_pastore_errante_dell'Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.7</span> <span><i>Canto notturno di un pastore errante dell'Asia</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canto_notturno_di_un_pastore_errante_dell'Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_last_Canti_(1832–1837)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_last_Canti_(1832–1837)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>The last <i>Canti</i> (1832–1837)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_last_Canti_(1832–1837)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Il_pensiero_dominante" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Il_pensiero_dominante"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1</span> <span><i>Il pensiero dominante</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Il_pensiero_dominante-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amore_e_Morte" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amore_e_Morte"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.2</span> <span><i>Amore e Morte</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amore_e_Morte-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consalvo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consalvo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.3</span> <span><i>Consalvo</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consalvo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aspasia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aspasia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.4</span> <span><i>Aspasia</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aspasia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_se_stesso" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_se_stesso"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.5</span> <span><i>A se stesso</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_se_stesso-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sopra_un_bassorilievo_antico_sepolcrale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sopra_un_bassorilievo_antico_sepolcrale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.6</span> <span><i>Sopra un bassorilievo antico sepolcrale</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sopra_un_bassorilievo_antico_sepolcrale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sopra_il_ritratto_di_una_bella_donna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sopra_il_ritratto_di_una_bella_donna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.7</span> <span><i>Sopra il ritratto di una bella donna</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sopra_il_ritratto_di_una_bella_donna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-La_ginestra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#La_ginestra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.8</span> <span><i>La ginestra</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-La_ginestra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Il_tramonto_della_Luna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Il_tramonto_della_Luna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.9</span> <span><i>Il tramonto della Luna</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Il_tramonto_della_Luna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_poems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_poems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Other poems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_poems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Palinodia_al_marchese_Gino_Capponi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palinodia_al_marchese_Gino_Capponi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.1</span> <span><i>Palinodia al marchese Gino Capponi</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palinodia_al_marchese_Gino_Capponi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paralipomeni_della_Batracomiomachìa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paralipomeni_della_Batracomiomachìa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.2</span> <span><i>Paralipomeni della Batracomiomachìa</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paralipomeni_della_Batracomiomachìa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pensieri_(1837)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pensieri_(1837)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span><i>Pensieri</i> (1837)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pensieri_(1837)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leopardian_poetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leopardian_poetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Leopardian poetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leopardian_poetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Philosophical works</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophical_works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophical works subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Zibaldone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Zibaldone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>The <i>Zibaldone</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Zibaldone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_English_translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_English_translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Selected English translations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_English_translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Giacomo Leopardi</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">65 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="جاكومو ليوباردي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جاكومو ليوباردي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%96" title="Джакама Леапардзі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Джакама Леапардзі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%96" title="Джакама Леапардзі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Джакама Леапардзі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Джакомо Леопарди – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джакомо Леопарди" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%AC%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BF_%CE%9B%CE%B5%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9" title="Τζάκομο Λεοπάρντι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζάκομο Λεοπάρντι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88_%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="جاکومو لئوپاردی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جاکومو لئوپاردی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EC%BD%94%EB%AA%A8_%EB%A0%88%EC%98%A4%ED%8C%8C%EB%A5%B4%EB%94%94" title="자코모 레오파르디 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자코모 레오파르디" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%B8_%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%B8%D5%BA%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%AB" title="Ջակոմո Լեոպարդի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջակոմո Լեոպարդի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95_%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%99" title="ג'אקומו ליאופרדי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'אקומו ליאופרדי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="ჯაკომო ლეოპარდი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჯაკომო ლეოპარდი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Джакомо Леопарди – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Джакомо Леопарди" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iacobus_Leopardius" title="Iacobus Leopardius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iacobus Leopardius" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEakomo_Leopardi" title="Džakomo Leopardi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Džakomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Џакомо Леопарди – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Џакомо Леопарди" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF" title="ലിയോപാർഡി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലിയോപാർഡി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="ჯაკომო ლეოპარდი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯაკომო ლეოპარდი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%89" title="جاكومو ليوباردى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جاكومو ليوباردى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%82%B3%E3%83%A2%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AA%E3%83%91%E3%83%AB%E3%83%87%E3%82%A3" title="ジャコモ・レオパルディ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジャコモ・レオパルディ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Леопарди, Джакомо – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Леопарди, Джакомо" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhakomo_Leopardi" title="Xhakomo Leopardi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Xhakomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacumu_Liupardi" title="Giacumu Liupardi – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Giacumu Liupardi" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Ђакомо Леопарди – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ђакомо Леопарди" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5" title="จาโกโม เลโอปาร์ดี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จาโกโม เลโอปาร์ดี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%96" title="Джакомо Леопарді – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Джакомо Леопарді" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Giacomo Leopardi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B4%BE%E7%A7%91%E8%8E%AB%C2%B7%E8%8E%B1%E5%A5%A5%E5%B8%95%E5%B0%94%E8%BF%AA" title="贾科莫·莱奥帕尔迪 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="贾科莫·莱奥帕尔迪" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B4%BE%E7%A7%91%E8%8E%AB%C2%B7%E8%8E%B1%E5%A5%A5%E5%B8%95%E5%B0%94%E8%BF%AA" title="贾科莫·莱奥帕尔迪 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="贾科莫·莱奥帕尔迪" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q172599#sitelinks-wikipedia" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Italian poet, philosopher, and writer (1798–1837)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Leopardi" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Leopardi_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Leopardi (disambiguation)">Leopardi (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Special:EditPage/Giacomo Leopardi">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. 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Ferrazzi, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1820</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Giacomo Taldegardo Francesco di Sales Saverio Pietro Leopardi</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1798-06-29</span>)</span>29 June 1798<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Recanati" title="Recanati">Recanati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">14 June 1837<span style="display:none">(1837-06-14)</span> (aged 38)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">Notable work</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Canti</i><br /><i>Operette morali</i><br /><i>Zibaldone</i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian philosophy</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Poetry, essay, dialogue</td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Philosophical pessimism</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leopardi_firma.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Leopardi_firma.gif/200px-Leopardi_firma.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="43" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Leopardi_firma.gif/300px-Leopardi_firma.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Leopardi_firma.gif/400px-Leopardi_firma.gif 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="269" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Count <b>Giacomo Taldegardo Francesco di Sales Saverio Pietro Leopardi</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>-<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>-/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Italian:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="it-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian" title="Help:IPA/Italian">[ˈdʒaːkomo<span class="wrap"> </span>leoˈpardi]</a></span>; 29 June 1798 – 14 June 1837) was an Italian philosopher, poet, essayist, and <a href="/wiki/Philologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Philologist">philologist</a>. He is considered the greatest Italian poet of the nineteenth century and one of the most important figures in world literature<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, as well as one of the principals of literary <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">romanticism</a>; his constant reflection on existence and on the <a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">human condition</a>—of <a href="/wiki/Sensualism" title="Sensualism">sensuous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> inspiration—has also earned him a reputation as a deep philosopher. He is widely seen as one of the most radical and challenging thinkers of the 19th century<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but routinely compared by Italian critics to his older contemporary <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a> despite expressing "diametrically opposite positions."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he lived in a secluded town in the conservative <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>, he came into contact with the main ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, and, through his own literary evolution, created a remarkable and renowned poetic work, related to the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> era. The strongly lyrical quality of his poetry made him a central figure on the European and international literary and cultural landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CasaLeopardi.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/CasaLeopardi.JPG/220px-CasaLeopardi.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/CasaLeopardi.JPG/330px-CasaLeopardi.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/CasaLeopardi.JPG/440px-CasaLeopardi.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The Palazzo Leopardi in <a href="/wiki/Recanati" title="Recanati">Recanati</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Leopardi was born into a local noble family in <a href="/wiki/Recanati" title="Recanati">Recanati</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Marche" title="Marche">Marche</a>, at the time ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">papacy</a>. His father, Count <a href="/wiki/Monaldo_Leopardi" title="Monaldo Leopardi">Monaldo Leopardi</a>, who was fond of literature and a committed reactionary, remained an advocate of traditional ideals. His mother, Marchioness Adelaide Antici Mattei, was a cold and authoritarian woman, obsessed with rebuilding the family's financial fortunes, which had been destroyed by her husband's gambling addiction. A rigorous discipline of religion and economy reigned in the home. However, Giacomo's happy childhood, which he spent with his younger brother Carlo Orazio and his sister Paolina, left its mark on the poet, who recorded his experiences in the poem <i>Le Ricordanze</i>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg/220px-Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg/330px-Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="527" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of Leopardi</figcaption></figure> <p>Following a family tradition, Leopardi began his studies under the tutelage of two priests, but his thirst for knowledge was quenched primarily in his father's rich library. Initially guided by Father Sebastiano Sanchini, Leopardi undertook vast and profound reading. These "mad and most desperate" studies included an extraordinary knowledge of classical and philological culture – he could fluently read and write Latin, ancient Greek and Hebrew – but he lacked an open and stimulating formal education. </p><p>Between the ages of twelve and nineteen, he studied constantly, driven also by a need to escape spiritually from the rigid environment of the paternal palazzo. His continual studies undermined an already fragile physical constitution, and his illness, probably <a href="/wiki/Pott%27s_disease" title="Pott's disease">Pott's disease</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ankylosing_spondylitis" title="Ankylosing spondylitis">ankylosing spondylitis</a>, denied him youth's simplest pleasures.<sup id="cite_ref-sganzerla_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sganzerla-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1817 the classicist <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Giordani" title="Pietro Giordani">Pietro Giordani</a> arrived at the Leopardi estate. He became a lifelong friend of Giacomo, who derived from this a sense of hope for the future. Meanwhile, his life at Recanati weighed on him increasingly, to the point where he attempted to escape in 1818, but he was caught by his father and brought home. Thereafter relations between father and son continued to deteriorate, and Giacomo was constantly monitored by the rest of the family. </p><p>When in 1822 he was briefly able to stay in Rome with his uncle, he was deeply disappointed by its atmosphere of corruption and decadence and by the hypocrisy of the Church. He was impressed by the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Torquato_Tasso" title="Torquato Tasso">Torquato Tasso</a>, to whom he felt bound by a common sense of unhappiness. While <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Foscolo</a> lived tumultuously between adventures, amorous relations, and books, Leopardi was barely able to escape from his domestic oppression. To Leopardi, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> seemed squalid and modest when compared to the idealized image that he had created of it.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had already suffered disillusionment in love at home, with his cousin Geltrude Cassi. Meanwhile, his physical ailments continued to worsen. </p><p>In 1824, a bookstore owner, Stella, called him to Milan, asking him to write several works, including <i>Crestomazia della prosa e della poesia italiane</i>. He moved during this period between <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1827 in Florence, Leopardi met <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a>, although they did not see things eye to eye. He paid a visit to Giordani and met the historian <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Colletta" title="Pietro Colletta">Pietro Colletta</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giacomoleopardi1837.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Giacomoleopardi1837.jpg/220px-Giacomoleopardi1837.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Giacomoleopardi1837.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="206" /></a><figcaption>Leopardi on his deathbed</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomba_leopardi_napoli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Tomba_leopardi_napoli.jpg/170px-Tomba_leopardi_napoli.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Tomba_leopardi_napoli.jpg/255px-Tomba_leopardi_napoli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Tomba_leopardi_napoli.jpg/340px-Tomba_leopardi_napoli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="937" data-file-height="1250" /></a><figcaption>The tomb of Leopardi at <a href="/wiki/Parco_Virgiliano_(Mergellina)" title="Parco Virgiliano (Mergellina)">Parco Virgiliano (Mergellina)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1828, physically infirm and worn out by work, Leopardi refused the offer of a professorship in Bonn or Berlin, made by the Ambassador of Prussia in Rome. In the same year, he had to abandon his work with Stella and return to Recanati. In 1830, Colletta offered him a chance to return to Florence, thanks to a financial contribution from the "Friends of Tuscany". The subsequent printing of the <i>Canti</i> allowed him to live away from Recanati until 1832. Leopardi found kindred company among the liberals and republicans seeking to liberate Italy from its yoke to Austria. Although his idiosyncratic and pessimistic ideas made him a party of one, he railed against Italy's "state of subjection" and was "in sympathy with the ideals of constitutionalism, republicanism and democracy, and supportive of movements urging Italians to fight for their independence."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later he moved to Naples near his friend <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Ranieri" title="Antonio Ranieri">Antonio Ranieri</a>, hoping to benefit physically from the climate. He died during the cholera epidemic of 1837, the immediate cause probably being <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_edema" title="Pulmonary edema">pulmonary edema</a> or <a href="/wiki/Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>, due to his fragile physical condition. Thanks to Antonio Ranieri's intervention with the authorities, Leopardi's remains were not buried in a common grave (as the strict hygiene regulations of the time required), but in the atrium of the Church of San Vitale at <a href="/wiki/Fuorigrotta" title="Fuorigrotta">Fuorigrotta</a>. In 1898 his tomb was moved to the <a href="/wiki/Parco_Virgiliano_(Mergellina)" title="Parco Virgiliano (Mergellina)">Parco Virgiliano (Mergellina)</a> and declared a national monument.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There has been speculation in academic circles that Leopardi may have had <a href="/wiki/Homoromantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoromantic">homoromantic</a> tendencies.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His intimate friendships with other men, particularly Ranieri, involved expressions of love and desire beyond what was typical even of Romantic poets. In an account of his time in Tuscany, it was written that he "became frenzied about love" whenever in the presence of the handsome younger brother of a woman he and Ranieri both admired (Fanny Targioni-Tozzetti), and that when so frenzied he would direct his sentiments towards Ranieri. In 1830, Leopardi received a letter from <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Colletta" title="Pietro Colletta">Pietro Colletta</a>, nowadays interpreted as a declaration of <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry_in_Italy" title="Freemasonry in Italy">masonic</a> brotherhood.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leopardi's close friend Antonio Ranieri was a <a href="/wiki/Master_Mason" class="mw-redirect" title="Master Mason">Master Mason</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, over the course of his life Leopardi had more than twenty-five sentimental female friendships, such as the ones with <a href="/wiki/Teresa_Carniani" title="Teresa Carniani">Teresa Carniani Malvezzi</a> or <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Napol%C3%A9one_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Charlotte Napoléone Bonaparte">Charlotte Napoléone Bonaparte</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Leopardi family share the origin of <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Tomasi_di_Lampedusa" title="Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa">Tomasi's family</a>, at the time of the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Poetical_works">Poetical works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Poetical works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_academic_writings_(1813–1816)"><span id="First_academic_writings_.281813.E2.80.931816.29"></span>First academic writings (1813–1816)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: First academic writings (1813–1816)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leopardi_-_Puerili_e_abbozzi_vari,_1924_-_1859280_C.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Leopardi_-_Puerili_e_abbozzi_vari%2C_1924_-_1859280_C.jpeg/170px-Leopardi_-_Puerili_e_abbozzi_vari%2C_1924_-_1859280_C.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Leopardi_-_Puerili_e_abbozzi_vari%2C_1924_-_1859280_C.jpeg/255px-Leopardi_-_Puerili_e_abbozzi_vari%2C_1924_-_1859280_C.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Leopardi_-_Puerili_e_abbozzi_vari%2C_1924_-_1859280_C.jpeg/340px-Leopardi_-_Puerili_e_abbozzi_vari%2C_1924_-_1859280_C.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1837" data-file-height="2993" /></a><figcaption><i>Puerili e abbozzi vari</i>, a collection of Leopardi's early writings from 1809</figcaption></figure> <p>These were rough years for Leopardi, as he started developing his concept of Nature. At first, he saw this as "benevolent" to mankind, helping to distract people from their sufferings. Later, by 1819, his idea of Nature became dominated by a destructive mechanism. </p><p>Up to 1815, Leopardi was essentially an erudite philologist. Only thereafter he began to dedicate himself to literature and the search for beauty, as he affirms in a famous letter to Giordani of 1817. <i>Pompeo in Egitto</i> ("Pompey in Egypt", 1812), written at the age of fourteen, is an anti-Caesar manifesto. Pompey is seen as the defender of republican liberties. <i>Storia dell'Astronomia</i> ("History of Astronomy", 1813) is a compilation of all of the knowledge accumulated in this field up to the time of Leopardi. From the same year is <i>Saggio sopra gli errori popolari degli antichi</i> ("Essay on the popular errors of the ancients"), which brings the ancient myths back to life. The "errors" are the fantastic and vague imaginings of the ancients. Antiquity, in Leopardi's vision, is the infancy of the human species, which sees the personifications of its myths and dreams in the stars. </p><p>The year 1815 saw the production of <i>Orazione agli Italiani in Occasione della Liberazione del Piceno</i> ("Oration to the Italians on the liberation of Piceno"), a paean to the 'liberation' achieved by Italy after the intervention of the Austrians against <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Murat</a>. In the same year he translated <i><a href="/wiki/Batrachomyomachia" title="Batrachomyomachia">Batracomiomachia</a></i> (the war between the frogs and mice in which Zeus eventually sends in the crabs to exterminate them all), an ironic rhapsody which pokes fun at <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>'s <i>Iliad</i>, once attributed to the epic poet himself. </p><p>In 1816 Leopardi published <i>Discorso sopra la vita e le opere di Frontone</i> ("Discourse on the life and works of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a>"). In the same year, however, he entered a period of crisis. He wrote <i>L'appressamento della morte</i>, a poem in <i>terza rima</i> in which the poet experiences death, which he believes to be imminent, as a comfort. Meanwhile, there began other physical sufferings and a serious degeneration of his eyesight. He was acutely aware of the contrast between the interior life of man and his incapacity to manifest it in his relations with others. </p><p>Leopardi abandoned his philological studies and moved increasingly toward poetry by reading Italian authors of the 14th, 16th and 17th centuries, as well as some of his Italian and French contemporaries. His vision of the world underwent a change: he ceased to seek comfort in religion, which had permeated his childhood, and became increasingly inclined toward an empirical and mechanistic vision of the universe inspired by <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> among others. </p><p>In 1816 the idylls <i>Le rimembranze</i> and <i>Inno a Nettuno</i> ("Hymn to Neptune") were published. The second, written in ancient Greek, was taken by many critics as an authentic Greek classic. He also translated the second book of the <i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i> and the first book of the <i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i>. In the same year, in a letter to the compilers of the <i>Biblioteca Italiana</i> (<a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Monti" title="Vincenzo Monti">Monti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Acerbi" title="Giuseppe Acerbi">Acerbi</a>, Giordani), Leopardi argued against <a href="/wiki/Madame_de_Sta%C3%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Madame de Staël">Madame de Staël</a>'s article inviting Italians to stop looking to the past, but instead study the works of foreigners, so as to reinvigorate their literature. Leopardi maintained that "knowing", which is acceptable, is not the same thing as "imitating", which is what Madame de Stael demanded, and that Italian literature should not allow itself to be contaminated by modern forms of literature, but look to the Greek and Latin classics. A poet must be original, not suffocated by study and imitation: only the first poet in the history of humanity could have been truly original, since he had had no one to influence him. It was, therefore, necessary to get as close to the originals as possible, by drawing inspiration from one's own feelings, without imitating anyone. </p><p>Thanks to his friendship with Giordani, with whom, in 1817, he had begun a prolific correspondence, his distancing from the <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a> of his father became even sharper. It was in the following year that he wrote <i>All'Italia</i> ("To Italy") and <i>Sopra il monumento di Dante</i> ("On the Monument of <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a>"), two very polemical and classical <a href="/wiki/Patriotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriotic">patriotic</a> hymns in which Leopardi expressed his adherence to <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> and strongly <a href="/wiki/Secularity" title="Secularity">secular</a> ideas. </p><p>In the same period, he participated in the debate, which engulfed the literary Europe of the time, between the <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">classicists</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">romanticists</a>, affirming his position in favour of the first in the <i>Discorso di un Italiano attorno alla poesia romantica</i> ("Discourse of an Italian concerning romantic poetry"). </p><p>In 1817 he fell in love with Gertrude Cassi Lazzari and wrote <i>Memorie del primo amore</i> ("Memories of first love"). In 1818 he published <i>Il primo amore</i> and began writing a diary which he would continue for fifteen years (1817–1832), the <i>Zibaldone</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_first_canti_(1818)"><span id="The_first_canti_.281818.29"></span>The first <i>canti</i> (1818)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The first canti (1818)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Canti_(poetry_collection)" title="Canti (poetry collection)">Canti (poetry collection)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Versi_del_conte_Giacomo_Leopardi.djvu" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Versi_del_conte_Giacomo_Leopardi.djvu/page1-220px-Versi_del_conte_Giacomo_Leopardi.djvu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Versi_del_conte_Giacomo_Leopardi.djvu/page1-330px-Versi_del_conte_Giacomo_Leopardi.djvu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Versi_del_conte_Giacomo_Leopardi.djvu/page1-440px-Versi_del_conte_Giacomo_Leopardi.djvu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1329" data-file-height="2109" /></a><figcaption>First edition of <i>Canti</i> by Leopardi</figcaption></figure> <p><i>All'Italia</i> and <i>Sopra il monumento di Dante</i> marked the beginning of the series of major works. In the two <i>canti</i>, the concept of "excessive" or "over-civilization" which is deleterious for life and beauty first makes its appearance. In the poem <i>All'Italia</i>, Leopardi laments the fallen at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a> (480 BC, fought between the Greeks under <a href="/wiki/Leonidas" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonidas">Leonidas</a> and the Persians under <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes I of Persia">Xerxes</a>), and evokes the greatness of the past. In the second <i>canto</i>, he turns to <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a> and asks him for pity for the pathetic state of his fatherland. In the great <i>canti</i> which follow (forty-one, including fragments), there is a gradual abandonment of the reminiscences, of literary allusions and of conventionalisms. </p><p>In 1819, the poet attempted to escape from his oppressive domestic situation, by travelling to Rome. But he was caught by his father. In this period, his personal pessimism evolves into the peculiar <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">philosophical pessimism</a> of Leopardi. <i>Le Rimembranze</i> and <i>L'appressamento della morte</i> also belong to this early period of the art of Leopardi. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Idilli_(1819–1821)"><span id="The_Idilli_.281819.E2.80.931821.29"></span>The <i>Idilli</i> (1819–1821)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Idilli (1819–1821)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The six <i>Idilli</i> ("Idylls"), namely <i>Il sogno</i> ("The dream"), <i>L'Infinito</i> ("The Infinite"), <i>La sera del dì di festa</i> ("The evening of the feast day"), <i>Alla Luna</i> ("To the Moon"), <i>La vita solitaria</i> ("The solitary life") and <i>Lo spavento notturno</i> ("Night-time terror"), followed hard upon the first canti. <i>Il sogno</i> is still <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarchesque</a>, while the others which followed are the fruit of a more mature and independent art. Leopardi establishes with nature a sort of accord which attenuates the pain and discomfort. </p><p>In all of the idylls, the initial sparks, offered by memory or by the sweetness of nature, transmute their colours into the intuition of universal pain, of the transience of things, of the oppressive weight of eternity, of the inexorable passing of time, of the blind power of nature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="L'Infinito"><span id="L.27Infinito"></span><i>L'Infinito</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: L'Infinito"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Infinito.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Infinito.jpg/220px-Infinito.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Infinito.jpg/330px-Infinito.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Infinito.jpg/440px-Infinito.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="673" /></a><figcaption>Original manuscript of <i>L'Infinito</i></figcaption></figure><p><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (June 2013)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> The highest expression of poetry is reached in Leopardi in <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Infinito_(poem)" class="mw-redirect" title="L'Infinito (poem)">L'Infinito</a></i>, which is at once philosophy and art, since in the brief harmony of the verses are concentrated the conclusions of long philosophical meditations. The theme is a concept, which the mind can only with extreme difficulty conceive. The poet narrates an experience he often has when he sits in a secluded place on a hill. His eyes cannot reach the horizon, because of a hedge surrounding the site; his thought, instead, is able to imagine spaces without limits: </p><div style="padding: 1em;" class="poem"> <p>"Sempre caro mi fu quest'ermo colle,<br /> E questa siepe, che da tanta parte<br /> Dell'ultimo orizzonte il guardo esclude." </p> </div> <p>Another interpretation suggests that this hill represents the heights human thought achieves, but at the top, there is a hedge that prevents one from seeing the ultimate horizon, beyond death and existence. Thus this hedge can be interpreted as signifying the limits of human understanding regarding human existence in the Universe. This is why the poem begins with "Sempre caro mi fu" which can be translated as "It was always precious for me". The silence is deep; when a breath of wind comes, this voice sounds like the voice of present time, and by contrast, it evokes all times past, and eternity. Thus, the poet's thought is overwhelmed by new and unknown suggestions, but "il naufragar m'è dolce in questo mare" ("shipwreck / seems sweet to me in this sea." English translation by <a href="/w/index.php?title=A._S._Kline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A. S. Kline (page does not exist)">A. S. Kline</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Canzoni_(1820–1823)"><span id="The_Canzoni_.281820.E2.80.931823.29"></span>The <i>Canzoni</i> (1820–1823)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Canzoni (1820–1823)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leopardi returns to the evocation of ancient eras and exhorts his contemporaries to seek in the writings of the classics the noble ancient virtues. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ad_Angelo_Mai"><i>Ad Angelo Mai</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ad Angelo Mai"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the occasion of the discovery of the <i>De Republica</i> of <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> on the part of <a href="/wiki/Angelo_Mai" title="Angelo Mai">Mai</a>, Leopardi wrote the poem <i>Ad Angelo Mai</i> ("To Angelo Mai") in which he invokes the figures of many Italian poets, from <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> to <a href="/wiki/Torquato_Tasso" title="Torquato Tasso">Torquato Tasso</a> whom he felt so near to himself, to his contemporary <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Vittorio Alfieri</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nelle_nozze_della_sorella_Paolina"><i>Nelle nozze della sorella Paolina</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nelle nozze della sorella Paolina"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the lyrical <i>Nelle nozze</i> ("On the marriage of my sister Paolina"), an event that failed to happen, in the course of wishing happiness for his sister, the poet uses the opportunity to exalt the strength and the virtue of the women of antiquity and to denigrate his own time because it did not allow one to be virtuous and happy, since only after death are those who have lived a morally good life praised. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ad_un_vincitor_di_pallone"><i>Ad un vincitor di pallone</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ad un vincitor di pallone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The canto <i>Ad un vincitor di pallone</i> ("To the winner of a ballgame") expresses disdain for the tedium of a life that is nothing but a monotonous repetition of human affairs and to which only danger can restore value: only he who has been near the gates of death is able to find sweetness in life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bruto_minore"><i>Bruto minore</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bruto minore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>Bruto minore</i> ("Brutus the Younger"), Brutus the assassin of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> is depicted as a man who has always believed in honour, virtue and liberty and who has ultimately sacrificed everything for these ideals. He has come to the realization, too late to change things, that everything was done in vain, that everything has been pointless, and that he will even die dishonoured and disgraced for his well-intentioned actions. </p><p>His meditations bring him to the conclusion that morality is meaningless; <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jove</a> rewards only the selfish and plays arbitrary games with hapless mankind. Man is more unhappy than the rest of the animal kingdom because the latter do not know that they are unhappy and therefore do not meditate on the question of suicide and, even if they could, nothing would prevent them from carrying out the act without hesitation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ultimo_canto_di_Saffo"><i>Ultimo canto di Saffo</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ultimo canto di Saffo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brygos_Painter_ARV_385_228_Alkaios_and_Sappho_-_Dionysos_and_maenad_(08).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Brygos_Painter_ARV_385_228_Alkaios_and_Sappho_-_Dionysos_and_maenad_%2808%29.jpg/170px-Brygos_Painter_ARV_385_228_Alkaios_and_Sappho_-_Dionysos_and_maenad_%2808%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Brygos_Painter_ARV_385_228_Alkaios_and_Sappho_-_Dionysos_and_maenad_%2808%29.jpg/255px-Brygos_Painter_ARV_385_228_Alkaios_and_Sappho_-_Dionysos_and_maenad_%2808%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Brygos_Painter_ARV_385_228_Alkaios_and_Sappho_-_Dionysos_and_maenad_%2808%29.jpg/340px-Brygos_Painter_ARV_385_228_Alkaios_and_Sappho_-_Dionysos_and_maenad_%2808%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sappho" title="Sappho">Sappho</a> on a fifth-century BC <a href="/wiki/Red-figure_vase" class="mw-redirect" title="Red-figure vase">red-figure vase</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Brygos_Painter" title="Brygos Painter">Brygos Painter</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sappho" title="Sappho">Sappho</a> is also a tragic figure. In fact, she is a great and generous spirit, an exceptional mind and a sublime character trapped in a miserable body. Sappho loved the light (the loved one, according to the legend, was named <a href="/wiki/Phaon" title="Phaon">Phaon</a>, in Greek Φάων, from φῶς, light) but her life was made of shadow; she loved nature and beauty, but nature has been like an evil stepmother to her and she, who is sensitive, cultured and refined, is closed in the prison of a deformed body. Nor can the greatness of her genius help to release her from this horror. </p><p>In Sappho, Leopardi sees himself retarded, but in reality, the poet of Lesbos was neither deformed nor unhappy as she is depicted by Leopardi, who based his depiction on a false traditional belief. Sappho knew, tasted, and sang of beauty and love more than was possible for Leopardi. But the resignation to unhappiness, to pain and to solitude, and the renunciation of the joys of life, sounds in the verses of Leopardi like the sincere sigh of a feminine soul. </p><p>The canto begins as a sweet apostrophe to the placid nights, once dear to the serene poet, but the words turn rapidly to a violent evocation of nature in tempest which echoes her inner turmoil. The anguishing and accusative questions which Leopardi poses to a destiny which has denied beauty to the miserable Sappho are cut short by the thought of death. After having wished to the man she has loved in vain that little bit of happiness which is possible to attain on this earth, Sappho concludes by affirming that of all the hopes for joy, of all the illusions, there remains to await her only <a href="/wiki/Tartarus" title="Tartarus">Tartarus</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alla_primavera_and_Al_conte_Carlo_Pepoli"><i>Alla primavera</i> and <i>Al conte Carlo Pepoli</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Alla primavera and Al conte Carlo Pepoli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The canti <i>Alla primavera</i> ("To Spring") and <i>Al conte Carlo Pepoli</i> ("To Count <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Pepoli" title="Carlo Pepoli">Carlo Pepoli</a>") emerge from the same spiritual situation. The first laments the fall of the great illusions ("gli ameni inganni") and the imaginary mythological worlds of the past, which embellished and enriched the fantasy of man. The second decries the loss of happiness that has resulted. </p><p>In <i>Alla primavera</i>, Leopardi praises the ancient times when the nymphs populated the fields, the woods, the springs, the flowers and the trees. Although the lyrical style is apparently classical, it is also pervaded by the characteristic dissatisfaction with the presence of the romantics. Leopardi, here, romanticizes the pure intentions of the Greeks, since he was actually romantic in his sentiments and classical in his imagination and intellect. </p><p>In the <i>Epistolario a Carlo Pepoli</i>, Leopardi attempts to prove to his friend the thesis (reminiscent of Buddhism) according to which, since life has no other aim but happiness and since happiness is unattainable, all of life is nothing but an interminable struggle. But he who refuses to work is oppressed by the tedium of life and must seek distraction in useless pastimes. Moreover, those who dedicate themselves to poetry, if they have no fatherland, are tormented more than those who do by a lack of freedom because they fully appreciate the value of the idea of nationhood. </p><p>At this point, a disillusioned Leopardi considers abandoning poetry for philosophy, but without any hope of glory. He has resigned himself to the certainty of pain and of boredom to which mankind is condemned and he therefore believes it necessary to abandon the illusions and poetry in order to speculate on the laws and destiny of the universe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alla_sua_donna"><i>Alla sua donna</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Alla sua donna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1823, he wrote the canto <i>Alla sua donna</i> ("To his woman"), in which he expresses his ardent aspiration for a feminine ideal which, with love, might render life beautiful and desirable. During his youth, he had dreamt in vain of encountering a woman who embodied such a feminine ideal: a platonic idea, perfect, untouchable, pure, incorporeal, evanescent, and illusory. </p><p>It is a hymn not to one of Leopardi's many "loves", but to the discovery that he had unexpectedly made—at that summit of his life from which he would later decline—that what he had been seeking in the lady he loved was "something" beyond her, that was made visible in her, that communicated itself through her, but was beyond her. This beautiful hymn to Woman ends with this passionate invocation: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <dl><dd>"<i>Se dell'eterne idee</i></dd> <dd><i>L'una sei tu, cui di sensibil forma</i></dd> <dd><i>Sdegni l'eterno senno esser vestita,</i></dd> <dd><i>E fra caduche spoglie</i></dd> <dd><i>Provar gli affanni di funerea vita;</i></dd> <dd><i>O s'altra terra ne' supremi giri</i></dd> <dd><i>Fra' mondi innumerabili t'accoglie,</i></dd> <dd><i>E più vaga del Sol prossima stella</i></dd> <dd><i>T'irraggia, e più benigno etere spiri;</i></dd> <dd><i>Di qua dove son gli anni infausti e brevi,</i></dd> <dd><i>Questo d'ignoto amante inno ricevi.</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> </td> <td> <dl><dd>"If you are one of those</dd> <dd>eternal Ideas, that the eternal mind</dd> <dd>scorns to clothe in solid form,</dd> <dd>to endure the pain of our deathly life</dd> <dd>among fallen bodies,</dd> <dd>or if you are received in another earth,</dd> <dd>in the highest circles, among</dd> <dd>the innumerable worlds, and a star</dd> <dd>closer and brighter than the sun</dd> <dd>illuminates you, who breathe a purer air:</dd> <dd>accept your unknown lover, in this hymn</dd> <dd>from this world of unhappy and brief days."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leopardi_Opere_Napoli_1835.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Leopardi_Opere_Napoli_1835.jpg/290px-Leopardi_Opere_Napoli_1835.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Leopardi_Opere_Napoli_1835.jpg/435px-Leopardi_Opere_Napoli_1835.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Leopardi_Opere_Napoli_1835.jpg/580px-Leopardi_Opere_Napoli_1835.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2596" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Cover of the <i><a href="/wiki/Small_Moral_Works" title="Small Moral Works">Operette morali</a></i> in the last edition of Leopardi's <i>Works</i> in his lifetime, Naples 1835</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operette_morali_(1824)"><span id="Operette_morali_.281824.29"></span><i>Operette morali</i> (1824)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Operette morali (1824)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Small_Moral_Works" title="Small Moral Works">Small Moral Works</a></div> <p>Between the years 1823 and 1828, Leopardi set aside lyric poetry in order to compose his prose magnum opus, <i>Operette morali</i> ("Small Moral Works"), which consists (in its final form) of a series of 24 innovative dialogues and fictional essays treating a variety of themes that had already become familiar to his work by then. One of the most famous dialogues is: <i>Dialogo della Natura e di un Islandese</i>, in which the author expresses his main philosophical ideas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canti_Pisano-Recanatesi_(1823–1832)"><span id="Canti_Pisano-Recanatesi_.281823.E2.80.931832.29"></span><i>Canti Pisano-Recanatesi</i> (1823–1832)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Canti Pisano-Recanatesi (1823–1832)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After 1823, Leopardi abandoned the myths and illustrious figures of the past, which he now considered to be transformed into meaningless symbols and turned to writing about suffering in a more "cosmic" sense. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Il_Risorgimento"><i>Il Risorgimento</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Il Risorgimento"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1828, Leopardi returned to lyric poetry with <i>Il Risorgimento</i> ("Resurgence"). The poem is essentially a history of the spiritual development of the poet from the day in which he came to believe that every pulse of life had died out in his soul to the moment in which the lyrical and the sentimental were reawakened in him. A strange torpor had rendered him apathetic, indifferent to suffering, to love, to desire, and to hope. Life had seemed desolate to him until the ice began to melt and the soul, reawakening, finally felt the revivification of the ancient illusions. Having reconquered the gift of sentiment, the poet accepts life as it is because it is revived by the feeling of suffering which torments his heart and, so long as he lives, he will not rebel against those who condemn him to live. This recovered serenity consists in the contemplation of one's own conscience of one's own sentiments, even when desolation and despair envelop the soul. </p><p>Leopardi rejoices to have rediscovered in himself the capacity to be moved and to experience pain, after a long period of impassibility and boredom. With <i>Risorgimento</i>, lyricism is reawakened in the poet, who composes canti, generally brief, in which a small spark or a scene is expanded, extending itself into an eternal vision of existence. He revokes images, memories and moments of past happiness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="A_Silvia"><i>A Silvia</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: A Silvia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macerata_recanati.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Macerata_recanati.jpg/170px-Macerata_recanati.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Macerata_recanati.jpg/255px-Macerata_recanati.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Macerata_recanati.jpg/340px-Macerata_recanati.jpg 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>The tower of <a href="/wiki/Recanati" title="Recanati">Recanati</a>, present on <i>Il passero solitario</i></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1828, Leopardi composed perhaps his most famous poem, <i>A Silvia</i> ("To Silvia"). The young lady of the title—possibly the daughter of a servant in the Leopardi household—is the image of the hopes and illusions of the young poet, destined to succumb far too early in the struggle against reality, just as the youth of Silvia is destroyed by tuberculosis, the "chiuso morbo".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is often asked whether Leopardi was actually in love with this young woman, but to seek confirmation in biographical evidence is to miss the point of the poem. <i>A Silvia</i> is the expression of a profound and tragic <i>love of life</i> itself, which Leopardi, despite all the suffering, the psychological torments and the negative philosophizing, could not suppress in his spirit. This poem demonstrates why Leopardi's so-called "nihilism" does not run deep enough to touch the well-spring of his poetry: his love of man, of nature, and of beauty. However, the accusation Leopardi makes against Nature is very strong, as being responsible for the sweet dreams of youth and for the subsequent suffering, after "the appearance of truth" (<i>l'apparir del vero</i>, v.60) has shattered them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Il_passero_solitario"><i>Il passero solitario</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Il passero solitario"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The canto <i>Il passero solitario</i> ("The Lonely Sparrow") is of a classical perfection for the structure of the verses and for the sharpness of the images. Leopardi contemplates the bounty of nature and the world which smiles at him invitingly, but the poet has become misanthropic and disconsolate with the decline of his health and youth and the deprivation of all joy. He senses the feast which nature puts forth to him, but is unable to take part in it and foresees the remorse which will assail him in the years to come when he will regret the youthful life that he never lived. In this sense, he is alone just like, or worse than, the sparrow, since the latter lives alone by instinct, while the poet is endowed with reason and free will. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Le_Ricordanze"><i>Le Ricordanze</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Le Ricordanze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1829, at Recanati, where he was constrained to return, against his wishes, because of increasing infirmity and financial difficulties, the poet wrote <i>Le Ricordanze</i> ("Memories"), perhaps the poem where autobiographical elements are the most evident. It narrates the story of the painful joy of the man who feels his sentiments to be stirred by seeing again places full of childhood and adolescence memories. These sentiments now confront a horrible and merciless reality and deep regret for lost youth. The ephemeral happiness is embodied in Nerina (a character perhaps based on the same inspiration as Silvia, Teresa Fattorini). </p><p>Nerina and Silvia are both dreams, evanescent phantasms; life for Leopardi is an illusion, the only reality being death. The woman, Silvia, Nerina, or "la sua donna" is always only the reflection of the poet himself, since life itself is, for him, an elusive and deceptive phantasm. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="La_quiete_dopo_la_tempesta"><i>La quiete dopo la tempesta</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: La quiete dopo la tempesta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1829, Leopardi wrote <i>La quiete dopo la tempesta</i> ("The Calm After the Storm"), in which the light and reassuring verses at the beginning evolve into the dark desperation of the concluding strophe, where pleasure and joy are conceived of as only momentary cessations of suffering and the highest pleasure is provided only by death. It also delegates his dignity onto the crowd nor grieving himself on the sorrows he is obsessed and afterwards, his prowess dominates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Il_sabato_del_villaggio"><i>Il sabato del villaggio</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Il sabato del villaggio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The same year's <i>Il sabato del villaggio</i> ("Saturday in the village"), like <i>La quiete dopo la tempesta</i>, opens with the depiction of the calm and reassuring scene of the people of the village (Recanati) preparing for Sunday's rest and feast. Later, just as in the other poem, it expands into deep, though brief and restrained, poetic-philosophical considerations on the emptiness of life: the joy and illusion of expectation must come to an unsatisfactory end in the Sunday feast; likewise, all the sweet dreams and expectations of youth will turn into bitter disillusion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canto_notturno_di_un_pastore_errante_dell'Asia"><span id="Canto_notturno_di_un_pastore_errante_dell.27Asia"></span><i>Canto notturno di un pastore errante dell'Asia</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Canto notturno di un pastore errante dell'Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around the end of 1829 or the first months of 1830, Leopardi composed the <i>Canto notturno di un pastore errante dell'Asia</i> ("Night-time chant of a wandering Asian sheep-herder"). In writing this piece, Leopardi drew inspiration from the reading of <i>Voyage d'Orenbourg à Boukhara fait en 1820</i>, by the Russian baron <a href="/wiki/Meyendorff" class="mw-redirect" title="Meyendorff">Meyendorff</a>, in which the baron tells of how certain sheep-herders of central Asia belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_people" title="Kyrgyz people">Kirghiz</a> population practised a sort of ritual chant consisting of long and sweet strophes directed at the full moon. The canto, which is divided into five strophes of equal length, takes the form of a dialogue between a sheepherder and the moon. The canto begins with the words "<i>Che fai tu Luna in ciel? Dimmi, che fai, / silenziosa Luna?</i>" ("What do you do Moon in the sky? Tell me, what do you do, / silent Moon?"). Throughout the entire poem, in fact, the moon remains silent, and the dialogue is transformed therefore into a long and urgent existential monologue of the sheep-herder, in desperate search of explanations to provide a sense to the pointlessness of existence. The two characters are immersed in an indeterminate space and time, accentuating the universal and symbolic nature of their encounter: the sheep-herder represents the human species as a whole and his doubts are not contingent—that is, anchored to a here and now—but are rather characteristic of man at all times; the moon, on the other hand, represents Nature, the "beautiful and terrible"<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> force that fascinates and, at the same time, terrifies the poet. </p><p>The sheepherder, a man of humble condition, directs his words to the moon in a polite but insistent tone, seething with melancholy. It is precisely the absence of response on the part of the celestial orb which provokes him to continue to investigate, ever more profoundly, into the role of the moon, and therefore into that of humanity, with respect to life and the world, defining ever more sharply the "arid truth" so dear to the poetry of Leopardi. In the first strophe, in fact, the sheep-herder, even while defining the moon as silent, actually expects a response from it and discovers many analogies between his own condition and that of the moon: both of them arise in the morning, follow their always self-identical paths and finally stop to rest. The life of the moon, as much as that of the sheep-herder, seems completely senseless. There appears, however, in the middle of this strophe, a very important distinction: the course of human life is finite and its passage, similar to that of a "vecchierel bianco" (Petrarch, <i>Canzoniere</i>, XVI), terminates tragically in the "horrid abyss" of death. Such a condition, which is defined in the second strophe as a condition of profound suffering ("se la vita è sventura, perché da noi si dura?") is extremely different from that of the Moon, which seems instead to be eternal, "virgin", and "intact". </p><p>In the third strophe, the sheep-herder turns again to the moon with renewed vigour and hope, believing that the orb, precisely because of this privileged extra-worldly condition, can provide him with the answers to his most urgent questions: what is life? What could possibly be its purpose since it is necessarily finite? What is the first cause of all being? But the moon, as the sheep-herder learns quickly, cannot provide the answers to these questions even if it knew them, since such is nature: distant, incomprehensible, mute if not indifferent to the concerns of man. The sheepherder's search for sense and happiness continues all the way to the final two strophes. In the fourth, the sheep-herder turns to his flock, observing how the lack of self-awareness that each sheep has allows it to live out, in apparent tranquillity, its brief existence, without suffering or boredom. But this idea is ultimately rejected by the sheep-herder himself in the final strophe, in which he admits that, probably, in whatever form life is born and manifests itself, whether moon, sheep or man, whatever it is capable of doing, life is equally bleak and tragic. </p><p>In this period, Leopardi's relations with his family are reduced to a minimum and he is constrained to maintain himself on his own financially. In 1830, after sixteen months of "notte orribile" (awful night), he accepted a generous offer from his Tuscan friends, which enabled him to leave Recanati. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_last_Canti_(1832–1837)"><span id="The_last_Canti_.281832.E2.80.931837.29"></span>The last <i>Canti</i> (1832–1837)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: The last Canti (1832–1837)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the last <i>canti</i>, philosophical investigation predominates, with the exception of <i>Tramonto della Luna</i> ("Decline of the Moon") which is a decisive return to idyllic lyricism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Il_pensiero_dominante"><i>Il pensiero dominante</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Il pensiero dominante"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1831, Leopardi wrote <i>Il pensiero dominante</i> ("The Dominating Thought"), which exalts love as a living or vitalizing force in itself, even when it is unrequited. The poem, however, features only the desire for love without the joy and the vitalizing spirit and, therefore, remaining thought, illusion. Leopardi destroys everything, condemns everything, but wishes to save love from the universal miasma and protect it at least within the profundity of his own soul. The more desolate the solitude which surrounds him, the more tightly he grasps onto love as the faith in his idealized, illusory, eternal woman ("sua donna") who placates suffering, disillusion and bitterness. The poet of universal suffering sings of a good which surpasses the ills of life and, for an instant, seems to become the singer of possible happiness. But the idea of death as the only hope for man returns, since the world offers only two beautiful things: love and death. </p><p><i>Il pensiero dominante</i> represents the first ecstatic moment of love, which almost nullifies the awareness of human unhappiness. It is worth the price of tolerating the suffering of a long life in order to experience the joy of such beauty. <i>Il pensiero dominante</i> and <i>Il risorgimento</i> are the only poems of joy written by Leopardi, though even in those two poems there always reappears, inextinguishable, the pessimism which sees in the object of joy a vain image created by the imagination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Amore_e_Morte"><i>Amore e Morte</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Amore e Morte"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of the love-death duality is taken up again in the 1832 canto <i>Amore e Morte</i> ("Love and Death"). It is a meditation on the torment and annihilation which accompanies love. Love and death, in fact, are twins: one is the generator of all things beautiful and the other puts an end to all ills. Love makes strong and cancels the fear of death and when it dominates the soul, it makes it desire death. Some, who are won over by passion, will die for it happily. Others kill themselves because of the wounds of love. But happiness consists in dying in the drunkenness of passion. Of the two twins, Leopardi dares to invoke only death, which is no longer symbolized by the horrid Ade of Saffo, but by a young virgin who grants peace for eternity. Death is the sister of love and is the great consoler who, along with her brother, is the best that the world can offer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consalvo"><i>Consalvo</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Consalvo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fanny_Targioni_Tozzetti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Fanny_Targioni_Tozzetti.jpg/220px-Fanny_Targioni_Tozzetti.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Fanny_Targioni_Tozzetti.jpg/330px-Fanny_Targioni_Tozzetti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Fanny_Targioni_Tozzetti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="434" /></a><figcaption>Fanny Targioni Tozzetti</figcaption></figure> <p>Also in 1832, inspired by a 17th-century poem by <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Graziani" title="Girolamo Graziani">Girolamo Graziani</a> titled <i><a href="/wiki/Il_Conquisto_di_Granata" title="Il Conquisto di Granata">Il Conquisto di Granata</a></i> ("The Capture of <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a>"), Leopardi wrote <i>Consalvo</i>. Consalvo obtains a kiss from the woman he has long loved unrequitedly only when, gravely injured, he is at the point of death. Consalvo is different from the other canti in that it has the form of a novella in verse or of a dramatic scene. It is the fruit of the sentimental and languid literature which characterized much of the romanticism outside of Italy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aspasia"><i>Aspasia</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Aspasia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Written in 1834, <i>Aspasia</i> emerges, like <i>Consalvo</i>, from the painful experience of desperate and unrequited love for Fanny Targioni Tozzetti. Aspasia-Fanny is the only real woman represented in the poetry of Leopardi. Aspasia is an able manipulator whose perfect body hides a corrupt and prosaic soul. She is the demonstration that beauty is dishonest. </p><p>The poet, vainly searching for love, takes his revenge on destiny and the women who have rejected him, above all Targioni, whose memory continues to disturb the poet after more than a year away from her. The memory of the woman loved in vain constantly returns, but the canto, inspired by disdain for the provocative and, simultaneously, distancing behaviour of the woman also expresses resignation to one's fate and the pride of having been able to recover one's own independence. Aspasia, in her limitedness as a woman, cannot grasp the profundity of masculine thought. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="A_se_stesso"><i>A se stesso</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: A se stesso"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"A se stesso" (To himself) is an 1833 canto in which Leopardi talks to his heart. The last deceit, love, is dead too. He thought that love was one of the few things that makes life worth living but he changed his mind after his beloved Fanny's refusal. She, moreover, was in love with <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Ranieri" title="Antonio Ranieri">Antonio Ranieri</a>, Leopardi's best friend, who remained with the poet until the end. His desire, his hope, and his "sweet deceits" are ended. His heart has beaten all his life but it's time for it to stop beating and stay still. There is no place for hope anymore. All he wants is dying, because death is the only good gift nature has given to human beings. In "Love and Death", love was still considered a good thing because when you are in love you have stronger feelings, you feel alive in an always new way. Now he has become sceptical also about love, because if he can't have Fanny, nothing remains for him in life. He just wants to die, to make all the suffering end. Death is a gift as it is the end of all human pain, which is inevitable because it's in the essence of men, it's in the cruel project of nature. The last verse is "e l'infinita vanità del tutto" which means "and the infinite vanity of the whole" and it indicates the inanity of human life and the human world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sopra_un_bassorilievo_antico_sepolcrale"><i>Sopra un bassorilievo antico sepolcrale</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Sopra un bassorilievo antico sepolcrale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ReliefSLorLuc.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/ReliefSLorLuc.JPG/220px-ReliefSLorLuc.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/ReliefSLorLuc.JPG/330px-ReliefSLorLuc.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/ReliefSLorLuc.JPG/440px-ReliefSLorLuc.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Tenerani" title="Pietro Tenerani">Pietro Tenerani</a>: <i>Monument to Clelia Severini</i> (1825), which inspired the poem.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the canto <i>Sopra un bassorilievo antico sepolcrale</i> ("Over an Ancient Sepulchre Bas-relief"), a young woman has died and is represented in the act of saying goodbye to her loved ones. The poet weighs the pros and cons of death, remaining in doubt about whether the young woman's destiny is good or bad. </p><p>Leopardi, even while being highly conscious of the indifference of nature, never ceased entirely to love it. In these verses, the poet poses challenging and pointed questions to nature, enumerating the ills and sufferings which, because of death, are inflicted on humanity. Under the influence of love, the poet had apparently found happiness at least in death (<i>Il pensiero dominante</i>, <i>Amore e morte</i>). Now, instead, even this last illusion has fallen and he sees nothing but unhappiness everywhere. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sopra_il_ritratto_di_una_bella_donna"><i>Sopra il ritratto di una bella donna</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sopra il ritratto di una bella donna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Sopra il ritratto di una bella donna scolpito nel monumento sepolcrale della medesima</i> ("On the portrait of a beautiful woman sculpted in her sepulchral monument") is basically an extension of the above. </p><p>The poet, drawing his inspiration from a funerary sculpture, evokes the image of a beautiful woman and compares her breathtaking beauty to the heart-rendingly sad image that she has become; one that is no more than mud, dust and skeleton. As well as being centred on the transience of beauty and of human things, the poem points to the specular <a href="/wiki/Antinomy" title="Antinomy">antinomy</a> between human ideals and natural truth. Leopardi does not deny—if anything, he emphasizes—the beauty of the human species in general, and by the end of the poem extends his point to all possible forms of beauty, intellectual as well as aesthetic. However, this universal beauty remains unattainable to a human nature that is nothing but "polvere e ombra" ("dust and shadow"), and that may touch—but never possess—the ideals that it perceives, remain rooted in the natural world in which it was born, as well as to its demands. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="La_ginestra"><i>La ginestra</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: La ginestra"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cytisus_scoparius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Cytisus_scoparius.jpg/220px-Cytisus_scoparius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Cytisus_scoparius.jpg/330px-Cytisus_scoparius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Cytisus_scoparius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Broom_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Broom (plant)">Broom</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1836, while staying near <a href="/wiki/Torre_del_Greco" title="Torre del Greco">Torre del Greco</a> in a villa on the hillside of <a href="/wiki/Vesuvius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesuvius">Vesuvius</a>, Leopardi wrote his moral testament as a poet, <i>La Ginestra</i> ("The <a href="/wiki/Broom_(shrub)" class="mw-redirect" title="Broom (shrub)">Broom</a>"), also known as <i>Il Fiore del Deserto</i> ("The flower of the desert"). The poem consists of 317 verses and uses free strophes of <a href="/wiki/Hendecasyllable" title="Hendecasyllable">hendecasyllables</a> and <a href="/wiki/Septuplet" class="mw-redirect" title="Septuplet">septuplets</a> as its meter. It is the longest of all the <i>Canti</i> and has an unusual beginning. In fact, among all the Leopardian canti only this one begins with a scene of desolation, to be followed by an alternation between the enchantment of the panorama and of the starry night sky. On the literary level, it is the maximum realization of that anti-idyllic "<i>new poetic</i>" with which Leopardi had already experimented from the 1830s. </p><p>Leopardi, after having described the nothingness of the world and of man with respect to the universe; after having lamented the precariousness of the human condition threatened by the capriciousness of nature, not as exceptional evils but as continuous and constant; and after having satirized the arrogance and the credulity of man, who propounds ideas of progress and hopes, even while knowing he is mortal, to render himself eternal, concludes with the observation that reciprocal solidarity is the only defence against the common enemy which is nature (see <i>Operette morali</i>, "Dialogo di Plotino e Porfirio"). </p><p>In this canto, in which Leopardi expresses his vast thought about mankind, history, and nature, autobiographical elements can be found: both direct (the places described are those which surround the poet in his late years) and indirect, in the image of a man who is poor, weak, but courageous enough to be aware of his real condition. The humble plant of <a href="/wiki/Broom_(shrub)" class="mw-redirect" title="Broom (shrub)">ginestra</a>, living in desolate places without surrendering to the force of Nature, resembles this ideal man, who rejects any illusions about himself and does not invoke from Heaven (or Nature) an impossible help. </p><p>Vesuvius, the great mountain which brings destruction, dominates the entire poem. The only attainable truth is death, toward which man must inexorably advance, abandoning every illusion and becoming conscious of his own miserable condition. Such awareness will placate mutual hatred. </p><p>It is a vast poem, symphonically constructed with brilliant alternations of tone, from the grandiose and tragic painting of the volcano threatening destruction and of extensions of infertile lava, to the sharp ideological argumentation, to the cosmic sparks which project the nothingness of the earth and of man in the immensity of the universe, to the vision of the infinite passage of centuries of human history on which the immutable threat of nature has always weighed, to the gentle notes dedicated to the "flower in the desert", in which are compressed complex symbolic meanings: pity toward the sufferings of man and the dignity which should be characteristic of man when confronted with the invincible force of a nature which crushes him. </p><p>An essential change occurs with the <i>Ginestra</i>, which closes the poetic career of Leopardi along with <i>Il tramonto della Luna</i>, which takes up the old themes of the fall of youthful illusions. The poem reiterates and reaffirms the sharp anti-optimistic and anti-religious polemic, but in a new and democratic register. Here, Leopardi no longer denies the possibility of <i>civic</i> progress: he seeks to construct an idea of progress founded precisely on his pessimism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Il_tramonto_della_Luna"><i>Il tramonto della Luna</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Il tramonto della Luna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Il tramonto della Luna</i> ("The Waning of the Moon"), the last canto, was composed by Leopardi in Naples shortly before his death. The moon wanes, leaving nature in total darkness, just as youth passes away leaving life dark and derelict. The poet seems to presage the imminence of his own death. </p><p>In 1845, Ranieri published the definitive edition of the <i>Canti</i> according to the will of the author. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_poems">Other poems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Other poems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Palinodia_al_marchese_Gino_Capponi"><i>Palinodia al marchese Gino Capponi</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Palinodia al marchese Gino Capponi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <i>Palinodia al marchese Gino Capponi</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Palinody" class="mw-redirect" title="Palinody">Palinody</a> to Marquis <a href="/wiki/Gino_Capponi" title="Gino Capponi">Gino Capponi</a>"), Leopardi fakes a retraction ("Palinodia") of his pessimism. The work, written in 1835, was intended to be satirical (he first believes that man is unhappy and miserable, but now progress has made him reconsider his position), but the thought of the inevitable destruction to which nature condemns everything leads him to express bitter conclusions in spite of himself. Regarding this work, Marquis Capponi wrote in a letter to Leopardi that he shared, at least in part, many of his ideas and thanked him for the "noble verses". However, in a letter addressed to Viesseux, he expressed himself in rather different terms: "Now it behoves that I write [back] to that damned hunchback who has put it into his head to mock me." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paralipomeni_della_Batracomiomachìa"><span id="Paralipomeni_della_Batracomiomach.C3.ACa"></span><i>Paralipomeni della Batracomiomachìa</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Paralipomeni della Batracomiomachìa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brogi,_Giacomo_(1822-1881)_-_5113_-_Napoli,_Museo_nazionale._Omero._il_miglior_busto_di_questo_poeta_(Ercolano).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Brogi%2C_Giacomo_%281822-1881%29_-_5113_-_Napoli%2C_Museo_nazionale._Omero._il_miglior_busto_di_questo_poeta_%28Ercolano%29.jpg/170px-Brogi%2C_Giacomo_%281822-1881%29_-_5113_-_Napoli%2C_Museo_nazionale._Omero._il_miglior_busto_di_questo_poeta_%28Ercolano%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Brogi%2C_Giacomo_%281822-1881%29_-_5113_-_Napoli%2C_Museo_nazionale._Omero._il_miglior_busto_di_questo_poeta_%28Ercolano%29.jpg/255px-Brogi%2C_Giacomo_%281822-1881%29_-_5113_-_Napoli%2C_Museo_nazionale._Omero._il_miglior_busto_di_questo_poeta_%28Ercolano%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Brogi%2C_Giacomo_%281822-1881%29_-_5113_-_Napoli%2C_Museo_nazionale._Omero._il_miglior_busto_di_questo_poeta_%28Ercolano%29.jpg/340px-Brogi%2C_Giacomo_%281822-1881%29_-_5113_-_Napoli%2C_Museo_nazionale._Omero._il_miglior_busto_di_questo_poeta_%28Ercolano%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="713" /></a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The satiric tone adopted by Leopardi through much of the <i>Operette morali</i> is also evinced in some of his late poetic texts, such as the <i>Palinodia</i> and <i>I nuovi credenti</i>. But the clearest demonstration of his mastery of this art form is probably the <i>Paralipomeni della Batracomiomachia</i>, a brief comic-heroic poem of eight stanzas of eight lines each. Leopardi wrote it between 1831 and 1835, beginning it during his last stay in Florence and finishing it in Naples. The publication took place, posthumously, in Paris in 1842, provoking a universal reaction of outrage and condemnation, as much for the cutting and anti-heroic representation of the events of the <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Risorgimento</a> as for the numerous materialistic philosophical digressions. </p><p>The term <i>Paralipòmeni</i> is Greek for "things left undone or unsaid". <i>Batracomiomachìa</i> means "war between the frogs and the mice". Batracomiomachia was also the title of a pseudo-Homeric poem which was actually written in the 4th or 5th century BC and translated by Leopardi between 1815 and 1826. The title, therefore, alludes to an integration of the original work, which is taken up again where it left off and the narrative progresses. The subject is a fable regarding the conflict between the mice that inhabit the nation of Topaia and the invading crabs. But behind the plot, there is hidden a robust sarcastic and polemical motivation. The animals and their doings have an allegorical value. In the crabs, portrayed unsympathetically and with monstrous characteristics, are to be recognized as the Austrians; in the mice, sometimes generous but mostly ingenuous and cowardly, the liberal Italians. The poem represents the historical events that took place between 1815 and 1821: the climate of the Restoration desired by the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a> and the fruitless attempts at the insurrection of 1820–21. Even the revolutionary movements of 1831 are included by Leopardi, who was able to follow them by way of the moderate Tuscan circles which he frequented and who perhaps provided him with the inspiration for the work. </p><p>The adoption of the poetic genre required the abandonment of the lyric style and the adoption of a narrative pace marked by a constant critical-satirical tension toward the ideological and philosophical beliefs of contemporary culture: Christian spiritualism, faith in progress, and anthropocentrism. Even the slogans of the political struggle of the liberals are derided, both in their expression of expectation of foreign intervention and in their faith in the model of a constitutional monarchy. In this fashion, the <i>Paralipomeni</i> represent another part of Leopardi's polemical war with the present, and above all an exceptional sally into the territory of historical/political commentary, generally not confronted by Leopardi in a direct form. Of the Italian Risorgimento, he delineates the fundamental limits here with an extraordinary tempestivity: the tendency to compromise with ancient interests and constituted powers, the vanity, the opportunism, the ideological ingenuousness, the lack of an opportune pragmatic awareness. The style generally renounces the expressive concentration of the lyric texts and extends itself in a wide and relaxed discursive pace, with alterations between adventurous moments and ferociously caricatural and polemical points, of description and philosophical digressions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pensieri_(1837)"><span id="Pensieri_.281837.29"></span><i>Pensieri</i> (1837)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Pensieri (1837)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zibaldone_di_pensieri_VI.djvu" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Zibaldone_di_pensieri_VI.djvu/page1-170px-Zibaldone_di_pensieri_VI.djvu.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Zibaldone_di_pensieri_VI.djvu/page1-255px-Zibaldone_di_pensieri_VI.djvu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Zibaldone_di_pensieri_VI.djvu/page1-340px-Zibaldone_di_pensieri_VI.djvu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="1866" /></a><figcaption>The <i>Zibaldone di pensieri</i>, cover of the 1900 edition</figcaption></figure> <p>In March 1837, shortly before his death, Leopardi announced that he would gather into one volume some "thoughts" ("pensieri") on man and society. Such a collection was supposed to be part of a French edition of the complete works of Leopardi. A few months later (on 14 June) the poet died, leaving the work incomplete and the fragments were published by his friend Ranieri, who also provided the title.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bulk of the contents of <i>Pensieri</i> are derived from the <i>Zibaldone</i>. The tone is sharply argumentative with respect to humanity, which Leopardi judges to be malevolent and it almost seems as if the poet wants to take his final revenge on the world.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leopardian_poetics">Leopardian poetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Leopardian poetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Leopardian_poetics" title="Leopardian poetics">Leopardian poetics</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_works">Philosophical works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Philosophical works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Zibaldone">The <i>Zibaldone</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: The Zibaldone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pensaments_(1912).djvu" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Pensaments_%281912%29.djvu/page1-170px-Pensaments_%281912%29.djvu.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Pensaments_%281912%29.djvu/page1-255px-Pensaments_%281912%29.djvu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Pensaments_%281912%29.djvu/page1-340px-Pensaments_%281912%29.djvu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1096" data-file-height="1642" /></a><figcaption><i>Pensaments</i> by Leopardi, a 1912 Catalan edition of the <i>Pensieri</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Zibaldone" title="Zibaldone">Zibaldone</a> di pensieri</i> (see also <a href="/wiki/Commonplace_book#Zibaldone" title="Commonplace book">Commonplace book#Zibaldone</a>) is a collection of personal impressions, aphorisms, philosophical observations, philological analyses, literary criticism and various types of <a href="/wiki/Notebook_(style)" title="Notebook (style)">notes</a> which was published posthumously in seven volumes in 1898 with the original title of <i>Pensieri di varia filosofia e di bella letteratura</i> (<i>Miscellaneous Thoughts on Philosophy and Literature</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The publication took place thanks to a special governmental commission presided over by <a href="/wiki/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci" title="Giosuè Carducci">Giosuè Carducci</a> on the occasion of the centennial anniversary of the poet's birth. It was only in 1937, after the republication of the original text enriched with notes and indices by the literary critic Francesco Flora, that the work definitively took on the name by which it is known today. </p><p>In the <i>Zibaldone</i>, Leopardi compares the innocent and happy state of nature with the condition of modern man, corrupted by an excessively developed faculty of reason which, rejecting the necessary illusions of myth and religion in favour of a dark reality of annihilation and emptiness, can only generate unhappiness. The <i>Zibaldone</i> contains the poetic and existential itinerary of Leopardi himself; it is a miscellanea of philosophical annotations, schemes, entire compositions, moral reflections, judgements, small idylls, erudite discussions and impressions. Leopardi, even while remaining outside of the circles of philosophical debate of his century, was able to elaborate an extremely innovative and provocative vision of the world. It is not much of a stretch to define Leopardi as the father of what would eventually come to be called <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a>, in mentioning the great minds of all ages who opposed <a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">optimism</a> and expressed their knowledge of the world's misery, wrote: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>But no one has treated this subject so thoroughly and exhaustively as Leopardi in our own day. He is entirely imbued and penetrated with it; everywhere his theme is the mockery and wretchedness of this existence. He presents it on every page of his works, yet in such a multiplicity of forms and applications, with such a wealth of imagery, that he never wearies us, but, on the contrary, has a diverting and stimulating effect.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i>, Vol. II, Ch. XLVI</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a> refers to Leopardi's work several times in his critical study <i><a href="/wiki/Proust_(essay)" title="Proust (essay)">Proust</a></i> and quotes a passage from "A Se Stesso", "non che la speme il desiderio", in the English version of his 1951 novel <a href="/wiki/Molloy_(novel)" title="Molloy (novel)"><i>Molloy</i></a>.</li> <li>In "The Part about the Crimes", the fourth part of <a href="/wiki/Roberto_Bola%C3%B1o" title="Roberto Bolaño">Roberto Bolaño</a>'s novel <i>2666</i>, <i>Canto notturno di un pastore errante dell'Asia</i> is extensively quoted by a television psychic named Florita Almada who somewhat confuses it for an account of the early life of <a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Benito Juárez</a>.</li> <li>The title of <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Forlivesi" title="Carlo Forlivesi">Carlo Forlivesi</a>'s album, <i><a href="/wiki/Silenziosa_Luna" title="Silenziosa Luna">Silenziosa Luna</a></i>, is a quotation from the same poem.</li> <li>The 2014 Italian film <i><a href="/wiki/Leopardi_(film)" title="Leopardi (film)">Leopardi</a></i> is a biography of his life.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_English_translations">Selected English translations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Selected English translations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi1923" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (1923). <i>The Poems of Leopardi</i>. Translated by G.L. Bickersteth. New York: <a href="/wiki/New_American_Library" title="New American Library">New American Library</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Poems+of+Leopardi&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+American+Library&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi1966" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (1966). <a href="/wiki/Iris_Origo" title="Iris Origo">Iris Origo</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Heath-Stubbs" title="John Heath-Stubbs">John Heath-Stubbs</a> (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/selectedprosepoe00leop"><i>Giacomo Leopardi – Selected Prose and Poetry</i></a></span>. New York: New American Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Giacomo+Leopardi+%E2%80%93+Selected+Prose+and+Poetry&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+American+Library&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fselectedprosepoe00leop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi1976" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (1976). <i>The War of the Mice and the Crabs</i>. Translated by Ernesto G. Caserta. Chapel Hill: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780-807891643" title="Special:BookSources/9780-807891643"><bdi>9780-807891643</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+of+the+Mice+and+the+Crabs&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=9780-807891643&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi1983" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (1983). <i>Operette Morali: Essays and Dialogues</i>. Translated by Giovanni Cecchetti. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04928-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04928-4"><bdi>978-0-520-04928-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operette+Morali%3A+Essays+and+Dialogues&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04928-4&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi1966" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (1966). Flores, Angel (ed.). <i>Poems and prose</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-20094-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-20094-6"><bdi>0-253-20094-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poems+and+prose&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=0-253-20094-6&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi1994" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (1994). <i>The Canti: With a Selection of His Prose</i>. Translated by J.G. Nichols. Manchester: <a href="/wiki/Carcanet_Press" title="Carcanet Press">Carcanet Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85754-050-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85754-050-5"><bdi>978-1-85754-050-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Canti%3A+With+a+Selection+of+His+Prose&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pub=Carcanet+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-85754-050-5&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi1997" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (1997). <i>Leopardi: Selected Poems</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Eamon_Grennan" title="Eamon Grennan">Eamon Grennan</a>. Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01644-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01644-3"><bdi>978-0-691-01644-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leopardi%3A+Selected+Poems&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01644-3&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi1998" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (1998). Prue Shaw (ed.). <i>The Letters of Giacomo Leopardi, 1817–1837</i>. Abingdon: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-901286-97-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-901286-97-0"><bdi>978-0-901286-97-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Letters+of+Giacomo+Leopardi%2C+1817%E2%80%931837&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-901286-97-0&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi2002" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (2002). <i>Thoughts</i>. Translated by J.G. Nichols. London: <a href="/wiki/Hesperus_Classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hesperus Classics">Hesperus Classics</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84391-012-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84391-012-1"><bdi>978-1-84391-012-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thoughts&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hesperus+Classics&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-84391-012-1&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi2010" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (2010). <i>Dialogue between Fashion and Death</i>. Translated by Giovanni Cecchetti. London: Penguin Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-119255-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-119255-0"><bdi>978-0-14-119255-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dialogue+between+Fashion+and+Death&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-14-119255-0&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi2010" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (2010). <i>Canti</i>. Translated by Jonathan Galassi (Bilingual ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Farrar,_Straus_%26_Giroux" class="mw-redirect" title="Farrar, Straus & Giroux">Farrar, Straus & Giroux</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-23503-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-23503-1"><bdi>978-0-374-23503-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canti&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Bilingual&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+%26+Giroux&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-374-23503-1&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi2013" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (2013). Michael Caesar; Franco D'Intino (eds.). <i>Zibaldone: The Notebooks of Leopardi</i>. Translated by Kathleen Baldwin; et al. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-29682-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-29682-7"><bdi>978-0-374-29682-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zibaldone%3A+The+Notebooks+of+Leopardi&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+%26+Giroux&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-374-29682-7&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi2014" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (2014). <i>Passions</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Tim_Parks" title="Tim Parks">Tim Parks</a>. New Haven: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-18633-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-18633-8"><bdi>978-0-300-18633-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passions&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-300-18633-8&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span> In his review of <i>Zibaldone</i>, Tim Parks writes that <i>Passions</i> is "a translation of a selection from the <i>Zibaldone</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi2017" class="citation book cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (2017). <i>Moral Fables, followed by Thoughts</i>. Translated by J. G. Nichols. Richmond: <a href="/wiki/Alma_Books" title="Alma Books">Alma Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84749-580-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84749-580-8"><bdi>978-1-84749-580-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moral+Fables%2C+followed+by+Thoughts&rft.place=Richmond&rft.pub=Alma+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-84749-580-8&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopardi2019" class="citation journal cs1">Leopardi, Giacomo (2019). "New English Translation of La ginestra. Translated by Barbara Carle (bilingual version)". <i>Journal of Italian Translation</i>. <b>14</b> (1): 84–101.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Italian+Translation&rft.atitle=New+English+Translation+of+La+ginestra.+Translated+by+Barbara+Carle+%28bilingual+version%29&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=84-101&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Leopardi&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Irene Baccarini, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mondodomani.org/dialegesthai/ib02.htm"><i>Leopardi e Camus: il tempo ultimo dell'amicizia</i></a> <span class="languageicon">(in Italian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francesco Tigani, "Cristoforo Colombo come Don Chisciotte: Leopardi e Unamuno a confronto", in «Información Filosófica», V, 2008, pp. 173-182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/leopardi">"Leopardi"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Leopardi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fleopardi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Leopardi">"Leopardi"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Leopardi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2FLeopardi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newrepublic.com/article/115276/giacomo-leopardis-zibaldone-reviewed-adam-kirsch">The Least Known Masterpiece of European Literature</a>, New Republic</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/activity/leopardi/projects/index.aspx">The Zibaldone project</a>, University of Birmingham</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSergio_Pacifici1966" class="citation book cs1">Sergio Pacifici (1966). <i>Poems and prose</i>. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-20094-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-20094-6"><bdi>0-253-20094-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poems+and+prose&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=0-253-20094-6&rft.au=Sergio+Pacifici&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tcm.phy.cam.ac.uk/~mdt26/poems/leopardi2.html">The Infinite</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190929161349/http://www.tcm.phy.cam.ac.uk/~mdt26/poems/leopardi2.html">Archived</a> 29 September 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, TCM</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sganzerla-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sganzerla_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erik Pietro Sganzerla, <i>Malattia e morte di Giacomo Leopardi. Osservazioni critiche e nuova interpretazione diagnostica con documenti inediti</i>, Booktime, 2016: "Questo libretto rende giustizia a un uomo che soffriva di numerosi problemi fisici, che ebbe una vita non felice e una cartella clinica in cui sono posti in evidenza i sintomi e il loro decorso temporale, l'età d'esordio della progressiva deformità spinale e dei problemi visivi e gastrointestinali, l'influenza delle condizioni psichiche e ambientali nell'accentuazione o remissione dei segnali. […] altamente probabile la diagnosi di Spondilite Anchilopoietica Giovanile" (This booklet does justice to a man who was suffering from numerous physical problems, who had an unhappy life and a medical record in which are highlighted the symptoms and their time course, the age of onset of the progressive spinal deformities and visual and gastrointestinal problems, the influence of psychological and environmental conditions on the accentuation or remission of signals. […] highly likely the diagnosis of Juvenile Ankylosing Spondylitis)" (from the Introduction).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giacomo Leopardi, <i>A Silvia</i>, v. 16: le sudate carte.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abebooks.com/Crestomazia-italiana-poetica-cio%C3%A8-scelta-luoghi/30286855517/bd">"Crestomazia italiana poetica, cioè scelta di luoghi in verso italiano insigni o per sentimento o per locuzione, raccolti, e distribuiti secondo i tempi degli autori dal conte Giacomo Leopardi by LEOPARDI, Giacomo (1798-1837): Molto buono (Very Good) (1828) | Libreria Alberto Govi di F. Govi Sas"</a>. <i>www.abebooks.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.abebooks.com&rft.atitle=Crestomazia+italiana+poetica%2C+cio%C3%A8+scelta+di+luoghi+in+verso+italiano+insigni+o+per+sentimento+o+per+locuzione%2C+raccolti%2C+e+distribuiti+secondo+i+tempi+degli+autori+dal+conte+Giacomo+Leopardi+by+LEOPARDI%2C+Giacomo+%281798-1837%29%3A+Molto+buono+%28Very+Good%29+%281828%29+%7C+Libreria+Alberto+Govi+di+F.+Govi+Sas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abebooks.com%2FCrestomazia-italiana-poetica-cio%25C3%25A8-scelta-luoghi%2F30286855517%2Fbd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosengarten2012" class="citation book cs1">Rosengarten, Frank (2012). <i>Giacomo Leopardi's Search for a Common Life Through Poetry</i>. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 124.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Giacomo+Leopardi%27s+Search+for+a+Common+Life+Through+Poetry&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Fairleigh+Dickinson+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Rosengarten&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollison-Morley1912" class="citation book cs1">Collison-Morley, Lacy (1 January 1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernitalianli00collgoog"><i>Modern Italian Literature</i></a>. Little, Brown. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernitalianli00collgoog/page/n230">220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Italian+Literature&rft.pages=220&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1912-01-01&rft.aulast=Collison-Morley&rft.aufirst=Lacy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernitalianli00collgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WSZHAQAAMAAJ&q=leopardi%27s+tomb+national+monument&pg=PA35"><i>Modern Language Notes</i></a>. Johns Hopkins Press. 1 January 1900.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Language+Notes&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1900-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWSZHAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dleopardi%2527s%2Btomb%2Bnational%2Bmonument%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAldrichWotherspoon2001" class="citation book cs1">Aldrich, Robert; Wotherspoon, Garry (1 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=giM73n_lca4C&q=giacomo+leopardi+homosexual&pg=PA267"><i>Who's who in Gay and Lesbian History: From Antiquity to World War II</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15982-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15982-1"><bdi>978-0-415-15982-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who%27s+who+in+Gay+and+Lesbian+History%3A+From+Antiquity+to+World+War+II&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-415-15982-1&rft.aulast=Aldrich&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Wotherspoon%2C+Garry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgiM73n_lca4C%26q%3Dgiacomo%2Bleopardi%2Bhomosexual%26pg%3DPA267&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.adnkronos.com/Archivio/AdnAgenzia/2005/09/18/Cultura/SCRITTORI-MASSONERIA-E-LETTERATURA-UNO-STRETTO-LEGAME-DA-CARDUCCI-A-CALVINOSCHEDA-2_122004.php">"Freemasonry and Literature: a close relationship from Carducci to Italo Calvino"</a>. <i>adnkronos</i> (in Italian). 18 September 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20180922170825/http://www1.adnkronos.com/Archivio/AdnAgenzia/2005/09/18/Cultura/SCRITTORI-MASSONERIA-E-LETTERATURA-UNO-STRETTO-LEGAME-DA-CARDUCCI-A-CALVINOSCHEDA-2_122004.php">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=adnkronos&rft.atitle=Freemasonry+and+Literature%3A+a+close+relationship+from+Carducci+to+Italo+Calvino&rft.date=2005-09-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.adnkronos.com%2FArchivio%2FAdnAgenzia%2F2005%2F09%2F18%2FCultura%2FSCRITTORI-MASSONERIA-E-LETTERATURA-UNO-STRETTO-LEGAME-DA-CARDUCCI-A-CALVINOSCHEDA-2_122004.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://storianumismatica.wordpress.com/2017/12/01/massoni-leopardi-e-lasciapassare/">"Massoni, Leopardi e lasciapassare"</a> (in Italian). 1 December 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20180922165830/https://storianumismatica.wordpress.com/2017/12/01/massoni-leopardi-e-lasciapassare/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Massoni%2C+Leopardi+e+lasciapassare&rft.date=2017-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstorianumismatica.wordpress.com%2F2017%2F12%2F01%2Fmassoni-leopardi-e-lasciapassare%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20180921221257/http://www.massoneriascozzese.it/personaggi.htm">"On the bicentenarious of Giacomo Leopardi"</a>. <i>massoneriascozzese.it</i> (in Italian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.massoneriascozzese.it/personaggi.htm">the original</a> on 21 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=massoneriascozzese.it&rft.atitle=On+the+bicentenarious+of+Giacomo+Leopardi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.massoneriascozzese.it%2Fpersonaggi.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaffaele_Urraro2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Raffaele Urraro (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20190106203937/http://www.affaritaliani.it/culturaspettacoli/libri-tutte-donne-di-leopardi190109.html?refresh_ce"><i>Giacomo Leopardi. Le donne, gli amori</i></a>. Biblioteca «Archivum Romanicum» (in Italian). <a href="/wiki/Leo_S._Olschki_Editore" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo S. Olschki Editore">Olschki</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-222-5803-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-222-5803-8"><bdi>978-88-222-5803-8</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.affaritaliani.it/culturaspettacoli/libri-tutte-donne-di-leopardi190109.html?refresh_ce">the original</a> on 6 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Giacomo+Leopardi.+Le+donne%2C+gli+amori&rft.series=Biblioteca+%C2%ABArchivum+Romanicum%C2%BB&rft.pub=Olschki&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-88-222-5803-8&rft.au=Raffaele+Urraro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.affaritaliani.it%2Fculturaspettacoli%2Flibri-tutte-donne-di-leopardi190109.html%3Frefresh_ce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincenzo_Palazzolo_di_Gravina1875" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vincenzo_Palazzolo_di_Gravina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vincenzo Palazzolo di Gravina (page does not exist)">Vincenzo Palazzolo di Gravina</a> (1875). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ilblasoneinsicil00pali"><i>Il blasone in Sicilia</i></a> (in Italian). Visconti & Huber.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+blasone+in+Sicilia&rft.pub=Visconti+%26+Huber&rft.date=1875&rft.au=Vincenzo+Palazzolo+di+Gravina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Filblasoneinsicil00pali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFF._Mugnos2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Filadelfo_Mugnos" title="Filadelfo Mugnos">F. Mugnos</a> (2007). <i>Teatro genologico delle famiglie del Regno di Sicilia, rist. an</i> (in Italian). Vol. III. Sala Bolognese: Forni.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teatro+genologico+delle+famiglie+del+Regno+di+Sicilia%2C+rist.+an.&rft.place=Sala+Bolognese&rft.pub=Forni&rft.date=2007&rft.au=F.+Mugnos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span> The Leopardi were descendants of Leopardo, son of Crispo, eldest son of Constantine the Great.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._Vitello1963" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">A. Vitello (1963). <i>I Gattopardi di Donnafugata</i> (in Italian). Flaccovio. p. 39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Gattopardi+di+Donnafugata&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Flaccovio&rft.date=1963&rft.au=A.+Vitello&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digilander.libero.it/il_leopardi/leopardi_alla_sua_donna.html"><i>Giacomo Leopardi – opera omnia – alla sua donna – letteratura italiana</i></a>. Digilander.libero.it<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Giacomo+Leopardi+%E2%80%93+opera+omnia+%E2%80%93+alla+sua+donna+%E2%80%93+letteratura+italiana&rft.pub=Digilander.libero.it&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigilander.libero.it%2Fil_leopardi%2Fleopardi_alla_sua_donna.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digilander.libero.it/il_leopardi/translate_english/leopardi_to_his_lady.html">English translation</a> by A. S. Kline.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Silvia</i>, v.41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giacomo Leopardi, <i>Operette morali</i>, "Dialogo della Natura e di un Islandese".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2013" class="citation news cs1">Davies, Lizzy (1 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/01/giacomo-leopardi-zibaldone-translation-published">"Translation of Giacomo Leopardi's Zibaldone published"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Translation+of+Giacomo+Leopardi%27s+Zibaldone+published&rft.date=2013-08-01&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Lizzy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2013%2Faug%2F01%2Fgiacomo-leopardi-zibaldone-translation-published&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2013" class="citation news cs1">Davies, Lizzy (1 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/01/giacomo-leopardi-zibaldone-translation-published">"Translation of Giacomo Leopardi's Zibaldone published"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Translation+of+Giacomo+Leopardi%27s+Zibaldone+published&rft.date=2013-08-01&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Lizzy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2013%2Faug%2F01%2Fgiacomo-leopardi-zibaldone-translation-published&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Parks" title="Tim Parks">Parks, Tim</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nybooks.com/online/2013/05/28/leopardi-bernhard-echoes/">"Echoes from the Gloom"</a>, <i>The New York Review of Books</i>, May 28, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parks, Tim, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2013/10/10/greatest-intellectual-diary-italian-literature/?printpage=true">"'The Greatest Intellectual Diary of Italian Literature'"</a> <i>The New York Review of Books</i>, October 10, 2013.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler,_Francis1909" class="citation book cs1">Butler, Francis, ed. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011682833"><i>The Poems of Leopardi</i></a>. Poems.English.1909. Manchester: Manchester University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Poems+of+Leopardi&rft.place=Manchester&rft.series=Poems.English.1909&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1909&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.hathitrust.org%2FRecord%2F011682833&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarsaniga1977" class="citation book cs1">Carsaniga, Giovanni (1977). <i>Giacomo Leopardi: The Unheeded Voice</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Giacomo+Leopardi%3A+The+Unheeded+Voice&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Carsaniga&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce, Benedetto</a> (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/europeanliteratu030060mbp#page/n123/mode/2up">"Leopardi."</a> In: <i>European Literature in the Nineteenth Century.</i> London: Chapman & Hall, pp. 111–130.</li> <li>Fletcher, Constance (1885). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/twentiethcentury18londuoft#page/978/mode/2up">"Leopardi,"</a> <i>The Nineteenth Century,</i> Vol. 18, pp. 978–992.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Oliphant" title="Margaret Oliphant">Oliphant, Margaret</a> (1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/blackwoodsmagazi98edinuoft#page/458/mode/2up">"Giacomo Leopardi,"</a> <i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>, Vol. 98, pp. 459–480.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrigo1935" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Iris_Origo" title="Iris Origo">Origo, Iris</a> (1935). <i>Leopardi: A Biography</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/OUP" class="mw-redirect" title="OUP">OUP</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leopardi%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Origo&rft.aufirst=Iris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrigo1953" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Iris_Origo" title="Iris Origo">Origo, Iris</a> (1953). <i>Leopardi: A Study in Solitude</i>. London: Hamish Hamilton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leopardi%3A+A+Study+in+Solitude&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hamish+Hamilton&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Origo&rft.aufirst=Iris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Michael_Rossetti" title="William Michael Rossetti">Rossetti, W.M.</a> (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/studiesineurope00mallgoog#page/n68/mode/2up">"Leopardi."</a> In: <i>Studies in European Literature.</i> Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 55–91.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerianni2019" class="citation journal cs1">Serianni, Luca (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://osf.io/xt9kq">"La lingua poetica del Leopardi, la tradizione lirica e la lettura dei classici italiani [The poetic language of Leopardi, the lyrical tradition and the reading of Italian classics]"</a>. <i>Open Journal of Humanities</i> (1): 3–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17605%2FOSF.IO%2FMNQB2">10.17605/OSF.IO/MNQB2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2612-6966">2612-6966</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Open+Journal+of+Humanities&rft.atitle=La+lingua+poetica+del+Leopardi%2C+la+tradizione+lirica+e+la+lettura+dei+classici+italiani+%5BThe+poetic+language+of+Leopardi%2C+the+lyrical+tradition+and+the+reading+of+Italian+classics%5D&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-21&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17605%2FOSF.IO%2FMNQB2&rft.issn=2612-6966&rft.aulast=Serianni&rft.aufirst=Luca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fosf.io%2Fxt9kq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh1964" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Ghan Shyam (1964). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leoparditheoryof0000sing"><i>Leopardi and the Theory of Poetry</i></a></span>. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leopardi+and+the+Theory+of+Poetry&rft.place=Lexington&rft.pub=University+of+Kentucky+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Ghan+Shyam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fleoparditheoryof0000sing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh1990" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Ghan Shyam (1990). <i>I Canti di Giacomo Leopardi Nelle Traduzioni Inglesi</i>. Ancona: Transeuropa.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Canti+di+Giacomo+Leopardi+Nelle+Traduzioni+Inglesi&rft.place=Ancona&rft.pub=Transeuropa&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Ghan+Shyam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGiacomo+Leopardi" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Leopardi&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Leopardi%2C%20Giacomo%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Giacomo%20Leopardi%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Leopardi%2C%20Giacomo%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Giacomo%20Leopardi%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Leopardi%2C%20G%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Giacomo%20Leopardi%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Leopardi%2C%20Giacomo%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Giacomo%20Leopardi%22%29%20OR%20%28%221798-1837%22%20AND%20Leopardi%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Giacomo Leopardi</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/449">Works by Giacomo Leopardi</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" 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December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, original Italian text.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarnett1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Garnett_(writer)" title="Richard Garnett (writer)">Garnett, Richard</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leopardi, Giacomo, Count"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Leopardi,_Giacomo,_Count">"Leopardi, Giacomo, Count" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. 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title="Taishō Roman">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_romantic_nationalism" title="Norwegian romantic nationalism">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Russian_Poetry" title="Golden Age of Russian Poetry">Russia (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Spanish_literature" title="Romanticism in Spanish literature">Spain (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Romantic_literature" title="Swedish Romantic literature">Sweden (literature)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">Ancients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coppet_group" title="Coppet group">Coppet group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Romanticism" title="Dark Romanticism">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_School_of_painting" title="Düsseldorf School of painting">Düsseldorf School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indianism_(arts)" title="Indianism (arts)">Indianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jena_Romanticism" title="Jena Romanticism">Jena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preromanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Preromanticism">Pre</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-romanticism" title="Post-romanticism">Post</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Purismo" title="Purismo">Purismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_school" title="Ukrainian school">Ukrainian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-Romanticism" title="Ultra-Romanticism">Ultra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Wallenrod" title="Konrad Wallenrod">Wallenrodism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_flower" title="Blue flower">Blue flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Marine_Art_(Romantic_Era)" title="British Marine Art (Romantic Era)">British Marine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk" title="Gesamtkunstwerk">Gesamtkunstwerk</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">Hero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_hero" title="Romantic hero">Romantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mal_du_si%C3%A8cle" title="Mal du siècle">Mal du siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">Noble savage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia#Romanticism" title="Nostalgia">Nostalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_romanticism" title="Rhine romanticism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(literature)#Romanticism_and_genius" title="Genius (literature)">Romantic genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanderlust" title="Wanderlust">Wanderlust</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Mountain_art" title="White Mountain art">White Mountain art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Literature" title="Romanticism">Writers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Brazil</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casimiro_de_Abreu" title="Casimiro de Abreu">Abreu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Alencar" title="José de Alencar">Alencar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Ant%C3%B4nio_de_Almeida" title="Manuel Antônio de Almeida">Manuel Antônio de Almeida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castro_Alves" title="Castro Alves">Alves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machado_de_Assis" title="Machado de Assis">Assis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvares_de_Azevedo" title="Álvares de Azevedo">Azevedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Barreto" title="Tobias Barreto">Barreto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_Dias" title="Gonçalves Dias">Dias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Guimar%C3%A3es" title="Bernardo Guimarães">Guimarães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Manuel_de_Macedo" title="Joaquim Manuel de Macedo">Macedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_de_Magalh%C3%A3es,_Viscount_of_Araguaia" title="Gonçalves de Magalhães, Viscount of Araguaia">Magalhães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Firmina_dos_Reis" title="Maria Firmina dos Reis">Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_d%27Escragnolle_Taunay,_Viscount_of_Taunay" title="Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay, Viscount of Taunay">Taunay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagundes_Varela" title="Fagundes Varela">Varela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France#Literature" title="Romanticism in France">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Bertrand" title="Aloysius Bertrand">Bertrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Gautier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Mérimée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Musset" title="Alfred de Musset">Musset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval" title="Gérard de Nerval">Nerval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Nodier" title="Charles Nodier">Nodier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Vigny" title="Alfred de Vigny">Vigny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achim_von_Arnim" title="Achim von Arnim">A. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettina_von_Arnim" title="Bettina von Arnim">B. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beer_(poet)" title="Michael Beer (poet)">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clemens_Brentano" title="Clemens Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff" title="Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff">Eichendorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_de_la_Motte_Fouqu%C3%A9" title="Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué">Fouqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoline_von_G%C3%BCnderrode" title="Karoline von Günderrode">Günderrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Gutzkow" title="Karl Gutzkow">Gutzkow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hauff" title="Wilhelm Hauff">Hauff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">Hoffmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Hölderlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Paul" title="Jean Paul">Jean Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Kleist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_M%C3%B6rike" title="Eduard Mörike">Mörike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Schwab" title="Gustav Schwab">Schwab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Uhland" title="Ludwig Uhland">Uhland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Great<br />Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Laetitia_Barbauld" title="Anna Laetitia Barbauld">Barbauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bront%C3%AB" title="Anne Brontë">Anne Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">C. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">E. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Clare" title="John Clare">Clare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">de Quincey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Edgeworth" title="Maria Edgeworth">Maria Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">Keats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Polidori" title="John William Polidori">Polidori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Radcliffe" title="Ann Radcliffe">Radcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Robinson_(poet)" title="Mary Robinson (poet)">Mary Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Seward" title="Anna Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">M. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">P. B. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland#Notable_Polish_Romantic_writers_and_poets" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Fredro" title="Aleksander Fredro">Fredro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Krasiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski" title="Józef Ignacy Kraszewski">Józef Ignacy Kraszewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Malczewski" title="Antoni Malczewski">Malczewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Mickiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian_Norwid" title="Cyprian Norwid">Norwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Potocki" title="Jan Potocki">Potocki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Pol" title="Wincenty Pol">Wincenty Pol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Słowacki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camilo_Castelo_Branco" title="Camilo Castelo Branco">Castelo Branco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Feliciano_de_Castilho" title="António Feliciano de Castilho">Castilho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_de_Nogueira_Ramos" title="João de Deus de Nogueira Ramos">João de Deus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_Dinis" title="Júlio Dinis">Dinis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almeida_Garrett" title="Almeida Garrett">Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Herculano" title="Alexandre Herculano">Herculano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Augusto_Soares_de_Passos" title="António Augusto Soares de Passos">Soares dos Passos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Baratynsky" title="Yevgeny Baratynsky">Baratynsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Batyushkov" title="Konstantin Batyushkov">Batyushkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Gogol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_K%C3%BCchelbecker" title="Wilhelm Küchelbecker">Küchelbecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov" title="Mikhail Lermontov">Lermontov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Pushkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Tyutchev" title="Fyodor Tyutchev">Tyutchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Vyazemsky" title="Pyotr Vyazemsky">Vyazemsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90ura_Jak%C5%A1i%C4%87" title="Đura Jakšić">Jakšić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laza_Kosti%C4%87" title="Laza Kostić">Kostić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_II_Petrovi%C4%87-Njego%C5%A1" title="Petar II Petrović-Njegoš">Njegoš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Radi%C4%8Devi%C4%87" title="Branko Radičević">Radičević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milica_Stojadinovi%C4%87-Srpkinja" title="Milica Stojadinović-Srpkinja">Stojadinović-Srpkinja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jovan_Jovanovi%C4%87_Zmaj" title="Jovan Jovanović Zmaj">Zmaj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Adolfo_B%C3%A9cquer" title="Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer">Bécquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosal%C3%ADa_de_Castro" title="Rosalía de Castro">Rosalía de Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda" title="José de Espronceda">Espronceda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Antonio García Gutiérrez">Gutiérrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81ngel_de_Saavedra,_3rd_Duke_of_Rivas" title="Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas">Saavedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Zorrilla" title="José Zorrilla">Zorrilla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">U.S.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gilbert_Holland" title="Josiah Gilbert Holland">Josiah Gilbert Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Longfellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Poe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khachatur_Abovian" title="Khachatur Abovian">Abovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Alfieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_Andersen" title="Hans Christian Andersen">Andersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikoloz_Baratashvili" title="Nikoloz Baratashvili">Baratashvili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hristo_Botev" title="Hristo Botev">Botev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Chavchavadze" title="Alexander Chavchavadze">Chavchavadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Eminescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Foscolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naim_Frash%C3%ABri" title="Naim Frashëri">Frashëri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Gustaf_Geijer" title="Erik Gustaf Geijer">Geijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N._F._S._Grundtvig" title="N. F. S. Grundtvig">Grundtvig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Heliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jorge_Isaacs" title="Jorge Isaacs">Isaacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Lenau" title="Nikolaus Lenau">Lenau</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Hynek_M%C3%A1cha" title="Karel Hynek Mácha">Mácha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Manzoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Oehlenschl%C3%A4ger" title="Adam Oehlenschläger">Oehlenschläger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigol_Orbeliani" title="Grigol Orbeliani">Orbeliani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Pre%C5%A1eren" title="France Prešeren">Prešeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raffi_(novelist)" title="Raffi (novelist)">Raffi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Ludvig_Runeberg" title="Johan Ludvig Runeberg">Runeberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko" title="Taras Shevchenko">Shevchenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachris_Topelius" title="Zachris Topelius">Topelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_V%C3%B6r%C3%B6smarty" title="Mihály Vörösmarty">Vörösmarty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Wergeland" title="Henrik Wergeland">Wergeland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Musicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Austria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Bruckner" title="Anton Bruckner">Bruckner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Czerny" title="Carl Czerny">Czerny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Nepomuk_Hummel" title="Johann Nepomuk Hummel">Hummel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Mahler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Schubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigismond_Thalberg" title="Sigismond Thalberg">Thalberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Wolf" title="Hugo Wolf">Wolf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Dvořák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Moscheles" title="Ignaz Moscheles">Moscheles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Reicha" title="Anton Reicha">Reicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed%C5%99ich_Smetana" title="Bedřich Smetana">Smetana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_V%C3%A1clav_Vo%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1ek" title="Jan Václav Voříšek">Voříšek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Adam" title="Adolphe Adam">Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Valentin_Alkan" title="Charles-Valentin Alkan">Alkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Auber" title="Daniel Auber">Auber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Berlioz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Faur%C3%A9" title="Gabriel Fauré">Fauré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fromental_Hal%C3%A9vy" title="Fromental Halévy">Halévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_M%C3%A9hul" title="Étienne Méhul">Méhul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Onslow_(composer)" title="George Onslow (composer)">Onslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns" title="Camille Saint-Saëns">Saint-Saëns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Brahms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Bruch" title="Max Bruch">Bruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Kalkbrenner" title="Friedrich Kalkbrenner">Kalkbrenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Loewe" title="Carl Loewe">Loewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Marschner" title="Heinrich Marschner">Marschner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanny_Mendelssohn" title="Fanny Mendelssohn">Fanny Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer" title="Giacomo Meyerbeer">Meyerbeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Moszkowski" title="Moritz Moszkowski">Moszkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Schumann" title="Clara Schumann">C. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">R. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Spohr" title="Louis Spohr">Spohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Maria_von_Weber" title="Carl Maria von Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hungary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Erkel" title="Ferenc Erkel">Erkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Goldmark" title="Karl Goldmark">Goldmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Heller" title="Stephen Heller">Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jen%C5%91_Hubay" title="Jenő Hubay">Hubay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Joachim" title="Joseph Joachim">Joachim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Liszt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini" title="Vincenzo Bellini">Bellini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Busoni" title="Ferruccio Busoni">Busoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Cherubini" title="Luigi Cherubini">Cherubini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti" title="Gaetano Donizetti">Donizetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini" title="Niccolò Paganini">Paganini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Rossini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspare_Spontini" title="Gaspare Spontini">Spontini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Verdi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bortkiewicz" title="Sergei Bortkiewicz">Bortkiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Chopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Lipi%C5%84ski" title="Karol Lipiński">Lipiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko" title="Stanisław Moniuszko">Moniuszko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski" title="Ignacy Jan Paderewski">Paderewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Stolpe" title="Antoni Stolpe">Stolpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Tausig" title="Karl Tausig">Tausig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Wieniawski" title="Henryk Wieniawski">Wieniawski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Arensky" title="Anton Arensky">Arensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mily_Balakirev" title="Mily Balakirev">Balakirev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Borodin" title="Alexander Borodin">Borodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Cui" title="César Cui">Cui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Glinka" title="Mikhail Glinka">Glinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Lyapunov" title="Sergei Lyapunov">Lyapunov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Medtner" title="Nikolai Medtner">Medtner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modest_Mussorgsky" title="Modest Mussorgsky">Mussorgsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff" title="Sergei Rachmaninoff">Rachmaninoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov" title="Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov">Rimsky-Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Rubinstein" title="Anton Rubinstein">Rubinstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Scriabin" title="Alexander Scriabin">Scriabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Hristi%C4%87" title="Stevan Hristić">Hristić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_Konjovi%C4%87" title="Petar Konjović">Konjović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Mokranjac" title="Stevan Mokranjac">Mokranjac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kornelije_Stankovi%C4%87" title="Kornelije Stanković">Stanković</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterndale_Bennett" title="William Sterndale Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Berwald" title="Franz Berwald">Berwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Elgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Field_(composer)" title="John Field (composer)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Franck" title="César Franck">Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edvard_Grieg" title="Edvard Grieg">Grieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sibelius" title="Jean Sibelius">Sibelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Sor" title="Fernando Sor">Sor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_philosophy" title="Romanticism in philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Belinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Berchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Chaadayev" title="Pyotr Chaadayev">Chaadayev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">Hazlitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Khomyakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Jos%C3%A9_de_Larra" title="Mariano José de Larra">Larra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Michelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Quinet" title="Edgar Quinet">Quinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">A. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">F. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Pivert_de_Senancour" title="Étienne Pivert de Senancour">Senancour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Vilhelm_Snellman" title="Johan Vilhelm Snellman">Snellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Wackenroder" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder">Wackenroder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Visual_arts" title="Romanticism">Visual artists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky" title="Ivan Aivazovsky">Aivazovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bierstadt" title="Albert Bierstadt">Bierstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Parkes_Bonington" title="Richard Parkes Bonington">Bonington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Bryullov" title="Karl Bryullov">Bryullov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Chass%C3%A9riau" title="Théodore Chassériau">Chassériau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church" title="Frederic Edwin Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Constable" title="John Constable">Constable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cole" title="Thomas Cole">Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot" title="Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot">Corot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Dahl" title="Johan Christian Dahl">Dahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_d%27Angers" title="David d'Angers">David d'Angers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Delacroix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Edelfelt" title="Albert Edelfelt">Edelfelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fuseli" title="Henry Fuseli">Fuseli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akseli_Gallen-Kallela" title="Akseli Gallen-Kallela">Gallen-Kallela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Géricault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne-Louis_Girodet_de_Roussy-Trioson" title="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson">Girodet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nepomucen_G%C5%82owacki" title="Jan Nepomucen Głowacki">Głowacki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Goya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Gude" title="Hans Gude">Gude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Hayez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Janmot" title="Louis Janmot">Janmot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jones_(artist)" title="Thomas Jones (artist)">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orest_Kiprensky" title="Orest Kiprensky">Kiprensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Anton_Koch" title="Joseph Anton Koch">Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciszek_Ksawery_Lampi" title="Franciszek Ksawery Lampi">Lampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Leutze" title="Emanuel Leutze">Leutze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piotr_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Piotr Michałowski">Michałowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Palmer" title="Samuel Palmer">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_de_Ara%C3%BAjo_Porto-Alegre,_Baron_of_Santo_%C3%82ngelo" title="Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre, Baron of Santo Ângelo">Porto-Alegre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Augustin_Pr%C3%A9ault" title="Antoine-Augustin Préault">Préault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_R%C3%A9voil" title="Pierre Révoil">Révoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleury_Fran%C3%A7ois_Richard" title="Fleury François Richard">Richard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rude" title="François Rude">Rude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Otto_Runge" title="Philipp Otto Runge">Runge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raden_Saleh" title="Raden Saleh">Saleh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ary_Scheffer" title="Ary Scheffer">Scheffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Stattler" title="Wojciech Stattler">Stattler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Stroy" title="Michael Stroy">Stroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_Tidemand" title="Adolph Tidemand">Tidemand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Tropinin" title="Vasily Tropinin">Tropinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Veit" title="Philipp Veit">Veit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Ward_(English_artist)" title="James Ward (English artist)">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Wiertz" title="Antoine Wiertz">Wiertz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholars">Scholars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Abraham" title="Gerald Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._H._Abrams" title="M. H. Abrams">Abrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Beiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._C._W._Blanning" title="T. C. W. Blanning">Blanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Blume" title="Friedrich Blume">Blume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus" title="Carl Dahlhaus">Dahlhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ferber" title="Michael Ferber">Ferber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Frye" title="Northrop Frye">Frye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Janion" title="Maria Janion">Janion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Lacoue-Labarthe" title="Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe">Lacoue-Labarthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Gabriel_Porthan" title="Henrik Gabriel Porthan">Porthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ricks" title="Christopher Ricks">Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rosen" title="Charles Rosen">Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Wellek" title="René Wellek">Wellek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coleridge%27s_theory_of_life" title="Coleridge's theory of life">Coleridge's theory of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_romantics" title="List of romantics">List of romantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romantic_poets" title="List of Romantic poets">List of Romantic poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ages in history">Middle Ages in history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_and_Romanticism" title="Opium and Romanticism">Opium and Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_ballet" title="Romantic ballet">Romantic ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_epistemology" title="Romantic epistemology">Romantic epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_medicine" title="Romantic medicine">Romantic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_psychology" title="Romantic psychology">Romantic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_economics" title="Romanticism and economics">Romanticism and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_the_French_Revolution" title="Romanticism and the French Revolution">Romanticism and the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_Bacon" title="Romanticism and Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory" title="Romanticism in evolution theory">Evolution theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog" title="Wanderer above the Sea of Fog">Wanderer above the Sea of Fog</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;">← <b><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></b></div> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Modernism" title="Template:Modernism">Modernism</a></b> →</div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Romanticism" title="Category:Romanticism">Category</a> </p> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophical_pessimism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophical_pessimism" title="Template:Philosophical pessimism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophical_pessimism" title="Template talk:Philosophical pessimism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophical_pessimism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophical pessimism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophical_pessimism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Philosophical pessimism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophical_pessimists" title="List of philosophical pessimists">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Cyrene" title="Hegesias of Cyrene">Hegesias of Cyrene</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Giacomo Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Bahnsen" title="Julius Bahnsen">Julius Bahnsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olga_Pl%C3%BCmacher" title="Olga Plümacher">Olga Plümacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Mainl%C3%A4nder" title="Philipp Mainländer">Philipp Mainländer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_von_Hartmann" title="Eduard von Hartmann">Eduard von Hartmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Taubert" title="Agnes Taubert">Agnes Taubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Wessel_Zapffe" title="Peter Wessel Zapffe">Peter Wessel Zapffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Emil Cioran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julio_Cabrera_(philosopher)" title="Julio Cabrera (philosopher)">Julio Cabrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Benatar" title="David Benatar">David Benatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drew_Dalton" title="Drew Dalton">Drew Dalton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Duḥkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misanthropy" title="Misanthropy">Misanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_evil" title="Radical evil">Radical evil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation"><i>The World as Will and Representation</i> (Arthur Schopenhauer)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Moral_Works" title="Small Moral Works"><i>Small Moral Works</i> (Giacomo Leopardi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_the_Unconscious" title="Philosophy of the Unconscious"><i>Philosophy of the Unconscious</i> (Eduard von Hartmann)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Messiah" title="The Last Messiah"><i>The Last Messiah</i> (Peter Wessel Zapffe)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Short_History_of_Decay_(book)" title="A Short History of Decay (book)"><i>A Short History of Decay</i> (Emil Cioran)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Human_Predicament" title="The Human Predicament"><i>The Human Predicament</i> (David Benatar)</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_pessimism_as_authors" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Philosophers of pessimism as authors">Works by philosophical pessimists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conspiracy_Against_the_Human_Race" title="The Conspiracy Against the Human Race">The Conspiracy Against the Human Race: A Contrivance of Horror</a></i> (Thomas Ligotti)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depressive_realism" title="Depressive realism">Depressive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophical_pessimism" title="History of philosophical pessimism">History of philosophical pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misanthropy" title="Misanthropy">Misanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Philosophical pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benatar%27s_asymmetry_argument" title="Benatar's asymmetry argument">Benatar's asymmetry argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophical_pessimists" title="List of philosophical pessimists">List of philosophical pessimists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172599#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div 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style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118571834">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79084166">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119125018">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119125018">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00532763">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Leopardi, Giacomo <1798-1837>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV002049">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35300617">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000603724&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX971950">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/93191">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068390882">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90148162">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000008587&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000001661&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=62742">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bn.gov.ar/F/?func=direct&local_base=BNA10&doc_number=000026220">Argentina</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC202244636">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/pm13zt0756sbmkg">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810616545305606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/20282">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007306832305171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058510284206706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14341638">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA02920768?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpeople.org/profiles/giacomo-leopardi">PhilPeople</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/fe3ca626-d351-4c1f-8a3a-9f210fbc9a70">MusicBrainz</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/903314">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="LEOPARDI, Giacomo"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giacomo-leopardi_(Dizionario-Biografico)">Italian People</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118571834.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118571834">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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