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class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Writing system</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected mw-list-item"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Writing_system" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.main">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab mw-list-item"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Writing_system" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" 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block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Merge_from plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that <a href="/wiki/Right-to-left_script" title="Right-to-left script">Right-to-left script</a> be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Merging" title="Wikipedia:Merging">merged</a> into this article. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Writing_direction#Proposed_merge_of_Right-to-left_script_into_Writing_direction" title="Talk:Writing direction">Discuss</a>) Proposed since August 2024.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a>.</div> A writing system comprises a set of symbols, called a script, as well as the rules by which the script represents a particular <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. The earliest <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> was invented during the late 4th millennium BC. Throughout history, each writing system invented without prior knowledge of writing gradually evolved from a system of <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a> that included a small number of <a href="/wiki/Ideograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideograph">ideographs</a>, which were not fully capable of encoding spoken language, and lacked the ability to express a broad range of ideas. Writing systems are generally classified according to how its symbols, called <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">graphemes</a>, relate to units of language. Phonetic writing systems, which include <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabaries">syllabaries</a>, use graphemes that correspond to sounds in the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a>. Alphabets use graphemes called <a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a> that generally correspond to spoken <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>, and are typically classified into three categories. In general, pure alphabets use letters to represent both <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> sounds, while <a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">abjads</a> only have letters representing consonants, and <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugidas</a> use characters corresponding to consonant–vowel pairs. Syllabaries use graphemes called <a href="/wiki/Syllabogram" title="Syllabogram">syllabograms</a> that represent entire <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">moras</a>. By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">logographic</a> (alternatively morphographic) writing systems use graphemes that represent the units of meaning in a language, such as its <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a> or <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>. Alphabets typically use fewer than 100 distinct symbols, while syllabaries and logographies may use hundreds or thousands respectively. A writing system also includes any punctuation used to aid readers and encode additional meaning, including that which would be communicated in speech via qualities of <a href="/wiki/Rhythm#Linguistics" title="Rhythm">rhythm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pitch-accent_language" title="Pitch-accent language">pitch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accent_(sociolinguistics)" title="Accent (sociolinguistics)">accent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Background:_relationship_with_language">1 Background: relationship with language</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#General_terminology">2 General terminology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#History">3 History</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Classification_by_basic_linguistic_unit">4 Classification by basic linguistic unit</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Logographic_systems">4.1 Logographic systems</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Syllabaries">4.2 Syllabaries</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Alphabets">4.3 Alphabets</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Featural_systems">4.4 Featural systems</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Classification_by_graphical_properties">5 Classification by graphical properties</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Linearity">5.1 Linearity</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Directionality_and_orientation">5.2 Directionality and orientation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#See_also">6 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Notes">7 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#References">8 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Sources">8.1 Sources</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#External_links">9 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Background:_relationship_with_language">Background: relationship with language</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background: relationship with language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">Written language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_of_the_spoken,_written,_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg/220px-Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="280"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 118px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg/220px-Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="118" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg/330px-Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg/440px-Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The relationship between spoken, written, and signed modes of language, as modelled by Beatrice Primus et al.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid202217Primus20036-1">[1]</a> While many spoken or signed languages are not written, there are no written languages without a spoken counterpart that they originally emerged to record.</figcaption></figure> According to most contemporary definitions, <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> is a visual and tactile notation representing <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. As such, the use of writing by a community presupposes an analysis of the structure of language at some level.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002151%E2%80%93152-2">[2]</a> The symbols used in writing correspond systematically to functional units of either a <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken</a> or <a href="/wiki/Signed_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Signed language">signed language</a>. This definition excludes a broader class of symbolic markings, such as drawings and maps.<a href="#cite_note-4">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid202214-5">[4]</a> A text is any instance of written material, including transcriptions of spoken material.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2008481-6">[5]</a> The act of composing and recording a text is referred to as writing,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBu%C3%9Fmann19981294-7">[6]</a> and the act of viewing and interpreting the text as <a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">reading</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBu%C3%9Fmann1998979-8">[7]</a> The relationship between writing and language more broadly has been the subject of philosophical analysis as early as <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BC).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERutkowska202396-9">[8]</a> While the use of language is universal across human societies, writing is not; writing emerged much more recently, and was independently invented in only a handful of locations throughout history. While most spoken languages have not been written, all written languages have been predicated on an existing spoken language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20052-10">[9]</a> When those with signed languages as their first language read writing associated with a spoken language, this functions as literacy in a second, acquired language.<a href="#cite_note-11">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a> A single language (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a>) can be written using multiple writing systems, and a writing system can also represent multiple languages. For example, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> have been used to write multiple languages throughout the <a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a>—including the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a> from at least the 13th century, until their replacement with the Latin-based <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a> in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991113%E2%80%93115Hannas199773,_84%E2%80%9387-13">[11]</a> In the first several decades of modern <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> as a scientific discipline, linguists often characterized writing as merely the technology used to record speech—which was treated as being of paramount importance, for what was seen as the unique potential for its study to further the understanding of human cognition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESampson201641-14">[12]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="General_terminology">General terminology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: General terminology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This page uses notation for orthographic or other linguistic analysis. For the meaning of how <code>⟨ ⟩</code>, <code>| |</code>, <code>/ /</code>, and <code>[ ]</code> are used here, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">this page</a>.</div></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparison_between_single-_and_double-storey_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Comparison_between_single-_and_double-storey_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9.svg/180px-Comparison_between_single-_and_double-storey_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="90" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="160"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 90px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Comparison_between_single-_and_double-storey_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9.svg/180px-Comparison_between_single-_and_double-storey_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9.svg.png" data-width="180" data-height="90" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Comparison_between_single-_and_double-storey_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9.svg/270px-Comparison_between_single-_and_double-storey_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Comparison_between_single-_and_double-storey_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9.svg/360px-Comparison_between_single-_and_double-storey_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Comparison between double-storey |a| (left) and single-storey |ɑ| (right) <a href="/wiki/Lowercase" class="mw-redirect" title="Lowercase">lowercase</a> forms of the Latin letter ⟨<a href="/wiki/A" title="A">A</a>⟩</figcaption></figure> While researchers of writing systems generally use some of the same core terminology, precise definitions and interpretations can vary by author, often depending on the theoretical approach being employed.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">grapheme</a> is the basic functional unit of a writing system. Graphemes are generally defined as minimally significant elements which, when taken together, comprise the set of symbols from which texts may be constructed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEK%C3%B6hlerAltmannFan20084%E2%80%935Coulmas1996174%E2%80%93175-16">[14]</a> All writing systems require a set of defined graphemes, collectively called a script.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200235-17">[15]</a> The concept of the grapheme is similar to that of the <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> used in the study of spoken languages. Likewise, as many sonically distinct <a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phones</a> may function as the same phoneme depending on the speaker, dialect, and context, many visually distinct <a href="/wiki/Glyph" title="Glyph">glyphs</a> (or graphs) may be identified as the same grapheme. These variant glyphs are known as the <a href="/wiki/Allograph" title="Allograph">allographs</a> of a grapheme: For example, the lowercase letter ⟨a⟩ may be represented by the double-storey |a| and single-storey |ɑ| shapes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteeleBoyes2022232-18">[16]</a> or others written in cursive, block, or printed styles. The choice of a particular allograph may be influenced by the medium used, the writing instrument used, the stylistic choice of the writer, the preceding and succeeding graphemes in the text, the time available for writing, the intended audience, and the largely unconscious features of an individual's handwriting. <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'correct writing') refers to the rules and conventions for writing shared by a community, including the ordering of and relationship between graphemes. Particularly for <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabets</a>, orthography includes the concept of <a href="/wiki/Spelling" title="Spelling">spelling</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">English orthography</a> includes <a href="/wiki/Uppercase_and_lowercase" class="mw-redirect" title="Uppercase and lowercase">uppercase and lowercase</a> forms for 26 <a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> (with these graphemes corresponding to various phonemes), punctuation marks (mostly non-phonemic), and other symbols, such as numerals. Writing systems may be regarded as complete if they are able to represent all that may be expressed in the spoken language, while a partial writing system cannot represent the spoken language in its entirety.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOttenheimer2012194-19">[17]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform,_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg/180px-Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="284" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="809"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 284px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg/180px-Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg.png" data-width="180" data-height="284" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg/270px-Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg/360px-Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Diagram comparing the abstraction of pictographs in cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Chinese characters – from an 1870 publication by French Egyptologist <a href="/wiki/Gaston_Maspero" title="Gaston Maspero">Gaston Maspero</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[c]</a></figcaption></figure> In each instance, writing emerged from systems of <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a>, though historically most proto-writing systems did not produce writing systems. Proto-writing uses <a href="/wiki/Ideographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideographic">ideographic</a> and mnemonic symbols to communicate, but lacks the capability to fully encode language. Examples include: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Jiahu_symbols" title="Jiahu symbols">Jiahu symbols</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 7th millennium BC) carved into tortoise shells, found in 24 <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> graves excavated at <a href="/wiki/Jiahu" title="Jiahu">Jiahu</a> in northern China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston2004245%E2%80%93246-21">[18]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Vin%C4%8Da_symbols" title="Vinča symbols">Vinča symbols</a> (c. 6th–5th millennia BC) found on artefacts of the <a href="/wiki/Vin%C4%8Da_culture" title="Vinča culture">Vinča culture</a> of central and southeastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220%E2%80%9321Daniels2018148-22">[19]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> (c. 2600 – c. 2000 BC) found on different types of artefacts produced by the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilization</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESproat2010110-23">[20]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quipu" title="Quipu">Quipu</a> (15th century AD), a system of knotted cords used as mnemonic devices by the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> in South America.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200220-24">[21]</a></li></ul> Writing has been invented independently multiple times in human history—first emerging between 3400 and 3200 BC during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age">Early Bronze Age</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a>, a system invented in southern Mesopotamia to write the <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a>, considered to be the earliest true writing. Cuneiform was closely followed by <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a>. It is generally agreed that the two systems were invented independently from one another; both evolved from proto-writing systems with the earliest coherent texts dated c. 2600 BC. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> emerged independently in the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> valley c. 1200 BC. There is no evidence of contact between China and the literate peoples of the Near East, and the Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches for representing aspects of sound and meaning are distinct.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley2004190-25">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1999108-26">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley1983415%E2%80%93416-27">[24]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_writing_systems" title="Mesoamerican writing systems">Mesoamerican writing systems</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmec</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a>, were also invented independently.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202336-28">[25]</a> With each independent invention of writing, the ideographs used in proto-writing were decoupled from the direct representation of ideas, and gradually came to represent words instead. This occurred via application of the <a href="/wiki/Rebus" title="Rebus">rebus</a> principle, where a symbol was appropriated to represent an additional word that happened to be similar in pronunciation to the word for the idea originally represented by the symbol. This allowed words without concrete visualizations to be represented by symbols for the first time; the gradual shift from ideographic symbols to those wholly representing language took place over centuries, and required the conscious analysis of a given language by those attempting to write it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertson200421%E2%80%9324-29">[26]</a> Alphabetic writing descends from previous morphographic writing, and first appeared before 2000 BC to write a Semitic language spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>. Most of the world's alphabets either descend directly from this <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic script</a>, or were directly inspired by its design. Descendants include the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a> (c. 1050 BC), and its child in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> (c. 800 BC).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas1996158%E2%80%93159-30">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillard1986396-31">[28]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, which descended from the Greek alphabet, is by far the most common script used by writing systems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaarmann200496-32">[29]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Classification_by_basic_linguistic_unit">Classification by basic linguistic unit</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classification by basic linguistic unit" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">List of writing systems</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanskrit_Brhama_English_alphabets_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sanskrit_Brhama_English_alphabets_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Sanskrit_Brhama_English_alphabets_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="913" data-file-height="914"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sanskrit_Brhama_English_alphabets_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Sanskrit_Brhama_English_alphabets_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sanskrit_Brhama_English_alphabets_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Sanskrit_Brhama_English_alphabets_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sanskrit_Brhama_English_alphabets_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Sanskrit_Brhama_English_alphabets_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Table of scripts in the introduction to the Sanskrit–English Dictionary by <a href="/wiki/Monier_Monier-Williams" title="Monier Monier-Williams">Monier Monier-Williams</a></figcaption></figure> Writing systems are most often categorized according to what units of language a system's graphemes correspond to.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332-33">[30]</a> At the most basic level, writing systems can be either phonographic (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'sound writing') when graphemes represent units of sound in a language, or morphographic ('form writing') when graphemes represent units of meaning (such as <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a> or <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200513%E2%80%9315-34">[31]</a> Depending on the author, the older term logographic ('word writing') is often used, either with the same meaning as morphographic, or specifically in reference to systems where the basic unit being written is the word. Recent scholarship generally prefers morphographic over logographic, with the latter seen as potentially vague or misleading—in part because systems usually operate on the level of morphemes, not words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023152%E2%80%93153-35">[32]</a> Many classifications define three primary categories, where phonographic systems are subdivided into syllabic and alphabetic (or segmental) systems. Syllabaries use symbols called syllabograms to represent <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">moras</a>. Alphabets use symbols called letters that correspond to spoken phonemes (or more technically, to <a href="/wiki/Diaphoneme" title="Diaphoneme">diaphonemes</a>). Alphabets are generally classified into three subtypes, with <a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">abjads</a> having letters for <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a>, pure alphabets having letters for both consonants and <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugidas</a> having characters that correspond to consonant–vowel pairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023142-36">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Diringer" title="David Diringer">David Diringer</a> proposed a five-fold classification of writing systems, comprising pictographic scripts, ideographic scripts, analytic transitional scripts, phonetic scripts, and alphabetic scripts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiringer196221%E2%80%9323-37">[34]</a> In practice, writing systems are classified according to the primary type of symbols used, and typically include exceptional cases where symbols function differently. For example, logographs found within phonetic systems like English include the <a href="/wiki/Ampersand" title="Ampersand">ampersand</a> ⟨&⟩ and the numerals ⟨0⟩, ⟨1⟩, etc.—which correspond to specific words (and, zero, one, etc.) and not to the underlying sounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332-33">[30]</a> Most writing systems can be described as mixed systems that feature elements of both phonography and morphography.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022219-38">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logographic_systems">Logographic systems</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Logographic systems" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logogram</a></div> A logogram is a character that represents a morpheme within a language. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> represent the only major logographic writing systems still in use: they have historically been used to write the <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>, and other languages of the <a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a>. As each character represents a single unit of meaning, thousands are required to write all the words of a language. If the logograms do not adequately represent all meanings and words of a language, written language can be confusing or ambiguous to the reader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200240%E2%80%9341-39">[36]</a> Logograms are sometimes conflated with <a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">ideograms</a>, symbols which graphically represent abstract ideas; most linguists now reject this characterization:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas199162,_103%E2%80%93104Steele20179-40">[37]</a> Chinese characters are often semantic–phonetic compounds, which include a component related to the character's meaning, and a component that gives a hint for its pronunciation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200534-41">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllabaries">Syllabaries</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Syllabaries" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabary</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cherokee_stop_sign.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Cherokee_stop_sign.png/220px-Cherokee_stop_sign.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="349" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="227" data-file-height="360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 349px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Cherokee_stop_sign.png/220px-Cherokee_stop_sign.png" data-width="220" data-height="349" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Cherokee_stop_sign.png 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A bilingual stop sign in English and <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tahlequah,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlequah, Oklahoma">Tahlequah, Oklahoma</a></figcaption></figure> A syllabary is a set of written symbols (called syllabograms) that represent either <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">moras</a>—a unit of <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a> that is often but not always a syllable in length.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022240%E2%80%93241-42">[39]</a> Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, since a different symbol is needed for every syllable. Japanese, for example, contains about 100 moras, which are represented by moraic <a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a>. By contrast, English features complex syllable structures with a relatively large inventory of vowels and complex <a href="/wiki/Consonant_cluster" title="Consonant cluster">consonant clusters</a>—for a total of 15–16 thousand distinct syllables. Some syllabaries have larger inventories: the <a href="/wiki/Yi_script" title="Yi script">Yi script</a> contains 756 different symbols.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1989147-43">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alphabets">Alphabets</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Alphabets" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a></div> An alphabet uses symbols (called letters) that correspond to the phonemes of a language, e.g. its vowels and consonants. However, these correspondences are rarely uncomplicated, and <a href="/wiki/Spelling" title="Spelling">spelling</a> is often mediated by other factors than just which sounds are used by a speaker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200299%E2%80%93100,_113%E2%80%93114-44">[41]</a> The word alphabet is derived from <a href="/wiki/Alpha" title="Alpha">alpha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta" title="Beta">beta</a>, the names for the first two letters in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202226-45">[42]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">abjad</a> is an alphabet whose letters only represent the consonantal sounds of a language. They were the first alphabets to develop historically,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202225-46">[43]</a> with most used to write <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>, and originally deriving from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic script</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> of Semitic languages is particularly suited to this approach, as the denotation of vowels is generally redundant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200185%E2%80%9390Rogers2005-47">[44]</a> Optional markings for vowels may be used for some abjads, but are generally limited to applications like education.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2001148MeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022230-48">[45]</a> Many pure alphabets were derived from abjads through the addition of dedicated vowel letters, as with the derivation of the Greek alphabet from the Phoenician alphabet c. 800 BC. Abjad is the word for "alphabet" in Arabic: the term derives from the traditional order of letters in the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a> ('alif, bā', jīm, dāl).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002113-49">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bible_printed_with_Balinese_script.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bible_printed_with_Balinese_script.jpg/220px-Bible_printed_with_Balinese_script.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="679" data-file-height="625"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 203px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bible_printed_with_Balinese_script.jpg/220px-Bible_printed_with_Balinese_script.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="203" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bible_printed_with_Balinese_script.jpg/330px-Bible_printed_with_Balinese_script.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bible_printed_with_Balinese_script.jpg/440px-Bible_printed_with_Balinese_script.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A passage from the Bible printed using <a href="/wiki/Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese script</a></figcaption></figure> An <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugida</a> is a type of alphabet with symbols corresponding to consonant–vowel pairs, where basic symbols for each consonant are associated with an <a href="/wiki/Inherent_vowel" title="Inherent vowel">inherent vowel</a> by default, and other possible vowels for each consonant are indicated via predictable modifications made to the basic symbols.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels201884-50">[47]</a> In an abugida, there may be a sign for k with no vowel, but also one for ka (if a is the inherent vowel), and ke is written by modifying the ka sign in a consistent way with how la would be modified to get le. In many abugidas, modification consists of the addition of a vowel sign; other possibilities include rotation of the basic sign, or addition of <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>. While true syllabaries have one symbol per syllable and no systematic visual similarity, the graphic similarity in most abugidas stems from their origins as abjads—with added symbols comprising markings for different vowel added onto a pre-existing base symbol. The largest single group of abugidas is the <a href="/wiki/Brahmic_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmic family">Brahmic family</a> of scripts, however, which includes nearly all the scripts used in India and Southeast Asia. The name abugida is derived from the first four characters of an order of the <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a> used in some contexts. It was coined as a linguistic term by <a href="/wiki/Peter_T._Daniels" title="Peter T. Daniels">Peter T. Daniels</a> (<abbr title="born">b.</abbr> 1951), who borrowed it from the Ethiopian languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022222-51">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Featural_systems">Featural systems</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Featural systems" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Featural_writing_system" title="Featural writing system">Featural writing system</a></div> Originally proposed as a category by <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Sampson" title="Geoffrey Sampson">Geoffrey Sampson</a> (<abbr title="born">b.</abbr> 1944),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESampson198540-52">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinge2002382-53">[50]</a> a featural system uses symbols representing sub-phonetic elements—e.g. those traits that can be used to distinguish between and analyse a language's phonemes, such as their <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voicing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place of articulation</a>. The only prominent example of a featural system is the <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">hangul</a> script used to write Korean, where featural symbols are combined into letters, which are in turn joined into syllabic blocks. Many scholars, including <a href="/wiki/John_DeFrancis" title="John DeFrancis">John DeFrancis</a> (1911–2009), reject a characterization of hangul as a featural system—with arguments including that Korean writers do not themselves think in these terms when writing—or question the viability of Sampson's category altogether.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002165DeFrancis1989197-54">[51]</a> As hangul was consciously created by literate experts, Daniels characterizes it as a "sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Grammatogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatogeny">grammatogeny</a>"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels201355-55">[52]</a>—a writing system intentionally designed for a specific purpose, as opposed to having evolved gradually over time. Other grammatogenies include <a href="/wiki/Shorthand" title="Shorthand">shorthands</a> developed by professionals and <a href="/wiki/Constructed_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed script">constructed scripts</a> created by hobbyists and creatives, like the <a href="/wiki/Tengwar" title="Tengwar">Tengwar</a> script designed by <a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> to write the Elven languages he also constructed. Many of these feature advanced graphic designs corresponding to phonological properties. The basic unit of writing in these systems can map to anything from phonemes to words. It has been shown that even the Latin script has sub-character features.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004242%E2%80%93243-56">[53]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Classification_by_graphical_properties">Classification by graphical properties</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Classification by graphical properties" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linearity">Linearity</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Linearity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the initial historical distinction, linear writing systems (e.g. the Phoenician alphabet) generally form glyphs as a series of connected lines or strokes. Systems (e.g. cuneiform) that instead used discrete, generally more pictorial marks—such as those made with a wedge into clay—are sometimes termed non-linear. The historical abstraction of logographs into phonographs is often associated with a linearization of the script.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2009155%E2%80%93161,_259Dobbs-Allsopp202328%E2%80%9330Coulmas199123%E2%80%9324,_94-57">[54]</a> Linear writing is most common, but there are non-linear writing systems where glyphs consist of other types of marks, such as in <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> and <a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a>. <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a> were often painted in linear outline form, but in formal contexts they were carved in <a href="/wiki/Bas-relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Bas-relief">bas-relief</a>. The earliest examples of writing are linear: while cuneiform was not linear, its Sumerian ancestors were. Non-linear systems are not composed of lines, no matter what instrument is used to write them. Cuneiform was likely the earliest non-linear writing. Its glyphs were formed by pressing the end of a reed stylus into moist clay, not by tracing lines in the clay with the stylus as had been done previously. The result was a radical transformation of the appearance of the script. While all writing is linear in the broadest sense—i.e., symbols are arranged spatially in a way that indicates the order in which they should be read<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20059-58">[55]</a>—on a more granular level, systems with discontinuous marks like <a href="/wiki/Diacritics" class="mw-redirect" title="Diacritics">diacritics</a> can be characterized as less linear than those without.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20059%E2%80%9310Daniels2018194%E2%80%93195-59">[56]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a>, raised bumps on the writing <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(printing)" title="Substrate (printing)">substrate</a> are used to encode non-linear symbols. The original system—which <a href="/wiki/Louis_Braille" title="Louis Braille">Louis Braille</a> (1809–1852) invented in order to allow <a href="/wiki/Visually_impaired_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Visually impaired people">visually impaired people</a> to read and write—used characters that corresponded to the letters of the Latin alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESproat2010183%E2%80%93186Scholes1995364-60">[57]</a> Moreover, that Braille and visual writing systems function equivalently to one another has indicated on a deeper level that the phenomenon of writing is fundamentally spatial in nature, not merely visual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199545-61">[58]</a> There are also transient non-linear adaptations of the Latin alphabet, including <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Manual_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Manual alphabet">manual alphabets</a> of various <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a>, and semaphore, in which <a href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">flags</a> or <a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">bars</a> are positioned at prescribed angles.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] However, if writing is defined as a potentially permanent means of recording information, then these systems do not qualify as writing at all, since the symbols disappear as soon as they are used. Instead, these transient systems serve as <a href="/wiki/Signaling_(telecommunications)" title="Signaling (telecommunications)">signals</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Directionality_and_orientation">Directionality and orientation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Directionality and orientation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Writing systems may be characterized by how text is graphically divided into lines, which are to be read in sequence:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202283-62">[59]</a> <dl><dt>Axis</dt> <dd>Whether lines of text are laid out as horizontal rows or vertical columns</dd> <dt>Lining</dt> <dd>How each line is positioned relative to the one previous on the medium—whether above or below it on a horizontal axis, or to the left or right of it on a vertical axis</dd> <dt>Directionality</dt> <dd>How individual lines are read—whether starting from the left or right on a horizontal axis, or from the top or bottom on a vertical axis</dd></dl> For example, English and many other Western languages are written in horizontal rows that begin at the top of a page and end at the bottom, with each row read from left to right. Egyptian hieroglyphs were written either left to right or right to left, with the animal and human glyphs turned to face the beginning of the line. The early alphabet could be written in multiple directions:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThreatte198054%E2%80%9355-63">[60]</a> horizontally from side to side, or vertically. Prior to standardization, alphabetic writing could be either left-to-right (LTR) and right-to-left (RTL). It was most commonly written <a href="/wiki/Boustrophedon" title="Boustrophedon">boustrophedonically</a>: starting in one (horizontal) direction, then turning at the end of the line and reversing direction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2009235-64">[61]</a> The right-to-left direction of the Phoenician alphabet initially stabilized after c. 800 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200191-65">[62]</a> Left-to-right writing has an advantage that, since most people are <a href="/wiki/Right-handed" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-handed">right-handed</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_KovelCarri%C3%B3n-CastilloFrancks2019584Papadatou-PastouNtolkaSchmitzMartin2020482-66">[63]</a> the hand does not interfere with what is being written (which, when inked, may not have dried yet) as the hand is to the right side of the pen. The <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> and its successors settled on a left-to-right pattern, from the top to the bottom of the page. Other scripts, such as <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a>, came to be written right to left. Scripts that historically incorporate Chinese characters have traditionally been written vertically in columns arranged from right to left, while a horizontal direction from left to right was only widely adopted in the 20th century due to Western influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2001177%E2%80%93178-67">[64]</a> Several scripts used in the Philippines and Indonesia, such as <a href="/wiki/Hanunoo_script" title="Hanunoo script">Hanunoo</a>, are traditionally written with lines moving away from the writer, from bottom to top, but are read left to right;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan2009180-68">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">ogham</a> is written from bottom to top, commonly on the corner of a stone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200153%E2%80%9354-69">[66]</a> The ancient <a href="/wiki/Libyco-Berber_alphabet" title="Libyco-Berber alphabet">Libyco-Berber alphabet</a> was also written from bottom to top.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996112-70">[67]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 28px;height: 28px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="28" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Languages">Languages portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/28px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 28px;height: 28px;" 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data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="28" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Writing" title="Portal:Writing">Writing portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defective_script" title="Defective script">Defective script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digraphia" title="Digraphia">Digraphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15924" title="ISO 15924">ISO 15924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasigraphy" title="Pasigraphy">Pasigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penmanship" title="Penmanship">Penmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Palaeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">Transcription (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-SAMPA" title="X-SAMPA">X-SAMPA</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> This view is sometimes called the "narrow definition" of writing. The "broad definition" of writing also includes <a href="/wiki/Semasiography" title="Semasiography">semasiography</a>—i.e. meaningful symbols without a direct relationship to language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell200931,_51-3">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> This is to be distinguished from the use of notation systems designed to record signed languages, such as <a href="/wiki/SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMaspero1870" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maspero, Gaston (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/recueildetravaux27masp/page/244/mode/2up">Recueil de travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l'archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes</a> (in French). Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion. p. 243.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recueil+de+travaux+relatifs+%C3%A0+la+philologie+et+%C3%A0+l%27arch%C3%A9ologie+%C3%A9gyptiennes+et+assyriennes&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=243&rft.pub=Librairie+Honor%C3%A9+Champion&rft.date=1870&rft.aulast=Maspero&rft.aufirst=Gaston&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frecueildetravaux27masp%2Fpage%2F244%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid202217Primus20036-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid202217Primus20036_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 17; <a href="#CITEREFPrimus2003">Primus (2003)</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002151–152-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002151%E2%80%93152_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, pp. 151–152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell200931,_51-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell200931,_51_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPowell2009">Powell (2009)</a>, pp. 31, 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid202214-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid202214_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2008481-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2008481_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrystal2008">Crystal (2008)</a>, p. 481. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBußmann19981294-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBu%C3%9Fmann19981294_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBu%C3%9Fmann1998">Bußmann (1998)</a>, p. 1294. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBußmann1998979-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBu%C3%9Fmann1998979_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBu%C3%9Fmann1998">Bußmann (1998)</a>, p. 979. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERutkowska202396-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERutkowska202396_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRutkowska2023">Rutkowska (2023)</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20052-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers20052_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 17; citing <a href="#CITEREFMorfordWilkinsonVillwockPi%C3%B1ar2011">Morford et al. (2011)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991113–115Hannas199773,_84–87-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991113%E2%80%93115Hannas199773,_84%E2%80%9387_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas1991">Coulmas (1991)</a>, pp. 113–115; <a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas (1997)</a>, pp. 73, 84–87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESampson201641-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESampson201641_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSampson2016">Sampson (2016)</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023">Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023)</a>, p. 4.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJoyce2023">Joyce (2023)</a>, p. 141, citing <a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2017">Gnanadesikan (2017)</a>, p. 15.</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKöhlerAltmannFan20084–5Coulmas1996174–175-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEK%C3%B6hlerAltmannFan20084%E2%80%935Coulmas1996174%E2%80%93175_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFK%C3%B6hlerAltmannFan2008">Köhler, Altmann & Fan (2008)</a>, pp. 4–5; <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas1996">Coulmas (1996)</a>, pp. 174–175. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200235-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200235_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteeleBoyes2022232-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteeleBoyes2022232_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteeleBoyes2022">Steele & Boyes (2022)</a>, p. 232. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOttenheimer2012194-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOttenheimer2012194_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOttenheimer2012">Ottenheimer (2012)</a>, p. 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston2004245–246-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHouston2004245%E2%80%93246_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHouston2004">Houston (2004)</a>, pp. 245–246. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220–21Daniels2018148-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220%E2%80%9321Daniels2018148_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, pp. 20–21; <a href="#CITEREFDaniels2018">Daniels (2018)</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESproat2010110-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESproat2010110_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSproat2010">Sproat (2010)</a>, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200220-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200220_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley2004190-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley2004190_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBagley2004">Bagley (2004)</a>, p. 190. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1999108-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz1999108_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoltz1999">Boltz (1999)</a>, p. 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley1983415–416-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley1983415%E2%80%93416_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeightley1983">Keightley (1983)</a>, pp. 415–416. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202336-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202336_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2023">Gnanadesikan (2023)</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertson200421–24-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertson200421%E2%80%9324_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobertson2004">Robertson 2004</a>, pp. 21–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas1996158–159-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas1996158%E2%80%93159_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas1996">Coulmas (1996)</a>, pp. 158–159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillard1986396-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillard1986396_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMillard1986">Millard (1986)</a>, p. 396. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaarmann200496-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaarmann200496_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaarmann2004">Haarmann (2004)</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332_33-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2023">Gnanadesikan (2023)</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200513–15-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers200513%E2%80%9315_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>, pp. 13–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023152–153-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023152%E2%80%93153_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJoyce2023">Joyce (2023)</a>, pp. 152–153. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023142-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023142_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJoyce2023">Joyce (2023)</a>, p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiringer196221–23-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiringer196221%E2%80%9323_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDiringer1962">Diringer (1962)</a>, pp. 21–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022219-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022219_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 219. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200240–41-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200240%E2%80%9341_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, pp. 40–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas199162,_103–104Steele20179-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas199162,_103%E2%80%93104Steele20179_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas1991">Coulmas (1991)</a>, pp. 62, 103–104; <a href="#CITEREFSteele2017">Steele (2017)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200534-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers200534_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022240–241-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022240%E2%80%93241_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, pp. 240–241. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1989147-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1989147_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1989">DeFrancis (1989)</a>, p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200299–100,_113–114-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200299%E2%80%93100,_113%E2%80%93114_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, pp. 99–100, 113–114. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202226-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202226_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202225-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202225_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200185–90Rogers2005-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200185%E2%80%9390Rogers2005_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, pp. 85–90; <a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2001148MeletisDürscheid2022230-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2001148MeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022230_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, p. 148; <a href="#CITEREFMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002113-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002113_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, p. 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels201884-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels201884_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDaniels2018">Daniels (2018)</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022222-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022222_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESampson198540-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESampson198540_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSampson1985">Sampson (1985)</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinge2002382-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinge2002382_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollinge2002">Collinge (2002)</a>, p. 382. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002165DeFrancis1989197-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002165DeFrancis1989197_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, p. 165; <a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1989">DeFrancis (1989)</a>, p. 197. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels201355-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels201355_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDaniels2013">Daniels (2013)</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004242–243-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004242%E2%80%93243_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrimus2004">Primus (2004)</a>, pp. 242–243. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2009155–161,_259Dobbs-Allsopp202328–30Coulmas199123–24,_94-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2009155%E2%80%93161,_259Dobbs-Allsopp202328%E2%80%9330Coulmas199123%E2%80%9324,_94_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPowell2009">Powell (2009)</a>, pp. 155–161, 259; <a href="#CITEREFDobbs-Allsopp2023">Dobbs-Allsopp (2023)</a>, pp. 28–30; <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas1991">Coulmas (1991)</a>, pp. 23–24, 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20059-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers20059_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20059–10Daniels2018194–195-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers20059%E2%80%9310Daniels2018194%E2%80%93195_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>, pp. 9–10; <a href="#CITEREFDaniels2018">Daniels (2018)</a>, pp. 194–195. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESproat2010183–186Scholes1995364-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESproat2010183%E2%80%93186Scholes1995364_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSproat2010">Sproat (2010)</a>, pp. 183–186; <a href="#CITEREFScholes1995">Scholes (1995)</a>, p. 364. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199545-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199545_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1995">Harris (1995)</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202283-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202283_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThreatte198054–55-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThreatte198054%E2%80%9355_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThreatte1980">Threatte (1980)</a>, pp. 54–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2009235-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2009235_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPowell2009">Powell (2009)</a>, p. 235. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200191-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200191_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_KovelCarrión-CastilloFrancks2019584Papadatou-PastouNtolkaSchmitzMartin2020482-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_KovelCarri%C3%B3n-CastilloFrancks2019584Papadatou-PastouNtolkaSchmitzMartin2020482_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_KovelCarri%C3%B3n-CastilloFrancks2019">de Kovel, Carrión-Castillo & Francks (2019)</a>, p. 584; <a href="#CITEREFPapadatou-PastouNtolkaSchmitzMartin2020">Papadatou-Pastou et al. (2020)</a>, p. 482. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2001177–178-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2001177%E2%80%93178_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, pp. 177–178. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan2009180-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan2009180_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2009">Gnanadesikan (2009)</a>, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200153–54-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200153%E2%80%9354_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, pp. 53–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996112-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996112_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDanielsBright1996">Daniels & Bright (1996)</a>, p. 112. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoltz1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_G._Boltz" title="William G. Boltz">Boltz, William G.</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&q=The+Origin+and+Early+Development+of+the+Chinese+Writing+System.&pg=PA108">"Language and Writing"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Loewe, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Shaughnessy" title="Edward L. Shaughnessy">Shaughnessy, Edward L.</a> (eds.). The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47030-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+and+Writing&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Ancient+China%3A+From+the+Origins+of+Civilization+to+221+BC&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47030-8&rft.aulast=Boltz&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcHA7Ey0-pbEC%26q%3DThe%2BOrigin%2Band%2BEarly%2BDevelopment%2Bof%2Bthe%2BChinese%2BWriting%2BSystem.%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBußmann1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hadumod_Bu%C3%9Fmann" title="Hadumod Bußmann">Bußmann, Hadumod</a> (1998). Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-98005-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-98005-7"><bdi>978-0-203-98005-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Dictionary+of+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-203-98005-7&rft.aulast=Bu%C3%9Fmann&rft.aufirst=Hadumod&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouston2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_D._Houston" title="Stephen D. Houston">Houston, Stephen</a>, ed. (2004). The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83861-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83861-0"><bdi>978-0-521-83861-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Writing%3A+Script+Invention+as+History+and+Process&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83861-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bagley" title="Robert Bagley">Bagley, Robert</a>. "Anyang writing and the origin of the Chinese writing system". In <a href="#CITEREFHouston2004">Houston (2004)</a>, pp. 190–249.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Robertson, John S. "The possibility and actuality of writing". In <a href="#CITEREFHouston2004">Houston (2004)</a>, pp. 16–38.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCisse2006" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cisse, Mamadou (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sudlangues.sn/spip.php?article101">"Ecrits et écriture en Afrique de l'Ouest"</a>. Sudlangues (in French). 6. Dakar. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0851-7215">0851-7215</a>. Retrieved 12 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sudlangues&rft.atitle=Ecrits+et+%C3%A9criture+en+Afrique+de+l%27Ouest&rft.volume=6&rft.date=2006&rft.issn=0851-7215&rft.aulast=Cisse&rft.aufirst=Mamadou&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sudlangues.sn%2Fspip.php%3Farticle101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCondorelli2022" class="citation book cs1">Condorelli, Marco (2022). Introducing Historical Orthography. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-00-910073-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-00-910073-1"><bdi>978-1-00-910073-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Historical+Orthography&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-00-910073-1&rft.aulast=Condorelli&rft.aufirst=Marco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023" class="citation book cs1">———; Rutkowska, Hanna, eds. (2023). The Cambridge Handbook of Historical Orthography. Cambridge handbooks in language and linguistics. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48731-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48731-3"><bdi>978-1-108-48731-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Historical+Orthography&rft.series=Cambridge+handbooks+in+language+and+linguistics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-108-48731-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Barbarić, Vuk-Tadija. "Grapholinguistics". In <a href="#CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023">Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023)</a>, pp. 118–137.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Gnanadesikan, Amalia E. "Classifying and Comparing Early Writing Systems". In <a href="#CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023">Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023)</a>, pp. 29–49.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Hartmann, Stefan; Szczepaniak, Renata. "Elements of Writing Systems". In <a href="#CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023">Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023)</a>, pp. 50–72.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Joyce, Terry. "Typologies of Writing Systems". In <a href="#CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023">Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023)</a>, pp. 138–160.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Rutkowska, Hanna. "Theoretical Approaches to Understanding Writing Systems". In <a href="#CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023">Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023)</a>, pp. 95–117.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollinge2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Collinge, N. E. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1PbO7NveuRgC&pg=RA7-PT21">"Language and Writing Systems"</a>. An Encyclopedia of Language. Routledge. p. 382. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-97716-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-97716-1"><bdi>978-1-134-97716-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+and+Writing+Systems&rft.btitle=An+Encyclopedia+of+Language&rft.pages=382&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-134-97716-1&rft.aulast=Collinge&rft.aufirst=N.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1PbO7NveuRgC%26pg%3DRA7-PT21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulmas1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Florian_Coulmas" title="Florian Coulmas">Coulmas, Florian</a> (1991) [1989]. The Writing Systems of the World. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18028-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18028-9"><bdi>978-0-631-18028-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Writing+Systems+of+the+World&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-631-18028-9&rft.aulast=Coulmas&rft.aufirst=Florian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulmas1996" class="citation book cs1">——— (2002) [1996]. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems (Repr. ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19446-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19446-0"><bdi>978-0-631-19446-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+Writing+Systems&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-631-19446-0&rft.aulast=Coulmas&rft.aufirst=Florian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulmas2002" class="citation book cs1">——— (2002). Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7"><bdi>978-0-19-507993-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Writing+Systems&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507993-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniels2013" class="citation book cs1">——— (2013). "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics". In Allan, Keith (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. pp. 53–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958584-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958584-7"><bdi>978-0-19-958584-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Writing+as+a+History+of+Linguistics&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+History+of+Linguistics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E70&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-958584-7&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Peter+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniels2018" class="citation book cs1">——— (2018). An Exploration of Writing. Equinox. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78179-528-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78179-528-6"><bdi>978-1-78179-528-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Exploration+of+Writing&rft.pub=Equinox&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-78179-528-6&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Peter+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_KovelCarrión-CastilloFrancks2019" class="citation journal cs1">de Kovel, Carolien G. F.; Carrión-Castillo, Amaia; Francks, Clyde (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6345846">"A large-scale population study of early life factors influencing left-handedness"</a>. Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 584. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatSR...9..584D">2019NatSR...9..584D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-018-37423-8">10.1038/s41598-018-37423-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6345846">6345846</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30679750">30679750</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=A+large-scale+population+study+of+early+life+factors+influencing+left-handedness&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=584&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6345846%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019NatSR...9..584D&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30679750&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-018-37423-8&rft.issn=2045-2322&rft.aulast=de+Kovel&rft.aufirst=Carolien+G.+F.&rft.au=Carri%C3%B3n-Castillo%2C+Amaia&rft.au=Francks%2C+Clyde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6345846&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_DeFrancis" title="John DeFrancis">DeFrancis, John</a> (1989). Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1207-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1207-2"><bdi>978-0-8248-1207-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visible+Speech%3A+The+Diverse+Oneness+of+Writing+Systems&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1207-2&rft.aulast=DeFrancis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1990" class="citation book cs1">——— (1990) [1986]. <a href="/wiki/The_Chinese_Language:_Fact_and_Fantasy" title="The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy">The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy</a>. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1068-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1068-9"><bdi>978-0-8248-1068-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Language%3A+Fact+and+Fantasy&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1068-9&rft.aulast=DeFrancis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiringer1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Diringer" title="David Diringer">Diringer, David</a> (1962). Writing: Ancient Peoples And Places. Frederick A. Praeger. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2824973">2824973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing%3A+Ancient+Peoples+And+Places&rft.pub=Frederick+A.+Praeger&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2824973&rft.aulast=Diringer&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobbs-Allsopp2023" class="citation journal cs1">Dobbs-Allsopp, F. W. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://janes.scholasticahq.com/article/75247-on-hieratic-and-the-direction-of-alphabetic-writing/attachment/159076.pdf">"On Hieratic and the Direction of Alphabetic Writing"</a> (PDF). 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Reaktion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-101-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-101-3"><bdi>978-1-86189-101-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Writing&rft.series=Globalities&rft.pub=Reaktion&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-86189-101-3&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Steven+Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGnanadesikan2009" class="citation book cs1">Gnanadesikan, Amalia E. (2009). The Writing Revolution: Cuneiform to the Internet. The Language Library. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5406-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5406-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-5406-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Writing+Revolution%3A+Cuneiform+to+the+Internet&rft.series=The+Language+Library&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-5406-2&rft.aulast=Gnanadesikan&rft.aufirst=Amalia+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGnanadesikan2017" class="citation journal cs1">——— (2017). "Towards a typology of phonemic scripts". Writing Systems Research. 9 (1): 14–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17586801.2017.1308239">10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1758-6801">1758-6801</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Writing+Systems+Research&rft.atitle=Towards+a+typology+of+phonemic+scripts&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14-%3C%2Fspan%3E35&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17586801.2017.1308239&rft.issn=1758-6801&rft.aulast=Gnanadesikan&rft.aufirst=Amalia+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaarmann2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Haarmann, Harald (2004) [2002]. Geschichte der Schrift [History of Writing] (in German) (2nd ed.). Munich: C. H. Beck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-47998-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-47998-4"><bdi>978-3-406-47998-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+der+Schrift&rft.place=Munich&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=C.+H.+Beck&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-406-47998-4&rft.aulast=Haarmann&rft.aufirst=Harald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannas1997" class="citation book cs1">Hannas, William C. (1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1842-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1842-5"><bdi>978-0-8248-1842-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia%27s+Orthographic+Dilemma&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1842-5&rft.aulast=Hannas&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roy_Harris_(linguist)" title="Roy Harris (linguist)">Harris, Roy</a> (1995). Signs of Writing. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-10088-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-10088-7"><bdi>0-415-10088-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Signs+of+Writing&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-415-10088-7&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeightley1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Keightley" title="David Keightley">Keightley, David N.</a> (1983). The Origins of Chinese Civilization. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04229-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04229-2"><bdi>978-0-520-04229-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04229-2&rft.aulast=Keightley&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKöhlerAltmannFan2008" class="citation book cs1">Köhler, Reinhard; Altmann, Gabriel; Fan, Fengxiang, eds. (2008). Analyses of Script: Properties of Characters and Writing Systems. Quantitative Linguistics. Vol. 63. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-019641-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-019641-2"><bdi>978-3-11-019641-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analyses+of+Script%3A+Properties+of+Characters+and+Writing+Systems&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Quantitative+Linguistics&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-11-019641-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeletis2020" class="citation book cs1">Meletis, Dimitrios (2020). The Nature of Writing: A Theory of Grapholinguistics. Grapholinguistics and Its Applications. Vol. 3. 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The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology. Cengage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-133-70909-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-133-70909-1"><bdi>978-1-133-70909-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anthropology+of+Language%3A+An+Introduction+to+Linguistic+Anthropology&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-133-70909-1&rft.aulast=Ottenheimer&rft.aufirst=Harriet+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapadatou-PastouNtolkaSchmitzMartin2020" class="citation journal cs1">Papadatou-Pastou, Marietta; Ntolka, Eleni; Schmitz, Judith; Martin, Maryanne; Munafò, Marcus R.; Ocklenburg, Sebastian; Paracchini, Silvia (2020). 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Powell">Powell, Barry B.</a> (2012) [2009]. Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-25532-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-25532-2"><bdi>978-1-118-25532-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing%3A+Theory+and+History+of+the+Technology+of+Civilization&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-118-25532-2&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Barry+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrimus2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Primus, Beatrice (2003). 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Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft (in German). 22 (1): 3–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzfsw.2003.22.1.3">10.1515/zfsw.2003.22.1.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1613-3706">1613-3706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Sprachwissenschaft&rft.atitle=Zum+Silbenbegriff+in+der+Schrift-%2C+Laut-+und+Geb%C3%A4rdensprache%E2%80%94Versuch+einer+medium%C3%BCbergreifenden+Fundierung&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fzfsw.2003.22.1.3&rft.issn=1613-3706&rft.aulast=Primus&rft.aufirst=Beatrice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrimus2004" class="citation journal cs1">——— (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010183819/http://idsl1.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/IDSLI/dozentenseiten/artikel_primus/Primus_Featural_Analysis_2004.pdf">"A featural analysis of the Modern Roman Alphabet"</a> (PDF). Written Language and Literacy. 7 (2). John Benjamins: 235–274. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fwll.7.2.06pri">10.1075/wll.7.2.06pri</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1570-6001">1570-6001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1387-6732">1387-6732</a>. 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Dordrecht: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-010-4506-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-010-4506-3"><bdi>978-94-010-4506-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scripts+and+Literacy%3A+Reading+and+Learning+to+Read+Alphabets%2C+Syllabaries+and+Characters&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.series=Neuropsychology+and+Cognition&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-94-010-4506-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Scholes, Robert J. "Orthography, Vision, and Phonemic Awareness". In <a href="#CITEREFTaylorOlson1995">Taylor & Olson (1995)</a>, pp. 359–374.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThreatte1980" class="citation book cs1">Threatte, Leslie (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammarofatticin0001thre">The Grammar of Attic Inscriptions</a>. Wilton de Gruyter. pp. 54–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-007344-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-007344-7"><bdi>978-3-11-007344-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grammar+of+Attic+Inscriptions&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E54-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.pub=Wilton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-3-11-007344-7&rft.aulast=Threatte&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrammarofatticin0001thre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodsEmberlingTeeter2010" class="citation book cs1">Woods, Christopher; Emberling, Geoff; Teeter, Emily (2010). Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond. Oriental Institute Museum Publications. Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885923-76-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-885923-76-9"><bdi>978-1-885923-76-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visible+Language%3A+Inventions+of+Writing+in+the+Ancient+Middle+East+and+Beyond&rft.series=Oriental+Institute+Museum+Publications&rft.pub=Oriental+Institute%2C+University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-885923-76-9&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Emberling%2C+Geoff&rft.au=Teeter%2C+Emily&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting+system" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldswritingsystems.org/">The World's Writing Systems</a> – all 294 known writing systems, each with a typographic reference glyph and Unicode status</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Writing_system&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 15 February 2025, at 09:25 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skryfstelsel" title="Skryfstelsel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Skryfstelsel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schrift" title="Schrift – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Schrift" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8B%93%E1%88%88%E1%88%9D_%E1%8C%BD%E1%88%95%E1%8D%88%E1%89%B6%E1%89%BD" title="የዓለም ጽሕፈቶች – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የዓለም ጽሕፈቶች" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="نظام كتابة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظام كتابة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_d%27escritura" title="Sistema d'escritura – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Sistema d'escritura" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="লিখন পদ্ধতি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="লিখন পদ্ধতি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_d%27escritura" title="Sistema d'escritura – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sistema d'escritura" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8A%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Хъвавул система – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Хъвавул система" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qillqa" title="Qillqa – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Qillqa" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz%C4%B1_sistemi" title="Yazı sistemi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yazı sistemi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C" title="یازی سیستمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یازی سیستمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="লিখন পদ্ধতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লিখন পদ্ধতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistim_Tulisan" title="Sistim Tulisan – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Sistim Tulisan" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BBn-j%C4%AB_h%C4%93-th%C3%B3ng" title="Bûn-jī hē-thóng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bûn-jī hē-thóng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%99%D0%BC%D0%B0_(%D3%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B1%D0%B0)" title="Яҙма (Әлифба) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Яҙма (Әлифба)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Пісьменства – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пісьменства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Пісьменства – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Пісьменства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88" title="लिखाई – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="लिखाई" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nin_panurat" title="Sistema nin panurat – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Sistema nin panurat" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Писменост – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Писменост" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schrift" title="Schrift – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Schrift" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pismo_(jezik)" title="Pismo (jezik) – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Pismo (jezik)" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doare-skriva%C3%B1" title="Doare-skrivañ – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Doare-skrivañ" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_d%27escriptura" title="Sistema d'escriptura – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sistema d'escriptura" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Çырулăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çырулăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_sa_pagsulat" title="Sistema sa pagsulat – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Sistema sa pagsulat" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ADsmo" title="Písmo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Písmo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_ysgrifennu" title="System ysgrifennu – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="System ysgrifennu" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrift" title="Skrift – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Skrift" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schrift" title="Schrift – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schrift" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saad_bee_%C3%A1l%CA%BC%C3%ADn%C3%AD" title="Saad bee álʼíní – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Saad bee álʼíní" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiri_(keeleteadus)" title="Kiri (keeleteadus) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kiri (keeleteadus)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AE%CF%82" title="Σύστημα γραφής – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σύστημα γραφής" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_escritura" title="Sistema de escritura – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sistema de escritura" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skribsistemo" title="Skribsistemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Skribsistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idazkera_sistema" title="Idazkera sistema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Idazkera sistema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B7_(%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1)" title="خط (نوشتار) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خط (نوشتار)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likhaai" title="Likhaai – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Likhaai" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d%27%C3%A9criture" title="Système d'écriture – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Système d'écriture" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrift" title="Skrift – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Skrift" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corys_screeuee" title="Corys screeuee – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Corys screeuee" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_escrita" title="Sistema de escrita – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sistema de escrita" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%B2" title="Йоазув – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Йоазув" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%B8%EC%9E%90" title="문자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="문자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D6%80" title="Գիր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գիր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF" title="लिपि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लिपि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pismo" title="Pismo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pismo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usoro_ide_ihe" title="Usoro ide ihe – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Usoro ide ihe" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_ti_panagsurat" title="Sistema ti panagsurat – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sistema ti panagsurat" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksara" title="Aksara – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Aksara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrifletur" title="Skrifletur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Skrifletur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_di_scrittura" title="Sistema di scrittura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sistema di scrittura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91" title="כתב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כתב" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksara" title="Aksara – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Aksara" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BF" title="ಲಿಪಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಲಿಪಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Джазма – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Джазма" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%AC%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="დამწერლობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დამწერლობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83" title="Жазу – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жазу" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevreyth_skrifa" title="Kevreyth skrifa – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Kevreyth skrifa" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maandishi" title="Maandishi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Maandishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sist%C3%A8m_ekriti" title="Sistèm ekriti – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Sistèm ekriti" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergala_niv%C3%AEs%C3%AA" title="Pergala nivîsê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Pergala nivîsê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scritura" title="Scritura – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Scritura" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roksts_(raksteiba)" title="Roksts (raksteiba) – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Roksts (raksteiba)" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latgaļu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_scripturae" title="Systema scripturae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Systema scripturae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakst%C4%ABba" title="Rakstība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rakstība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%ABft" title="Schrëft – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Schrëft" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C5%A1to_sistema" title="Rašto sistema – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rašto sistema" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjrifsysteem" title="Sjrifsysteem – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Sjrifsysteem" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemes_de_scrive" title="Sistemes de scrive – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Sistemes de scrive" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirjutussistiemu" title="Kirjutussistiemu – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Kirjutussistiemu" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_scritura" title="Sistema de scritura – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Sistema de scritura" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF" title="लिपि – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="लिपि" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Писмо – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Писмо" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF" title="ലിപി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലിപി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80" title="लिपी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="लिपी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AD%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90" title="ჭარალუა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჭარალუა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87" title="سيستم كتابه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سيستم كتابه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B7" title="خط – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="خط" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_tulisan" title="Sistem tulisan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sistem tulisan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8F%EA%AF%95%EA%AF%97_%EA%AF%86%EA%AF%AA%EA%AF%95_%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%8C%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%9B" title="ꯏꯕꯗ ꯆꯪꯕ ꯃꯌꯦꯛ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯏꯕꯗ ꯆꯪꯕ ꯃꯌꯦꯛ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schrift" title="Schrift – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Schrift" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF" title="लिपि – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="लिपि" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF" title="लिपि – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="लिपि" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="文字" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Йоза – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Йоза" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skraft" title="Skraft – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Skraft" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriftsystem" title="Skriftsystem – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Skriftsystem" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriftsystem" title="Skriftsystem – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Skriftsystem" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manni%C3%A9the_d%27%C3%AAcrithe" title="Manniéthe d'êcrithe – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Manniéthe d'êcrithe" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sist%C3%A8ma_d%27escritura" title="Sistèma d'escritura – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sistèma d'escritura" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yozuv" title="Yozuv – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yozuv" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%80" title="ਲਿਪੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲਿਪੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%BE%DB%8C" title="لپی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لپی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%DA%A9" title="ليک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ليک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sist%C3%A8me_d%27%C3%A9criture" title="Sistème d'écriture – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Sistème d'écriture" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schrift" title="Schrift – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Schrift" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_pisma" title="System pisma – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="System pisma" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_escrita" title="Sistema de escrita – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sistema de escrita" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_de_scriere" title="Sistem de scriere – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sistem de scriere" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qillqa" title="Qillqa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Qillqa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Письменность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Письменность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83" title="लिपयः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="लिपयः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writin_seestem" title="Writin seestem – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Writin seestem" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemi_i_shkrimit" title="Sistemi i shkrimit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Sistemi i shkrimit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B8" title="අක්ෂර ක්‍රම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අක්ෂර ක්‍රම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Writing system" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%88" title="لکت سرشتو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="لکت سرشتو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ADsmo_(jazykoveda)" title="Písmo (jazykoveda) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Písmo (jazykoveda)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisava" title="Pisava – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pisava" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="سیستمی نووسین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سیستمی نووسین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Писмо – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Писмо" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pismo_(znakovi)" title="Pismo (znakovi) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pismo (znakovi)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksara" title="Aksara – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Aksara" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirjoitusj%C3%A4rjestelm%C3%A4" title="Kirjoitusjärjestelmä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kirjoitusjärjestelmä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriftsystem" title="Skriftsystem – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Skriftsystem" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_ng_pagsulat" title="Sistema ng pagsulat – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sistema ng pagsulat" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88" title="எழுத்து முறை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எழுத்து முறை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%83_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Язу системасы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Язу системасы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99" title="ระบบการเขียน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระบบการเขียน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%82_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80)" title="Хат (навиштор) – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Хат (навиштор)" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BF" title="ಲಿಪಿ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಲಿಪಿ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz%C4%B1_sistemi" title="Yazı sistemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yazı sistemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Писемність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Писемність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%B7" title="رسم الخط – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رسم الخط" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cihsaw" title="Cihsaw – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Cihsaw" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%87_ch%E1%BB%AF_vi%E1%BA%BFt" title="Hệ chữ viết – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ chữ viết" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="文字" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_hin_panurat" title="Sistema hin panurat – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Sistema hin panurat" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="文字" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%98" title="שריפט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="שריפט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="文字" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem%C3%AA_nu%C5%9Ft%C4%B1%C5%9Fi" title="Sistemê nuştışi – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Sistemê nuştışi" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C5%A1ta_s%C4%97stema" title="Rašta sėstema – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Rašta sėstema" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="文字" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksara" title="Aksara – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Aksara" 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1,\n [\"CITEREFSampson1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSampson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScholes1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSproat2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteele2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteeleBoyes2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTabouret-KellerLe_PageGardner-ChlorosVarro1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorOlson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThreatte1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodsEmberlingTeeter2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_KovelCarrión-CastilloFrancks2019\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Angbr\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"B.\"] = 2,\n [\"Bots\"] = 1,\n [\"Broader\"] = 1,\n [\"CS1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 38,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 9,\n [\"Cn span\"] = 2,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Gph\"] = 4,\n [\"Gpm\"] = 4,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 9,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 5,\n [\"List of writing systems\"] = 1,\n [\"Lit\"] = 2,\n [\"Literacy\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 5,\n [\"Merge from\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiref\"] 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