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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Western theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Other traditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Near_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Near_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Near East </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Near_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Islamic world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fidelity_and_transparency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fidelity_and_transparency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Fidelity and transparency </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fidelity_and_transparency-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Fidelity and transparency subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Fidelity_and_transparency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Equivalence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equivalence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Equivalence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equivalence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Source_and_target_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Source_and_target_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Source and target languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Source_and_target_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Source_and_target_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Source_and_target_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Source and target texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Source_and_target_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Back-translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Back-translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Back-translation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Back-translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Translators </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Translators-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Translators subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Translators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interpreting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpreting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Interpreting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpreting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sworn_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sworn_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Sworn translation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sworn_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telephone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telephone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Telephone </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telephone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Internet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_assist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_assist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Computer assist </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_assist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Machine_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Machine_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Machine translation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Machine_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Literary translation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literary_translation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Literary translation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Literary_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Modern translation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_titles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_titles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Book titles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_titles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Plays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Chinese literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sung_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sung_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Sung texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sung_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Religious texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Experimental_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Experimental literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.10 Science fiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technical_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Technical translation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technical_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Survey_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Survey_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Survey translation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Survey_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Translation</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 131 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-131" aria-hidden="true" > 131 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertaling" title="Vertaling – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Vertaling" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cbersetzung_(Linguistik)" title="Übersetzung (Linguistik) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Übersetzung (Linguistik)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A9" title="ترجمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ترجمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traducci%C3%B3n" title="Traducción – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Traducción" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="অনুবাদ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="অনুবাদ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traducci%C3%B3n" title="Traducción – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Traducción" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91e%E2%80%99%E1%BA%BDasa" title="Ñe’ẽasa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñe’ẽasa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99rc%C3%BCm%C9%99" title="Tərcümə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tərcümə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="অনুবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অনুবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoan-e%CC%8Dk" title="Hoan-e̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoan-e̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BC%D3%99" title="Тәржемә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Тәржемә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Пераклад – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пераклад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Пераклад – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Пераклад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="अनुबाद – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अनुबाद" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Превод – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Превод" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevo%C4%91enje" title="Prevođenje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Prevođenje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trei%C3%B1_ha_troidigezh" title="Treiñ ha troidigezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Treiñ ha troidigezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%88%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Оршуулга – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Оршуулга" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traducci%C3%B3_ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Traducció lingüística – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Traducció lingüística" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%C3%A7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83" title="Куçару – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Куçару" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99eklad" title="Překlad – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Překlad" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushandura" title="Kushandura – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Kushandura" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfieithu" title="Cyfieithu – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfieithu" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overs%C3%A6ttelse" title="Oversættelse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oversættelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9" title="طرجامة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="طرجامة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cbersetzung_(Linguistik)" title="Übersetzung (Linguistik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Übersetzung (Linguistik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B5lkimine" title="Tõlkimine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tõlkimine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%AC%CF%86%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Μετάφραση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μετάφραση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ютавтома – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Ютавтома" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traducci%C3%B3n" title="Traducción – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Traducción" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduko" title="Traduko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Traduko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itzulpengintza" title="Itzulpengintza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Itzulpengintza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87" title="ترجمه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ترجمه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anuwaad" title="Anuwaad – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Anuwaad" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduction" title="Traduction – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Traduction" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oersetting" title="Oersetting – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Oersetting" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduzion" title="Traduzion – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Traduzion" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aistri%C3%BAch%C3%A1n" title="Aistriúchán – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Aistriúchán" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eadar-theangachadh" title="Eadar-theangachadh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eadar-theangachadh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduci%C3%B3n" title="Tradución – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tradución" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%88%EC%97%AD" title="번역 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="번역" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Թարգմանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թարգմանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="अनुवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अनुवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevo%C4%91enje" title="Prevođenje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Prevođenje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panagipatarus" title="Panagipatarus – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Panagipatarus" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terjemahan" title="Terjemahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Terjemahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukuhumusha" title="Ukuhumusha – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ukuhumusha" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%BD%C3%B0ing" title="Þýðing – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þýðing" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduzione" title="Traduzione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Traduzione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9D" title="תרגום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תרגום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B0" title="ಭಾಷಾಂತರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭಾಷಾಂತರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Аударма – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аударма" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treylyans" title="Treylyans – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Treylyans" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafsiri" title="Tafsiri – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Tafsiri" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradiksyon" title="Tradiksyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Tradiksyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werger" title="Werger – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Werger" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretatio" title="Interpretatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Interpretatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulko%C5%A1ana" title="Tulkošana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Tulkošana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vert%C4%97jas" title="Vertėjas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vertėjas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fo%27ali" title="Fo'ali – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Fo'ali" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduzion" title="Traduzion – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Traduzion" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%C3%ADt%C3%A1s" title="Fordítás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fordítás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Преведување – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Преведување" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fandikan-teny" title="Fandikan-teny – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fandikan-teny" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="വിവർത്തനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വിവർത്തനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduzzjoni" title="Traduzzjoni – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Traduzzjoni" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="अनुवाद – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अनुवाद" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="მათანგალი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მათანგალი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%BD%E1%80%99%E1%80%80%E1%81%A0%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B2%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC" title="ပွမကၠာဲဘာသာ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ပွမကၠာဲဘာသာ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penterjemahan" title="Penterjemahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penterjemahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Ётафтомась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Ётафтомась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%87%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Орчуулга – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Орчуулга" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertalen" title="Vertalen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vertalen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="अनुवाद – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अनुवाद" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BF%BB%E8%A8%B3" title="翻訳 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="翻訳" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%87" title="Гоч – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Гоч" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auersaatang" title="Auersaatang – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Auersaatang" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oversettelse" title="Oversettelse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oversettelse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omsetjing" title="Omsetjing – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Omsetjing" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduccion" title="Traduccion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Traduccion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarjima" title="Tarjima – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tarjima" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਅਨੁਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਨੁਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81" title="ترجمہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ترجمہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%93%D9%87" title="ژباړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ژباړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erterduccion" title="Erterduccion – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Erterduccion" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96versetten" title="Översetten – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Översetten" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%82umaczenie_(przek%C5%82ad)" title="Tłumaczenie (przekład) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tłumaczenie (przekład)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradu%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Tradução – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tradução" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tercime" title="Tercime – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Tercime" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traducere" title="Traducere – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Traducere" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimay_t%27ikray" title="Rimay t'ikray – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rimay t'ikray" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4_(%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Переклад (языконаука) – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Переклад (языконаука)" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Перевод – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Перевод" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Тылбаас – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Тылбаас" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%27aliliuga" title="Fa'aliliuga – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Fa'aliliuga" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F" title="ᱛᱚᱨᱡᱚᱢᱟ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱛᱚᱨᱡᱚᱢᱟ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ABrkthimi" title="Përkthimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Përkthimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9B%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="ලිඛිත භාෂා පරිවර්තනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ලිඛිත භාෂා පරිවර්තනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation" title="Translation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Translation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%88" title="ترجمو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ترجمو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preklad_(jazykoveda)" title="Preklad (jazykoveda) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Preklad (jazykoveda)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevajanje" title="Prevajanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prevajanje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%95%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%8E%DA%95%D8%A7%D9%86" title="وەرگێڕان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="وەرگێڕان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%92%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Превођење – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Превођење" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevo%C4%91enje" title="Prevođenje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Prevođenje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terjemahan" title="Terjemahan – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Terjemahan" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4%C3%A4nt%C3%A4minen" title="Kääntäminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kääntäminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96vers%C3%A4ttning" title="Översättning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Översättning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasalin" title="Pagsasalin – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagsasalin" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="மொழிபெயர்ப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மொழிபெயர்ப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%99%D1%80%D2%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D3%99" title="Тәрҗемә – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Тәрҗемә" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%82" title="అనువాదం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అనువాదం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5" title="การแปล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การแปล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D2%B7%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Тарҷума – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Тарҷума" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87eviri" title="Çeviri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çeviri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Переклад – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Переклад" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81" title="ترجمہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ترجمہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoiz" title="Hoiz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Hoiz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradusion" title="Tradusion – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Tradusion" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%E1%BB%8Bch_thu%E1%BA%ADt" title="Dịch thuật – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dịch thuật" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratournaedje_(langue)" title="Ratournaedje (langue) – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Ratournaedje (langue)" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AD%AF" title="譯 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="譯" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paghubad" title="Paghubad – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Paghubad" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BF%BB%E8%AF%91" title="翻译 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="翻译" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuhundzuluxeri" title="Vuhundzuluxeri – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Vuhundzuluxeri" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%96%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92" title="איבערזעצונג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="איבערזעצונג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BF%BB%E8%AD%AF" title="翻譯 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="翻譯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pargold%C4%ABms" title="Pargoldīms – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Pargoldīms" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BF%BB%E8%AF%91" title="翻译 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="翻译" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarjamahan" title="Tarjamahan – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Tarjamahan" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%96%E2%B5%8D" title="ⴰⵙⵓⵖⵍ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴰⵙⵓⵖⵍ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7553#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Translation" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Translation" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Transfer of the meaning of something in one language into another</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about language translation. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Translation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Translation (disambiguation)">Translation (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Translator" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Translator_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Translator (disambiguation)">Translator (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">Transliteration</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_V_ordonnant_la_traduction_d%27Aristote_copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Charles_V_ordonnant_la_traduction_d%27Aristote_copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="278" height="265" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="278" data-file-height="265" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Charles_V_of_France" title="Charles V of France">Charles V</a> the Wise commissions a translation of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. First square shows his ordering the translation; second square, the translation being made. 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.sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Translation" title="Category:Translation">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:none;padding-top:0;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Translation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg/100px-%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg/150px-%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg/200px-%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_translation" title="Legal translation">Legal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Literary_translation">Literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations" title="Bible translations">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_translations" title="Quran translations">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirukkural_translations" title="Tirukkural translations">Kural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_validation" title="Linguistic validation">Linguistic validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_translation" title="Medical translation">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_translation" title="Regulatory translation">Regulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_translation" title="Technical translation">Technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_translation" title="Cultural translation">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">Word-for-word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense-for-sense_translation" title="Sense-for-sense translation">Sense-for-sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophonic_translation" title="Homophonic translation">Homophonic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translation studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skopos_theory" title="Skopos theory">Skopos theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_project" title="Translation project">Translation project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_criticism" title="Translation criticism">Translation criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalence_(translation)" title="Equivalence (translation)">Equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_linguistics" title="Contrastive linguistics">Contrastive linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysystem_theory" title="Polysystem theory">Polysystem theory</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Technologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation" title="Computer-assisted translation">CAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">Machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_translation" title="Mobile translation">Mobile translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_management_system" title="Translation management system">Translation management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubbing" title="Dubbing">Dubbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtitles" title="Subtitles">Subtitling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-editing" title="Pre-editing">Pre-editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postediting" title="Postediting">Postediting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_translation" title="Multimedia translation">Multimedia translation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Localization</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glocalization" title="Glocalization">Glocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalization_and_localization" title="Internationalization and localization">Internationalization and localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_localisation" title="Language localisation">Language localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_localization" title="Video game localization">Video game localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubbing_(filmmaking)#Localization" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubbing (filmmaking)">Dub localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Website_localization" title="Website localization">Website localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalization_and_localization" title="Internationalization and localization">Software localization</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Institutional</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_associations" title="Category:Translation associations">Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_awards" title="Category:Translation awards">Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_organizations" title="Category:Translation organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_and_interpreting_schools" title="Category:Translation and interpreting schools">Schools</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Untranslatability" title="Untranslatability">Untranslatability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">Transcription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">Transliteration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_relay_service" title="Video relay service">Video relay service</a> (VRS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_interpreting" title="Telephone interpreting">Telephone interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_barrier" title="Language barrier">Language barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_translation" title="Fan translation">Fan translation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fan_translation_of_video_games" title="Fan translation of video games">of video games</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fansub" title="Fansub">Fansub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fandub" title="Fandub">Fandub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanlation" title="Scanlation">Scanlation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalistic_translation" title="Journalistic translation">Journalistic translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_publications" title="Category:Translation publications">Books and magazines on translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bible_translations_by_language" title="Category:Bible translations by language">Bible translations by language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translations" title="Category:Translations">Translated books</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_works_by_number_of_translations" title="List of literary works by number of translations">List of most translated works</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translators" title="Category:Translators">Translators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tirukkural_translations_by_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Tirukkural translations by language">Kural translations by language</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Translation_info" title="Template:Translation info"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Translation_info" title="Template talk:Translation info"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Translation_info" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Translation info"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Translation is the communication of the <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">meaning</a> of a <a href="#Source_and_target_languages">source-language</a> text by means of an <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_and_formal_equivalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic and formal equivalence">equivalent</a> <a href="#Source_and_target_languages">target-language</a> text.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The English language draws a <a href="/wiki/Terminological" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminological">terminological</a> distinction (which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text) and <a href="/wiki/Interpreting" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreting">interpreting</a> (oral or <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">signed</a> communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> within a language community. A translator always risks inadvertently introducing source-language words, <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source-language <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a> and <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> that have enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators of <a href="/wiki/Sacred_text" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred text">sacred texts</a>, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to <a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">automate translation</a> or to <a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation" title="Computer-assisted translation">mechanically aid the human translator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> More recently, the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> has fostered a <a href="/wiki/World-wide_market" class="mw-redirect" title="World-wide market">world-wide market</a> for <a href="/wiki/Translation_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Translation services">translation services</a> and has facilitated "<a href="/wiki/Language_localisation" title="Language localisation">language localisation</a>".<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg/220px-Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg/330px-Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg/440px-Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1612" data-file-height="2066" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a>, a symbol of the art of translation<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></figcaption></figure> The word for the concept of "translation" in English and in some other European languages derives from the Latin noun translatio,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to bring" – with -latio coming from latus, the <a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participle</a> of ferre). Thus, translatio is the "bringing across" of a text from one language to another.<a href="#cite_note-The_Translator_p._83-7">[7]</a> Some other European languages derive their words for the concept of translation from the distinct Latin noun trāductiō, from <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/traduco#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:traduco">trādūcō</a>, "bring across", in turn coming from trans "across" + dūcō "bring".<a href="#cite_note-The_Translator_p._83-7">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> term for "translation" (metaphrasis, "a speaking across") has supplied English with "<a href="/wiki/Metaphrase" title="Metaphrase">metaphrase</a>" (word-for-word translation), as contrasted with "<a href="/wiki/Paraphrase" title="Paraphrase">paraphrase</a>" (rephrasing in other words, from paraphrasis).<a href="#cite_note-The_Translator_p._83-7">[7]</a> "Metaphrase" corresponds in one of the more recent terminologies to <a href="#Equivalence">formal equivalence</a>, and "paraphrase" to <a href="#Equivalence">dynamic equivalence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-8">[8]</a> The concept of metaphrase (i.e., word-for-word translation) is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one meaning, and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, metaphrase and paraphrase may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theories">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_theory">Western theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Western theory">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Dryden_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller,_Bt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/John_Dryden_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg/220px-John_Dryden_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/John_Dryden_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg/330px-John_Dryden_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/John_Dryden_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg/440px-John_Dryden_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a></figcaption></figure> Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">antiquity</a> and show remarkable continuities. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">ancient Greeks</a> distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation) and paraphrase. This distinction was adopted by English poet and translator <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a> (1631–1700), who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," or <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_and_formal_equivalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic and formal equivalence">equivalents</a>, for the expressions used in the source language: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">When [words] appear... literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: 'tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense.<a href="#cite_note-The_Translator_p._83-7">[7]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG/200px-Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG/300px-Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG/400px-Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1227" data-file-height="1636" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></figcaption></figure> Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.e., of adapted translation: "When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..."<a href="#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-8">[8]</a> This general formulation of the central concept of translation—<a href="/wiki/Dynamic_and_formal_equivalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic and formal equivalence">equivalence</a>—is as adequate as any that has been proposed since <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, who, in 1st-century-BCE <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>, famously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" (verbum pro verbo).<a href="#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-8">[8]</a> Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_and_formal_equivalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic and formal equivalence">equivalents</a>—"literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary—for the original <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (linguistics)">meaning</a> and other crucial "values" (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Style_(fiction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Style (fiction)">style</a>, <a href="/wiki/Verse_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Verse form">verse form</a>, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">articulatory</a> movements) as determined from context.<a href="#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-8">[8]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds_2.png/200px-Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds_2.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds_2.png/300px-Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds_2.png/400px-Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds_2.png 2x" data-file-width="832" data-file-height="1119" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a></figcaption></figure> In general, translators have sought to preserve the <a href="/wiki/Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">context</a> itself by reproducing the original order of <a href="/wiki/Sememe" title="Sememe">sememes</a>, and hence <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>—when necessary, reinterpreting the actual <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammatical</a> structure, for example, by shifting from <a href="/wiki/Active_voice" title="Active voice">active</a> to <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a>, or vice versa. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> (e.g. English, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>) and "free-word-order" languages<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>) have been no impediment in this regard.<a href="#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-8">[8]</a> The particular syntax (sentence-structure) characteristics of a text's source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Luther,_1529.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg/200px-Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg/300px-Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg/400px-Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a></figcaption></figure> When a target language has lacked <a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">terms</a> that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of calques and loanwords between languages, and to their importation from other languages, there are few <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a> that are "<a href="/wiki/Untranslatable" class="mw-redirect" title="Untranslatable">untranslatable</a>" among the modern European languages.<a href="#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-8">[8]</a> A greater problem, however, is translating terms relating to cultural concepts that have no equivalent in the target language.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> For full comprehension, such situations require the provision of a <a href="/wiki/Gloss_(annotation)#In_linguistics" title="Gloss (annotation)">gloss</a>. Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of <a href="/wiki/Metaphrase" title="Metaphrase">metaphrase</a> to <a href="/wiki/Paraphrase" title="Paraphrase">paraphrase</a> that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niches</a> of words, a common <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> French actuel ("present", "current"), the Polish aktualny ("present", "current," "topical", "timely", "feasible"),<a href="#cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-13">[13]</a> the Swedish aktuell ("topical", "presently of importance"), the Russian актуальный ("urgent", "topical") or the Dutch actueel ("current"). The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since <a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a>, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an <a href="/wiki/Artist" title="Artist">artist</a>. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a>'s remark about <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a> playing <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Flageolet" title="Flageolet">flageolet</a>, while Homer himself used a <a href="/wiki/Bassoon" title="Bassoon">bassoon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-13">[13]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herder_by_K%C3%BCgelgen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Herder_by_K%C3%BCgelgen.jpg/240px-Herder_by_K%C3%BCgelgen.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Herder_by_K%C3%BCgelgen.jpg/360px-Herder_by_K%C3%BCgelgen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Herder_by_K%C3%BCgelgen.jpg/480px-Herder_by_K%C3%BCgelgen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2607" data-file-height="3012" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a></figcaption></figure> In the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNG/240px-Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNG" decoding="async" width="240" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNG/360px-Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNG/480px-Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNG 2x" data-file-width="2632" data-file-height="3448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Ignacy Krasicki</a></figcaption></figure> The translator of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> into German, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> (1483–1546), is credited with being the first European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a> in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one translates only toward his own language.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that no <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thesaurus" title="Thesaurus">thesaurus</a> can ever be a fully adequate guide in translating. The Scottish historian <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Tytler" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Tytler">Alexander Tytler</a>, in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including listening to the <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a>, had earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Onufry_Kopczy%C5%84ski" title="Onufry Kopczyński">Onufry Kopczyński</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kasparek_p._86-16">[16]</a> The translator's special role in society is described in a posthumous 1803 essay by "Poland's <a href="/wiki/La_Fontaine" class="mw-redirect" title="La Fontaine">La Fontaine</a>", the Roman Catholic <a href="/wiki/Primate_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Primate of Poland">Primate of Poland</a>, poet, <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedist" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedist">encyclopedist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novelist" title="Novelist">author</a> of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek, <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Ignacy Krasicki</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[T]ranslation... is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds; [it] should be [practiced] by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render their country.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_traditions">Other traditions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Other traditions">edit</a>]</div> Due to <a href="/wiki/Western_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Western colonialism">Western colonialism</a> and cultural dominance in recent centuries, Western translation traditions have largely replaced other traditions. The Western traditions draw on both ancient and medieval traditions, and on more recent European innovations. Though earlier approaches to translation are less commonly used today, they retain importance when dealing with their products, as when historians view ancient or medieval records to piece together events which took place in non-Western or pre-Western environments. Also, though heavily influenced by Western traditions and practiced by translators taught in Western-style educational systems, Chinese and related translation traditions retain some theories and philosophies unique to the Chinese tradition. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Near_East">Near East</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Near East">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (March 2012)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Traditions of translating material among the languages of ancient <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac language</a>), <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a>) go back several millennia. There exist partial translations of the Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2000 BCE) into <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest Asia">Southwest Asian</a> languages of the second millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> An early example of a <a href="/wiki/Bilingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual">bilingual</a> document is the 1274 BCE <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kadesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Kadesh">Treaty of Kadesh</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittie empires</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a> were the first to establish translation as a profession.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The first translations of Greek and Coptic texts into Arabic, possibly indirectly from Syriac translations,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> seem to have been undertaken as early as the late seventh century CE.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The second Abbasid Caliph funded a translation bureau in Baghdad in the eighth century.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Bayt al-Hikma, the famous library in Baghdad, was generously endowed and the collection included books in many languages, and it became a leading centre for the translation of works from antiquity into Arabic, with its own Translation Department.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Translations into European languages from Arabic versions of lost Greek and Roman texts began in the middle of the eleventh century, when the benefits to be gained from the Arabs’ knowledge of the classical texts were recognised by European scholars, particularly after the establishment of the Escuela de Traductores de Toledo in Spain. <a href="/wiki/William_Caxton" title="William Caxton">William Caxton</a>’s Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres (Sayings of the Philosophers, 1477) was a translation into English of an eleventh-century Egyptian text which reached English via translation into Latin and then French. The translation of foreign works for publishing in Arabic was revived by the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Madrasat_al-Alsun" title="Madrasat al-Alsun">Madrasat al-Alsun</a> (School of Tongues) in Egypt in 1813.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Asia">Asia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_translation_theory" title="Chinese translation theory">Chinese translation theory</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jingangjing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/290px-Jingangjing.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/435px-Jingangjing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/580px-Jingangjing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4917" data-file-height="3438" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> <a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Diamond Sutra</a>, translated into <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> by <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a> – world's oldest known dated printed book (868 CE)</figcaption></figure> There is a separate tradition of translation in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> (primarily of texts from the <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> civilizations), connected especially with the rendering of religious, particularly <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a>, texts and with the governance of the Chinese empire. Classical Indian translation is characterized by loose adaptation, rather than the closer translation more commonly found in Europe; and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_translation_theory" title="Chinese translation theory">Chinese translation theory</a> identifies various criteria and limitations in translation. In the East Asian sphere of Chinese cultural influence, more important than translation per se has been the use and reading of Chinese texts, which also had substantial influence on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese languages, with substantial <a href="/wiki/Sino-Xenic_vocabularies" title="Sino-Xenic vocabularies">borrowings of Chinese vocabulary</a> and writing system. Notable is the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">kanbun</a>, a system for <a href="/wiki/Glossing" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossing">glossing</a> Chinese texts for Japanese speakers. Though Indianized states in Southeast Asia often translated <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> material into the local languages, the literate elites and scribes more commonly used Sanskrit as their primary language of culture and government. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VOA_Perry_Link.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/VOA_Perry_Link.jpg/290px-VOA_Perry_Link.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/VOA_Perry_Link.jpg/435px-VOA_Perry_Link.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/VOA_Perry_Link.jpg/580px-VOA_Perry_Link.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2495" data-file-height="1710" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Perry_Link" title="Perry Link">Perry Link</a></figcaption></figure> Some special aspects of translating from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> are illustrated in <a href="/wiki/Perry_Link" title="Perry Link">Perry Link</a>'s discussion of translating the work of the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> poet <a href="/wiki/Wang_Wei_(Tang_dynasty)" title="Wang Wei (Tang dynasty)">Wang Wei</a> (699–759 CE).<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Some of the art of classical <a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Chinese poetry</a> [writes Link] must simply be set aside as <a href="/wiki/Untranslatable" class="mw-redirect" title="Untranslatable">untranslatable</a>. The internal structure of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> has a beauty of its own, and the <a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">calligraphy</a> in which classical poems were written is another important but untranslatable dimension. Since Chinese characters do not vary in length, and because there are exactly five characters per line in a poem like [the one that <a href="/wiki/Eliot_Weinberger" title="Eliot Weinberger">Eliot Weinberger</a> discusses in 19 Ways of Looking at <a href="/wiki/Wang_Wei_(Tang_dynasty)" title="Wang Wei (Tang dynasty)">Wang Wei</a> (with More Ways)], another untranslatable feature is that the written result, hung on a wall, presents a rectangle. Translators into languages whose word lengths vary can reproduce such an effect only at the risk of fatal awkwardness.... Another imponderable is how to imitate the 1-2, 1-2-3 <a href="/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">rhythm</a> in which five-<a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a> lines in classical Chinese poems normally are read. Chinese characters are pronounced in one syllable apiece, so producing such rhythms in Chinese is not hard and the results are unobtrusive; but any imitation in a Western language is almost inevitably stilted and distracting. Even less translatable are the patterns of <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> arrangement in classical Chinese poetry. Each syllable (character) belongs to one of two categories determined by the <a href="/wiki/Pitch_contour" title="Pitch contour">pitch contour</a> in which it is read; in a classical Chinese poem the patterns of alternation of the two categories exhibit <a href="/wiki/Parallelism_(grammar)" title="Parallelism (grammar)">parallelism</a> and mirroring.<a href="#cite_note-LXIII_2016_p._49-26">[26]</a></blockquote> Once the untranslatables have been set aside, the problems for a translator, especially of Chinese poetry, are two: What does the translator think the poetic line says? And once he thinks he understands it, how can he render it into the target language? Most of the difficulties, according to Link, arise in addressing the second problem, "where the impossibility of perfect answers spawns endless debate." Almost always at the center is the letter-versus-spirit <a href="/wiki/Dilemma" title="Dilemma">dilemma</a>. At the literalist extreme, efforts are made to dissect every conceivable detail about the language of the original Chinese poem. "The dissection, though," writes Link, "normally does to the art of a poem approximately what the <a href="/wiki/Scalpel" title="Scalpel">scalpel</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> instructor does to the life of a frog."<a href="#cite_note-LXIII_2016_p._49-26">[26]</a> Chinese characters, in avoiding <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammatical</a> specificity, offer advantages to poets (and, simultaneously, challenges to poetry translators) that are associated primarily with absences of <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LXIII_2016_p._50-27">[27]</a> It is the norm in classical <a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Chinese poetry</a>, and common even in modern Chinese prose, to omit subjects; the reader or listener infers a subject. The grammars of some Western languages, however, require that a subject be stated (although this is often avoided by using a passive or impersonal construction). Most of the translators cited in Eliot Weinberger's 19 Ways of Looking at <a href="/wiki/Wang_Wei_(Tang_dynasty)" title="Wang Wei (Tang dynasty)">Wang Wei</a> supply a subject. Weinberger points out, however, that when an "I" as a subject is inserted, a "controlling individual mind of the poet" enters and destroys the effect of the Chinese line. Without a subject, he writes, "the experience becomes both universal and immediate to the reader." Another approach to the subjectlessness is to use the target language's <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a>; but this again particularizes the experience too much.<a href="#cite_note-LXIII_2016_p._50-27">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Nouns</a> have no <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> in Chinese. "If," writes Link, "you want to talk in Chinese about one rose, you may, but then you use a "<a href="/wiki/Measure_word" title="Measure word">measure word</a>" to say "one blossom-of roseness."<a href="#cite_note-LXIII_2016_p._50-27">[27]</a> Chinese <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a> are <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>-less: there are several ways to specify when something happened or will happen, but <a href="/wiki/Verb_tense" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb tense">verb tense</a> is not one of them. For poets, this creates the great advantage of <a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">ambiguity</a>. According to Link, Weinberger's insight about subjectlessness—that it produces an effect "both universal and immediate"—applies to timelessness as well.<a href="#cite_note-LXIII_2016_p._50-27">[27]</a> Link proposes a kind of uncertainty principle that may be applicable not only to translation from the Chinese language, but to all translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Dilemmas about translation do not have definitive right answers (although there can be unambiguously wrong ones if misreadings of the original are involved). Any translation (except machine translation, a different case) must pass through the mind of a translator, and that mind inevitably contains its own store of perceptions, memories, and values. Weinberger [...] pushes this insight further when he writes that "every reading of every poem, regardless of language, is an act of translation: translation into the reader's intellectual and emotional life." Then he goes still further: because a reader's mental life shifts over time, there is a sense in which "the same poem cannot be read twice."<a href="#cite_note-LXIII_2016_p._50-27">[27]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islamic_world">Islamic world</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Islamic world">edit</a>]</div> Translation of material into <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> expanded after the creation of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a> in the 5th century, and gained great importance with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and Islamic empires. Arab translation initially focused primarily on politics, rendering Persian, Greek, even Chinese and Indic diplomatic materials into Arabic. It later focused on translating classical Greek and Persian works, as well as some Chinese and Indian texts, into Arabic for scholarly study at major Islamic learning centers, such as the <a href="/wiki/Al-Karaouine" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Karaouine">Al-Karaouine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fes">Fes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>), <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Azhar Madrasah">Al-Azhar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Al-Nizamiyya_of_Baghdad" title="Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad">Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad</a>. In terms of theory, Arabic translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions as well as more contemporary Greek and Persian traditions. Arabic translation efforts and techniques are important to Western translation traditions due to centuries of close contacts and exchanges. Especially after the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, Europeans began more intensive study of Arabic and Persian translations of classical works as well as scientific and philosophical works of Arab and oriental origins. Arabic, and to a lesser degree Persian, became important sources of material and perhaps of techniques for revitalized Western traditions, which in time would overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions. In the 19th century, after the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> clerics and copyists <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">had conceded defeat in their centuries-old battle to contain the corrupting effects of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, [an] explosion in publishing ... ensued. Along with expanding secular education, printing transformed an overwhelmingly illiterate society into a partly literate one. In the past, the <a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">sheikhs</a> and the government had exercised a monopoly over knowledge. Now an expanding elite benefitted from a stream of information on virtually anything that interested them. Between 1880 and 1908... more than six hundred newspapers and periodicals were founded in Egypt alone. The most prominent among them was al-Muqtataf ... [It] was the popular expression of a translation movement that had begun earlier in the century with military and medical manuals and highlights from the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> canon. (<a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>'s Considerations on the Romans and <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9nelon" class="mw-redirect" title="Fénelon">Fénelon</a>'s Telemachus had been favorites.)<a href="#cite_note-debellaigue77-28">[28]</a></blockquote> A translator who contributed mightily to the advance of the Islamic Enlightenment was the Egyptian cleric Rifaa al-Tahtawi (1801–73), who had spent five years in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in the late 1820s, teaching religion to <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> students. After returning to Cairo with the encouragement of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali</a> (1769–1849), the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> viceroy of Egypt, al–Tahtawi became head of the new school of languages and embarked on an intellectual revolution by initiating a program to translate some two thousand European and Turkish volumes, ranging from ancient texts on geography and geometry to <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>'s biography of <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/Marseillaise" class="mw-redirect" title="Marseillaise">Marseillaise</a> and the entire <a href="/wiki/Code_Napol%C3%A9on" class="mw-redirect" title="Code Napoléon">Code Napoléon</a>. This was the biggest, most meaningful importation of foreign thought into Arabic since <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> times (750–1258).<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">In France al-Tahtawi had been struck by the way the French language... was constantly renewing itself to fit modern ways of living. Yet <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> has its own sources of reinvention. The root system that Arabic shares with other <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> tongues such as Hebrew is capable of expanding the meanings of words using structured <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonantal</a> variations: the word for airplane, for example, has the same root as the word for bird.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muhammad_Abduh_(trimmed).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Muhammad_Abduh_%28trimmed%29.JPG/220px-Muhammad_Abduh_%28trimmed%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Muhammad_Abduh_%28trimmed%29.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="323" data-file-height="292" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a></figcaption></figure> The movement to translate English and European texts transformed the Arabic and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkey">Ottoman</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> languages, and new words, simplified syntax, and directness came to be valued over the previous convolutions. Educated Arabs and Turks in the new professions and the modernized <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">civil service</a> expressed <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a>, writes <a href="/wiki/Christopher_de_Bellaigue" title="Christopher de Bellaigue">Christopher de Bellaigue</a>, "with a freedom that is rarely witnessed today ... No longer was legitimate knowledge defined by texts in the religious schools, interpreted for the most part with stultifying literalness. It had come to include virtually any intellectual production anywhere in the world." One of the <a href="/wiki/Neologisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Neologisms">neologisms</a> that, in a way, came to characterize the infusion of new ideas via translation was "darwiniya", or "<a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-debellaigue77-28">[28]</a> One of the most influential liberal Islamic thinkers of the time was <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a> (1849–1905), Egypt's senior judicial authority—its chief <a href="/wiki/Mufti" title="Mufti">mufti</a>—at the turn of the 20th century and an admirer of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a> who in 1903 visited Darwin's exponent <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a> at his home in <a href="/wiki/Brighton" title="Brighton">Brighton</a>. Spencer's view of <a href="/wiki/Social_organism" title="Social organism">society as an organism</a> with its own laws of evolution paralleled Abduh's ideas.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> After <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, when Britain and France divided up the Middle East's countries, apart from Turkey, between them, pursuant to the <a href="/wiki/Sykes-Picot_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Sykes-Picot agreement">Sykes-Picot agreement</a>—in violation of solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy—there came an immediate reaction: the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a> emerged in Egypt, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Saud" title="House of Saud">House of Saud</a> took over the <a href="/wiki/Hijaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijaz">Hijaz</a>, and regimes led by army officers came to power in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and Turkey. "[B]oth illiberal currents of the modern Middle East," writes <a href="/wiki/Christopher_de_Bellaigue" title="Christopher de Bellaigue">de Bellaigue</a>, "Islamism and militarism, received a major impetus from Western <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">empire-builders</a>." As often happens in countries undergoing social crisis, the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators and modernizers, such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a>, largely had to yield to retrograde currents.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fidelity_and_transparency">Fidelity and transparency</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fidelity and transparency">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Dryden_by_John_Michael_Wright,_1668_(detail),_National_Portrait_Gallery,_London.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/John_Dryden_by_John_Michael_Wright%2C_1668_%28detail%29%2C_National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London.JPG/240px-John_Dryden_by_John_Michael_Wright%2C_1668_%28detail%29%2C_National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London.JPG" decoding="async" width="240" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/John_Dryden_by_John_Michael_Wright%2C_1668_%28detail%29%2C_National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London.JPG/360px-John_Dryden_by_John_Michael_Wright%2C_1668_%28detail%29%2C_National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/John_Dryden_by_John_Michael_Wright%2C_1668_%28detail%29%2C_National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London.JPG/480px-John_Dryden_by_John_Michael_Wright%2C_1668_%28detail%29%2C_National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London.JPG 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">Dryden</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a> (or "faithfulness") and felicity<a href="#cite_note-This_Little_Art_2018_p._22-33">[33]</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(linguistic)" title="Transparency (linguistic)">transparency</a>), dual ideals in translation, are often (though not always) at odds. A 17th-century French critic coined the phrase "les belles infidèles" to suggest that translations can be either faithful or beautiful, but not both.<a href="#cite_note-35">[a]</a> Fidelity is the extent to which a translation accurately renders the meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Source_text" title="Source text">source text</a>, without distortion. Transparency is the extent to which a translation appears to a native speaker of the target language to have originally been written in that language, and conforms to its grammar, syntax and idiom. John Dryden (1631–1700) wrote in his preface to the translation anthology Sylvae: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Where I have taken away some of [the original authors'] Expressions, and cut them shorter, it may possibly be on this consideration, that what was beautiful in the Greek or Latin, would not appear so shining in the English; and where I have enlarg'd them, I desire the false Criticks would not always think that those thoughts are wholly mine, but that either they are secretly in the Poet, or may be fairly deduc'd from him; or at least, if both those considerations should fail, that my own is of a piece with his, and that if he were living, and an Englishman, they are such as he wou'd probably have written.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a></blockquote> A translation that meets the criterion of fidelity (faithfulness) is said to be "faithful"; a translation that meets the criterion of transparency, "<a href="/wiki/Idiomatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiomatic">idiomatic</a>". Depending on the given translation, the two qualities may not be mutually exclusive. The criteria for judging the fidelity of a translation vary according to the subject, type and use of the text, its literary qualities, its social or historical context, etc. The criteria for judging the transparency of a translation appear more straightforward: an unidiomatic translation "sounds wrong" and, in extreme cases of word-for-word translation, often results in patent nonsense. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_Daniel_Ernst_Schleiermacher.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Friedrich_Daniel_Ernst_Schleiermacher.jpg/240px-Friedrich_Daniel_Ernst_Schleiermacher.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Friedrich_Daniel_Ernst_Schleiermacher.jpg/360px-Friedrich_Daniel_Ernst_Schleiermacher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Friedrich_Daniel_Ernst_Schleiermacher.jpg/480px-Friedrich_Daniel_Ernst_Schleiermacher.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="838" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Schleiermacher</a></figcaption></figure> Nevertheless, in certain contexts a translator may consciously seek to produce a literal translation. Translators of literary, religious, or historic texts often adhere as closely as possible to the source text, stretching the limits of the target language to produce an unidiomatic text. Also, a translator may adopt expressions from the source language in order to provide "local color". <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lawrence_Venuti.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Lawrence_Venuti.jpeg/180px-Lawrence_Venuti.jpeg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Lawrence_Venuti.jpeg/270px-Lawrence_Venuti.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Lawrence_Venuti.jpeg/360px-Lawrence_Venuti.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="641" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Venuti" title="Lawrence Venuti">Venuti</a></figcaption></figure> While current Western translation practice is dominated by the dual concepts of "fidelity" and "transparency", this has not always been the case. There have been periods, especially in pre-Classical Rome and in the 18th century, when many translators stepped beyond the bounds of translation proper into the realm of <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Adapted_translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Adapted translation">Adapted translation</a> retains currency in some non-Western traditions. The <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> epic, the <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a>, appears in many versions in the various <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Indian languages</a>, and the stories are different in each. Similar examples are to be found in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Christian">medieval Christian</a> literature, which adjusted the text to local customs and mores. Many non-transparent-translation theories draw on concepts from <a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">German Romanticism</a>, the most obvious influence being the German theologian and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a>. In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward [the reader]", i.e., transparency, and those that move the "reader toward [the author]", i.e., an extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text. Schleiermacher favored the latter approach; he was motivated, however, not so much by a desire to embrace the foreign, as by a nationalist desire to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote <a href="/wiki/German_literature" title="German literature">German literature</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. In recent decades, prominent advocates of such "non-transparent" translation have included the French scholar <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Berman" title="Antoine Berman">Antoine Berman</a>, who identified twelve deforming tendencies inherent in most prose translations,<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> and the American theorist <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Venuti" title="Lawrence Venuti">Lawrence Venuti</a>, who has called on translators to apply "foreignizing" rather than domesticating translation strategies.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equivalence">Equivalence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Equivalence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semantic_equivalence_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic equivalence (linguistics)">Semantic equivalence (linguistics)</a></div> The question of <a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">fidelity</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(linguistic)" title="Transparency (linguistic)">transparency</a> has also been formulated in terms of, respectively, "formal equivalence" and "dynamic [or functional] equivalence" – expressions associated with the translator <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Nida" title="Eugene Nida">Eugene Nida</a> and originally coined to describe ways of translating the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>; but the two approaches are applicable to any translation. "Formal equivalence" corresponds to "metaphrase", and "dynamic equivalence" to "paraphrase". "Formal equivalence" (sought via "literal" translation) attempts to render the text literally, or "word for word" (the latter expression being itself a word-for-word rendering of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">classical Latin</a> verbum pro verbo) – if necessary, at the expense of features natural to the target language. By contrast, "dynamic equivalence" (or "functional equivalence") conveys the essential thoughts expressed in a source text—if necessary, at the expense of literality, original <a href="/wiki/Sememe" title="Sememe">sememe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>, the source text's active vs. passive <a href="/wiki/Voice_(grammar)" title="Voice (grammar)">voice</a>, etc. There is, however, no sharp boundary between formal and functional equivalence. On the contrary, they represent a spectrum of translation approaches. Each is used at various times and in various contexts by the same translator, and at various points within the same text – sometimes simultaneously. Competent translation entails the judicious blending of formal and functional <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_and_formal_equivalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic and formal equivalence">equivalents</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> Common pitfalls in translation, especially when practiced by inexperienced translators, involve false equivalents such as "<a href="/wiki/False_friend" title="False friend">false friends</a>"<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> and <a href="/wiki/False_cognate" title="False cognate">false cognates</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Source_and_target_languages">Source and target languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Source and target languages">edit</a>]</div> In the practice of translation, the source language is the language being translated from, while the target language – also called the receptor language<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> – is the language being translated into.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> Difficulties in translating can arise from <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactical</a> differences between the source language and the target language, which differences tend to be greater between two languages belonging to different <a href="/wiki/Language_families" class="mw-redirect" title="Language families">language families</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a> Often the source language is the translator's <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a>, while the target language is the translator's <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> In some geographical settings, however, the source language is the translator's first language because not enough people speak the source language as a second language.<a href="#cite_note-:1-46">[45]</a> For instance, a 2005 survey found that 89% of professional Slovene translators translate into their second language, usually English.<a href="#cite_note-:1-46">[45]</a> In cases where the source language is the translator's first language, the translation process has been referred to by various terms, including "translating into a non-mother tongue", "translating into a second language", "inverse translation", "reverse translation", "service translation", and "translation from A to B".<a href="#cite_note-:1-46">[45]</a> The process typically begins with a full and in-depth analysis of the original text in the source language, ensuring full comprehension and understanding before the actual act of translating is approached.<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> Translation for specialized or professional fields requires a working knowledge, as well, of the pertinent terminology in the field. For example, translation of a legal text requires not only fluency in the respective languages but also familiarity with the terminology specific to the legal field in each language.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> While the form and style of the source language often cannot be reproduced in the target language, the meaning and content can. Linguist <a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a> went so far as to assert that all cognitive experience can be classified and expressed in any living language.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> Linguist <a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Ghil'ad Zuckermann</a> suggests that the limits are not of translation per se but rather of elegant translation.<a href="#cite_note-Revivalistics-50">[49]</a>: 219  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Source_and_target_texts">Source and target texts</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Source and target texts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Source_text" title="Source text">Source text</a></div> In translation, a <a href="/wiki/Source_text" title="Source text">source text</a> (ST) is a text written in a given source language which is to be, or has been, translated into another language, while a target text (TT) is a translated text written in the intended target language, which is the result of a translation from a given source text. According to <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Munday" title="Jeremy Munday">Jeremy Munday</a>'s definition of translation, "the process of translation between two different written languages involves the changing of an original written text (the source text or ST) in the original verbal language (the source language or SL) into a written text (the target text or TT) in a different verbal language (the target language or TL)".<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> The terms 'source text' and 'target text' are preferred over 'original' and 'translation' because they do not have the same positive vs. negative value judgment. Translation scholars including <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Nida" title="Eugene Nida">Eugene Nida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Newmark" title="Peter Newmark">Peter Newmark</a> have represented the different approaches to translation as falling broadly into source-text-oriented or target-text-oriented categories.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Back-translation">Back-translation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Back-translation">edit</a>]</div> A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is sometimes checked by reversing the operation.<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> Back-translation must in general be less accurate than back-calculation because <a href="/wiki/Linguistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic">linguistic</a> symbols (<a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a>) are often <a href="/wiki/Ambiguous" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambiguous">ambiguous</a>, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal. In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." When translations are produced of material used in medical <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed-consent forms</a>, a back-translation is often required by the <a href="/wiki/Ethics_Committee_(European_Union)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics Committee (European Union)">ethics committee</a> or <a href="/wiki/Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">institutional review board</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mark_Twain,_Brady-Handy_photo_portrait,_Feb_7,_1871,_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Mark_Twain%2C_Brady-Handy_photo_portrait%2C_Feb_7%2C_1871%2C_cropped.jpg/170px-Mark_Twain%2C_Brady-Handy_photo_portrait%2C_Feb_7%2C_1871%2C_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Mark_Twain%2C_Brady-Handy_photo_portrait%2C_Feb_7%2C_1871%2C_cropped.jpg/255px-Mark_Twain%2C_Brady-Handy_photo_portrait%2C_Feb_7%2C_1871%2C_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Mark_Twain%2C_Brady-Handy_photo_portrait%2C_Feb_7%2C_1871%2C_cropped.jpg/340px-Mark_Twain%2C_Brady-Handy_photo_portrait%2C_Feb_7%2C_1871%2C_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="818" /></a><figcaption>In 1903, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a> back-translated his own <a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">short story</a>, "<a href="/wiki/The_Celebrated_Jumping_Frog_of_Calaveras_County" title="The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County">The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County</a>".</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a> provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his <a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">short story</a>, "<a href="/wiki/The_Celebrated_Jumping_Frog_of_Calaveras_County" title="The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County">The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County</a>". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter volumne included a synopsized adaptation of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick's Greek Prose Composition (p. 116) under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> When a document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel <a href="/wiki/The_Saragossa_Manuscript" class="mw-redirect" title="The Saragossa Manuscript">The Saragossa Manuscript</a> by the Polish aristocrat <a href="/wiki/Jan_Potocki" title="Jan Potocki">Jan Potocki</a> (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation, made by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Chojecki" title="Edmund Chojecki">Edmund Chojecki</a> in 1847 from a complete French copy that has since been lost. French-language versions of the complete Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> Many works by the influential <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical</a> physician <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> survive only in medieval <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> translation. Some survive only in <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance Latin</a> translations from the Arabic, thus at a second remove from the original. To better understand Galen, scholars have attempted back-translation of such works in order to reconstruct the original <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a> When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">idioms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pun" title="Pun">puns</a>, peculiar <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammatical</a> structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the <a href="/wiki/Till_Eulenspiegel" title="Till Eulenspiegel">Till Eulenspiegel</a> folk tales is in <a href="/wiki/High_German" class="mw-redirect" title="High German">High German</a> but contains puns that work only when back-translated to <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a>. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-<a href="/wiki/Metaphrase" title="Metaphrase">metaphrastic</a> translator. Supporters of <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_primacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic primacy">Aramaic primacy</a>—the view that the <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> or its sources were originally written in the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic language</a>—seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> text of the New Testament make much more sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek. Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century Gnostic <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Judas" title="Gospel of Judas">Gospel of Judas</a>, which survives only in <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>, was originally written in Greek. <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a> (1631–1700), the dominant English-language literary figure of his age, illustrates, in his use of back-translation, translators' influence on the evolution of languages and literary styles. Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositions</a> because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions.<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> Dryden created the proscription against "<a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">preposition stranding</a>" in 1672 when he objected to <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Ben Jonson</a>'s 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from", though he did not provide the rationale for his preference.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then he back-translated his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does not have sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the controversial rule of <a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding#The_Debate_about_P-stranding" title="Preposition stranding">no sentence-ending prepositions</a>, subsequently adopted by other writers.<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[b]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Translators">Translators</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Translators">edit</a>]</div> Competent translators show the following attributes: <ul><li>a very good knowledge of the language, written and spoken, from which they are translating (the source language);</li> <li>an excellent command of the language into which they are translating (the target language);</li> <li>familiarity with the subject matter of the text being translated;</li> <li>a profound understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Etymological" class="mw-redirect" title="Etymological">etymological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Idiomatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiomatic">idiomatic</a> correlates between the two languages, including <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">sociolinguistic register</a> when appropriate; and</li> <li>a finely tuned sense of when to metaphrase ("translate literally") and when to paraphrase, so as to assure true rather than spurious <a href="#Equivalence">equivalents</a> between the source and target language texts.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a></li></ul> A competent translator is not only bilingual but <a href="/wiki/Bicultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicultural">bicultural</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> is not merely a collection of <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a> and of rules of <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> for generating <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentences</a>, but also a vast interconnecting system of <a href="/wiki/Connotation" title="Connotation">connotations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural">cultural</a> references whose mastery, writes <a href="/wiki/Linguist" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguist">linguist</a> <a href="/wiki/Mario_Pei" title="Mario Pei">Mario Pei</a>, "comes close to being a lifetime job."<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author suggests that becoming an accomplished translator—after having already acquired a good basic knowledge of both languages and cultures—may require a minimum of ten years' experience. Viewed in this light, it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will, by virtue of that fact alone, be consistently competent to translate between them.<a href="#cite_note-Kasparek_p._86-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Wood_(literary_scholar)" title="Michael Wood (literary scholar)">Michael Wood</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> emeritus professor, writes: "[T]ranslation, like language itself, involves contexts, conventions, class, irony, posture and many other regions where <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech acts</a> hang out. This is why it helps to compare translations [of a given work]."<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(classicist)" title="Emily Wilson (classicist)">Emily Wilson</a>, a professor of classical studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> and herself a translator, writes: "[I]t is [hard] to produce a good literary translation. This is certainly true of translations of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Roman</a> texts, but it is also true of literary translation in general: it is very difficult. Most readers of foreign languages are not translators; most writers are not translators. Translators have to read and write at the same time, as if always playing multiple instruments in a <a href="/wiki/One-person_band" class="mw-redirect" title="One-person band">one-person band</a>. And most one-person bands do not sound very good."<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> When in 1921, three years before his death, the English-language novelist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad">Joseph Conrad</a> – who had long had little contact with everyday spoken Polish – attempted to translate into English <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Winawer" title="Bruno Winawer">Bruno Winawer</a>'s short Polish-language play, The Book of Job, he predictably missed many crucial nuances of contemporary Polish language.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> The translator's role, in relation to the original text, has been compared to the roles of other interpretive artists, e.g., a musician or actor who interprets a work of musical or dramatic art. Translating, especially a text of any complexity (like other human activities<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a>), involves interpretation: choices must be made, which implies interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[d]</a> Mark Polizzotti writes: "A good translation offers not a reproduction of the work but an interpretation, a re-representation, just as the performance of a <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">play</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Sonata" title="Sonata">sonata</a> is a representation of the <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">script</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Sheet_music" title="Sheet music">score</a>, one among many possible representations."<a href="#cite_note-73">[69]</a> A translation of a text of any complexity is – as, itself, a work of art – unique and unrepeatable. Conrad, whose writings <a href="/wiki/Zdzis%C5%82aw_Najder" title="Zdzisław Najder">Zdzisław Najder</a> has described as verging on "auto-translation" from Conrad's Polish and French linguistic personae,<a href="#cite_note-74">[70]</a> advised his niece and <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> translator <a href="/wiki/Aniela_Zag%C3%B3rska" title="Aniela Zagórska">Aniela Zagórska</a>: "[D]on't trouble to be too scrupulous ... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion il vaut mieux interpréter que traduire [it is better to interpret than to translate] ...Il s'agit donc de trouver les équivalents. Et là, ma chère, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutôt par votre tempérament que par une conscience sévère ... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....]"<a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a> Conrad advised another translator that the prime requisite for a good translation is that it be "idiomatic". "For in the <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">idiom</a> is the clearness of a language and the language's force and its picturesqueness—by which last I mean the picture-producing power of arranged words."<a href="#cite_note-76">[72]</a> Conrad thought <a href="/wiki/C.K._Scott_Moncrieff" class="mw-redirect" title="C.K. Scott Moncrieff">C.K. Scott Moncrieff</a>'s English translation of <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Marcel Proust</a>'s À la recherche du temps perdu (<a href="/wiki/In_Search_of_Lost_Time" title="In Search of Lost Time">In Search of Lost Time</a>—or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering, Remembrance of Things Past) to be preferable to the French original.<a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[e]</a> Emily Wilson writes that "translation always involves interpretation, and [requires] every translator... to think as deeply as humanly possible about each verbal, poetic, and interpretative <a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">choice</a>."<a href="#cite_note-79">[74]</a> Translation of other than the simplest brief texts requires painstakingly <a href="/wiki/Close_reading" title="Close reading">close reading</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Source_text" title="Source text">source text</a> and the draft translation, so as to resolve the ambiguities inherent in <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> and thereby to <a href="/wiki/Asymptotically" class="mw-redirect" title="Asymptotically">asymptotically</a> approach the most accurate rendering of the source text.<a href="#cite_note-Pharaoh_2020-80">[75]</a> Part of the ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure of human language. <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">Psychologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neural_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural science">neural scientist</a> <a href="/wiki/Gary_Marcus" title="Gary Marcus">Gary Marcus</a> notes that "virtually every sentence [that people generate] is <a href="/wiki/Ambiguous" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambiguous">ambiguous</a>, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so good at comprehending language that we do not usually notice."<a href="#cite_note-81">[76]</a> An example of linguistic ambiguity is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronoun</a> in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers.<a href="#cite_note-82">[77]</a> Such disambiguation is not infallible by a human, either. Ambiguity is a concern both to translators and – as the writings of poet and literary critic <a href="/wiki/William_Empson" title="William Empson">William Empson</a> have demonstrated – to <a href="/wiki/Literary_critics" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary critics">literary critics</a>. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed essential, in <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomacy</a>; it can be more problematic in ordinary <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[78]</a> Individual <a href="/wiki/Expression_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression (linguistics)">expressions</a> – <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentences</a> – are fraught with <a href="/wiki/Connotation" title="Connotation">connotations</a>. As Empson demonstrates, any piece of language seems susceptible to "alternative reactions", or as Joseph Conrad once wrote, "No English word has clean edges." All expressions, Conrad thought, carried so many connotations as to be little more than "instruments for exciting blurred emotions."<a href="#cite_note-84">[79]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kasparek" title="Christopher Kasparek">Christopher Kasparek</a> also cautions that competent translation – analogously to the dictum, in mathematics, of <a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Incompleteness_theorems" class="mw-redirect" title="Incompleteness theorems">incompleteness theorems</a> – generally requires more information about the subject matter than is present in the actual <a href="/wiki/Source_text" title="Source text">source text</a>. Therefore, translation of a text of any complexity typically requires some research on the translator's part.<a href="#cite_note-Pharaoh_2020-80">[75]</a> A translator faces two contradictory tasks: when translating, to strive for <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">omniscience</a> concerning the text; and, when reviewing the resulting translation, to adopt the reader's unfamiliarity with it. Analogously, "[i]n the process, the translator is also constantly seesawing between the respective linguistic and cultural features of his two languages."<a href="#cite_note-Pharaoh_2020-80">[75]</a> Thus, writes Kasparek, "Translating a text of any complexity, like the performing of a musical or dramatic work, involves interpretation: choices must be made, which entails interpretation. <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Shaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Shaw">Bernard Shaw</a>, aspiring to felicitous understanding of literary works, wrote in the preface to his 1901 volume, <a href="/wiki/Three_Plays_for_Puritans" title="Three Plays for Puritans">Three Plays for Puritans</a>: 'I would give half a dozen of <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>'s plays for one of the prefaces he ought to have written.'"<a href="#cite_note-Pharaoh_2020-80">[75]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">It is due to the inescapable necessity of interpretation that – pace the story about the 3rd century BCE <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> translations of some biblical <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> books from <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> into <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> – no two translations of a literary work, by different hands or by the same hand at different times, are likely to be identical. As has been observed – by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>? <a href="/wiki/Paul_Valery" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Valery">Paul Valery</a>? <a href="/wiki/E.M._Forster" class="mw-redirect" title="E.M. Forster">E.M. Forster</a>? <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>? by all of them? – "A work of art is never finished, only abandoned."<a href="#cite_note-Pharaoh_2020-80">[75]</a></blockquote> Translators may render only parts of the original text, provided that they inform readers of that action. But a translator should not assume the role of <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censor</a> and surreptitiously delete or <a href="/wiki/Bowdlerize" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowdlerize">bowdlerize</a> passages merely to please a political or moral interest.<a href="#cite_note-Billiani,_Francesca_2001-85">[80]</a> Translating has served as a school of writing for many an author, much as the copying of masterworks of <a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">painting</a> has schooled many a novice painter.<a href="#cite_note-86">[81]</a> A translator who can competently render an author's thoughts into the translator's own language, should certainly be able to adequately render, in his own language, any thoughts of his own. Translating (like <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>) compels precise analysis of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language elements</a> and of their usage. In 1946 the poet <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a>, then at <a href="/wiki/St._Elizabeth%27s_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Elizabeth's Hospital">St. Elizabeth's Hospital</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, advised a visitor, the 18-year-old beginning poet <a href="/wiki/W.S._Merwin" class="mw-redirect" title="W.S. Merwin">W.S. Merwin</a>: "The work of translation is the best teacher you'll ever have."<a href="#cite_note-87">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[f]</a> Merwin, translator-poet who took Pound's advice to heart, writes of translation as an "impossible, unfinishable" art.<a href="#cite_note-90">[84]</a> A translator acts as a bridge between two languages and cultures. When he has completed the first draft of a translation, he stands at the bridge's midpoint. Only after he has fully converted the vocabulary, idioms, grammar, and syntax of the source text to those of the target language, does he arrive at the bridge's other end. Translators, including monks who spread <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> texts in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge between <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultures</a>; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammatical structures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">idioms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interpreting">Interpreting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Interpreting">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg/260px-Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg/390px-Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg/520px-Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="495" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a> and <a href="/wiki/La_Malinche" title="La Malinche">La Malinche</a> (right) meet <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma II</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a>, 8 November 1519.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lewis_and_Clark_1954_Issue-3c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Lewis_and_Clark_1954_Issue-3c.jpg/290px-Lewis_and_Clark_1954_Issue-3c.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Lewis_and_Clark_1954_Issue-3c.jpg/435px-Lewis_and_Clark_1954_Issue-3c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Lewis_and_Clark_1954_Issue-3c.jpg/580px-Lewis_and_Clark_1954_Issue-3c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="978" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition" title="Lewis and Clark Expedition">Lewis and Clark</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> interpreter, <a href="/wiki/Sacagawea" title="Sacagawea">Sacagawea</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interpreting" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreting">Interpreting</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Interpreting" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreting">Interpreting</a> is the facilitation of <a href="/wiki/Speech_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech communication">oral</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sign-language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sign-language">sign-language</a> <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, either simultaneously or consecutively, between two, or among three or more, speakers who are not speaking, or signing, the same language. The term "interpreting," rather than "interpretation," is preferentially used for this activity by Anglophone interpreters and translators, to avoid confusion with other meanings of the word "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interpret" class="extiw" title="wikt:interpret">interpretation</a>." Unlike English, many languages do not employ two separate words to denote the activities of <a href="/wiki/Written" class="mw-redirect" title="Written">written</a> and live-communication (<a href="/wiki/Speech_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech communication">oral</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sign-language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sign-language">sign-language</a>) translators.<a href="#cite_note-92">[g]</a> Even English does not always make the distinction, frequently using "translating" as a synonym for "interpreting." Interpreters have sometimes played crucial roles in <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>. A prime example is <a href="/wiki/La_Malinche" title="La Malinche">La Malinche</a>, also known as Malintzin, Malinalli and Doña Marina, an early-16th-century <a href="/wiki/Nahua" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahua">Nahua</a> woman from the Mexican <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf Coast</a>. As a child she had been sold or given to <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Maya</a> slave-traders from Xicalango, and thus had become bilingual. Subsequently, given along with other women to the invading Spaniards, she became instrumental in the <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spanish</a> conquest of <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, acting as interpreter, adviser, intermediary and lover to <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[86]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lin_Shu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Lin_Shu.jpg/170px-Lin_Shu.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Lin_Shu.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="342" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shu" title="Lin Shu">Lin Shu</a></figcaption></figure> Nearly three centuries later, in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, a comparable role as interpreter was played for the <a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition" title="Lewis and Clark Expedition">Lewis and Clark Expedition</a> of 1804–6 by <a href="/wiki/Sacagawea" title="Sacagawea">Sacagawea</a>. As a child, the <a href="/wiki/Lemhi_Shoshone" title="Lemhi Shoshone">Lemhi Shoshone</a> woman had been kidnapped by <a href="/wiki/Hidatsa" title="Hidatsa">Hidatsa</a> Indians and thus had become bilingual. Sacagawea facilitated the expedition's traverse of the <a href="/wiki/North_American_continent" class="mw-redirect" title="North American continent">North American continent</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[87]</a> The famous Chinese man of letters <a href="/wiki/Lin_Shu" title="Lin Shu">Lin Shu</a> (1852 – 1924), who knew no foreign languages, rendered Western literary classics into Chinese with the help of his friend Wang Shouchang (王壽昌), who had studied in France. Wang interpreted the texts for Lin, who rendered them into Chinese. Lin's first such translation, 巴黎茶花女遺事 (Past Stories of the Camellia-woman of Paris – <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas,_fils" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre Dumas, fils">Alexandre Dumas, fils</a>'s, <a href="/wiki/La_Dame_aux_Cam%C3%A9lias" class="mw-redirect" title="La Dame aux Camélias">La Dame aux Camélias</a>), published in 1899, was an immediate success and was followed by many more translations from the French and the English.<a href="#cite_note-95">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sworn_translation">Sworn translation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sworn translation">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Sworn_translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sworn translation">Sworn translation</a>, also called "certified translation," aims at legal equivalence between two documents written in different languages. It is performed by someone authorized to do so by local regulations, which vary widely from country to country. Some countries recognize self-declared competence. Others require the translator to be an official state appointee. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, certain government institutions require that translators be accredited by certain translation institutes or associations in order to be able to carry out certified translations. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telephone">Telephone</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Telephone">edit</a>]</div> Many commercial services exist that will interpret spoken language via telephone. There is also at least one custom-built mobile device that does the same thing. The device connects users to human interpreters who can translate between English and 180 other languages.<a href="#cite_note-96">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet">Internet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Internet">edit</a>]</div> Web-based human translation is generally favored by companies and individuals that wish to secure more accurate translations. In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine translations, human translation remains the most reliable, most accurate form of translation available.<a href="#cite_note-97">[90]</a> With the recent emergence of translation <a href="/wiki/Crowdsourcing" title="Crowdsourcing">crowdsourcing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-98">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Translation_memory" title="Translation memory">translation memory</a> techniques, and <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> applications,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] translation agencies have been able to provide on-demand human-translation services to <a href="/wiki/Small_and_medium_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="Small and medium businesses">businesses</a>, individuals, and enterprises. While not instantaneous like its machine counterparts such as <a href="/wiki/Google_Translate" title="Google Translate">Google Translate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babel_Fish_(website)" title="Babel Fish (website)">Babel Fish</a> (now defunct), as of 2010 web-based human translation has been gaining popularity by providing relatively fast, accurate translation of business communications, legal documents, medical records, and <a href="/wiki/Software_localization" class="mw-redirect" title="Software localization">software localization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[93]</a> Web-based human translation also appeals to private website users and bloggers.<a href="#cite_note-101">[94]</a> Contents of websites are translatable but URLs of websites are not translatable into other languages. Language tools on the internet provide help in understanding text. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_assist">Computer assist</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Computer assist">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation" title="Computer-assisted translation">Computer-assisted translation</a></div> Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called "computer-aided translation," "machine-aided human translation" (MAHT) and "interactive translation," is a form of translation wherein a human translator creates a <a href="#Source_and_target_texts">target text</a> with the assistance of a computer program. The machine supports a human translator. Computer-assisted translation can include standard <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a> and grammar software. The term, however, normally refers to a range of specialized programs available to the translator, including translation memory, <a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">terminology</a>-management, <a href="/wiki/Concordancer" title="Concordancer">concordance</a>, and alignment programs. These tools speed up and facilitate human translation, but they do not provide translation. The latter is a function of tools known broadly as machine translation. The tools speed up the translation process by assisting the human translator by memorizing or committing translations to a database (translation memory database) so that if the same sentence occurs in the same project or a future project, the content can be reused. This translation reuse leads to cost savings, better consistency and shorter project timelines. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Machine_translation">Machine translation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Machine translation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">Machine translation</a></div> Machine translation (MT) is a process whereby a computer program analyzes a <a href="/wiki/Source_text" title="Source text">source text</a> and, in principle, produces a target text without human intervention. In reality, however, machine translation typically does involve human intervention, in the form of pre-editing and <a href="/wiki/Post-editing" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-editing">post-editing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIST-102">[95]</a> With proper <a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">terminology</a> work, with preparation of the <a href="/wiki/Source_text" title="Source text">source text</a> for machine translation (pre-editing), and with reworking of the machine translation by a human translator (post-editing), commercial machine-translation tools can produce useful results, especially if the machine-translation system is integrated with a translation memory or <a href="/wiki/Translation_management_system" title="Translation management system">translation management system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[96]</a> Unedited machine translation is publicly available through tools on the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Google_Translate" title="Google Translate">Google Translate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almaany" title="Almaany">Almaany</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Altarabin2020-104">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Babylon_Software" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylon Software">Babylon</a>, <a href="/wiki/DeepL_Translator" title="DeepL Translator">DeepL Translator</a>, and <a href="/wiki/StarDict" title="StarDict">StarDict</a>. These produce rough translations that, under favorable circumstances, approximate the meaning of the source text. With the Internet, translation software can help non-native-speaking individuals understand web pages published in other languages. Whole-page-translation tools are of limited utility, however, since they offer only a limited potential understanding of the original author's intent and context; translated pages tend to be more erroneously humorous and confusing than enlightening. Interactive translations with <a href="/wiki/Pop-up_ad" title="Pop-up ad">pop-up windows</a> are becoming more popular. These tools show one or more possible equivalents for each word or phrase. Human operators merely need to select the likeliest equivalent as the mouse glides over the foreign-language text. Possible equivalents can be grouped by pronunciation. Also, companies such as <a href="/wiki/Ectaco" title="Ectaco">Ectaco</a> produce pocket devices that provide machine translations. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Claude_Piron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Claude_Piron.jpg/170px-Claude_Piron.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Claude_Piron.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Claude_Piron" title="Claude Piron">Claude Piron</a></figcaption></figure> Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation, however, ignores the fact that communication in <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">human language</a> is <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/context" class="extiw" title="wikt:context">context</a>-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error; therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.<a href="#cite_note-106">[h]</a> <a href="/wiki/Claude_Piron" title="Claude Piron">Claude Piron</a> writes that machine translation, at its best, automates the easier part of a translator's job; the harder and more time-consuming part usually involves doing extensive research to resolve <a href="/wiki/Ambiguities" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambiguities">ambiguities</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Source_text" title="Source text">source text</a>, which the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical">grammatical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lexical_(semiotics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical (semiotics)">lexical</a> exigencies of the target language require to be resolved.<a href="#cite_note-107">[99]</a> Such research is a necessary prelude to the pre-editing necessary in order to provide input for machine-translation software, such that the output will not be <a href="/wiki/Garbage_in_garbage_out" class="mw-redirect" title="Garbage in garbage out">meaningless</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIST-102">[95]</a> The weaknesses of pure machine translation, unaided by human expertise, are <a href="/wiki/Logology_(science_of_science)#Artificial_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Logology (science of science)">those of artificial intelligence itself</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[100]</a> As of 2018, professional translator Mark Polizzotti held that machine translation, by <a href="/wiki/Google_Translate" title="Google Translate">Google Translate</a> and the like, was unlikely to threaten human translators anytime soon, because machines would never grasp nuance and <a href="/wiki/Connotation" title="Connotation">connotation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[101]</a> Writes Paul Taylor: "Perhaps there is a limit to what a computer can do without knowing that it is manipulating imperfect representations of an external reality."<a href="#cite_note-110">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gary_Marcus" title="Gary Marcus">Gary Marcus</a> notes that a so far insuperable stumbling block to artificial intelligence is an incapacity for reliable <a href="/wiki/Disambiguation" class="mw-redirect" title="Disambiguation">disambiguation</a>. "[V]irtually every sentence [that people generate] is <a href="/wiki/Ambiguous" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambiguous">ambiguous</a>, often in multiple ways." A prominent example is known as the "pronoun disambiguation problem": a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronoun</a> in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers.<a href="#cite_note-111">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Gleick" title="James Gleick">James Gleick</a> writes: "<a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a> is what distinguishes us from machines. For biological creatures, <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">purpose</a> come from acting in the world and experiencing the consequences. Artificial intelligences – disembodied, strangers to blood, sweat, and tears – have no occasion for that."<a href="#cite_note-112">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literary_translation">Literary translation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Literary translation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Performing_Without_a_Stage_-_The_Art_of_Literary_Translation_-_by_Robert_Wechsler.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Performing_Without_a_Stage_-_The_Art_of_Literary_Translation_-_by_Robert_Wechsler.pdf/page1-290px-Performing_Without_a_Stage_-_The_Art_of_Literary_Translation_-_by_Robert_Wechsler.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="435" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Performing_Without_a_Stage_-_The_Art_of_Literary_Translation_-_by_Robert_Wechsler.pdf/page1-435px-Performing_Without_a_Stage_-_The_Art_of_Literary_Translation_-_by_Robert_Wechsler.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Performing_Without_a_Stage_-_The_Art_of_Literary_Translation_-_by_Robert_Wechsler.pdf/page1-580px-Performing_Without_a_Stage_-_The_Art_of_Literary_Translation_-_by_Robert_Wechsler.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1350" /></a><figcaption>1998 nonfiction book by Robert Wechsler on literary translation as a performative, rather than creative, art</figcaption></figure> Translation of <a href="/wiki/Literary_works" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary works">literary works</a> (<a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Short_stories" class="mw-redirect" title="Short stories">short stories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">plays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poems" class="mw-redirect" title="Poems">poems</a>, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. Notable in <a href="/wiki/Canadian_literature" title="Canadian literature">Canadian literature</a> specifically as translators are figures such as <a href="/wiki/Sheila_Fischman" title="Sheila Fischman">Sheila Fischman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Dickson_(writer)" title="Robert Dickson (writer)">Robert Dickson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Linda_Gaboriau" title="Linda Gaboriau">Linda Gaboriau</a>; and the Canadian <a href="/wiki/Governor_General%27s_Awards" title="Governor General's Awards">Governor General's Awards</a> annually present prizes for the best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations. Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Vasily Zhukovsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Boy-%C5%BBele%C5%84ski" title="Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński">Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Nabokov" title="Vladimir Nabokov">Vladimir Nabokov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Borges" title="Jorge Luis Borges">Jorge Luis Borges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stiller" title="Robert Stiller">Robert Stiller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lydia_Davis" title="Lydia Davis">Lydia Davis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haruki_Murakami" title="Haruki Murakami">Haruki Murakami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Achy_Obejas" title="Achy Obejas">Achy Obejas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jhumpa_Lahiri" title="Jhumpa Lahiri">Jhumpa Lahiri</a>. In the 2010s a substantial gender imbalance was noted in literary translation into English,<a href="#cite_note-113">[105]</a> with far more male writers being translated than women writers. In 2014 Meytal Radzinski launched the Women in Translation campaign to address this.<a href="#cite_note-114">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The first important translation in the West was that of the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>, a collection of <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jewish</a> Scriptures translated into early <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures.<a href="#cite_note-117">[109]</a> Throughout the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, Latin was the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the western learned world. The 9th-century <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a>, king of <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a> in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, was far ahead of his time in commissioning <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon language">Anglo-Saxon</a> translations of <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Historia_ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum">Ecclesiastical History</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>' <a href="/wiki/Consolation_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolation of Philosophy">Consolation of Philosophy</a>. Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Church</a> frowned on even partial adaptations of <a href="/wiki/St._Jerome" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Jerome">St. Jerome</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a> of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 384 CE,<a href="#cite_note-118">[110]</a> the standard Latin Bible. In <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, the spread of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The <a href="/wiki/Tangut_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangut Empire">Tangut Empire</a> was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented <a href="/wiki/Block_printing" class="mw-redirect" title="Block printing">block printing</a>, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> centuries to render.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> undertook <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Arabic_translation_movement" title="Graeco-Arabic translation movement">large-scale efforts at translation</a>. Having conquered the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, translations of some of these Arabic versions <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">were made into Latin</a>, chiefly at <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen13-119">[111]</a> King <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_X_the_Wise" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfonso X the Wise">Alfonso X the Wise</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Castile</a> in the 13th century promoted this effort by founding a <a href="/wiki/Toledo_School_of_Translators" title="Toledo School of Translators">Schola Traductorum</a> (School of Translation) in <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a>. There Arabic texts, Hebrew texts, and Latin texts were translated into the other tongues by Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars, who also argued the merits of their respective religions. Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance European <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>, and thus European science and culture. The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaucer_Hoccleve.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Chaucer_Hoccleve.png/260px-Chaucer_Hoccleve.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="368" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Chaucer_Hoccleve.png/390px-Chaucer_Hoccleve.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Chaucer_Hoccleve.png/520px-Chaucer_Hoccleve.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2125" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a></figcaption></figure> The first fine translations into English were made in the 14th century by <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>, who adapted from the <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a> in his own <a href="/wiki/Knight%27s_Tale" class="mw-redirect" title="Knight's Tale">Knight's Tale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Troilus_and_Criseyde" title="Troilus and Criseyde">Troilus and Criseyde</a>; began a translation of the French-language <a href="/wiki/Roman_de_la_Rose" title="Roman de la Rose">Roman de la Rose</a>; and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin. Chaucer founded an English <a href="/wiki/Poetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Poetic">poetic</a> tradition on <a href="/wiki/Literary_adaptation" title="Literary adaptation">adaptations</a> and translations from those earlier-established <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen13-119">[111]</a> The first great English translation was the <a href="/wiki/Wycliffe_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Wycliffe Bible">Wycliffe Bible</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a>. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malory" title="Thomas Malory">Thomas Malory</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Le_Morte_d%27Arthur" title="Le Morte d'Arthur">Le Morte d'Arthur</a>—an adaptation of <a href="/wiki/Arthurian_romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthurian romance">Arthurian romances</a> so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great <a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor</a> translations are, accordingly, the <a href="/wiki/Tyndale_New_Testament" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyndale New Testament">Tyndale New Testament</a> (1525), which influenced the <a href="/wiki/Authorized_Version" class="mw-redirect" title="Authorized Version">Authorized Version</a> (1611), and <a href="/wiki/Lord_Berners" title="Lord Berners">Lord Berners</a>' version of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Froissart" title="Jean Froissart">Jean Froissart</a>'s Chronicles (1523–25).<a href="#cite_note-Cohen13-119">[111]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Marsilio_Ficino_at_the_Duomo_Firence_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Portrait_of_Marsilio_Ficino_at_the_Duomo_Firence_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="193" height="244" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="244" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a></figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, in <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, a new period in the history of translation had opened in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> with the arrival, at the court of <a href="/wiki/Cosimo_de%27_Medici" title="Cosimo de' Medici">Cosimo de' Medici</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Georgius_Gemistus_Pletho" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgius Gemistus Pletho">Georgius Gemistus Pletho</a> shortly before the fall of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s works was undertaken by <a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a>. This and <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a>' Latin edition of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen13-119">[111]</a> Non-scholarly literature, however, continued to rely on adaptation. <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pl%C3%A9iade" class="mw-redirect" title="Pléiade">Pléiade</a>, England's Tudor poets, and the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan">Elizabethan</a> translators adapted themes by <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> and modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on those models. The English poets and translators sought to supply a new public, created by the rise of a <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> and the development of <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a>, with works such as the original authors would have written, had they been writing in England in that day.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen13-119">[111]</a> The Elizabethan period of translation saw considerable progress beyond mere paraphrase toward an ideal of <a href="/wiki/Stylistics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stylistics (linguistics)">stylistic</a> equivalence, but even to the end of this period, which actually reached to the middle of the 17th century, there was no concern for <a href="/wiki/Words" class="mw-redirect" title="Words">verbal</a> <a href="/wiki/Accuracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Accuracy">accuracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen14-120">[112]</a> In the second half of the 17th century, the poet John Dryden sought to make <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> speak "in words such as he would probably have written if he were living and an Englishman". As great as Dryden's poem is, however, one is reading Dryden, and not experiencing the Roman poet's concision. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> arguably suffers from <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a>'s endeavor to reduce the Greek poet's "wild paradise" to order. Both works live on as worthy English epics, more than as a point of access to the Latin or Greek.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen14-120">[112]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_FitzGerald.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Edward_FitzGerald.jpg/220px-Edward_FitzGerald.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Edward_FitzGerald.jpg/330px-Edward_FitzGerald.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Edward_FitzGerald.jpg/440px-Edward_FitzGerald.jpg 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="1248" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edward_FitzGerald_(poet)" title="Edward FitzGerald (poet)">Edward FitzGerald</a></figcaption></figure> Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of <a href="/wiki/James_Macpherson" title="James Macpherson">James Macpherson</a>'s "translations" of <a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a>—from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen14-120">[112]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Jowett_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Benjamin_Jowett_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/180px-Benjamin_Jowett_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Benjamin_Jowett_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/270px-Benjamin_Jowett_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Benjamin_Jowett_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/360px-Benjamin_Jowett_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Jowett" title="Benjamin Jowett">Benjamin Jowett</a></figcaption></figure> The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text", except for any <a href="/wiki/Bawdy" class="mw-redirect" title="Bawdy">bawdy</a> passages and the addition of copious explanatory <a href="/wiki/Footnote" class="mw-redirect" title="Footnote">footnotes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[i]</a> In regard to style, the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorians</a>' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, <a href="/wiki/Edward_FitzGerald_(poet)" title="Edward FitzGerald (poet)">Edward FitzGerald</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Rubaiyat_of_Omar_Khayyam" title="Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam">Rubaiyat</a> of <a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyam</a> (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen14-120">[112]</a> In advance of the 20th century, a new pattern was set in 1871 by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Jowett" title="Benjamin Jowett">Benjamin Jowett</a>, who translated Plato into simple, straightforward language. Jowett's example was not followed, however, until well into the new century, when accuracy rather than style became the principal criterion.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen14-120">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_translation">Modern translation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Modern translation">edit</a>]</div> As a language evolves, texts in an earlier version of the language—original texts, or old translations—may become difficult for modern readers to understand. Such a text may therefore be translated into more modern language, producing a "modern translation" (e.g., a "modern English translation" or "modernized translation"). Such modern rendering is applied either to literature from classical languages such as Latin or Greek, notably to the Bible (see "<a href="/wiki/Modern_English_Bible_translations" title="Modern English Bible translations">Modern English Bible translations</a>"), or to literature from an earlier stage of the same language, as with the works of <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> (which are largely understandable by a modern audience, though with some difficulty) or with <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Middle-English" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle-English">Middle-English</a> <a href="/wiki/Canterbury_Tales" class="mw-redirect" title="Canterbury Tales">Canterbury Tales</a> (which is understandable to most modern readers only through heavy dependence on footnotes). In 2015 the <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Shakespeare_Festival" title="Oregon Shakespeare Festival">Oregon Shakespeare Festival</a> commissioned professional translation of the entire Shakespeare canon, including disputed works such as <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_(play)" title="Edward III (play)">Edward III</a>,<a href="#cite_note-122">[113]</a> into contemporary vernacular English; in 2019, off-off-Broadway, the canon was premiered in a month-long series of staged readings.<a href="#cite_note-123">[114]</a> Modern translation is applicable to any language with a long literary history. For example, in Japanese the 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Tale_of_Genji" class="mw-redirect" title="Tale of Genji">Tale of Genji</a> is generally read in modern translation (see "<a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Genji#Modern_readership" title="The Tale of Genji">Genji: modern readership</a>"). Modern translation often involves literary scholarship and textual revision, as there is frequently not one single canonical text. This is particularly noteworthy in the case of the Bible and Shakespeare, where modern scholarship can result in substantive textual changes. <a href="/wiki/Anna_North" title="Anna North">Anna North</a> writes: "Translating the long-dead language <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> used — a variant of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> called Homeric Greek — into contemporary English is no easy task, and translators bring their own skills, opinions, and stylistic sensibilities to the text. The result is that every translation is different, almost a new poem in itself." An example is <a href="/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(classicist)" title="Emily Wilson (classicist)">Emily Wilson</a>'s 2017 translation of Homer's <a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a>, where by conscious choice Wilson "lays bare the morals of its time and place, and invites us to consider how different they are from our own, and how similar."<a href="#cite_note-124">[115]</a> Modern translation meets with opposition from some traditionalists. In English, some readers <a href="/wiki/King_James_Only_movement" title="King James Only movement">prefer</a> the <a href="/wiki/Authorized_King_James_Version" class="mw-redirect" title="Authorized King James Version">Authorized King James Version</a> of the Bible to modern translations, and Shakespeare in the original of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1600 to modern translations. An opposite process involves translating modern literature into classical languages, for the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Extensive_reading" title="Extensive reading">extensive reading</a> (for examples, see "<a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin_translations_of_modern_literature" title="List of Latin translations of modern literature">List of Latin translations of modern literature</a>"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poetry">Poetry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Poetry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hofstadter2002B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hofstadter2002B.jpg/220px-Hofstadter2002B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hofstadter2002B.jpg/330px-Hofstadter2002B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hofstadter2002B.jpg/440px-Hofstadter2002B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Hofstadter" title="Douglas Hofstadter">Hofstadter</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Jakobson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Roman_Jakobson.jpg/170px-Roman_Jakobson.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Roman_Jakobson.jpg/255px-Roman_Jakobson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Roman_Jakobson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="317" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Jakobson</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vladimir_Nabokov_1973.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Vladimir_Nabokov_1973.jpg/130px-Vladimir_Nabokov_1973.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Vladimir_Nabokov_1973.jpg/195px-Vladimir_Nabokov_1973.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Vladimir_Nabokov_1973.jpg/260px-Vladimir_Nabokov_1973.jpg 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Nabokov" title="Vladimir Nabokov">Nabokov</a></figcaption></figure> Views on the possibility of satisfactorily translating poetry show a broad spectrum, depending partly on the degree of latitude desired by the translator in regard to a poem's formal features (rhythm, rhyme, verse form, etc.), but also relating to how much of the suggestiveness and imagery in the host poem can be recaptured or approximated in the target language. In his 1997 book <a href="/wiki/Le_Ton_beau_de_Marot" title="Le Ton beau de Marot">Le Ton beau de Marot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Hofstadter" title="Douglas Hofstadter">Douglas Hofstadter</a> argued that a good translation of a poem must convey as much as possible not only of its literal meaning but also of its form and structure (meter, rhyme or alliteration scheme, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-125">[116]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a>-born <a href="/wiki/Linguist" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguist">linguist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semiotician" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiotician">semiotician</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a>, however, had in his 1959 paper "<a href="/wiki/On_Linguistic_Aspects_of_Translation" title="On Linguistic Aspects of Translation">On Linguistic Aspects of Translation</a>", declared that "poetry by definition [is] untranslatable". <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Nabokov" title="Vladimir Nabokov">Vladimir Nabokov</a>, another Russian-born author, took a view similar to Jakobson's. He considered rhymed, metrical, versed poetry to be in principle untranslatable and therefore rendered his 1964 English translation of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Alexander Pushkin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Onegin#Into_English" title="Eugene Onegin">Eugene Onegin in prose</a>. Hofstadter, in Le Ton beau de Marot, criticized Nabokov's attitude toward verse translation. In 1999 Hofstadter published his own translation of Eugene Onegin, in verse form. However, a number of more contemporary literary translators of poetry lean toward <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a>'s notion of language as a "third universe" existing "midway between the phenomenal reality of the 'empirical world' and the internalized structures of consciousness."<a href="#cite_note-126">[117]</a> Perhaps this is what poet <a href="/wiki/Sholeh_Wolp%C3%A9" title="Sholeh Wolpé">Sholeh Wolpé</a>, translator of the 12th-century Iranian epic poem <a href="/wiki/The_Conference_of_the_Birds" title="The Conference of the Birds">The Conference of the Birds</a>, means when she writes: <blockquote>Twelfth-century Persian and contemporary English are as different as sky and sea. The best I can do as a poet is to reflect one into the other. The sea can reflect the sky with its moving stars, shifting clouds, gestations of the moon, and migrating birds—but ultimately the sea is not the sky. By nature, it is liquid. It ripples. There are waves. If you are a fish living in the sea, you can only understand the sky if its reflection becomes part of the water. Therefore, this translation of The Conference of the Birds, while faithful to the original text, aims at its re-creation into a still living and breathing work of literature.<a href="#cite_note-127">[118]</a></blockquote>Poet <a href="/wiki/Sherod_Santos" title="Sherod Santos">Sherod Santos</a> writes: "The task is not to reproduce the content, but with the flint and the steel of one's own language to spark what Robert Lowell has called 'the fire and finish of the original.'"<a href="#cite_note-128">[119]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a>:<blockquote>While a poet's words endure in his own language, even the greatest translation is destined to become part of the growth of its own language and eventually to perish with its renewal. Translation is so far removed from being the sterile equation of two dead languages that of all literary forms it is the one charged with the special mission of watching over the maturing process of the original language and the birth pangs of its own.<a href="#cite_note-129">[120]</a></blockquote>Gregory Hays, in the course of discussing <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> adapted translations of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">ancient Greek literature</a>, makes approving reference to some views on the translating of poetry expressed by <a href="/wiki/David_Bellos" title="David Bellos">David Bellos</a>, an accomplished French-to-English translator. Hays writes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Among the idées reçues [received ideas] skewered by David Bellos is the old saw that "poetry is what gets lost in translation." The saying is often attributed to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Frost" title="Robert Frost">Robert Frost</a>, but as Bellos notes, the attribution is as dubious as the idea itself. A translation is an assemblage of words, and as such it can contain as much or as little poetry as any other such assemblage. The <a href="/wiki/Japanese_people" title="Japanese people">Japanese</a> even have a word (chōyaku, roughly "hypertranslation") to designate a version that deliberately improves on the original.<a href="#cite_note-130">[121]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_titles">Book titles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Book titles">edit</a>]</div> Book-title translations can be either descriptive or symbolic. Descriptive book titles, for example <a href="/wiki/Antoine_de_Saint-Exup%C3%A9ry" title="Antoine de Saint-Exupéry">Antoine de Saint-Exupéry</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Le_Petit_Prince" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Petit Prince">Le Petit Prince</a> (The Little Prince), are meant to be informative, and can name the protagonist, and indicate the theme of the book. An example of a symbolic book title is <a href="/wiki/Stieg_Larsson" title="Stieg Larsson">Stieg Larsson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Girl_with_the_Dragon_Tattoo" title="The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo">The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo</a>, whose original Swedish title is Män som hatar kvinnor (Men Who Hate Women). Such symbolic book titles usually indicate the theme, issues, or atmosphere of the work. When translators are working with long book titles, the translated titles are often shorter and indicate the theme of the book.<a href="#cite_note-131">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plays">Plays</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Plays">edit</a>]</div> The translation of plays poses many problems such as the added element of actors, speech duration, translation literalness, and the relationship between the arts of drama and acting. Successful play translators are able to create language that allows the actor and the playwright to work together effectively.<a href="#cite_note-132">[123]</a> Play translators must also take into account several other aspects: the final performance, varying theatrical and acting traditions, characters' speaking styles, modern theatrical discourse, and even the acoustics of the auditorium, i.e., whether certain words will have the same effect on the new audience as they had on the original audience.<a href="#cite_note-133">[124]</a> Audiences in Shakespeare's time were more accustomed than modern playgoers to actors having longer stage time.<a href="#cite_note-134">[125]</a> Modern translators tend to simplify the sentence structures of earlier dramas, which included compound sentences with intricate hierarchies of subordinate clauses.<a href="#cite_note-135">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_literature">Chinese literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Chinese literature">edit</a>]</div> In translating Chinese literature, translators struggle to find true fidelity in translating into the target language. In The Poem Behind the Poem, Barnstone argues that poetry "can't be made to sing through a mathematics that doesn't factor in the creativity of the translator".<a href="#cite_note-137">[128]</a> A notable piece of work translated into English is the <a href="/wiki/Wen_Xuan" title="Wen Xuan">Wen Xuan</a>, an anthology representative of major works of Chinese literature. Translating this work requires a high knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genres</a> presented in the book, such as poetic forms, various prose types including memorials, letters, proclamations, praise poems, edicts, and historical, philosophical and political disquisitions, threnodies and laments for the dead, and examination essays. Thus the literary translator must be familiar with the writings, lives, and thought of a large number of its 130 authors, making the Wen Xuan one of the most difficult literary works to translate.<a href="#cite_note-138">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sung_texts">Sung texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sung texts">edit</a>]</div> Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language—sometimes called "singing translation"—is closely linked to translation of poetry because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to <a href="/wiki/Verse_(popular_music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Verse (popular music)">verse</a>, especially verse in regular patterns with <a href="/wiki/Rhyme" title="Rhyme">rhyme</a>. (Since the late 19th century, musical setting of <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_verse" title="Free verse">free verse</a> has also been practiced in some <a href="/wiki/Art_music" title="Art music">art music</a>, though popular music tends to remain conservative in its retention of <a href="/wiki/Stanza" title="Stanza">stanzaic</a> forms with or without <a href="/wiki/Refrain" title="Refrain">refrains</a>.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a>, such as the German <a href="/wiki/Chorale" title="Chorale">chorales</a> translated into English by <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Winkworth" title="Catherine Winkworth">Catherine Winkworth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[j]</a> Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line. Other considerations in writing a singing translation include repetition of words and phrases, the placement of rests and punctuation, the quality of vowels sung on high notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be more natural to the original language than to the target language. A sung translation may be considerably or completely different from the original, thus resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Contrafactum" title="Contrafactum">contrafactum</a>. Translations of sung texts—whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be read—are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most familiar types are translations presented as subtitles or <a href="/wiki/Surtitles" title="Surtitles">surtitles</a> projected during <a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">opera</a> performances, those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do not know (or do not know well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are singing. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_texts">Religious texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Religious texts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations" title="Bible translations">Bible translations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quran_translations" title="Quran translations">Quran translations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Domenico_Ghirlandaio_-_St_Jerome_in_his_study.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Domenico_Ghirlandaio_-_St_Jerome_in_his_study.jpg/220px-Domenico_Ghirlandaio_-_St_Jerome_in_his_study.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="341" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Domenico_Ghirlandaio_-_St_Jerome_in_his_study.jpg/330px-Domenico_Ghirlandaio_-_St_Jerome_in_his_study.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Domenico_Ghirlandaio_-_St_Jerome_in_his_study.jpg/440px-Domenico_Ghirlandaio_-_St_Jerome_in_his_study.jpg 2x" data-file-width="516" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patron_saint" title="Patron saint">patron saint</a> of translators and <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">encyclopedists</a></figcaption></figure> An important role in history has been played by translation of religious texts. Such translations may be influenced by tension between the text and the religious values the translators wish to convey.<a href="#cite_note-140">[130]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monks</a> who translated the <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a> into <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> occasionally adjusted their translations to better reflect <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>'s distinct <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, emphasizing notions such as <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a>. One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the 3rd century BCE rendering of some books of the biblical <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> from Hebrew into <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>. The translation is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>", a name that refers to the supposedly seventy translators (seventy-two, in some versions) who were commissioned to translate the Bible at <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, Egypt. According to legend, each translator worked in solitary confinement in his own cell, and all seventy versions proved identical. The Septuagint became the <a href="/wiki/Source_text" title="Source text">source text</a> for later translations into many languages, including Latin, <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a>. Still considered one of the greatest translators in history, for having rendered the Bible into Latin, is <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> (347–420 CE), the <a href="/wiki/Patron_saint" title="Patron saint">patron saint</a> of translators. For centuries the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> used his translation (known as the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>), though even this translation stirred controversy. By contrast with Jerome's contemporary, <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> (354–430 CE), who endorsed precise translation, Jerome believed in adaptation, and sometimes invention, in order to more effectively bring across the meaning. Jerome's colorful Vulgate translation of the Bible includes some crucial instances of "overdetermination". For example, <a href="/wiki/Isaiah" title="Isaiah">Isaiah</a>'s prophecy announcing that the Savior will be born of a virgin, uses the word 'almah, which is also used to describe the dancing girls at <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a>'s court, and simply means young and nubile. Jerome, writes <a href="/wiki/Marina_Warner" title="Marina Warner">Marina Warner</a>, translates it as virgo, "adding divine authority to the virulent cult of <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sexual</a> disgust that shaped Christian moral theology (the [Moslem] <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>, free from this linguistic trap, does not connect <a href="/wiki/Mariam" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariam">Mariam</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a>'s miraculous nature with moral horror of sex)." The apple that <a href="/wiki/Eve" title="Eve">Eve</a> offered to <a href="/wiki/Adam" title="Adam">Adam</a>, according to Mark Polizzotti, could equally well have been an <a href="/wiki/Apricot" title="Apricot">apricot</a>, orange, or banana; but Jerome liked the <a href="/wiki/Pun" title="Pun">pun</a> malus/malum (apple/evil).<a href="#cite_note-This_Little_Art_2018_p._22-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a> has suggested that the phrase "lead us not into temptation", in the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a> found in the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Gospels of Matthew</a> (the first Gospel, written <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 80–90 CE) and <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke" title="Gospel of Luke">Luke</a> (the third Gospel, written <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 80–110 CE), should more properly be translated, "do not let us fall into temptation", commenting that God does not lead people into temptation—<a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a> does.<a href="#cite_note-142">[k]</a> Some important early Christian authors interpreted the Bible's Greek text and <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>'s Latin Vulgate similarly to Pope Francis. A.J.B. Higgins<a href="#cite_note-143">[132]</a> in 1943 showed that among the earliest Christian authors, the understanding and even the text of this devotional verse underwent considerable changes. These ancient writers suggest that, even if the Greek and Latin texts are left unmodified, something like "do not let us fall" could be an acceptable English rendering. Higgins cited <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, the earliest of the Latin <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 155 – c. 240 CE, "do not allow us to be led") and <a href="/wiki/Cyprian" title="Cyprian">Cyprian</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200–258 CE, "do not allow us to be led into temptation"). A later author, <a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 340–397 CE), followed Cyprian's interpretation. Augustine of Hippo (354–430), familiar with Jerome's Latin Vulgate rendering, observed that "many people... say it this way: 'and do not allow us to be led into temptation.'"<a href="#cite_note-144">[133]</a> In 863 CE the brothers <a href="/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">Saints Cyril and Methodius</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>'s "Apostles to the Slavs", began translating parts of the Bible into the <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a> language, using the <a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic script</a> that they had devised, based on the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>. The periods preceding and contemporary with the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> saw translations of the Bible into <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> (local) European languages—a development that contributed to <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a>'s split into Roman Catholicism and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> over disparities between Catholic and Protestant renderings of crucial words and passages (and due to a Protestant-perceived need to reform the Roman Catholic Church). Lasting effects on the religions, cultures, and languages of their respective countries were exerted by such Bible translations as <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>'s into German (the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, 1522), <a href="/wiki/Jakub_Wujek" title="Jakub Wujek">Jakub Wujek</a>'s into Polish (1599, as revised by the <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Tyndale_Bible" title="Tyndale Bible">William Tyndale's version</a> (New Testament, 1526 and revisions) and the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a> into English (1611). <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moses_(Michaelangelo_-_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli_-_Rome).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Moses_%28Michaelangelo_-_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli_-_Rome%29.jpg/240px-Moses_%28Michaelangelo_-_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli_-_Rome%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Moses_%28Michaelangelo_-_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli_-_Rome%29.jpg/360px-Moses_%28Michaelangelo_-_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli_-_Rome%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Moses_%28Michaelangelo_-_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli_-_Rome%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="422" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption>Mistranslation: <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Horned_Moses" class="mw-redirect" title="Horned Moses">horned Moses</a></figcaption></figure> Efforts to translate the Bible into English had their <a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyrs</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_Tyndale" title="William Tyndale">William Tyndale</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1494–1536) was convicted of <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a> at <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, was strangled to death while tied at the stake, and then his dead body was burned.<a href="#cite_note-145">[134]</a> Earlier, <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> mid-1320s – 1384) had managed to die a natural death, but 30 years later the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a> in 1415 declared him a heretic and decreed that his works and earthly remains should be burned; the order, confirmed by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Martin_V" title="Pope Martin V">Pope Martin V</a>, was carried out in 1428, and Wycliffe's corpse was exhumed and burned and the ashes cast into the <a href="/wiki/River_Swift" title="River Swift">River Swift</a>. Debate and religious <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schism</a> over different translations of religious texts continue, as demonstrated by, for example, the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Only_movement" title="King James Only movement">King James Only movement</a>. A famous mistranslation of a <a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">Biblical</a> text is the rendering of the Hebrew word קֶרֶן (keren), which has several meanings, as "<a href="/wiki/Horns_of_Moses" title="Horns of Moses">horn</a>" in a context where it more plausibly means "beam of light": as a result, for centuries artists, including sculptor <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, have rendered <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses the Lawgiver</a> with horns growing from his forehead. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_quran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Chinese_quran.jpg/200px-Chinese_quran.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Chinese_quran.jpg/300px-Chinese_quran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Chinese_quran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="526" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> translation, verses 33–34 of Quran's <a href="/wiki/Ya_Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ya Sin">surah (chapter) 36</a></figcaption></figure> Such fallibility of the translation process has contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> world's ambivalence about translating the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> (also spelled Koran) from the original Arabic, as received by the prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> from <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> (God) through the angel <a href="/wiki/Gabriel" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a> incrementally between 609 and 632 CE, the year of Muhammad's death. During prayers, the Quran, as the miraculous and inimitable word of Allah, is recited only in Arabic. However, as of 1936, it had been translated into at least 102 languages.<a href="#cite_note-fatani-146">[135]</a> A fundamental difficulty in translating the Quran accurately stems from the fact that an Arabic word, like a Hebrew or Aramaic word, may have a <a href="/wiki/Polysemy" title="Polysemy">range of meanings</a>, depending on <a href="/wiki/Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">context</a>. This is said to be a linguistic feature, particularly of all <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>, that adds to the usual similar difficulties encountered in translating between any two languages.<a href="#cite_note-fatani-146">[135]</a> There is always an element of human judgment—of interpretation—involved in understanding and translating a text. Muslims regard any translation of the Quran as but one possible interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Quranic (Classical) Arabic</a> text, and not as a full equivalent of that divinely communicated original. Hence such a translation is often called an "interpretation" rather than a translation.<a href="#cite_note-147">[136]</a> To complicate matters further, as with other languages, the meanings and usages of some expressions have changed over time, between the Classical Arabic of the Quran, and modern Arabic. Thus a modern Arabic speaker may misinterpret the meaning of a word or passage in the Quran. Moreover, the interpretation of a Quranic passage will also depend on the historic context of Muhammad's life and of his early community. Properly researching that context requires a detailed knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">sirah</a>, which are themselves vast and complex texts. Hence, analogously to the translating of <a href="#Chinese_literature">Chinese literature</a>, an attempt at an accurate translation of the Quran requires a knowledge not only of the Arabic language and of the target language, including their respective evolutions, but also a deep understanding of the two <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultures</a> involved. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Experimental_literature">Experimental literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Experimental literature">edit</a>]</div> Experimental literature, such as <a href="/wiki/Kathy_Acker" title="Kathy Acker">Kathy Acker</a>’s novel Don Quixote (1986) and <a href="/wiki/Giannina_Braschi" title="Giannina Braschi">Giannina Braschi</a>’s novel <a href="/wiki/Yo-Yo_Boing!" title="Yo-Yo Boing!">Yo-Yo Boing!</a> (1998), features a translative writing that highlights discomforts of the interlingual and translingual encounters and literary translation as a creative practice.<a href="#cite_note-fisher-148">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[138]</a> These authors weave their own translations into their texts. Acker's <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_literature" title="Postmodern literature">Postmodern</a> fiction both fragments and preserves the materiality of <a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a>’s Latin text in ways that tease out its semantics and syntax without wholly appropriating them, a method that unsettles the notion of any fixed and finished translation.<a href="#cite_note-fisher-148">[137]</a> Whereas Braschi's trilogy of experimental works (<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Dreams_(poetry_collection)" title="Empire of Dreams (poetry collection)">Empire of Dreams</a>, 1988; Yo-Yo Boing!, 1998, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Banana" title="United States of Banana">United States of Banana</a>, 2011) deals with the very subject of translation.<a href="#cite_note-150">[139]</a> Her trilogy presents the evolution of the Spanish language through loose translations of dramatic, poetic, and philosophical writings from the Medieval, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Modernismo" title="Modernismo">Modernist</a> eras into contemporary Caribbean, Latin American, and Nuyorican Spanish expressions. Braschi's translations of classical texts in Iberian Spanish (into other regional and historical linguistic and poetic frameworks) challenge the concept of national languages.<a href="#cite_note-151">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_fiction">Science fiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Science fiction">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">Science fiction</a> being a <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a> with a recognizable set of conventions and literary genealogies, in which language often includes <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologisms</a>, neosemes,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] and <a href="/wiki/Invented_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Invented languages">invented languages</a>, techno-scientific and <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoscientific">pseudoscientific</a> vocabulary,<a href="#cite_note-152">[141]</a> and fictional representation of the translation process,<a href="#cite_note-153">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[143]</a> the translation of science-fiction texts involves specific concerns.<a href="#cite_note-:0-155">[144]</a> The science-fiction translator tends to acquire specific competences and assume a distinctive publishing and cultural agency.<a href="#cite_note-156">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[146]</a> As in the case of other mass-fiction genres, this professional specialization and role often is not recognized by publishers and scholars.<a href="#cite_note-158">[147]</a> Translation of science fiction accounts for the transnational nature of science fiction's repertoire of shared conventions and <a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">tropes</a>. After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, many European countries were swept by a wave of translations from the English.<a href="#cite_note-159">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[149]</a> Due to the prominence of English as a source language, the use of <a href="/wiki/Pseudonym" title="Pseudonym">pseudonyms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pseudotranslation" title="Pseudotranslation">pseudotranslations</a> became common in countries such as Italy<a href="#cite_note-:0-155">[144]</a> and Hungary,<a href="#cite_note-161">[150]</a> and English has often been used as a <a href="/wiki/Vehicular_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Vehicular language">vehicular language</a> to translate from languages such as Chinese and Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-Iannuzzi-162">[151]</a> More recently, the international market in science-fiction translations has seen an increasing presence of source languages other than English.<a href="#cite_note-Iannuzzi-162">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technical_translation">Technical translation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Technical translation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Technical_translation" title="Technical translation">Technical translation</a></div> Technical translation renders documents such as manuals, instruction sheets, internal memos, minutes, financial reports, and other documents for a limited audience (who are directly affected by the document) and whose useful life is often limited. Thus, a user guide for a particular model of refrigerator is useful only for the owner of the refrigerator, and will remain useful only as long as that refrigerator model is in use. Similarly, software documentation generally pertains to a particular software, whose applications are used only by a certain class of users.<a href="#cite_note-163">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Survey_translation">Survey translation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Survey translation">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">survey</a> <a href="/wiki/Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">questionnaire</a> consists of a list of questions and answer categories aimed at extracting data from a particular group of people about their attitude, behavior, or knowledge. In cross-national and cross-cultural <a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">survey research</a>, translation is crucial to collecting comparable data.<a href="#cite_note-164">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[154]</a> Originally developed for the <a href="/wiki/European_Social_Survey" title="European Social Survey">European Social Surveys</a>, the model TRAPD (Translation, Review, Adjudication, Pretest, and Documentation) is now "widely used in the global survey research community, although not always labeled as such or implemented in its complete form".<a href="#cite_note-166">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-168">[157]</a> A team approach is recommended in the survey-translation process, to include translators, subject-matter experts, and persons helpful to the process.<a href="#cite_note-169">[158]</a> For example, even when project managers and researchers do not speak the language of the translation, they know the study objectives well and the intent behind the questions, and therefore have a key role in improving the translation.<a href="#cite_note-170">[159]</a> In addition, a survey-translation framework based on <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a> states that a linguistically appropriate translation cannot be wholly sufficient to achieve the communicative effect of the source-language survey; the translation must also incorporate the social practices and cultural norms of the target language.<a href="#cite_note-171">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Literary_Translators_Association" title="American Literary Translators Association">American Literary Translators Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Back-translation">Back-translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations" title="Bible translations">Bible translations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_dictionary" title="Bilingual dictionary">Bilingual dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_pun" title="Bilingual pun">Bilingual pun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingualism">Bilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridge language">Bridge language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">Calque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certified_translation" title="Certified translation">Certified translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_translation_theory" title="Chinese translation theory">Chinese translation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_mixing" class="mw-redirect" title="Code mixing">Code mixing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory" title="Communication accommodation theory">Communication accommodation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrafactum" title="Contrafactum">Contrafactum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_linguistics" title="Contrastive linguistics">Contrastive linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictionary-based_machine_translation" title="Dictionary-based machine translation">Dictionary-based machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">Diglossia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Master%27s_in_Translation" title="European Master's in Translation">European Master's in Translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Example-based_machine_translation" title="Example-based machine translation">Example-based machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_cognate" title="False cognate">False cognate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_friend" title="False friend">False friend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">First language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Arabic_translation_movement" title="Graeco-Arabic translation movement">Graeco-Arabic translation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophonic_translation" title="Homophonic translation">Homophonic translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour_in_translation" title="Humour in translation">Humour in translation</a> ("howlers")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_word" title="Hybrid word">Hybrid word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indeterminacy_of_translation" title="Indeterminacy of translation">Indeterminacy of translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_translation" title="Indirect translation">Indirect translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscrutability_of_reference" title="Inscrutability of reference">Inscrutability of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Translators" title="International Federation of Translators">International Federation of Translators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalization_and_localization" title="Internationalization and localization">Internationalization and localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpreting_notes" title="Interpreting notes">Interpreting notes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inttranet" title="Inttranet">Inttranet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_brokering" title="Language brokering">Language brokering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_industry" title="Language industry">Language industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">Language interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_localisation" title="Language localisation">Language localisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_professional" title="Language professional">Language professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_transfer" title="Language transfer">Language transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_translation" title="Legal translation">Legal translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">Lingua franca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_validation" title="Linguistic validation">Linguistic validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_translators" title="List of translators">List of translators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_translators" title="List of women translators">List of women translators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">Literal translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">Machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_translation" title="Medical translation">Medical translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphrase" title="Metaphrase">Metaphrase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_translation" title="Mobile translation">Mobile translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Translation_Mission" title="National Translation Mission">National Translation Mission</a> (NTM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_machine_translation" title="Neural machine translation">Neural machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_text" class="mw-redirect" title="Original text">Original text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraphrase" title="Paraphrase">Paraphrase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonaesthetics" title="Phonaesthetics">Phonaesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonestheme" title="Phonestheme">Phonestheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phono-semantic_matching" title="Phono-semantic matching">Phono-semantic matching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postediting" title="Postediting">Postediting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-editing" title="Pre-editing">Pre-editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudotranslation" title="Pseudotranslation">Pseudotranslation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">Register (sociolinguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule-based_machine_translation" title="Rule-based machine translation">Rule-based machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">Second language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-translation" title="Self-translation">Self-translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_equivalence_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic equivalence (linguistics)">Semantic equivalence (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skopos_theory" title="Skopos theory">Skopos theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_symbolism" title="Sound symbolism">Sound symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_machine_translation" title="Statistical machine translation">Statistical machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_translation" title="Technical translation">Technical translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Words_and_phrases_with_no_direct_English_translation" title="Category:Words and phrases with no direct English translation">Terms with no direct English translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">Textual criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">Transcription (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translating_for_legal_equivalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Translating for legal equivalence">Translating for legal equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_associations" title="Category:Translation associations">Translation associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_criticism" title="Translation criticism">Translation criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_memory" title="Translation memory">Translation memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation-quality_standards" title="Translation-quality standards">Translation-quality standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_scholars" title="Category:Translation scholars">Translation scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_services_of_the_European_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Translation services of the European Parliament">Translation services of the European Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translation studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation-quality_standards" title="Translation-quality standards">Translation-quality standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">Transliteration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untranslatability" title="Untranslatability">Untranslatability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicular_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Vehicular language">Vehicular language</a></li></ul> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Languages">Languages portal</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> French philosopher and writer <a href="/wiki/Gilles_M%C3%A9nage" title="Gilles Ménage">Gilles Ménage</a> (1613-92) commented on translations by humanist Perrot Nicolas d'Ablancourt (1606-64): "They remind me of a woman whom I greatly loved in <a href="/wiki/Tours" title="Tours">Tours</a>, who was beautiful but unfaithful."<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Cf. a supposed comment by <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>: "This is the type of pedantry up with which I will not put." </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> "Interpretation" in this sense is to be distinguished from the function of an "<a href="#Interpreting">interpreter</a>" who translates orally or by the use of <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign language</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Rebecca Armstrong writes: "A translator has to make choices; any word they choose will carry its own nuance, a particular set of interpretations, implications and associations. [Often the translator] need[s] to render the same [...] word differently in different contexts."<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> See "<a href="#Poetry">Poetry</a>", below, for a similar observation concerning the occasional superiority of the translation over the original. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Elsewhere Merwin recalls Pound saying: "[A]t your age you don't have anything to write about. You may think you do, but you don't. So get to work translating. The <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Provençal</a> is the real source...."<a href="#cite_note-88">[83]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> For example, in <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, a "translation" is "przekład" or "tłumaczenie." Both "translator" and "interpreter" are "tłumacz." For a time in the 18th century, however, for "translator," some writers used a word, "przekładowca," that is no longer in use.<a href="#cite_note-91">[85]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> J.M. Cohen observes: "Scientific translation is the aim of an age that would reduce all activities to <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">techniques</a>. It is impossible however to imagine a literary-translation machine less complex than the human brain itself, with all its knowledge, reading, and discrimination."<a href="#cite_note-105">[98]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> For instance, Henry Benedict Mackey's translation of <a href="/wiki/St._Francis_de_Sales" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Francis de Sales">St. Francis de Sales</a>'s "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/desales/love.html">Treatise on the Love of God</a>" consistently omits the saint's analogies comparing God to a nursing mother, references to Bible stories such as the rape of Tamar, and so forth. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> For another example of poetry translation, including translation of sung texts, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vagalecs.narod.ru/">Rhymes from Russia</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> MJC Warren, Lecturer in Biblical and Religious Studies, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sheffield" title="University of Sheffield">University of Sheffield</a>, points out (more explicitly than Charles McNamara) that Luke gives a shorter version of Jesus's Lord's Prayer, leaving off the request that God "deliver us from evil"; that (as Charles McNamara also says) accurate translation is not the question here; and that the Bible records a number of incidents when God commands evil actions, such as that <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> kill his only son, <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a> (whose execution is canceled at the last moment).<a href="#cite_note-141">[131]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Namit Bhatia, ed., 1992, pp. 1,051–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kasparek" title="Christopher Kasparek">Christopher Kasparek</a>, "The Translator's Endless Toil", <a href="/wiki/The_Polish_Review" title="The Polish Review">The Polish Review</a>, vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 84-87. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> W.J. Hutchins, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3dU5AAAAQBAJ">Early Years in Machine Translation: Memoirs and Biographies of Pioneers</a>, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2000. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> M. Snell-Hornby, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.intralinea.org/reviews/item/The_Turns_of_Translation_Studies_New_Paradigms_or_Shifting_Viewpoints">The Turns of Translation Studies: New Paradigms or Shifting Viewpoints?</a>, Philadelphia, John Benjamins, 2006, p. 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> "Rosetta Stone", The Columbia Encyclopedia, 5th ed., 1994, p. 2,361. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVélez" class="citation book cs1">Vélez, Fabio. Antes de Babel. pp. 3–21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antes+de+Babel&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.aulast=V%C3%A9lez&rft.aufirst=Fabio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Translator_p._83-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Translator_p._83_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Translator_p._83_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Translator_p._83_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Translator_p._83_7-3">d</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kasparek" title="Christopher Kasparek">Christopher Kasparek</a>, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kasparek_p._84_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasparek_p._84_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasparek_p._84_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasparek_p._84_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasparek_p._84_8-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasparek_p._84_8-5">f</a> Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lydia_Davis" title="Lydia Davis">Lydia Davis</a>, "Eleven Pleasures of Translating", <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIII, no. 19 (8 December 2016), pp. 22–24. "I like to reproduce the word order, and the order of ideas, of the original [text] whenever possible. [p. 22] [T]ranslation is, eternally, a compromise. You settle for the best you can do rather than achieving perfection, though there is the occasional perfect solution [to the problem of finding an equivalent expression in the target language]." (p. 23.) </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Typically, <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic languages</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Typically, <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic languages</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Some examples of this are described in the article, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noproblem.no/translate.html">"Translating the 17th of May into English and other horror stories"</a>, retrieved 15 April 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kasparek_p._85_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasparek_p._85_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasparek_p._85_13-2">c</a> Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 85-86. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> L.G. Kelly, cited in Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kasparek_p._86-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kasparek_p._86_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasparek_p._86_16-1">b</a> Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Cited by Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 87, from <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Ignacy Krasicki</a>, "O tłumaczeniu ksiąg" ("On Translating Books"), in Dzieła wierszem i prozą (Works in Verse and Prose), 1803, reprinted in <a href="/wiki/Edward_Balcerzan" title="Edward Balcerzan">Edward Balcerzan</a>, ed., Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440–1974: Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440–1974: an Anthology), p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> J.M. Cohen, "Translation", <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a>, 1986, vol. 27, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Bakir, K.H. 1984. Arabization of Higher Education in Iraq. PhD thesis, University of Bath. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Wakim, K.G. 1944. Arabic Medicine in Literature. Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 32 (1), January: 96-104. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Hitti, P.K. 1970. History of the Arabs from the Earliest Times to the Present. 10th ed. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Monastra, Y., and W. J. Kopycki. 2009. Libraries. In: The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. edited by J.L. Esposito, 2nd ed., vol.3, 424-427. New York: Oxford University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Hussain, S.V. 1960. Organization and Administration of Muslim Libraries: From 786 A.D. to 1492 A.D. Quarterly Journal of the Pakistan Library Association 1 (1), July: 8-11. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> S.A. El Gabri, The Arab Experiment in Translation, New Delhi, India, Bookman’s Club, 1984. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Perry_Link" title="Perry Link">Perry Link</a>, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry" (review of <a href="/wiki/Eliot_Weinberger" title="Eliot Weinberger">Eliot Weinberger</a>, with an afterword by <a href="/wiki/Octavio_Paz" title="Octavio Paz">Octavio Paz</a>, 19 Ways of Looking at <a href="/wiki/Wang_Wei_(Tang_dynasty)" title="Wang Wei (Tang dynasty)">Wang Wei</a> (with More Ways), New Directions; and <a href="/wiki/Eliot_Weinberger" title="Eliot Weinberger">Eliot Weinberger</a>, The Ghosts of Birds, New Directions), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (24 November 2016), pp. 49–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-LXIII_2016_p._49-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LXIII_2016_p._49_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LXIII_2016_p._49_26-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Perry_Link" title="Perry Link">Perry Link</a>, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry", <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (November 24, 2016), p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-LXIII_2016_p._50-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LXIII_2016_p._50_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LXIII_2016_p._50_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LXIII_2016_p._50_27-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LXIII_2016_p._50_27-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LXIII_2016_p._50_27-4">e</a> <a href="/wiki/Perry_Link" title="Perry Link">Perry Link</a>, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry", <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (24 November 2016), p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-debellaigue77-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-debellaigue77_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-debellaigue77_28-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_de_Bellaigue" title="Christopher de Bellaigue">Christopher de Bellaigue</a>, "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry, Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950, University of Chicago Press), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXII, no. 10 (June 4, 2015), p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Malise_Ruthven" title="Malise Ruthven">Malise Ruthven</a>, "The Islamic Road to the Modern World" (review of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_de_Bellaigue" title="Christopher de Bellaigue">Christopher de Bellaigue</a>, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle between Faith and Reason, 1798 to Modern Times, Liveright; and Wael Abu-'Uksa, Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Malise_Ruthven" title="Malise Ruthven">Malise Ruthven</a>, "The Islamic Road to the Modern World" (review of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_de_Bellaigue" title="Christopher de Bellaigue">Christopher de Bellaigue</a>, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle between Faith and Reason, 1798 to Modern Times, Liveright; and Wael Abu-'Uksa, Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_de_Bellaigue" title="Christopher de Bellaigue">Christopher de Bellaigue</a>, "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry, Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), p. 77–78. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_de_Bellaigue" title="Christopher de Bellaigue">Christopher de Bellaigue</a>, "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry, Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-This_Little_Art_2018_p._22-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-This_Little_Art_2018_p._22_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-This_Little_Art_2018_p._22_33-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Marina_Warner" title="Marina Warner">Marina Warner</a>, "The Politics of Translation" (a review of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kate_Briggs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kate Briggs (page does not exist)">Kate Briggs</a>, This Little Art, 2017; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mireille_Gansel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mireille Gansel (page does not exist)">Mireille Gansel</a>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Ros_Schwartz" title="Ros Schwartz">Ros Schwartz</a>, 2017; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mark_Polizzotti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mark Polizzotti (page does not exist)">Mark Polizzotti</a>, Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto, 2018; <a href="/wiki/Boyd_Tonkin" title="Boyd Tonkin">Boyd Tonkin</a>, ed., The 100 Best Novels in Translation, 2018; <a href="/wiki/Clive_Scott_(linguist)" title="Clive Scott (linguist)">Clive Scott</a>, The Work of Literary Translation, 2018), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 40, no. 19 (11 October 2018), p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Quoted in <a href="/wiki/Amparo_Hurtado_Albir" title="Amparo Hurtado Albir">Amparo Hurtado Albir</a>, La notion de fidélité en traduction (The Idea of Fidelity in Translation), Paris, Didier Érudition, 1990, p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDryden" class="citation web cs1">Dryden, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/204/180.html">"Preface to Sylvae"</a>. Bartelby.com. Retrieved 27 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bartelby.com&rft.atitle=Preface+to+Sylvae&rft.aulast=Dryden&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F204%2F180.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Berman" title="Antoine Berman">Antoine Berman</a>, L'épreuve de l'étranger, 1984. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Venuti" title="Lawrence Venuti">Lawrence Venuti</a>, "Call to Action", in The Translator's Invisibility, 1994. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kasparek" title="Christopher Kasparek">Christopher Kasparek</a>, "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 83-87. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog-english.jrlanguage.com/overcome-5-challenges-of-english-to-spanish-translation/">"How to Overcome These 5 Challenges of English to Spanish Translation"</a>. Jr Language. 23 June 2017. Retrieved 30 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+to+Overcome+These+5+Challenges+of+English+to+Spanish+Translation&rft.pub=Jr+Language&rft.date=2017-06-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog-english.jrlanguage.com%2Fovercome-5-challenges-of-english-to-spanish-translation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMudauKabinde-MachateMandende2024" class="citation journal cs1">Mudau, Thama; Kabinde-Machate, Martha L.; Mandende, Itani P. (15 March 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.2989/16073614.2023.2257744">"Analysis of the translation strategies used for non-equivalent Grade 4 geography concepts"</a>. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies. 42 (3): 345–356. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2989%2F16073614.2023.2257744">10.2989/16073614.2023.2257744</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1607-3614">1607-3614</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+African+Linguistics+and+Applied+Language+Studies&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+the+translation+strategies+used+for+non-equivalent+Grade+4+geography+concepts&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E345-%3C%2Fspan%3E356&rft.date=2024-03-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2989%2F16073614.2023.2257744&rft.issn=1607-3614&rft.aulast=Mudau&rft.aufirst=Thama&rft.au=Kabinde-Machate%2C+Martha+L.&rft.au=Mandende%2C+Itani+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.2989%2F16073614.2023.2257744&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Willis Barnstone, The Poetics of Translation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), p. 228. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Basil Hatim and <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Munday" title="Jeremy Munday">Jeremy Munday</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3gZc6rCduLYC&dq=target+language+translation&pg=PA171">Translation: An Advanced Resource Book</a>, Introduction, pg. 171. <a href="/wiki/Milton_Park" title="Milton Park">Milton Park</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415283052" title="Special:BookSources/9780415283052">9780415283052</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Bai Liping, "Similarity and difference in Translation." Taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Okf1VDZLFpAC&dq=source+language+translation&pg=PA399">Similarity and Difference in Translation: Proceedings of the International Conference on Similarity and Translation</a>, pg. 339. Eds. Stefano Arduini and Robert Hodgson. 2nd ed. <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788884983749" title="Special:BookSources/9788884983749">9788884983749</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Carline FéRailleur-Dumoulin, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q2BK1Uv0wgAC&dq=target+language+translation&pg=PA36">A Career in Language Translation: Insightful Information to Guide You in Your Journey as a Professional Translator</a>, pgs. 1-2. <a href="/wiki/Bloomington,_Indiana" title="Bloomington, Indiana">Bloomington</a>: <a href="/wiki/AuthorHouse" title="AuthorHouse">AuthorHouse</a>, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781467052047" title="Special:BookSources/9781467052047">9781467052047</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_46-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPokorn2007" class="citation journal cs1">Pokorn, Nike K. (2007). "In defense of fuzziness". Target. 19 (2): 190–191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Ftarget.19.2.10pok">10.1075/target.19.2.10pok</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Target&rft.atitle=In+defense+of+fuzziness&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E190-%3C%2Fspan%3E191&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Ftarget.19.2.10pok&rft.aulast=Pokorn&rft.aufirst=Nike+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Christiane_Nord" title="Christiane Nord">Christiane Nord</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HaHTZ2IxIX4C&dq=source+language+translation&pg=PA1">Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-oriented Text Analysis</a>, pg. 1. 2nd ed. <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rodopi_(publisher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodopi (publisher)">Rodopi</a>, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042018082" title="Special:BookSources/9789042018082">9789042018082</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Gerard-Rene de Groot, "Translating legal information." Taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e1Fjal9DNpoC&dq=target+language+translation&pg=PA132">Translation in Law</a>, vol. 5 of the Journal of Legal Hermeneutics, pg. 132. Ed. Giuseppe Zaccaria. <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>: LIT Verlag Munster, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783825848620" title="Special:BookSources/9783825848620">9783825848620</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Basil Hatim and <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Munday" title="Jeremy Munday">Jeremy Munday</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3gZc6rCduLYC&dq=target+language+translation&pg=PA10">Translation: An Advanced Resource Book</a>, Introduction, pg. 10. <a href="/wiki/Milton_Park" title="Milton Park">Milton Park</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415283052" title="Special:BookSources/9780415283052">9780415283052</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Revivalistics-50"><a href="#cite_ref-Revivalistics_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuckermann,_Ghil'ad2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Zuckermann, Ghil'ad</a> (2020). <a href="/wiki/Revivalistics:_From_the_Genesis_of_Israeli_to_Language_Reclamation_in_Australia_and_Beyond" class="mw-redirect" title="Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond">Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199812790" title="Special:BookSources/9780199812790"><bdi>9780199812790</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revivalistics%3A+From+the+Genesis+of+Israeli+to+Language+Reclamation+in+Australia+and+Beyond&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780199812790&rft.au=Zuckermann%2C+Ghil%27ad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199812776" title="Special:BookSources/9780199812776">9780199812776</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunday2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Munday" title="Jeremy Munday">Munday, Jeremy</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introducingtrans0004mund/page/8">Introducing Translation Studies: theories and applications (4th ed.)</a>. London/New York: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introducingtrans0004mund/page/8">8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138912557" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138912557"><bdi>978-1138912557</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Translation+Studies%3A+theories+and+applications+%284th+ed.%29&rft.place=London%2FNew+York&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1138912557&rft.aulast=Munday&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroducingtrans0004mund%2Fpage%2F8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunday2016" class="citation book cs1">Munday, Jeremy (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introducingtrans0004mund/page/67">Introducing Translation Studies: theories and applications (4th ed.)</a>. London/New York: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introducingtrans0004mund/page/67">67–74</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138912557" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138912557"><bdi>978-1138912557</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Translation+Studies%3A+theories+and+applications+%284th+ed.%29&rft.place=London%2FNew+York&rft.pages=67-74&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1138912557&rft.aulast=Munday&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroducingtrans0004mund%2Fpage%2F67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1xAdjkR14ocC&dq=source+language+translation&pg=PA454">Measurement in Nursing and Health Research</a>, pg. 454. Eds. Carolyn Waltz, <a href="/wiki/Ora_L._Strickland" title="Ora L. Strickland">Ora L. Strickland</a> and Elizabeth Lenz. 4th ed. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer Publishing</a>, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826105080" title="Special:BookSources/9780826105080">9780826105080</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal" class="citation journal cs1">Crystal, Scott. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060520035802/http://www.atc.org.uk/winter2004.pdf">"Back Translation: Same questions – different continent"</a> (PDF). Communicate (Winter 2004): 5. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atc.org.uk/winter2004.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 May 2006. Retrieved 20 November 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communicate&rft.atitle=Back+Translation%3A+Same+questions+%E2%80%93+different+continent&rft.issue=Winter+2004&rft.pages=5&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atc.org.uk%2Fwinter2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060505141653/http://www.gts-translation.com/medicaltranslationpaper.pdf">"Back Translation for Quality Control of Informed Consent Forms"</a> (PDF). Journal of Clinical Research Best Practices. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gts-translation.com/medicaltranslationpaper.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 5 May 2006. Retrieved 1 February 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Research+Best+Practices&rft.atitle=Back+Translation+for+Quality+Control+of+Informed+Consent+Forms&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gts-translation.com%2Fmedicaltranslationpaper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwainStrothmannRoy_J._Friedman_Mark_Twain_Collection_(Library_of_Congress)_DLC1903" class="citation book cs1">Twain, Mark; Strothmann, F. (Frederick); Roy J. 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IX. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Zdzis%C5%82aw_Najder" title="Zdzisław Najder">Zdzisław Najder</a>, Joseph Conrad: A Life, 2007, p. 524. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Zdzis%C5%82aw_Najder" title="Zdzisław Najder">Zdzisław Najder</a>, Joseph Conrad: A Life, 2007, p. 332. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Walter Kaiser, "A Hero of Translation" (a review of Jean Findlay, Chasing Lost Time: The Life of <a href="/wiki/C.K._Scott_Moncrieff" class="mw-redirect" title="C.K. Scott Moncrieff">C.K. Scott Moncrieff</a>: Soldier, Spy, and Translator), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(classicist)" title="Emily Wilson (classicist)">Emily Wilson</a>, "A Doggish Translation" (review of The Poems of <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a>: Theogony, Works and Days, and The Shield of Herakles, translated from the Greek by <a href="/wiki/Barry_B._Powell" title="Barry B. Powell">Barry B. Powell</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, 2017, 184 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXV, no. 1 (18 January 2018), p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pharaoh_2020-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pharaoh_2020_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pharaoh_2020_80-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pharaoh_2020_80-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pharaoh_2020_80-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pharaoh_2020_80-4">e</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kasparek" title="Christopher Kasparek">Christopher Kasparek</a>, translator's foreword to <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Prus" title="Bolesław Prus">Bolesław Prus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh_(Prus_novel)" title="Pharaoh (Prus novel)">Pharaoh</a>, translated from the Polish, with foreword and notes, by Christopher Kasparek, <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Kindle" title="Amazon Kindle">Amazon Kindle</a> <a href="/wiki/E-book" class="mw-redirect" title="E-book">e-book</a>, 2020, ASIN:BO8MDN6CZV. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gary_Marcus" title="Gary Marcus">Gary Marcus</a>, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gary_Marcus" title="Gary Marcus">Gary Marcus</a>, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Bromwich" title="David Bromwich">David Bromwich</a>, "In Praise of Ambiguity" (a review of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Wood_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Wood (academic)">Michael Wood</a>, On Empson, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 2017), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>), vol. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2011-07/04/mechanical-turkish-ackuna">the original</a> on 17 May 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Ackuna+wants+to+fix+language+translation+by+crowdsourcing+it+%26%23124%3B+Wired+UK&rft.pub=Wired&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.co.uk%2Fnews%2Farchive%2F2011-07%2F04%2Fmechanical-turkish-ackuna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benzinga.com/press-releases/11/02/p843476/translation-services-usas-crowdsourcing-translator-ackuna-com-raises-th">"Translation Services USA's Crowdsourcing Translator, Ackuna.com, Raises the Bar for More Accurate Machine Translations"</a>. Benzinga. Retrieved 1 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Translation+Services+USA%27s+Crowdsourcing+Translator%2C+Ackuna.com%2C+Raises+the+Bar+for+More+Accurate+Machine+Translations&rft.pub=Benzinga&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.benzinga.com%2Fpress-releases%2F11%2F02%2Fp843476%2Ftranslation-services-usas-crowdsourcing-translator-ackuna-com-raises-th&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoutin2010" class="citation web cs1">Boutin, Paul (26 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://venturebeat.com/2010/03/26/speaklike-offers-human-powered-translation-for-blogs/">"Speaklike offers human-powered translation for blogs"</a>. VentureBeat.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=VentureBeat&rft.atitle=Speaklike+offers+human-powered+translation+for+blogs&rft.date=2010-03-26&rft.aulast=Boutin&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fventurebeat.com%2F2010%2F03%2F26%2Fspeaklike-offers-human-powered-translation-for-blogs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToto2010" class="citation news cs1">Toto, Serkan (11 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/01/11/AR2010011100701.html">"MyGengo Is Mechanical Turk For Translations"</a>. The Washington Post.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=MyGengo+Is+Mechanical+Turk+For+Translations&rft.date=2010-01-11&rft.aulast=Toto&rft.aufirst=Serkan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2010%2F01%2F11%2FAR2010011100701.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIST-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIST_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIST_102-1">b</a> See the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/speech/tests/mt/">annually performed NIST tests since 2001</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090322202656/http://nist.gov/speech/tests/mt/">Archived</a> 22 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bilingual_Evaluation_Understudy" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual Evaluation Understudy">Bilingual Evaluation Understudy</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVashee2007" class="citation journal cs1">Vashee, Kirti (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928140236/https://webmailcluster.perfora.net/xml/deref?link=http:%2F%2Frs6.net%2Ftn.jsp%3Ft=8mtygbcab.0.ksqvgbcab.ro78ttn6.33435&ts=S0250&p=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clientsidenews.com%2Fdownloads%2FCSNV7I6.zip">"Statistical machine translation and translation memory: An integration made in heaven!"</a>. ClientSide News Magazine. 7 (6): 18–20. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webmailcluster.perfora.net/xml/deref?link=http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?t=8mtygbcab.0.ksqvgbcab.ro78ttn6.33435&ts=S0250&p=http://www.clientsidenews.com/downloads/CSNV7I6.zip">the original</a> on 28 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ClientSide+News+Magazine&rft.atitle=Statistical+machine+translation+and+translation+memory%3A+An+integration+made+in+heaven%21&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E18-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Vashee&rft.aufirst=Kirti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwebmailcluster.perfora.net%2Fxml%2Fderef%3Flink%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Frs6.net%2Ftn.jsp%3Ft%3D8mtygbcab.0.ksqvgbcab.ro78ttn6.33435%26ts%3DS0250%26p%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.clientsidenews.com%2Fdownloads%2FCSNV7I6.zip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Altarabin2020-104"><a href="#cite_ref-Altarabin2020_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAltarabin2020" class="citation book cs1">Altarabin, Mahmoud (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9A4HEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15">The Routledge Course on Media, Legal and Technical Translation: English-Arabic-English</a>. Routledge. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-19763-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-19763-1"><bdi>978-1-000-19763-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Course+on+Media%2C+Legal+and+Technical+Translation%3A+English-Arabic-English&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-000-19763-1&rft.aulast=Altarabin&rft.aufirst=Mahmoud&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9A4HEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> J.M. Cohen, "Translation", <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a>, 1986, vol. 27, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Claude_Piron" title="Claude Piron">Claude Piron</a>, Le défi des langues (The Language Challenge), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gary_Marcus" title="Gary Marcus">Gary Marcus</a>, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> from the natural kind", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 58–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(classicist)" title="Emily Wilson (classicist)">Wilson, Emily</a>, "The Pleasures of Translation" (review of Mark Polizzotti, Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto, MIT Press, 2018, 182 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXV, no. 9 (24 May 2018), p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Paul Taylor, "Insanely Complicated, Hopelessly Inadequate" (review of <a href="/wiki/Brian_Cantwell_Smith" title="Brian Cantwell Smith">Brian Cantwell Smith</a>, The Promise of Artificial Intelligence: Reckoning and Judgment, MIT, October 2019, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B262%2B04304%2B5" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+262+04304+5">978 0 262 04304 5</a>, 157 pp.; <a href="/wiki/Gary_Marcus" title="Gary Marcus">Gary Marcus</a> and Ernest Davis, Rebooting AI: Building Artificial Intelligence We Can Trust, Ballantine, September 2019, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B1%2B5247%2B4825%2B8" title="Special:BookSources/978+1+5247+4825+8">978 1 5247 4825 8</a>, 304 pp.; <a href="/wiki/Judea_Pearl" title="Judea Pearl">Judea Pearl</a> and Dana Mackenzie, The Book of Why: The New Science of Cause and Effect, Penguin, May 2019, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B14%2B198241%2B0" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+14+198241+0">978 0 14 198241 0</a>, 418 pp.), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 43, no. 2 (21 January 2021), pp. 37–39. Paul Taylor quotation: p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gary_Marcus" title="Gary Marcus">Gary Marcus</a>, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> from the natural kind", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 58–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Gleick" title="James Gleick">James Gleick</a>, "The Fate of Free Will" (review of Kevin J. Mitchell, Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will, Princeton University Press, 2023, 333 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (18 January 2024), pp. 27–28, 30. (p. 30.) </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2013" class="citation web cs1">Anderson, Alison (14 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wordswithoutborders.org/dispatches/article/where-are-the-women-in-translation">"Where Are the Women in Translation?"</a>. Words Without Borders. Retrieved 28 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Words+Without+Borders&rft.atitle=Where+Are+the+Women+in+Translation%3F&rft.date=2013-05-14&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wordswithoutborders.org%2Fdispatches%2Farticle%2Fwhere-are-the-women-in-translation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://literarytranslators.wordpress.com/2016/07/25/women-in-translation-an-interview-witth-meytal-radzinski/">"Women in Translation: An Interview with Meytal Radzinski"</a>. 25 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Women+in+Translation%3A+An+Interview+with+Meytal+Radzinski&rft.date=2016-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fliterarytranslators.wordpress.com%2F2016%2F07%2F25%2Fwomen-in-translation-an-interview-witth-meytal-radzinski%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thebookseller.com/tags-bookseller/meytal-radzinski">"Meytal Radzinski - The Bookseller"</a>. www.thebookseller.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thebookseller.com&rft.atitle=Meytal+Radzinski+-+The+Bookseller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thebookseller.com%2Ftags-bookseller%2Fmeytal-radzinski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadzinski2018" class="citation web cs1">Radzinski, Meytal (3 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biblibio.blogspot.com/2018/07/exclusion-is-choice-bias-in-best-of.html">"Biblibio: Exclusion is a choice - Bias in "Best of" lists"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biblibio%3A+Exclusion+is+a+choice+-+Bias+in+%22Best+of%22+lists&rft.date=2018-07-03&rft.aulast=Radzinski&rft.aufirst=Meytal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiblibio.blogspot.com%2F2018%2F07%2Fexclusion-is-choice-bias-in-best-of.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> J.M. Cohen, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> J.M Cohen, pp. 12-13. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen13-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen13_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen13_119-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen13_119-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen13_119-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen13_119-4">e</a> J.M. Cohen, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen14-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen14_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen14_120-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen14_120-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen14_120-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen14_120-4">e</a> J.M. Cohen, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuessler2016" class="citation news cs1">Schuessler, Jennifer (30 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/02/theater/oregon-shakespeare-festival-play-on.html">"Translating Shakespeare? 36 Playwrights Taketh the Big Risk"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 11 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Translating+Shakespeare%3F+36+Playwrights+Taketh+the+Big+Risk&rft.date=2016-09-30&rft.aulast=Schuessler&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F10%2F02%2Ftheater%2Foregon-shakespeare-festival-play-on.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuessler2019" class="citation news cs1">Schuessler, Jennifer (3 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/03/theater/shakespeare-modern-english-play-on-festival.html">"A Shakespeare Festival Presents Modern Translations. Cue the Debate (Again)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 11 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Shakespeare+Festival+Presents+Modern+Translations.+Cue+the+Debate+%28Again%29.&rft.date=2019-04-03&rft.aulast=Schuessler&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F04%2F03%2Ftheater%2Fshakespeare-modern-english-play-on-festival.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth2017" class="citation web cs1">North, Anna (20 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/identities/2017/11/20/16651634/odyssey-emily-wilson-translation-first-woman-english">"Historically, men translated the Odyssey. Here's what happened when a woman took the job"</a>. Vox. Retrieved 9 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=Historically%2C+men+translated+the+Odyssey.+Here%27s+what+happened+when+a+woman+took+the+job.&rft.date=2017-11-20&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fidentities%2F2017%2F11%2F20%2F16651634%2Fodyssey-emily-wilson-translation-first-woman-english&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> A discussion of Hofstadter's otherwise latitudinarian views on translation is found in Tony Dokoupil, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/id/195684">Translation: Pardon My French: You Suck at This</a>," <a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a>, 18 May 2009, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteiner,_George.2013" class="citation book cs1">Steiner, George. (2013). After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation. Open Road Media. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4804-1185-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4804-1185-2"><bdi>978-1-4804-1185-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/892798474">892798474</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Babel%3A+Aspects+of+Language+and+Translation.&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Open+Road+Media&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F892798474&rft.isbn=978-1-4804-1185-2&rft.au=Steiner%2C+George.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFʻAṭṭār,_Farīd_al-Dīn,_-approximately_12302017" class="citation book cs1">ʻAṭṭār, Farīd al-Dīn, -approximately 1230 (2017). The conference of the birds. Wolpé, Sholeh (First ed.). New York. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-29218-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-29218-3"><bdi>978-0-393-29218-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/951070853">951070853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+conference+of+the+birds&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=24&rft.edition=First&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F951070853&rft.isbn=978-0-393-29218-3&rft.au=%CA%BBA%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%AD%C4%81r%2C+Far%C4%ABd+al-D%C4%ABn%2C+-approximately+1230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantos,_Sherod,_1948-2000" class="citation book cs1">Santos, Sherod, 1948- (2000). A poetry of two minds. University of Georgia Press. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8203-2204-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8203-2204-0"><bdi>0-8203-2204-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43114993">43114993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+poetry+of+two+minds&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43114993&rft.isbn=0-8203-2204-0&rft.au=Santos%2C+Sherod%2C+1948-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin,_Walter,_1892-1940.1996–2003" class="citation book cs1">Benjamin, Walter, 1892-1940. (1996–2003). Selected writings. Bullock, Marcus Paul, 1944-, Jennings, Michael William., Eiland, Howard., Smith, Gary, 1954-. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00896-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00896-0"><bdi>978-0-674-00896-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34705134">34705134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+writings&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=1996%2F2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34705134&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00896-0&rft.au=Benjamin%2C+Walter%2C+1892-1940.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Gregory Hays, "Found in Translation" (review of <a href="/wiki/Denis_Feeney" title="Denis Feeney">Denis Feeney</a>, Beyond Greek: The Beginnings of Latin Literature, Harvard University Press), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Jiří Levý, The Art of Translation, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlson1964" class="citation journal cs1">Carlson, Harry G. (1964). "Problems in Play Translation". Educational Theatre Journal. 16 (1): 55–58 [55]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3204378">10.2307/3204378</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3204378">3204378</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Educational+Theatre+Journal&rft.atitle=Problems+in+Play+Translation&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55-58+55&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3204378&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3204378%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=Harry+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Jiří Levý, The Art of Translation, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, pp. 129-39. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlson1964" class="citation journal cs1">Carlson, Harry G. (1964). "Problems in Play Translation". Educational Theatre Journal. 16 (1): 55–58 [56]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3204378">10.2307/3204378</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3204378">3204378</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Educational+Theatre+Journal&rft.atitle=Problems+in+Play+Translation&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55-58+56&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3204378&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3204378%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=Harry+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Jiří Levý, The Art of Translation, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruger2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kruger, Loren (2007). "Keywords and Contexts: Translating Theatre Theory". Theatre Journal. 59 (3): 355–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftj.2007.0146">10.1353/tj.2007.0146</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25070054">25070054</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191603013">191603013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theatre+Journal&rft.atitle=Keywords+and+Contexts%3A+Translating+Theatre+Theory&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E355-%3C%2Fspan%3E58&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191603013%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25070054%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftj.2007.0146&rft.aulast=Kruger&rft.aufirst=Loren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Frank Stewart, The Poem Behind the Poem, Washington, Copper Canyon Press, 2004. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Eugene Eoyang and Lin Yao-fu, Translating Chinese Literature, Indiana University Press, 1995, pp. 42–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToblerSabău2018" class="citation journal cs1">Tobler, Stefan; Sabău, Antoaneta (1 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/ress/10/1/article-p5.xml">"Translating Confession, Editorial RES 1/2018"</a>. Review of Ecumenical Studies Sibiu. 10 (1): 5–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2478%2Fress-2018-0001">10.2478/ress-2018-0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:188019915">188019915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Ecumenical+Studies+Sibiu&rft.atitle=Translating+Confession%2C+Editorial+RES+1%2F2018&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2018-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2478%2Fress-2018-0001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A188019915%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tobler&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Sab%C4%83u%2C+Antoaneta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcontent.sciendo.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fress%2F10%2F1%2Farticle-p5.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> MJC Warren, "‘Lead us not into temptation’: why Pope Francis is wrong about the Lord’s Prayer", <a href="/wiki/The_Conversation_(website)" title="The Conversation (website)">The Conversation</a>, 8 December 2017 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://theconversation.com/lead-us-not-into-temptation-why-pope-francis-is-wrong-about-the-lords-prayer-88886">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> A.J.B. Higgins, "'Lead Us Not into Temptation': Some Latin Variants", <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Theological_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Theological Studies">Journal of Theological Studies</a>, 1943. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Charles McNamara, "Lead Us Not into Temptation? Francis Is Not the First to Question a Key Phrase of the Lord's Prayer", <a href="/wiki/Commonweal_(magazine)" title="Commonweal (magazine)">Commonweal</a>, 1 January 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.commonwealmagazine.org/lead-us-not-temptation">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarris2007" class="citation cs2">Farris, Michael (2007), From Tyndale to Madison, p. 37</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Tyndale+to+Madison&rft.pages=37&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Farris&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-fatani-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fatani_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fatani_146-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFatani2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fatani, Afnan (2006). "Translation and the Qur'an". In <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Leaman" title="Oliver Leaman">Leaman, Oliver</a> (ed.). The Qur'an: An Encyclopaedia. Routledge. pp. 657–669. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415775298" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415775298"><bdi>978-0415775298</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Translation+and+the+Qur%27an&rft.btitle=The+Qur%27an%3A+An+Encyclopaedia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E657-%3C%2Fspan%3E669&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0415775298&rft.aulast=Fatani&rft.aufirst=Afnan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Malise_Ruthven" title="Malise Ruthven">Malise Ruthven</a>, Islam in the World, Granta, 2006, p. 90, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86207-906-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86207-906-9">978-1-86207-906-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-fisher-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fisher_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fisher_148-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher2020" class="citation journal cs1">Fisher, Abigail (October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.textjournal.com.au/oct20/fisher.pdf">"These lips that are not (d)one: Writing with the 'pash' of translation"</a> (PDF). TEXT: Journal of Writing and Writing Courses. 24 (2): 1–25. <q>Braschi and Acker employ certain techniques to produce writing that eschews fixed meaning in favour of facilitating the emergence of fluid and interpermeating textual resonances, as well as to establish a meta-discourse on the writing and translation process.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TEXT%3A+Journal+of+Writing+and+Writing+Courses&rft.atitle=These+lips+that+are+not+%28d%29one%3A+Writing+with+the+%27pash%27+of+translation&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=2020-10&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Abigail&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.textjournal.com.au%2Foct20%2Ffisher.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoreno_Fernandez2020" class="citation book cs1">Moreno Fernandez, Francisco (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1143649021">Yo-Yo Boing! Or Literature as a Translingual Practice (Poets, Philosophers, Lovers: on the writings of Giannina Braschi)</a>. Aldama, Frederick Luis; Stavans, Ilan; O'Dwyer, Tess. Pittsburgh, Pa.: U Pittsburgh. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-4618-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-4618-2"><bdi>978-0-8229-4618-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1143649021">1143649021</a>. <q>This epilinguistic awareness is apparent in the constant language games and in the way in which she so often plays with this translingual reality and with all the factors with which it contrasts and among which it moves so liquidly.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yo-Yo+Boing%21+Or+Literature+as+a+Translingual+Practice+%28Poets%2C+Philosophers%2C+Lovers%3A+on+the+writings+of+Giannina+Braschi%29&rft.place=Pittsburgh%2C+Pa.&rft.pub=U+Pittsburgh&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1143649021&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-4618-2&rft.aulast=Moreno+Fernandez&rft.aufirst=Francisco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1143649021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanchich" class="citation book cs1">Stanchich, Maritza. Bilingual Big Bang: Giannina Braschi's Trilogy Levels the Spanish-English Playing Field (Poets, Philosophers, Lovers). Pittsburgh: U Pittsburgh. pp. 63–75. <q>Carrión notes, the idea of an only tongue ruling over a considerable number of different nations and peoples is fundamentally questioned.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bilingual+Big+Bang%3A+Giannina+Braschi%27s+Trilogy+Levels+the+Spanish-English+Playing+Field+%28Poets%2C+Philosophers%2C+Lovers%29&rft.place=Pittsburgh&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E63-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.pub=U+Pittsburgh&rft.aulast=Stanchich&rft.aufirst=Maritza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrión1996" class="citation journal cs1">Carrión, María M. (1 January 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4148%2F2334-4415.1385">"Geography, (M)Other Tongues and the Role of Translation in Giannina Braschi's El imperio de los sueños"</a>. 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Translation & Interpreting. 10 (2): 1–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12807%2Fti.110202.2018.a01">10.12807/ti.110202.2018.a01</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1836-9324">1836-9324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Translation+%26+Interpreting&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Translation+of+questionnaires+in+cross-national+and+cross-cultural+research&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=2018-07-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12807%2Fti.110202.2018.a01&rft.issn=1836-9324&rft.aulast=Behr&rft.aufirst=Doroth%C3%A9e&rft.au=Sha%2C+Mandy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.trans-int.org%2Findex.php%2Ftransint%2Farticle%2Fview%2F937&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aapor.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/AAPOR-WAPOR-Task-Force-Report-on-Quality-in-Comparative-Surveys_Full-Report.pdf">"Quality in Comparative Surveys"</a> (PDF). Task Force Report, American Association of Public Opinion Research (AAPOR). Retrieved 2 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Task+Force+Report%2C+American+Association+of+Public+Opinion+Research+%28AAPOR%29&rft.atitle=Quality+in+Comparative+Surveys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faapor.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F11%2FAAPOR-WAPOR-Task-Force-Report-on-Quality-in-Comparative-Surveys_Full-Report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wapor.org/resources/aapor-wapor-task-force-report-on-quality-in-comparative-surveys/">"Quality in Comparative Surveys"</a>. Task Force Report, World Association of Public Opinion Research (WAPOR).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Task+Force+Report%2C+World+Association+of+Public+Opinion+Research+%28WAPOR%29&rft.atitle=Quality+in+Comparative+Surveys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwapor.org%2Fresources%2Faapor-wapor-task-force-report-on-quality-in-comparative-surveys%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-168"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_168-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarkness2003" class="citation book cs1">Harkness, Janet (2003). Cross-cultural survey methods. <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-38526-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-38526-3"><bdi>0-471-38526-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cross-cultural+survey+methods&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-471-38526-3&rft.aulast=Harkness&rft.aufirst=Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehrShishido2016" class="citation book cs1">Behr, Dorothe; Shishido, Kuniaki (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://methods.sagepub.com/book/the-sage-handbook-of-survey-methodology">The Translation of Measurement Instruments for Cross-Cultural Surveys (Chapter 19) in The SAGE Handbook of Survey Methodology</a>. SAGE Publications Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4739-5789-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4739-5789-3"><bdi>978-1-4739-5789-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Translation+of+Measurement+Instruments+for+Cross-Cultural+Surveys+%28Chapter+19%29+in+The+SAGE+Handbook+of+Survey+Methodology&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications+Ltd&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4739-5789-3&rft.aulast=Behr&rft.aufirst=Dorothe&rft.au=Shishido%2C+Kuniaki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmethods.sagepub.com%2Fbook%2Fthe-sage-handbook-of-survey-methodology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaImmerwahr2018" class="citation journal cs1">Sha, Mandy; Immerwahr, Stephen (19 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.surveypractice.org/article/3248-survey-translation-why-and-how-should-researchers-and-managers-be-engaged">"Survey Translation: Why and How Should Researchers and Managers be Engaged?"</a>. Survey Practice. 11 (2): 1–10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.29115%2FSP-2018-0016">10.29115/SP-2018-0016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Survey+Practice&rft.atitle=Survey+Translation%3A+Why+and+How+Should+Researchers+and+Managers+be+Engaged%3F&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.date=2018-02-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.29115%2FSP-2018-0016&rft.aulast=Sha&rft.aufirst=Mandy&rft.au=Immerwahr%2C+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.surveypractice.org%2Farticle%2F3248-survey-translation-why-and-how-should-researchers-and-managers-be-engaged&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanSha2019" class="citation book cs1">Pan, Yuling; Sha, Mandy (9 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780429294914/sociolinguistics-survey-translation-yuling-pan-mandy-sha-hyunjoo-park">The Sociolinguistics of Survey Translation</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780429294914">10.4324/9780429294914</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-29491-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-29491-4"><bdi>978-0-429-29491-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:198632812">198632812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sociolinguistics+of+Survey+Translation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019-07-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A198632812%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780429294914&rft.isbn=978-0-429-29491-4&rft.aulast=Pan&rft.aufirst=Yuling&rft.au=Sha%2C+Mandy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2Fmono%2F10.4324%2F9780429294914%2Fsociolinguistics-survey-translation-yuling-pan-mandy-sha-hyunjoo-park&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Armstrong, Rebecca, "All Kinds of Unlucky" (review of The <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Shadi_Bartsch" title="Shadi Bartsch">Shadi Bartsch</a>, Profile, November 2020, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B1%2B78816%2B267%2B8" title="Special:BookSources/978+1+78816+267+8">978 1 78816 267 8</a>, 400 pp.), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 43, no. 5 (4 March 2021), pp. 35–36.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakerSaldanha2008" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Mona; Saldanha, Gabriela (2008). Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415369305" title="Special:BookSources/9780415369305"><bdi>9780415369305</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Translation+Studies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780415369305&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Mona&rft.au=Saldanha%2C+Gabriela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalcerzan1977" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Balcerzan" title="Edward Balcerzan">Balcerzan, Edward</a>, ed. (1977). Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440–1974: Antologia [Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440–1974: an Anthology] (in Polish). Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4365103">4365103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pisarze+polscy+o+sztuce+przek%C5%82adu%2C+1440%E2%80%931974%3A+Antologia&rft.place=Pozna%C5%84&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+Pozna%C5%84skie&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4365103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBassnett1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Bassnett" title="Susan Bassnett">Bassnett, Susan</a> (1990). Translation studies. London & New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415065283" title="Special:BookSources/9780415065283"><bdi>9780415065283</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Translation+studies&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780415065283&rft.aulast=Bassnett&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerman1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Berman" title="Antoine Berman">Berman, Antoine</a> (1984). L'épreuve de l'étranger: culture et traduction dans l'Allemagne romantique: Herder, Goethe, Schlegel, Novalis, Humboldt, Schleiermacher, Hölderlin (in French). Paris: Gallimard, Essais. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782070700769" title="Special:BookSources/9782070700769"><bdi>9782070700769</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27%C3%A9preuve+de+l%27%C3%A9tranger%3A+culture+et+traduction+dans+l%27Allemagne+romantique%3A+Herder%2C+Goethe%2C+Schlegel%2C+Novalis%2C+Humboldt%2C+Schleiermacher%2C+H%C3%B6lderlin&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Gallimard%2C+Essais&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9782070700769&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> Excerpted in English in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenuti2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Venuti" title="Lawrence Venuti">Venuti, Lawrence</a> (2004) [2002]. The translation studies reader (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415319201" title="Special:BookSources/9780415319201"><bdi>9780415319201</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+translation+studies+reader&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780415319201&rft.aulast=Venuti&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerman1995" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Berman" title="Antoine Berman">Berman, Antoine</a> (1995). Pour une critique des traductions: John Donne (in French). Paris: Gallimard. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782070733354" title="Special:BookSources/9782070733354"><bdi>9782070733354</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pour+une+critique+des+traductions%3A+John+Donne&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Gallimard&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9782070733354&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> English translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerman2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Berman" title="Antoine Berman">Berman, Antoine</a> (2009). Toward a translation criticism: John Donne. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Massardier-Kenney" title="Françoise Massardier-Kenney">Massardier-Kenney, Françoise</a>. Ohio: Kent State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781606350096" title="Special:BookSources/9781606350096"><bdi>9781606350096</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+a+translation+criticism%3A+John+Donne&rft.place=Ohio&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781606350096&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBilliani2001" class="citation cs2">Billiani, Francesca (2001), "Ethics", in Baker, Mona (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, New York: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415255172" title="Special:BookSources/9780415255172"><bdi>9780415255172</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethics&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Translation+Studies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780415255172&rft.aulast=Billiani&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromwich,_David" class="mw-redirect" title="Bromwich, David">Bromwich, David</a>, "In Praise of Ambiguity" (a review of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Wood_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Wood (academic)">Michael Wood</a>, On Empson, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 2017), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>), vol. LXIV, no. 16 (26 October 2017), pp. 50–52.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J.M._Cohen" class="mw-redirect" title="J.M. Cohen">Cohen, J.M.</a>, "Translation", <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a>, 1986, vol. 27, p. 14.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwish1999" class="citation journal cs1">Darwish, Ali (1999). "Towards a theory of constraints in translation".</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Towards+a+theory+of+constraints+in+translation&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Darwish&rft.aufirst=Ali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source?</a>] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.translocutions.com/turjuman/papers/constraints_0.1.pdf">Work in progress version (pdf).</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Davis" title="Lydia Davis">Davis, Lydia</a>, "Eleven Pleasures of Translating", <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIII, no. 19 (8 December 2016), pp. 22–24. "I like to reproduce the word order, and the order of ideas, of the original [text] whenever possible. [p. 22] [T]ranslation is, eternally, a compromise. You settle for the best you can do rather than achieving perfection, though there is the occasional perfect solution [to the problem of finding an equivalent expression in the target language]." (p. 23.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDryden" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">Dryden, John</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/204/180.html">"Preface to Sylvae"</a>. Bartelby.com. Retrieved 27 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bartelby.com&rft.atitle=Preface+to+Sylvae&rft.aulast=Dryden&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F204%2F180.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Fatani, Afnan, "Translation and the Qur'an", in <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Leaman" title="Oliver Leaman">Oliver Leaman</a>, The Qur'an: An Encyclopaedia, Routledge, 2006, pp. 657–69.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalassi2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Galassi" title="Jonathan Galassi">Galassi</a>, Jonathan (June 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theparisreview.org/back-issues/155">"FEATURE: Como conversazione: on translation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Paris_Review" title="The Paris Review">The Paris Review</a>. 42 (155): 255–312.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Paris+Review&rft.atitle=FEATURE%3A+Como+conversazione%3A+on+translation&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=155&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E255-%3C%2Fspan%3E312&rft.date=2000-06&rft.aulast=Galassi&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theparisreview.org%2Fback-issues%2F155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> Poets and critics <a href="/wiki/Seamus_Heaney" title="Seamus Heaney">Seamus Heaney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tomlinson" title="Charles Tomlinson">Charles Tomlinson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tim_Parks" title="Tim Parks">Tim Parks</a>, and others discuss the theory and practice of translation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Gleick" title="James Gleick">Gleick, James</a>, "The Fate of Free Will" (review of Kevin J. Mitchell, Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will, Princeton University Press, 2023, 333 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (18 January 2024), pp. 27–28, 30.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodayol2013" class="citation journal cs1">Godayol, Pilar (February 2013). "Metaphors, women and translation: from les belles infidèles to la frontera". <a href="/wiki/Gender_and_Language" title="Gender and Language">Gender and Language</a>. 7 (1): 97–116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1558%2Fgenl.v7i1.97">10.1558/genl.v7i1.97</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gender+and+Language&rft.atitle=Metaphors%2C+women+and+translation%3A+from+les+belles+infid%C3%A8les+to+la+frontera&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E97-%3C%2Fspan%3E116&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1558%2Fgenl.v7i1.97&rft.aulast=Godayol&rft.aufirst=Pilar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorra,_Michael" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorra, Michael">Gorra, Michael</a>, "Corrections of Taste" (review of <a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Terry Eagleton</a>, Critical Revolutionaries: Five Critics Who Changed the Way We Read, Yale University Press, 323 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIX, no. 15 (6 October 2022), pp. 16–18.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGouadec2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Gouadec&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Gouadec (page does not exist)">Gouadec, Daniel</a> (2007). Translation as a profession. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027216816" title="Special:BookSources/9789027216816"><bdi>9789027216816</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Translation+as+a+profession&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789027216816&rft.aulast=Gouadec&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenblatt,_Stephen" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenblatt, Stephen">Greenblatt, Stephen</a>, "Can We Ever Master King Lear?", <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIV, no. 3 (23 February 2017), pp. 34–36.</li> <li>Hays, Gregory, "Found in Translation" (review of <a href="/wiki/Denis_Feeney" title="Denis Feeney">Denis Feeney</a>, Beyond Greek: The Beginnings of Latin Literature, Harvard University Press), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), pp. 56, 58.</li> <li>Kaiser, Walter, "A Hero of Translation" (a review of Jean Findlay, Chasing Lost Time: The Life of <a href="/wiki/C.K._Scott_Moncrieff" class="mw-redirect" title="C.K. Scott Moncrieff">C.K. Scott Moncrieff</a>: Soldier, Spy, and Translator, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 351 pp., $30.00), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), pp. 54–56.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasparek1983" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kasparek" title="Christopher Kasparek">Kasparek, Christopher</a> (1983). "The translator's endless toil (book reviews)". <a href="/wiki/The_Polish_Review" title="The Polish Review">The Polish Review</a>. XXVIII (2): 83–87. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25777966">25777966</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Polish+Review&rft.atitle=The+translator%27s+endless+toil+%28book+reviews%29&rft.volume=XXVIII&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E83-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25777966%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kasparek&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> Includes a discussion of <a href="/wiki/European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="European language">European-language</a> <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">term</a>, "translation".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasparek,_Christopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasparek, Christopher">Kasparek, Christopher</a>, translator's foreword to <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Prus" title="Bolesław Prus">Bolesław Prus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh_(Prus_novel)" title="Pharaoh (Prus novel)">Pharaoh</a>, translated from the Polish, with foreword and notes, by Christopher Kasparek, <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Kindle" title="Amazon Kindle">Amazon Kindle</a> <a href="/wiki/E-book" class="mw-redirect" title="E-book">e-book</a>, 2020, ASIN:BO8MDN6CZV.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly1979" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, Louis (1979). The true interpreter: A history of translation theory and practice in the West. New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780631196402" title="Special:BookSources/9780631196402"><bdi>9780631196402</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+true+interpreter%3A+A+history+of+translation+theory+and+practice+in+the+West&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780631196402&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_Link" title="Perry Link">Link, Perry</a>, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry" (review of <a href="/wiki/Eliot_Weinberger" title="Eliot Weinberger">Eliot Weinberger</a>, with an afterword by <a href="/wiki/Octavio_Paz" title="Octavio Paz">Octavio Paz</a>, 19 Ways of Looking at <a href="/wiki/Wang_Wei_(Tang_dynasty)" title="Wang Wei (Tang dynasty)">Wang Wei</a> (with More Ways), New Directions, 88 pp., $10.95 [paper]; and Eliot Weinberger, The Ghosts of Birds, New Directions, 211 pp., $16.95 [paper]), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (24 November 2016), pp. 49–50.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus,_Gary" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus, Gary">Marcus, Gary</a>, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> from the natural kind", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 58–63. Multiple tests of artificial-intelligence efficacy are needed because, "just as there is no single test of <a href="/wiki/Athletics_(physical_culture)" title="Athletics (physical culture)">athletic</a> prowess, there cannot be one ultimate test of <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>." One such test, a "Construction Challenge", would test perception and physical action—"two important elements of intelligent behavior that were entirely absent from the original <a href="/wiki/Turing_test" title="Turing test">Turing test</a>." Another proposal has been to give machines the same standardized tests of science and other disciplines that schoolchildren take. A so far insuperable stumbling block to artificial intelligence is an incapacity for reliable <a href="/wiki/Disambiguation" class="mw-redirect" title="Disambiguation">disambiguation</a>. "[V]irtually every sentence [that people generate] is <a href="/wiki/Ambiguous" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambiguous">ambiguous</a>, often in multiple ways." A prominent example is known as the "pronoun disambiguation problem": a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronoun</a> in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers.</li> <li>McNamara, Charles, "Lead Us Not into Temptation? Francis Is Not the First to Question a Key Phrase of the Lord's Prayer", <a href="/wiki/Commonweal_(magazine)" title="Commonweal (magazine)">Commonweal</a>, 1 January 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.commonwealmagazine.org/lead-us-not-temptation">[3]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiłosz1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Mi%C5%82osz" title="Czesław Miłosz">Miłosz, Czesław</a> (1983). The history of Polish literature (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520044777" title="Special:BookSources/9780520044777"><bdi>9780520044777</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+Polish+literature&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780520044777&rft.aulast=Mi%C5%82osz&rft.aufirst=Czes%C5%82aw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ange_Mlinko" title="Ange Mlinko">Mlinko, Ange</a>, "Whole Earth Troubador" (review of The Essential W.S. Merwin, edited by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Wiegers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Wiegers (page does not exist)">Michael Wiegers</a>, Copper Canyon, 338 pp., 2017), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIV, no. 19 (7 December 2017), pp. 45–46.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anka_Muhlstein" title="Anka Muhlstein">Muhlstein, Anka</a>, "Painters and Writers: When Something New Happens", <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIV, no. 1 (19 January 2017), pp. 33–35.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunday2016" class="citation book cs1">Munday, Jeremy (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introducingtrans0004mund">Introducing Translation Studies: theories and applications (4th ed.)</a>. London/New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138912557" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138912557"><bdi>978-1138912557</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Translation+Studies%3A+theories+and+applications+%284th+ed.%29&rft.place=London%2FNew+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1138912557&rft.aulast=Munday&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroducingtrans0004mund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNajder2007" class="citation book cs1">Najder, Zdzisław (2007). Joseph Conrad: A Life. Camden House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57113-347-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57113-347-2"><bdi>978-1-57113-347-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Joseph+Conrad%3A+A+Life&rft.pub=Camden+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-57113-347-2&rft.aulast=Najder&rft.aufirst=Zdzis%C5%82aw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth2017" class="citation web cs1">North, Anna (20 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/identities/2017/11/20/16651634/odyssey-emily-wilson-translation-first-woman-english">"Historically, men translated the Odyssey. Here's what happened when a woman took the job"</a>. Vox. Retrieved 9 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=Historically%2C+men+translated+the+Odyssey.+Here%27s+what+happened+when+a+woman+took+the+job.&rft.date=2017-11-20&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fidentities%2F2017%2F11%2F20%2F16651634%2Fodyssey-emily-wilson-translation-first-woman-english&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParks2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Parks" title="Tim Parks">Parks, Tim</a> (2007). Translating style: a literary approach to translation - a translation approach to literature. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781905763047" title="Special:BookSources/9781905763047"><bdi>9781905763047</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Translating+style%3A+a+literary+approach+to+translation+-+a+translation+approach+to+literature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781905763047&rft.aulast=Parks&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPei1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mario_Pei" title="Mario Pei">Pei, Mario</a> (1984). The story of language. New York: New American Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780452008700" title="Special:BookSources/9780452008700"><bdi>9780452008700</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+story+of+language&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+American+Library&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9780452008700&rft.aulast=Pei&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> Introduction by <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Berg_Flexner" title="Stuart Berg Flexner">Stuart Berg Flexner</a>, revised edition.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiron1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Piron" title="Claude Piron">Piron, Claude</a> (1994). Le défi des langues: du gâchis au bon sens [The language challenge: from chaos to common sense] (in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782738424327" title="Special:BookSources/9782738424327"><bdi>9782738424327</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+d%C3%A9fi+des+langues%3A+du+g%C3%A2chis+au+bon+sens&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=L%27Harmattan&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9782738424327&rft.aulast=Piron&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Polizzotti, Mark, Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto, MIT, 168 pp., 2018, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B262%2B03799%2B0" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+262+03799+0">978 0 262 03799 0</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRose1980" class="citation book cs1">Rose, Marilyn Gaddis (guest editor) (January 1980). Translation: agent of communication: an international review of arts and ideas (volume 5, issue 1, special issue). Hamilton, New Zealand: Outrigger Publishers. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/224073589">224073589</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Translation%3A+agent+of+communication%3A+an+international+review+of+arts+and+ideas+%28volume+5%2C+issue+1%2C+special+issue%29&rft.place=Hamilton%2C+New+Zealand&rft.pub=Outrigger+Publishers&rft.date=1980-01&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F224073589&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=Marilyn+Gaddis+%28guest+editor%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malise_Ruthven" title="Malise Ruthven">Ruthven, Malise</a>, Islam in the World, Granta, 2006, ISBN 978-1-86207-906-9.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malise_Ruthven" title="Malise Ruthven">Ruthven, Malise</a>, "The Islamic Road to the Modern World" (review of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_de_Bellaigue" title="Christopher de Bellaigue">Christopher de Bellaigue</a>, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle between Faith and Reason, 1798 to Modern Times, Liveright; and Wael Abu-'Uksa, Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), pp. 22, 24–25.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchleiermacher2004" class="citation cs2">Schleiermacher, Friedrich (2004) [2002], "On the different methods of translating (Über die verschiedenen Methoden des Übersetzens 1813)", in <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Venuti" title="Lawrence Venuti">Venuti, Lawrence</a> (ed.), The translation studies reader, translated by Bernofsky, Susan (2nd ed.), New York: Routledge, pp. 43–63, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415319201" title="Special:BookSources/9780415319201"><bdi>9780415319201</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+different+methods+of+translating+%28%C3%9Cber+die+verschiedenen+Methoden+des+%C3%9Cbersetzens+1813%29&rft.btitle=The+translation+studies+reader&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E43-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780415319201&rft.aulast=Schleiermacher&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimms1983" class="citation book cs1">Simms, Norman T. (guest editor) (1983). Nimrod's sin: treason and translation in a multilingual world (volume 8, issue 2). Hamilton, New Zealand: Outrigger Publishers. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9719326">9719326</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nimrod%27s+sin%3A+treason+and+translation+in+a+multilingual+world+%28volume+8%2C+issue+2%29&rft.place=Hamilton%2C+New+Zealand&rft.pub=Outrigger+Publishers&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9719326&rft.aulast=Simms&rft.aufirst=Norman+T.+%28guest+editor%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snell-Hornby,_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Snell-Hornby, Mary">Snell-Hornby, Mary</a>; Schopp, Jürgen F. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2013012902">"Translation"</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_History_Online" title="European History Online">European History Online</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_European_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of European History">Institute of European History</a>, retrieved 29 August 2013.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTatarkiewicz1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Tatarkiewicz" title="Władysław Tatarkiewicz">Tatarkiewicz, Władysław</a> (1980). A history of six ideas: an essay in aesthetics. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kasparek" title="Christopher Kasparek">Kasparek, Christopher</a>. The Hague, Boston, London: Martinus Nijhoff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8301008246" title="Special:BookSources/978-8301008246"><bdi>978-8301008246</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+six+ideas%3A+an+essay+in+aesthetics&rft.place=The+Hague%2C+Boston%2C+London&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-8301008246&rft.aulast=Tatarkiewicz&rft.aufirst=W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Tatarkiewicz" title="Władysław Tatarkiewicz">Tatarkiewicz, Władysław</a>, O doskonałości (On Perfection), Warsaw, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1976; English translation by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kasparek" title="Christopher Kasparek">Christopher Kasparek</a> subsequently serialized in Dialectics and Humanism: The Polish Philosophical Quarterly, vol. VI, no. 4 (autumn 1979)—vol. VIII, no 2 (spring 1981), and reprinted in <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Tatarkiewicz" title="Władysław Tatarkiewicz">Władysław Tatarkiewicz</a>, On Perfection, Warsaw University Press, Center of Universalism, 1992, pp. 9–51 (the book is a collection of papers by and about Professor Tatarkiewicz).</li> <li>Taylor, Paul, "Insanely Complicated, Hopelessly Inadequate" (review of <a href="/wiki/Brian_Cantwell_Smith" title="Brian Cantwell Smith">Brian Cantwell Smith</a>, The Promise of Artificial Intelligence: Reckoning and Judgment, MIT, October 2019, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B262%2B04304%2B5" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+262+04304+5">978 0 262 04304 5</a>, 157 pp.; <a href="/wiki/Gary_Marcus" title="Gary Marcus">Gary Marcus</a> and Ernest Davis, Rebooting AI: Building Artificial Intelligence We Can Trust, Ballantine, September 2019, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B1%2B5247%2B4825%2B8" title="Special:BookSources/978+1+5247+4825+8">978 1 5247 4825 8</a>, 304 pp.; <a href="/wiki/Judea_Pearl" title="Judea Pearl">Judea Pearl</a> and Dana Mackenzie, The Book of Why: The New Science of Cause and Effect, Penguin, May 2019, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B14%2B198241%2B0" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+14+198241+0">978 0 14 198241 0</a>, 418 pp.), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 43, no. 2 (21 January 2021), pp. 37–39.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToblerSabău2018" class="citation journal cs1">Tobler, Stefan; Sabău, Antoaneta (1 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/ress/10/1/article-p5.xml">"Translating Confession: Editorial RES 1/2018"</a>. Review of Ecumenical Studies. 10 (1). Walter de Gruyter GmbH: 5–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2478%2Fress-2018-0001">10.2478/ress-2018-0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2359-8107">2359-8107</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:188019915">188019915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Ecumenical+Studies&rft.atitle=Translating+Confession%3A+Editorial+RES+1%2F2018&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2018-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A188019915%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2359-8107&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2478%2Fress-2018-0001&rft.aulast=Tobler&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Sab%C4%83u%2C+Antoaneta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcontent.sciendo.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fress%2F10%2F1%2Farticle-p5.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVélez2016" class="citation book cs1">Vélez, Fabio (2016). Antes de Babel. Una historia retórica de la traducción. Granada, Spain: Comares. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8490454718" title="Special:BookSources/978-8490454718"><bdi>978-8490454718</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antes+de+Babel.+Una+historia+ret%C3%B3rica+de+la+traducci%C3%B3n&rft.place=Granada%2C+Spain&rft.pub=Comares&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-8490454718&rft.aulast=V%C3%A9lez&rft.aufirst=Fabio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenuti1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Venuti" title="Lawrence Venuti">Venuti, Lawrence</a> (1994). The translator's invisibility. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415115384" title="Special:BookSources/9780415115384"><bdi>9780415115384</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+translator%27s+invisibility&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780415115384&rft.aulast=Venuti&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marina_Warner" title="Marina Warner">Warner, Marina</a>, "The Politics of Translation" (a review of Kate Briggs, This Little Art, 2017; Mireille Gansel, Translation as Transhumance, translated by <a href="/wiki/Ros_Schwartz" title="Ros Schwartz">Ros Schwartz</a>, 2017; Mark Polizzotti, Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto, 2018; <a href="/wiki/Boyd_Tonkin" title="Boyd Tonkin">Boyd Tonkin</a>, ed., The 100 Best Novels in Translation, 2018; <a href="/wiki/Clive_Scott_(linguist)" title="Clive Scott (linguist)">Clive Scott</a>, The Work of Literary Translation, 2018), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 40, no. 19 (11 October 2018), pp. 21–24.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(classicist)" title="Emily Wilson (classicist)">Wilson, Emily</a>, "A Doggish Translation" (review of The Poems of <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a>: Theogony, Works and Days, and The Shield of Herakles, translated from the Greek by <a href="/wiki/Barry_B._Powell" title="Barry B. Powell">Barry B. Powell</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, 2017, 184 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXV, no. 1 (18 January 2018), pp. 34–36.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(classicist)" title="Emily Wilson (classicist)">Wilson, Emily</a>, "Ah, how miserable!" (review of three separate translations of <a href="/wiki/The_Oresteia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Oresteia">The Oresteia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>: by <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Taplin" title="Oliver Taplin">Oliver Taplin</a>, Liveright, November 2018; by Jeffrey Scott Bernstein, Carcanet, April 2020; and by David Mulroy, Wisconsin, April 2018), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 42, no. 19 (8 October 2020), pp. 9–12, 14.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(classicist)" title="Emily Wilson (classicist)">Wilson, Emily</a>, "The Pleasures of Translation" (review of Mark Polizzotti, Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto, MIT Press, 2018, 182 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXV, no. 9 (24 May 2018), pp. 46–47.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Wood_(literary_scholar)" title="Michael Wood (literary scholar)">Michael Wood</a>, "Break your bleedin' heart" (review of <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Marcel Proust</a>, Swann's Way, translated by <a href="/wiki/James_Grieve_(Australian_translator)" title="James Grieve (Australian translator)">James Grieve</a>, NYRB, June 2023, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B1%2B68137%2B6295" title="Special:BookSources/978+1+68137+6295">978 1 68137 6295</a>, 450 pp.; and <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Marcel Proust</a>, The Swann Way, translated by <a href="/wiki/Brian_Nelson_(literature_professor)" title="Brian Nelson (literature professor)">Brian Nelson</a>, Oxford, September 2023, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B19%2B8871521" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+19+8871521">978 0 19 8871521</a>, 430 pp.), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 46, no. 1 (4 January 2024), pp. 37–38.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZethsenAskehave2013" class="citation journal cs1">Zethsen, Karen Korning; Askehave, Inger (February 2013). "Talking translation: Is gender an issue?". <a href="/wiki/Gender_and_Language" title="Gender and Language">Gender and Language</a>. 7 (1): 117–134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1558%2Fgenl.v7i1.117">10.1558/genl.v7i1.117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gender+and+Language&rft.atitle=Talking+translation%3A+Is+gender+an+issue%3F&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E117-%3C%2Fspan%3E134&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1558%2Fgenl.v7i1.117&rft.aulast=Zethsen&rft.aufirst=Karen+Korning&rft.au=Askehave%2C+Inger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbu-Mahfouz,_Ahmad2008" class="citation journal cs1">Abu-Mahfouz, Ahmad (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120309034908/http://pnglanguages.org/siljot/2008/1/51140/siljot2008-1-01.pdf">"Translation as a Blending of Cultures"</a> (PDF). Journal of Translation. 4 (1): 1–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.54395%2Fjot-x8fne">10.54395/jot-x8fne</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62020741">62020741</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pnglanguages.org/siljot/2008/1/51140/siljot2008-1-01.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Translation&rft.atitle=Translation+as+a+Blending+of+Cultures&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.54395%2Fjot-x8fne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A62020741%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Abu-Mahfouz%2C+Ahmad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpnglanguages.org%2Fsiljot%2F2008%2F1%2F51140%2Fsiljot2008-1-01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamela_Crossley" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamela Crossley">Crossley, Pamela</a>, "We possess all things" (review of <a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Harrison" title="Henrietta Harrison">Henrietta Harrison</a>, The Perils of Interpreting: The Extraordinary Lives of Two Translators between Qing China and the British Empire, Princeton, 2022, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B691%2B22545%2B6" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+691+22545+6">978 0 691 22545 6</a>, 341 pp.), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 44, no. 16 (18 August 2022), pp. 31–32. "Historians have fastened their attention on the letters that passed from <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Qianlong emperor">Qianlong emperor</a> and back again. But... written texts are not so fixed as one might assume. Neither the Chinese nor the British officials read the originals of the messages from the other side; they were content to receive translations... In such circumstances... meanings become elusive. More than king, emperor or ambassador, the translators decided the substance of the exchange. Historians have tended to attribute meaning to the speakers and not to their humble interpreters. But... it was the intermediaries – ambassadors, negotiators, translators – who delivered the meanings. The important persons in this process were those in between." (p. 32.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Flesch" title="Rudolf Flesch">Flesch, Rudolf</a>, The Art of Clear Thinking, chapter 5: "Danger! Language at Work" (pp. 35–42), chapter 6: "The Pursuit of Translation" (pp. 43–50), Barnes & Noble Books, 1973.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kenna_Hughes-Castleberry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kenna Hughes-Castleberry (page does not exist)">Hughes-Castleberry, Kenna</a>, "A Murder Mystery Puzzle: The literary puzzle <a href="/wiki/Cain%27s_Jawbone" title="Cain's Jawbone">Cain's Jawbone</a>, which has stumped humans for decades, reveals the limitations of natural-language-processing algorithms", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp. 81–82. "This murder mystery competition has revealed that although NLP (<a href="/wiki/Natural-language_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural-language processing">natural-language processing</a>) models are capable of incredible feats, their abilities are very much limited by the amount of <a href="/wiki/Context_(linguistics)" title="Context (linguistics)">context</a> they receive. This [...] could cause [difficulties] for researchers who hope to use them to do things such as analyze <a href="/wiki/Ancient_language" title="Ancient language">ancient languages</a>. In some cases, there are few historical records on long-gone <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a> to serve as <a href="/wiki/Training_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Training data">training data</a> for such a purpose." (p. 82.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellyZetzsche2012" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, Nataly; Zetzsche, Jost (2012). Found in Translation: How Language Shapes Our Lives and Transforms the World. TarcherPerigee. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0399537974" title="Special:BookSources/978-0399537974"><bdi>978-0399537974</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Found+in+Translation%3A+How+Language+Shapes+Our+Lives+and+Transforms+the+World&rft.pub=TarcherPerigee&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0399537974&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Nataly&rft.au=Zetzsche%2C+Jost&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_William_Moore" title="Adrian William Moore">Moore, A.W.</a>, "A Tove on the Table" (review of 3 translations of Ludwig Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Beaney&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Beaney (page does not exist)">Michael Beaney</a>, Oxford, May 2023, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B19%2B886137%2B9" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+19+886137+9">978 0 19 886137 9</a>, 100 pp.; by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Booth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexander Booth (page does not exist)">Alexander Booth</a>, Penguin, December 2023, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B241%2B68195%2B4" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+241+68195+4">978 0 241 68195 4</a>, 94 pp.; by <a href="/wiki/Damion_Searls" title="Damion Searls">Damion Searls</a>, Norton, April 2024, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B1%2B324%2B09243%2B8" title="Special:BookSources/978+1+324+09243+8">978 1 324 09243 8</a>, 181 pp.), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 46, no. 15 (1 August 2024), pp. 31-35. "[T]he <a href="/wiki/David_Pears" title="David Pears">[David] Pears</a>/<a href="/wiki/Brian_McGuinness" title="Brian McGuinness">[Brian] McGuinness</a> [second, 1961 English] translation has one compelling claim to retain its status as the standard, namely... its wonderful index. That said, I strongly recommend that <a href="/wiki/Anglophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglophone">anglophone</a> students of this work get hold of Beaney's and Booth's translations too – and maybe Searls's, but they will need to treat the last with a great deal of caution." (p. 35.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNabokov1941" class="citation magazine cs1">Nabokov, Vladimir (4 August 1941). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newrepublic.com/article/62610/the-art-translation">"The Art of Translation"</a>. The New Republic. Retrieved 19 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Republic&rft.atitle=The+Art+of+Translation&rft.date=1941-08-04&rft.aulast=Nabokov&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewrepublic.com%2Farticle%2F62610%2Fthe-art-translation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ross Amos, Flora, "Early Theories of Translation", Columbia University Studies in English and Comparative Literature, 1920. At <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/22353/22353-h/22353-h.htm">Project Gutenberg</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma2017" class="citation journal cs1">Sharma, Sandeep (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36609128">"Translation and Translation Studies"</a>. There's a Double Tongue. HP University: 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=There%27s+a+Double+Tongue&rft.atitle=Translation+and+Translation+Studies&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Sandeep&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F36609128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATranslation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Thurman" title="Judith Thurman">Thurman, Judith</a>, "Mother Tongue: Emily Wilson makes Homer modern", <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>, 18 September 2023, pp. 46–53. A biography, and presentation of the translation theories and practices, of <a href="/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(classicist)" title="Emily Wilson (classicist)">Emily Wilson</a>. "'As a translator, I was determined to make the whole human experience of the poems accessible,' Wilson said." (p. 47.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Turner" title="Marion Turner">Turner, Marion</a>, "Stop talking englissh [sic]" (review of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zrinka_Stahuljak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zrinka Stahuljak (page does not exist)">Zrinka Stahuljak</a>, Fixers: Agency, Translation and the Early Global History of Literature, Chicago, February 2024, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B226%2B83039%2B1" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+226+83039+1">978 0 226 83039 1</a>, 345 pp.), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 46, no. 9 (9 May 2024), p. 13. "The 'fixer' is a slippery figure: Stahuljak, who used to work as an interpreter in war zones, uses the term by analogy with the local interpreters-guides-brokers who make it possible for modern journalists to function in alien terrain. She emphasises that the work they do as interpreters – just one of the many ways in which they enable networks of exchange – is more creative than we might assume. Medieval writers, readers and travellers understood translation as a dynamic process, something that has been obscured by the later emphasis on the value of the <a href="/wiki/Original_text" class="mw-redirect" title="Original text">original text</a> and its author."</li> <li>Wechsler, Robert, <a href="/wiki/File:Performing_Without_a_Stage_-_The_Art_of_Literary_Translation_-_by_Robert_Wechsler.pdf" title="File:Performing Without a Stage - The Art of Literary Translation - by Robert Wechsler.pdf">Performing Without a Stage: The Art of Literary Translation</a>, Catbird Press, 1998.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garry_Wills" title="Garry Wills">Wills, Garry</a>, "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of <a href="/wiki/David_Bentley_Hart" title="David Bentley Hart">David Bentley Hart</a>, The New Testament: A Translation, <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>, 577 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Translation at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Translation" class="extiw" title="wikt:Translation">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Translation" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Translation">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Translation" class="extiw" title="q:Translation">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7553" class="extiw" title="d:Q7553">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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font-weight:normal;;width:10.5em">Music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bootleg_recording" title="Bootleg recording">Bootleg recording</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopped_and_screwed" title="Chopped and screwed">Chopped and screwed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrafact" title="Contrafact">Contrafact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_contrafacts" title="List of jazz contrafacts">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrafactum" title="Contrafactum">Contrafactum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cover_version" title="Cover version">Cover version</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DJ_mix" title="DJ mix">DJ mix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpolation_(popular_music)" title="Interpolation (popular music)">Interpolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medley_(music)" title="Medley (music)">Medley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(music)" title="Mashup (music)">Music mashup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_plagiarism" title="Music plagiarism">Music plagiarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musical_quotation" title="Musical quotation">Musical quotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightcore" title="Nightcore">Nightcore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parody_music" title="Parody music">Parody music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasticcio" title="Pasticcio">Pasticcio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plunderphonics" title="Plunderphonics">Plunderphonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potpourri_(music)" title="Potpourri (music)">Potpourri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quodlibet" title="Quodlibet">Quodlibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remix" title="Remix">Remix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riddim" title="Riddim">Riddim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_(music)" title="Sampling (music)">Sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_collage" title="Sound collage">Sound collage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_(music)" title="Standard (music)">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribute_act" title="Tribute act">Tribute act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trope_(music)" title="Trope (music)">Trope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variation_(music)" title="Variation (music)">Variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaporwave" title="Vaporwave">Vaporwave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99; font-weight:normal;;width:10.5em">Literature / theatre</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assemblage_(composition)" title="Assemblage (composition)">Assemblage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut-up_technique" title="Cut-up technique">Cut-up technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flarf_poetry" title="Flarf poetry">Flarf poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Found_poetry" title="Found poetry">Found poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jukebox_musical" title="Jukebox musical">Jukebox musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">Trope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbatim_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Verbatim theatre">Verbatim theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99; font-weight:normal;;width:10.5em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Visual arts</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collage" title="Collage">Collage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combine_painting" title="Combine painting">Combine painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_mosaic" title="Photographic mosaic">Photographic mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Readymades_of_Marcel_Duchamp" title="Readymades of Marcel Duchamp">Readymades of Marcel Duchamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swipe_(comics)" title="Swipe (comics)">Swipe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em;background:#FFCC99; font-weight:normal;">By source material</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mona_Lisa_replicas_and_reinterpretations" title="Mona Lisa replicas and reinterpretations">Mona Lisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replicas_of_Michelangelo%27s_David" title="Replicas of Michelangelo's David">Michelangelo's David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replicas_of_Michelangelo%27s_Piet%C3%A0" title="Replicas of Michelangelo's Pietà">Michelangelo's Pietà</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replicas_of_the_Statue_of_Liberty" title="Replicas of the Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99; font-weight:normal;;width:10.5em">Cinema / television / video</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abridged_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Abridged series">Abridged series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anime_music_video" title="Anime music video">Anime music video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collage_film" title="Collage film">Collage film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Found_footage_(appropriation)" title="Found footage (appropriation)">Found footage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literal_music_video" title="Literal music video">Literal music video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parody_film" title="Parody film">Parody film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Re-cut_trailer" title="Re-cut trailer">Re-cut trailer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remake" title="Remake">Remake</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shot-for-shot" title="Shot-for-shot">Shot-for-shot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercut" title="Supercut">Supercut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TV_format" title="TV format">TV format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidding" title="Vidding">Vidding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(video)" title="Mashup (video)">Video mashup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YouTube_poop" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube poop">YouTube poop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99; font-weight:normal;;width:10.5em">Other arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/In-joke" title="In-joke">In-joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_meme" title="Internet meme">Internet meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joke_theft" title="Joke theft">Joke theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parody_advertisement" title="Parody advertisement">Parody advertisement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)" title="Revivalism (architecture)">Revivalism (architecture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_modding" title="Video game modding">Video game modding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99;;width:1%">General concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99; font-weight:normal;;width:10.5em"><a href="/wiki/Intertextuality" title="Intertextuality">Intertextual figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allusion" title="Allusion">Allusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">Calque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parody" title="Parody">Parody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastiche" title="Pastiche">Pastiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">Plagiarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quotation" title="Quotation">Quotation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Translation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99; font-weight:normal;;width:10.5em"><a href="/wiki/Adaptation_(arts)" title="Adaptation (arts)">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_adaptation" title="Film adaptation">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_adaptation" title="Literary adaptation">Literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_adaptation" title="Theatrical adaptation">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99; font-weight:normal;;width:10.5em">Other concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/After_(art)" title="After (art)">After (art)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assemblage_(art)" title="Assemblage (art)">Assemblage (art)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricolage" title="Bricolage">Bricolage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation" title="Citation">Citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tournement" title="Détournement">Détournement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Found_object" title="Found object">Found object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homage_(arts)" title="Homage (arts)">Homage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imitation_(art)" title="Imitation (art)">Imitation in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(culture)" title="Mashup (culture)">Mashup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reprise" title="Reprise">Reprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_criticism#Source_criticism_in_the_arts" title="Source criticism">Source criticism in the arts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Related artistic concepts</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Aesthetic interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-art" title="Anti-art">Anti-art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archetypal_literary_criticism" title="Archetypal literary criticism">Archetypal literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_inspiration" title="Artistic inspiration">Artistic inspiration</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_the_Author" title="The Death of the Author">The Death of the Author</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_inspiration" title="Divine inspiration">Divine inspiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afflatus" title="Afflatus">Afflatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(literature)" title="Genius (literature)">Genius (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muses" title="Muses">Muses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_labor" title="Fan labor">Fan labor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fan_fiction" title="Fan fiction">Fan fiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">Genre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_studies" title="Genre studies">Genre studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Originality" title="Originality">Originality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulacrum" title="Simulacrum">Simulacrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Western canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Standard blocks and forms</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archetype" title="Archetype">Archetype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formula_fiction" title="Formula fiction">Formula fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_fiction" title="Genre fiction">Genre fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_standard" title="Jazz standard">Jazz standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plot_device" title="Plot device">Plot device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_character" title="Stock character">Stock character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Story_structure" title="Story structure">Story structure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Epoch-marking works</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L.H.O.O.Q." title="L.H.O.O.Q.">L.H.O.O.Q.</a> (1919)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Pierre_Menard,_Author_of_the_Quixote" title="Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote">Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote</a>" (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_Hunger" title="Reality Hunger">Reality Hunger: A Manifesto</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99;;width:1%">Theorization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copia:_Foundations_of_the_Abundant_Style" title="Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style">De Copia Rerum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diegesis" title="Diegesis">Diegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysian_imitatio" title="Dionysian imitatio">Dionysian imitatio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann#Critical_response_and_influence" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Nachahmung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palimpsests:_Literature_in_the_Second_Degree" title="Palimpsests: Literature in the Second Degree">Palimpsests: Literature in the Second Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pictures_Generation" title="The Pictures Generation">The Pictures Generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">Pop art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_formalism" title="Russian formalism">Russian formalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFCC99;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Related non- artistic concepts</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_dishonesty" title="Academic dishonesty">Academic dishonesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(sociology)" title="Appropriation (sociology)">Appropriation in sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articulation_(sociology)" title="Articulation (sociology)">Articulation in sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">Cultural appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_printing" title="History of printing">History of printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_society" title="Information society">Information society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">Derivative work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">Fair use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">Open source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_culture" title="Participatory culture">Participatory culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recontextualisation" title="Recontextualisation">Recontextualisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remix_culture" title="Remix culture">Remix culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119336910">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563405">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph124891&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph124902&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX534583">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000063588&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000063600&P_CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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