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</a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Medicine subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Anatomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Localization_of_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Localization_of_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Localization of function </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Localization_of_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Philosophy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Philosophy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opposition_to_the_Stoics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition_to_the_Stoics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Opposition to the Stoics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition_to_the_Stoics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Psychology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Psychology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mind–body_problem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mind–body_problem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Mind–body problem </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mind–body_problem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychotherapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychotherapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Psychotherapy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychotherapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Published_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Published_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Published works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Published_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Late_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Late antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Medieval Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Renaissance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Contemporary scholarship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Galen</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 111 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-111" aria-hidden="true" > 111 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius_Galenus" title="Claudius Galenus – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Claudius Galenus" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenos" title="Galenos – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Galenos" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3" title="جالينوس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جالينوس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A9n" title="Galén – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Galén" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB_%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A7%D5%B6" title="Փերկամոնացի Կալէն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Փերկամոնացի Կալէն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenu" title="Galenu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Galenu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A9no" title="Galéno – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Galéno" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalen" title="Qalen – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qalen" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8" title="গ্যালেন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গ্যালেন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Клавдий Гален – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Клавдий Гален" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenos" title="Galenos – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Galenos" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A8" title="Galè – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Galè" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A9n" title="Galén – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Galén" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenos" title="Galenos – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Galenos" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenos" title="Galenos – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Galenos" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Γαληνός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γαληνός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galeno" title="Galeno – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Galeno" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galeno_el_Pergamo" title="Galeno el Pergamo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Galeno el Pergamo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galeno" title="Galeno – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Galeno" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3" title="جالینوس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جالینوس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Galien" title="Claude Galien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Claude Galien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galeno" title="Galeno – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Galeno" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%88%EB%A0%88%EB%85%B8%EC%8A%A4" title="갈레노스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="갈레노스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%B6_%D4%BF%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%BD" title="Գալեն Կլավդիոս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գալեն Կլավդիոս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8" title="गैलेन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गैलेन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenus" title="Galenus – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Galenus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galeno" title="Galeno – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Galeno" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenos" title="Galenos – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Galenos" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galeno" title="Galeno – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Galeno" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1" title="קלאודיוס גלנוס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קלאודיוס גלנוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಗೇಲೆನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಗೇಲೆನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="გალენოსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გალენოსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenos" title="Galenos – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Galenos" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius_Galenus" title="Claudius Galenus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Claudius Galenus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C4%93ns" title="Galēns – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Galēns" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaudijus_Galenas" title="Klaudijus Galenas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Klaudijus Galenas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galeno" title="Galeno – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Galeno" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A9nosz" title="Galénosz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Galénosz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Galien" title="Claude Galien – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Claude Galien" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%87%E0%B5%BB" title="ഗലേൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗലേൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8" title="गालेन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="गालेन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="გალენოსი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გალენოსი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3" title="جالينوس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جالينوس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9C%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="ဂေလန် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂေလန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius_Galenus" title="Claudius Galenus – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Claudius Galenus" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AC%E3%83%AC%E3%83%8E%E3%82%B9" title="ガレノス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ガレノス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenos" title="Galenos – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Galenos" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen_Klavdiy" title="Galen Klavdiy – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Galen Klavdiy" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%A8" title="ਗਾਲੈਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗਾਲੈਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86" title="گالن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="گالن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3" title="جالینوس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جالینوس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A1udio_Galeno" title="Cláudio Galeno – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cláudio Galeno" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenus" title="Galenus – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Galenus" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%90%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Ґален – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ґален" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D" title="गेलेन् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="गेलेन्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B1" title="ᱜᱟᱞᱮᱱ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱜᱟᱞᱮᱱ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3" title="جالینوس – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="جالینوس" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenu" title="Galenu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Galenu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius_Gal%C3%A9nos" title="Claudius Galénos – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Claudius Galénos" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klavdij_Galen" title="Klavdij Galen – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Klavdij Galen" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8E%D9%86" title="گالێن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گالێن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenos" title="Galenos – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Galenos" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenos" title="Galenos – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Galenos" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Galen" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="கலென் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கலென்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Гален – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Гален" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99" title="เกเลน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เกเลน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher (129 – c. 216)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Galen_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Galen (disambiguation)">Galen (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Galen</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:125%;">Κλαύδιος Γαληνός</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Galenus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Galenus.jpg/220px-Galenus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Galenus.jpg/330px-Galenus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Galenus.jpg/440px-Galenus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="469" data-file-height="776" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A 17th-century engraving by Georg P. Busch<a href="#cite_note-portraits-1">[1]</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">129 AD <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 216 AD (aged c. 87) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">Unknown</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" />Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a> <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus<a href="#cite_note-alexandru21-2">[2]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 – c. 216 AD), often <a href="/wiki/Anglicization" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglicization">anglicized</a> as Galen (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈɡeɪlən/</a>) or Galen of Pergamon,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgeon" title="Surgeon">surgeon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosopher</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-nutton73-6">[6]</a> Considered to be one of the most accomplished of all <a href="/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">medical researchers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">antiquity</a>, Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a>, as well as philosophy<a href="#cite_note-Galen_on_the_brain-10">[10]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>. The son of <a href="/wiki/Aelius_Nicon" title="Aelius Nicon">Aelius Nicon</a>, a wealthy Greek architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher. Born in the ancient city of <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Bergama" title="Bergama">Bergama</a>, Turkey), Galen traveled extensively, exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>, where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the position of personal physician to several <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperors</a>. Galen's understanding of anatomy and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> was principally influenced by the then-current theory of the <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">four humors</a>: black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm, as first advanced by the author of On the Nature of Man in the <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Corpus" title="Hippocratic Corpus">Hippocratic corpus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Galen's views dominated and influenced <a href="/wiki/Western_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Western medicine">Western medical science</a> for more than 1,300 years. His anatomical reports were based mainly on the <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a> of <a href="/wiki/Barbary_macaque" title="Barbary macaque">Barbary apes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-12">[12]</a> However, when he discovered that their facial expressions were too much like those of humans, he switched to other animals, such as <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">pigs</a>. While dissections and <a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisections</a> on humans were practiced in Alexandria by Herophilus and Erasistratus in the 3rd century BCE under Ptolemaic permission, by Galen's time these proceedures were strictly forbidden in the Roman Empire. Consequently, Galen had to resort to the dissection and vivisection of animals, particularly barbary apes and pigs, as Aristotle had done centuries earlier for the study of anatomy and physiology. Galen, like others, reasoned that animal anatomy had a strong conciliance with that of humans.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Galen would encourage his students to go look at dead gladiators or bodies that washed up in order to get better acquainted with the human body. Galen's theory of the physiology of the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a> remained unchallenged until c. 1242, when <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a> published his book Sharh tashrih al-qanun li' Ibn Sina (<a href="/wiki/Commentary_on_Anatomy_in_Avicenna%27s_Canon" title="Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon">Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon</a>), in which he reported his discovery of <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> His anatomical reports remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal work <a href="/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a> by <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Vesalius1543-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> where Galen's physiological theory was accommodated to these new observations.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise titled That the Best Physician Is Also a Philosopher.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-22">[22]</a> Galen was very interested in the debate between the <a href="/wiki/Dogmatic_school" title="Dogmatic school">rationalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empiric_school" title="Empiric school">empiricist</a> medical sects,<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> and his use of direct observation, dissection, and <a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisection</a> represents a complex middle ground between the extremes of those two viewpoints.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Many of his works have been preserved or translated from the original Greek, although many were destroyed and some credited to him are believed to be spurious. Although there is some debate over the date of his death, he was no younger than seventy when he died.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography">edit</a>]</div> Galen's Greek name Γαληνός (Galēnós) comes from the adjective γαληνός (galēnós) 'calm'.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Galen's Latin name (Aelius or Claudius) implies he had <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Galen describes his early life in On the affections of the mind. He was born in September 129 AD.<a href="#cite_note-nutton73-6">[6]</a> His father, <a href="/wiki/Aelius_Nicon" title="Aelius Nicon">Aelius Nicon</a>, was a wealthy <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician</a>, an architect and builder, with eclectic interests including philosophy, mathematics, logic, astronomy, agriculture and literature. Galen describes his father as a "highly amiable, just, good and benevolent man". At that time <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Bergama" title="Bergama">Bergama</a>, Turkey) was a major cultural and intellectual centre, noted for its <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Pergamum" title="Library of Pergamum">library</a>, second only to that in Alexandria,<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-metzger-30">[30]</a> as well as being the site of a <a href="/wiki/Asclepeion" class="mw-redirect" title="Asclepeion">large temple</a> to the healing god <a href="/wiki/Asclepius" title="Asclepius">Asclepius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The city attracted both <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a> philosophers, to whom Galen was exposed at age 14. His studies also took in each of the principal philosophical systems of the time, including <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epicurean" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicurean">Epicurean</a>. His father had planned a traditional career for Galen in philosophy or politics and took care to expose him to literary and philosophical influences. However, Galen states that in around 145 his father had a dream in which the god <a href="/wiki/Asclepius" title="Asclepius">Asclepius</a> appeared and commanded Nicon to send his son to study medicine.<a href="#cite_note-nutton73-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_education">Medical education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Medical education">edit</a>]</div> Following his earlier liberal education, Galen at age 16 began his studies at the prestigious local healing temple or <a href="/wiki/Asclepeion" class="mw-redirect" title="Asclepeion">asclepeion</a> as a θεραπευτής (therapeutes, or attendant) for four years. There he came under the influence of men like <a href="/wiki/Aeschrion_of_Pergamon" title="Aeschrion of Pergamon">Aeschrion of Pergamon</a>, Stratonicus and Satyrus. Asclepiea functioned as spas or sanitoria to which the sick would come to seek the ministrations of the priesthood. Romans frequented the temple at Pergamon in search of medical relief from illness and disease. It was also the haunt of notable people such as the historian Claudius Charax, the orator <a href="/wiki/Aelius_Aristides" title="Aelius Aristides">Aelius Aristides</a>, the sophist <a href="/wiki/Polemon_of_Laodicea" title="Polemon of Laodicea">Polemo</a>, and the consul <a href="/wiki/Cuspius_Rufinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuspius Rufinus">Cuspius Rufinus</a>. Galen's father died in 148, leaving Galen independently wealthy at the age of 19. He then followed the advice he found in Hippocrates' teaching<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> and traveled and studied widely including such destinations as <a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a> (now <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmir" title="İzmir">İzmir</a>), <a href="/wiki/Roman_Corinth" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Corinth">Corinth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/%C3%87ukurova" title="Çukurova">Çukurova</a>), <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, and finally the great medical school of <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in ancient Greece">Alexandria</a>, exposing himself to the various schools of thought in medicine. In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and wealthy men in Asia. Galen claims that the High Priest chose him over other physicians after he eviscerated an ape and challenged other physicians to repair the damage. When they refused, Galen performed the <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a> himself and in so doing won the favor of the High Priest of Asia. Over his four years there, he learned the importance of diet, fitness, hygiene, and preventive measures, as well as living anatomy, and the treatment of fractures and severe trauma, referring to their <a href="/wiki/Wounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Wounds">wounds</a> as "windows into the body". Only five deaths among the gladiators occurred while he held the post, compared to sixty in his predecessor's time, a result that is in general ascribed to the attention he paid to their wounds. At the same time he pursued studies in theoretical medicine and philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-nutton73-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-ustun-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-grant-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rome">Rome</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rome">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Claudius_Galenus_(1906)_-_Veloso_Salgado.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Claudius_Galenus_%281906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png/250px-Claudius_Galenus_%281906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Claudius_Galenus_%281906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png/330px-Claudius_Galenus_%281906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Claudius_Galenus_%281906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png/500px-Claudius_Galenus_%281906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png 2x" data-file-width="1808" data-file-height="1466" /></a><figcaption>Galen dissecting a monkey, as imagined by <a href="/wiki/Veloso_Salgado" title="Veloso Salgado">Veloso Salgado</a> in 1906</figcaption></figure> Galen went to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a> in 162 and made his mark as a practicing physician. His public demonstrations and impatience with alternative views on medicine brought him into conflict with other doctors practicing in the city.<a href="#cite_note-:0-12">[12]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a> philosopher Eudemus became ill with <a href="/wiki/Quartan_fever" title="Quartan fever">quartan fever</a>, Galen felt obliged to treat him "since he was my teacher and I happened to live nearby".<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> He wrote: "I return to the case of Eudemus. He was thoroughly attacked by the three attacks of quartan ague, and the doctors had given him up, as it was now mid-winter."<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Some Roman physicians criticized Galen for his use of the <a href="/wiki/Prognosis" title="Prognosis">prognosis</a> in his treatment of Eudemus. This practice conflicted with the then-current <a href="/wiki/Standard_treatment" title="Standard treatment">standard of care</a>, which relied upon <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a>. Galen retaliated against his detractors by defending his own methods. Garcia-Ballester quotes Galen as saying: "In order to diagnose, one must observe and reason." This was the basis of his criticism of the doctors who proceeded alogos and askeptos.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> However, Eudemus warned Galen that engaging in conflict with these physicians could lead to his assassination. "Eudemus said this, and more to the same effect; he added that if they were not able to harm me by unscrupulous conduct they would proceed to attempts at poisoning. Among other things he told me that, some ten years before, a young man had come to the city and had given, like me practical demonstrations of the resources of our art; this young man was put to death by poison, together with two servants who accompanied him."<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> When Galen's animosity with the Roman medical practitioners became serious, he feared he might be exiled or poisoned, so he left the city.<a href="#cite_note-Eichholz-40">[40]</a> Rome was engaged in foreign wars in 161; <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> and his then co-Emperor and adoptive brother <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a> were in the north fighting the <a href="/wiki/Marcomanni" title="Marcomanni">Marcomanni</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> During the autumn of 169 when Roman troops were returning to <a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a>, a great plague, most likely one of the first appearances of smallpox (then referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a>) in the Mediterranean world, broke out, and the emperor summoned Galen back to Rome. He was ordered to accompany Marcus and Verus to Germany as the court physician. The following spring Marcus was persuaded to release Galen after receiving a report that <a href="/wiki/Asclepius" title="Asclepius">Asclepius</a> was against the project.<a href="#cite_note-Littman-42">[42]</a> He was left behind to act as physician to the imperial heir <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>. It was here in court that Galen wrote extensively on medical subjects. Ironically, Lucius Verus died in 169, and Marcus Aurelius himself died in 180, both victims of the plague. Galen was the physician to Commodus for much of the emperor's life and treated his common illnesses. According to Dio Cassius 72.14.3–4, in about 189, under Commodus' reign, a pestilence occurred which at its height killed 2,000 people a day in Rome. This was most likely the same plague (the so-called "Antonine Plague" and most likely smallpox) that struck Rome during Marcus Aurelius' reign.<a href="#cite_note-Littman-42">[42]</a> Galen was also physician to <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> during his reign in Rome. He complimented Severus and <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> on keeping a supply of drugs for their friends and mentioned three cases in which they had been of use in 198.<a href="#cite_note-Eichholz-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Antonine_Plague">The Antonine Plague</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Antonine Plague">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> was named after Marcus Aurelius' family name of Antoninus. It was also known as the Plague of Galen and held an important place in medicinal history because of its association with Galen. He had first-hand knowledge of the disease, and was present in Rome when it first struck in 166, and was also present in the winter of 168–69 during an outbreak among troops stationed at Aquileia. He had experience with the epidemic, referring to it as very long lasting, and described its symptoms and his treatment of it. His references to the plague are scattered and brief. Galen was not trying to present a description of the disease so that it could be recognized in future generations; he was more interested in the treatment and physical effects of the disease. For example, in his writings about a young man afflicted with the plague, he concentrated on the treatment of internal and external ulcerations. According to Niebuhr, "this pestilence must have raged with incredible fury; it carried off innumerable victims. The ancient world never recovered from the blow inflicted upon it by the plague that visited it in the reign of M. Aurelius." The mortality rate of the plague was 7–10 percent; the outbreak in 165–168 would have caused approximately 3.5 to 5 million deaths. <a href="/wiki/Otto_Seeck" title="Otto Seeck">Otto Seeck</a> believes that over half the population of the empire perished. J. F. Gilliam believes that the Antonine plague probably caused more deaths than any other epidemic during the empire before the mid-3rd century.<a href="#cite_note-Littman-42">[42]</a> Although Galen's description is incomplete, it is sufficient to enable a firm identification of the disease as related to <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>. Galen notes that the <a href="/wiki/Exanthema" class="mw-redirect" title="Exanthema">exanthema</a> covered the victim's entire body and was usually black. The exanthem became rough and scabby where there was no ulceration. He states that those who were going to survive developed a black exanthem. According to Galen, it was black because of a remnant of blood putrefied in a fever blister that was pustular. His writings state that raised blisters were present in the Antonine plague, usually in the form of a blistery rash. Galen states that the skin rash was close to the one <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> described. Galen describes symptoms of the alimentary tract via a patient's diarrhea and stools. If the stool was very black, the patient died. He says that the amount of black stools varied. It depended on the severity of the intestinal lesions. He observes that in cases where the stool was not black, the black exanthema appeared. Galen describes the symptoms of fever, vomiting, fetid breath, <a href="/wiki/Catarrh" title="Catarrh">catarrh</a>, cough, and ulceration of the larynx and trachea.<a href="#cite_note-Littman-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_years">Later years</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Later years">edit</a>]</div> Galen continued to work and write in his final years, finishing treatises on drugs and remedies as well as his compendium of diagnostics and therapeutics, which would have much influence as a medical text both in the <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_middle_ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in the middle ages">Latin Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Medieval Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-12">[12]</a> The 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a> lexicon states that Galen died at the age of 70, which would place his death in about the year 199. However, there is a reference in Galen's treatise "On Theriac to Piso" (which may, however, be spurious) to events of 204. There are also statements in Arabic sources<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> that he died in Sicily at age 87, after 17 years studying medicine and 70 practicing it, which would mean he died about 216. According to these sources, the tomb of Galenus in <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a> was still well preserved in the tenth century. Nutton<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> believes that "On Theriac to Piso" is genuine, that the Arabic sources are correct, and that the Suda has erroneously interpreted the 70 years of Galen's career in the Arabic tradition as referring to his whole lifespan. Boudon-Millot<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> more or less concurs and favors a date of 216. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medicine">Medicine</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Medicine">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">Humorism</a></div> Galen contributed a substantial amount to the understanding of pathology. Under the <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Corpus" title="Hippocratic Corpus">Hippocratic</a> bodily <a href="/wiki/Humors" class="mw-redirect" title="Humors">humors</a> theory, differences in human moods come as a consequence of imbalances in one of the four <a href="/wiki/Body_fluid" title="Body fluid">bodily fluids</a>: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Galen promoted this theory and the typology of <a href="/wiki/Four_temperaments" title="Four temperaments">human temperaments</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-46">[46]</a> In Galen's view, an imbalance of each humor corresponded with a particular human temperament (blood – sanguine, black bile – melancholic, yellow bile – choleric, and phlegm – phlegmatic). Thus, individuals with sanguine temperaments are extroverted and social; choleric people have energy, passion, and charisma; melancholics are creative, kind, and considerate; and phlegmatic temperaments are characterised by dependability, kindness, and affection.<a href="#cite_note-MarkGrant-47">[47]</a> Galen was also a skilled surgeon, operating on human patients. Many of his procedures and techniques would not be used again for centuries, such as the procedures he performed on brains and eyes.<a href="#cite_note-Galen_on_the_brain-10">[10]</a> His surgical experiments included ligating the arteries of living animals.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Although many 20th-century historians have claimed that Galen believed the lens to be in the exact center of the eye, Galen actually understood that the crystalline lens is located in the anterior aspect of the human eye.<a href="#cite_note-Clinical_Ophthalmology-49">[49]</a> At first reluctantly but then with increasing vigor, Galen promoted Hippocratic teaching, including <a href="/wiki/Venipuncture" title="Venipuncture">venesection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">bloodletting</a>, then unknown in Rome. This was sharply criticized by the <a href="/wiki/Erasistratus" title="Erasistratus">Erasistrateans</a>, who predicted dire outcomes, believing that it was not blood but <a href="/wiki/Pneuma_(Stoic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneuma (Stoic)">pneuma</a> that flowed in the veins. Galen, however, staunchly defended venesection in his three books on the subject<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> and in his demonstrations and public disputations. Galen's work on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century in Europe. In the middle of the 16th century, the anatomist <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a> challenged the anatomical knowledge of Galen by conducting dissections on human cadavers.<a href="#cite_note-auto-22">[22]</a> These investigations allowed Vesalius to refute aspects of Galen's theories regarding anatomy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anatomy">Anatomy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Anatomy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galen%27s_%22Physiological_system%22_Wellcome_M0000376.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Galen%27s_%22Physiological_system%22_Wellcome_M0000376.jpg/250px-Galen%27s_%22Physiological_system%22_Wellcome_M0000376.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="418" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Galen%27s_%22Physiological_system%22_Wellcome_M0000376.jpg/330px-Galen%27s_%22Physiological_system%22_Wellcome_M0000376.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Galen%27s_%22Physiological_system%22_Wellcome_M0000376.jpg/500px-Galen%27s_%22Physiological_system%22_Wellcome_M0000376.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2256" data-file-height="4712" /></a><figcaption>An interpretation of Galen's human "physiological system"</figcaption></figure> Galen's interest in human anatomy ran afoul of Roman law that prohibited the dissection of human cadavers since roughly 150 BC.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Because of this restriction, Galen performed anatomical dissections on living (<a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisection</a>) and dead animals, mostly focusing on <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a> Galen believed that the anatomical structures of these animals closely mirrored those of humans. Galen clarified the anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">trachea</a> and was the first to demonstrate that the <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a> generates the voice.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> In one experiment, Galen used bellows to inflate the lungs of a dead animal.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Baker1971-55">[55]</a> Galen's research on <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> was largely influenced by previous works of philosophers Plato and Aristotle, as well as from the physician Hippocrates. He was one of the first people to use experiments as a method of research for his medical findings.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Doing so allowed him to explore various parts of the body and its functions. Among Galen's major contributions to medicine was his work on the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a>. He was the first to recognize that there are distinct differences between <a href="/wiki/Venous_blood" title="Venous blood">venous</a> (dark) and <a href="/wiki/Arterial_blood" title="Arterial blood">arterial</a> (bright) blood. In addition to these discoveries, Galen postulated much more about the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a>. He believed that blood originated in the liver, which follows the teachings of Hippocrates. The liver converted nutrients gathered from ingested food into blood to be used in the circulatory system.<a href="#cite_note-:1-57">[57]</a> The blood created in the liver would eventually flow unidirectionally into the right ventricle of the heart via the great vein.<a href="#cite_note-:1-57">[57]</a> Galen also proposed a theory on how blood receives air from the lungs to be distributed throughout the body. He declared that the venous artery carried air from the lungs into the left ventricle of the heart to mix with created blood from the liver.<a href="#cite_note-:1-57">[57]</a> This same venous artery allowed for an exchange of waste products from the blood back into the lungs to be exhaled.<a href="#cite_note-:1-57">[57]</a> In order to receive air from the lungs in the left ventricle, the new blood needed to get there from the right ventricle. Thus, Galen asserted that there are small holes in the septum dividing the left and right sides of the heart; these holes allowed the blood to pass through easily to receive air and exchange the aforementioned waste products.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Although his anatomical experiments on animal models led him to a more complete understanding of the circulatory system, <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a>, and other structures, his work contained scientific errors.<a href="#cite_note-Galen_on_the_brain-10">[10]</a> Galen believed the circulatory system to consist of two separate one-way systems of distribution, rather than a single unified system of circulation. He believed venous blood to be generated in the liver, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. He posited that arterial blood originated in the heart, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. The blood was then regenerated in either the liver or the heart, completing the cycle. Galen also believed in the existence of a group of blood vessels he called the <a href="/wiki/Rete_mirabile" title="Rete mirabile">rete mirabile</a> in the carotid sinus.<a href="#cite_note-MarkGrant-47">[47]</a> Both of these theories of the circulation of blood were later (beginning with works of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a> published c. 1242) shown to be incorrect.<a href="#cite_note-Furley1984-59">[59]</a> Galen was also a pioneer in research about the human spine. His dissections and vivisections of animals led to key observations that helped him accurately describe the human spine, <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a>. Galen also played a major role in the discoveries of the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. He was also able to describe the nerves that emerge from the spine, which is integral to his research about the nervous system.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Galen went on to be the first physician to study what happens when the spinal cord is transected on multiple different levels.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> He worked with pigs and studied their <a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">neuroanatomy</a> by severing different nerves either totally or partially to see how it affected the body. He even dealt with diseases affecting the spinal cord and nerves. In his work De motu musculorum, Galen explained the difference between <a href="/wiki/Motor_nerve" title="Motor nerve">motor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sensory_nerve" title="Sensory nerve">sensory nerves</a>, discussed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Muscle_tone" title="Muscle tone">muscle tone</a>, and explained the difference between <a href="/wiki/Agonist_(muscle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agonist (muscle)">agonists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antagonist_(muscle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Antagonist (muscle)">antagonists</a>. Galen's work on animals led to some inaccuracies, most notably his anatomy of the uterus which largely resembled a dog's. Though incorrect in his studies of human reproduction and reproductive anatomy, he came very close to identifying the ovaries as analogous to the male testes. <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> was a controversial topic in Galen's lifetime, as there was much debate over if the male was solely responsible for the seed, or if the woman was also responsible. Through his vivisection practices, Galen also proved that the voice was controlled by the brain. One of the most famous experiments that he recreated in public was the squealing pig: Galen would cut open a pig, and while it was squealing he would tie off the recurrent laryngeal nerve, or vocal cords, showing they controlled the making of sound. He used the same method to tie off the ureters to prove his theories of kidney and bladder function. Galen believed the human body had three interconnected systems that allowed it to work. The first system that he theorized consisted of the brain and the nerves, responsible for thought and sensation. The second theorized system was the heart and the arteries, which Galen believed to be responsible for providing life-giving energy. The last theorized system was the liver and veins, which Galen theorized were responsible for nutrition and growth. Galen also theorized that blood was made in the liver and sent out around the body. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Localization_of_function">Localization of function</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Localization of function">edit</a>]</div> One of Galen's major works, On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, sought to demonstrate the unity of the two subjects and their views. Using their theories, combined with Aristotle's, Galen developed a tripartite soul consisting of similar aspects.<a href="#cite_note-gill2007-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-22">[22]</a> He used the <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_theory_of_soul" title="Plato's theory of soul">same terms as Plato</a>, referring to the three parts as rational, spiritual, and appetitive. Each corresponded to a localized area of the body. The rational soul was in the brain, the spiritual soul was in the heart, and the appetitive soul was in the liver. Galen was the first scientist and philosopher to assign specific parts of the soul to locations in the body because of his extensive background in medicine.<a href="#cite_note-lloyd2007-63">[63]</a> This idea is now referred to as localization of function.<a href="#cite_note-hankinson1991-64">[64]</a> Galen's assignments were revolutionary for the time period, which set the precedent for future localization theories. Galen believed each part of this tripartite soul controlled specific functions within the body and that the soul, as a whole, contributed to the health of the body, strengthening the "natural functioning capacity of the organ or organs in question".<a href="#cite_note-hankinson1991-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-22">[22]</a> The rational soul controlled higher level cognitive functioning in an organism, for example, making choices or perceiving the world and sending those signals to the brain.<a href="#cite_note-hankinson1991-64">[64]</a> He also listed "imagination, memory, recollection, knowledge, thought, consideration, voluntary motion, and sensation" as being found within the rational soul.<a href="#cite_note-hankinson1991-64">[64]</a> The functions of "growing or being alive" resided in the spirited soul.<a href="#cite_note-hankinson1991-64">[64]</a> The spirited soul also contained our passions, such as anger. These passions were considered to be even stronger than regular emotions, and, as a consequence, more dangerous.<a href="#cite_note-hankinson1991-64">[64]</a> The third part of the soul, or the appetitive spirit, controlled the living forces in our body, most importantly blood.<a href="#cite_note-hankinson1991-64">[64]</a> The appetitive spirit also regulated the pleasures of the body and was moved by feelings of enjoyment. This third part of the soul is the animalistic, or more natural, side of the soul; it deals with the natural urges of the body and survival instincts. Galen proposed that when the soul is moved by too much enjoyment, it reaches states of "incontinence" and "licentiousness", the inability to willfully cease enjoyment, which was a negative consequence of too much pleasure.<a href="#cite_note-hankinson1991-64">[64]</a> In order to unite his theories about the soul and how it operated within the body, he adapted the theory of the pneuma,<a href="#cite_note-lloyd2007-63">[63]</a> which he used to explain how the soul operated within its assigned organs, and how those organs, in turn, interacted together. Galen then distinguished the vital pneuma, in the arterial system, from the psychic pneuma, in the brain and nervous system.<a href="#cite_note-lloyd2007-63">[63]</a> Galen placed the vital pneuma in the heart and the psychic pneuma (spiritus animalis) within the brain.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> He conducted many anatomical studies on animals, most famously an ox, to study the transition from vital to psychic pneuma.<a href="#cite_note-lloyd2007-63">[63]</a> Although highly criticized for comparing animal anatomy to human anatomy, Galen was convinced that his knowledge was abundant enough in both anatomies to base one on the other.<a href="#cite_note-lloyd2007-63">[63]</a> In his treatise On the usefulness of the parts of the body, Galen argued that the perfect suitability of each part of the body to its function indicated the role of an intelligent creator.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Creationism#Theistic_evolution" title="Creationism">creationism</a> was anticipated by the anatomical examples of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_medicine" title="Philosophy of medicine">Philosophy of medicine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Galen_of_Pergamon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Statue_of_Galen_of_Pergamon.jpg/170px-Statue_of_Galen_of_Pergamon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Statue_of_Galen_of_Pergamon.jpg/255px-Statue_of_Galen_of_Pergamon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Statue_of_Galen_of_Pergamon.jpg/340px-Statue_of_Galen_of_Pergamon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2748" data-file-height="4228" /></a><figcaption>Modern statue of Galen in his home town, <a href="/wiki/Bergama" title="Bergama">Pergamon</a></figcaption></figure> Although the main focus of his work was on medicine, anatomy, and physiology, Galen also wrote about logic and philosophy. His writings were influenced by earlier Greek and Roman thinkers, including <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonists</a>. Galen was concerned to combine philosophical thought with medical practice, as in his brief work That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher he took aspects from each group and combined them with his original thought. He regarded medicine as an interdisciplinary field that was best practiced by utilizing theory, observation, and experimentation in conjunction. Galen combined his observations of his dissections with Plato's theory about the soul. Plato believed that the body and the soul were separate entities, rivaling the Stoics.<a href="#cite_note-:2-68">[68]</a> Plato proclaimed that the soul is immortal, so it must exist before one is born, beyond the human body.<a href="#cite_note-:2-68">[68]</a> This influenced Galen's thinking that the soul had to be acquired because the soul does not always reside within the human body. Plato's influence in Galen's model showed itself most prominently in what Galen dubbed arterial blood, which is a mixture of nutritious blood from the liver and the vital spirit (the soul) which was attained from the lungs. The vital spirit within this medium was necessary for the body to function and eventually completely absorbed. This process was then repeated indefinitely, according to Galen, so that the body could be replenished with the soul, or the vital spirit. Several schools of thought existed within the medical field during Galen's lifetime, the main two being the <a href="/wiki/Empiric_school" title="Empiric school">Empiricists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dogmatic_school" title="Dogmatic school">Rationalists</a> (also called Dogmatists or Philosophers), with the Methodists being a smaller group. The Empiricists emphasized the importance of physical practice and experimentation or "active learning" in the medical discipline. In direct opposition to the Empiricists were the Rationalists, who valued the study of established teachings in order to create new theories in the name of medical advancements. The Methodists formed somewhat of a middle ground, as they were not as experimental as the Empiricists, nor as theoretical as the Rationalists. The Methodists mainly utilized pure observation, showing greater interest in studying the natural course of ailments than making efforts to find remedies. Galen's education had exposed him to the five major schools of thought (Platonists, Peripatetics, Stoics, Epicureans, Pyrrhonists), with teachers from the Rationalist sect and from the Empiricist sect. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opposition_to_the_Stoics">Opposition to the Stoics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Opposition to the Stoics">edit</a>]</div> Galen was well known for his advancements in medicine and the circulatory system, but he was also concerned with philosophy. He developed his own tripartite soul model following the examples of Plato; some scholars refer to him as a Platonist.<a href="#cite_note-gill2007-62">[62]</a> Galen developed a theory of personality based on his understanding of fluid circulation in humans, and he believed that there was a physiological basis for mental disorders.<a href="#cite_note-king2009-69">[69]</a> Galen connected many of his theories to the <a href="/wiki/Pneuma" title="Pneuma">pneuma</a> and he opposed the <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a>' definition of and use of the pneuma.<a href="#cite_note-gill2007-62">[62]</a> The Stoics, according to Galen, failed to give a credible answer for the localization of functions of the psyche, or the mind. Through his use of medicine, he was convinced that he came up with a better answer, the brain.<a href="#cite_note-gill2007-62">[62]</a> The Stoics only recognized the soul as having one part, which was the rational soul and they claimed it would be found in the heart. Galen, following Plato's idea, came up with two more parts to the soul.<a href="#cite_note-gill2007-62">[62]</a> Galen also rejected Stoic propositional logic and instead embraced a hypothetical syllogistic which was strongly influenced by the Peripatetics and based on elements of Aristotelian logic.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychology">Psychology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Psychology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mind–body_problem">Mind–body problem</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mind–body problem">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></div> Galen believed there is no sharp distinction between the mental and the physical.<a href="#cite_note-hankinson1991-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-22">[22]</a> This was a controversial argument at the time, and Galen agreed with some Greek philosophical schools in believing that the mind and body were not separate faculties.<a href="#cite_note-lloyd2007-63">[63]</a> He believed that this could be scientifically shown.<a href="#cite_note-hankinson1991-64">[64]</a> This was where his opposition to the Stoics became most prevalent.<a href="#cite_note-gill2007-62">[62]</a> Galen proposed organs within the body to be responsible for specific functions. According to Galen, the Stoics' lack of scientific justification discredited their claims of the separateness of mind and body, which is why he spoke so strongly against them.<a href="#cite_note-hankinson1991-64">[64]</a> There is an intense scholarly debate about soul–body relations in Galen's psychological writings.<a href="#cite_note-auto-22">[22]</a> In his brief treatise Quod animi mores, Galen says both that the soul "follows" the mixtures of the body, and that the soul is a bodily mixture. Scholars have offered ways of reconciling these claims, arguing for a materialist reading of Galen's philosophy of mind. According to this materialist reading, Galen identifies the soul with the mixtures of the body.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Psychotherapy">edit</a>]</div> Another one of Galen's major works, On the Diagnosis and Cure of the Soul's Passion, discussed how to approach and treat psychological problems.<a href="#cite_note-king2009-69">[69]</a> This was Galen's early attempt at what would later be called <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a>. His book contained directions on how to provide counsel to those with psychological issues to prompt them to reveal their deepest passions and secrets, and eventually cure them of their mental deficiency. The leading individual, or therapist, had to be a male, preferably of an older, wiser, age, as well as free from the control of the passions.<a href="#cite_note-king2009-69">[69]</a> These passions, according to Galen, caused the psychological problems that people experienced. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Published_works">Published works</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Published works">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Galenic_corpus" title="Galenic corpus">Galenic corpus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galeni_De_curandi_ratione_V00212_00000008.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Galeni_De_curandi_ratione_V00212_00000008.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Galeni_De_curandi_ratione_V00212_00000008.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="339" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Galeni_De_curandi_ratione_V00212_00000008.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Galeni_De_curandi_ratione_V00212_00000008.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Galeni_De_curandi_ratione_V00212_00000008.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Galeni_De_curandi_ratione_V00212_00000008.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1460" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>De curandi ratione</figcaption></figure> Galen may have produced more work than any author in antiquity, rivaling the quantity of work issued from <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kotrc-72">[72]</a> So profuse was Galen's output that the surviving texts represent nearly half of all the <a href="/wiki/Extant_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant literature">extant literature</a> from ancient Greece.<a href="#cite_note-ustun-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-kotrc-72">[72]</a> It has been reported that Galen employed twenty <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a> to write down his words.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Galen may have written as many as 500 treatises,<a href="#cite_note-IIIDorn2006-74">[74]</a> amounting to some 10 million words.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Although his surviving works amount to some 3 million words,<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> this is thought to represent less than a third of his complete writings. In 191, or more likely in 192, a fire in the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Peace,_Rome" title="Temple of Peace, Rome">Temple of Peace</a> destroyed many of his works, in particular treatises on philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston200345–47-76">[76]</a> Because Galen's works were not translated into Latin in the ancient period, and because of the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, the study of Galen, along with the Greek medical tradition as a whole, went into decline in Western Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, when very few Latin scholars could read Greek. However, in general, Galen and the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">ancient Greek medical tradition</a> continued to be studied and followed in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire. All of the extant Greek manuscripts of Galen were copied by Byzantine scholars. In the Abbasid period (after 750) <a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims">Arab Muslims</a> began to be interested in Greek scientific and medical texts for the first time, and had some of Galen's texts translated into Arabic, often by Syrian Christian scholars (see below). As a result, some texts of Galen exist only in Arabic translation,<a href="#cite_note-iep-77">[77]</a> while others exist only in medieval Latin translations of the Arabic. In some cases scholars have even attempted to translate from the Latin or Arabic back into Greek where the original is lost.<a href="#cite_note-kotrc-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-nuttonchoice-79">[79]</a> For some of the ancient sources, such as <a href="/wiki/Herophilus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herophilus">Herophilus</a>, Galen's account of their work is all that survives. Even in his own time, forgeries and unscrupulous editions of his work were a problem, prompting him to write On His Own Books. Forgeries in Latin, Arabic or Greek continued until the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. Some of Galen's treatises have appeared under many different titles over the years. Sources are often in obscure and difficult-to-access journals or repositories. Although written in Greek, by convention the works are referred to by Latin titles, and often by merely abbreviations of those. No single authoritative collection of his work exists, and controversy remains as to the authenticity of a number of works attributed to Galen. As a consequence, research on Galen's work is fraught with hazard.<a href="#cite_note-metzger-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-kotrc-72">[72]</a> Various attempts have been made to classify Galen's vast output. For instance Coxe (1846) lists a Prolegomena, or introductory books, followed by 7 classes of treatise embracing Physiology (28 vols.), Hygiene (12), Aetiology (19), Semeiotics (14), Pharmacy (10), Blood letting (4), and Therapeutics (17), in addition to 4 of aphorisms, and spurious works.<a href="#cite_note-Coxe-80">[80]</a> The most complete <a href="/wiki/Compendium" title="Compendium">compendium</a> of Galen's writings, surpassing even modern projects like the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Corpus_Medicorum_Graecorum/Latinorum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Corpus Medicorum Graecorum/Latinorum (page does not exist)">Corpus Medicorum Graecorum/Latinorum</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Medicorum_Graecorum/Latinorum" class="extiw" title="de:Corpus Medicorum Graecorum/Latinorum">de</a>], is the one compiled and translated by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Gottlob_K%C3%BChn" title="Karl Gottlob Kühn">Karl Gottlob Kühn</a> of <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> between 1821 and 1833.<a href="#cite_note-kotrc-72">[72]</a> This collection consists of 122 of Galen's treatises, translated from the original Greek into Latin (the text is presented in both languages). Over 20,000 pages in length, it is divided into 22 volumes, with 676 index pages.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Many of Galen's works are included in the <a href="/wiki/Thesaurus_Linguae_Graecae" title="Thesaurus Linguae Graecae">Thesaurus Linguae Graecae</a>, a digital library of Greek literature started in 1972. Another useful modern source is the French <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/galien_va.htm">Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140421160949/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/galien_va.htm">Archived</a> 21 April 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (BIUM). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_antiquity">Late antiquity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Late antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galenosgruppe_(Wiener_Dioskurides).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg/200px-Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg/300px-Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg/400px-Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3834" data-file-height="4558" /></a><figcaption>A group of physicians in an image from the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Dioscurides" title="Vienna Dioscurides">Vienna Dioscurides</a>; Galen is depicted top center.</figcaption></figure> In his time, Galen's reputation as both physician and philosopher was legendary,<a href="#cite_note-nutton84a-81">[81]</a> the emperor Marcus Aurelius describing him as "Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum" (first among doctors and unique among philosophers Praen 14: 660). Other contemporary authors in the Greek world confirm this including <a href="/wiki/Theodotus_of_Byzantium" title="Theodotus of Byzantium">Theodotus the Shoemaker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Athenaeus" title="Athenaeus">Athenaeus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a>. The 7th-century poet <a href="/wiki/George_Pisida" class="mw-redirect" title="George Pisida">George of Pisida</a> went so far as to refer to Christ as a second and neglected Galen.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Galen continued to exert an important influence over the theory and practice of medicine until the mid-17th century in the Byzantine and Arabic worlds and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a> A few centuries after Galen, <a href="/wiki/Palladius_(physician)" title="Palladius (physician)">Palladius Iatrosophista</a> stated in his commentary on Hippocrates that Hippocrates sowed and Galen reaped. Galen summarized and synthesized the work of his predecessors, and it is in Galen's words (Galenism) that Greek medicine was handed down to subsequent generations, such that Galenism became the means by which Greek medicine was known to the world. Often, this was in the form of restating and reinterpreting, such as in Magnus of Nisibis' 4th-century work on urine, which was in turn translated into Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-nutton84-83">[83]</a> Yet the full importance of his contributions was not appreciated until long after his death.<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a> Galen's rhetoric and prolificity were so powerful as to convey the impression that there was little left to learn. The term Galenism has subsequently taken on both a positive and pejorative meaning as one that transformed medicine in late antiquity yet so dominated subsequent thinking as to stifle further progress.<a href="#cite_note-nutton84-83">[83]</a> After the collapse of the Western Empire the study of Galen and other Greek works almost disappeared in the Latin West. In contrast, in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman empire (Byzantium), many commentators of the subsequent centuries, such as <a href="/wiki/Oribasius" title="Oribasius">Oribasius</a>, physician to the emperor <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the apostate">Julian</a> who compiled a Synopsis in the 4th century, preserved and disseminated Galen's works, making them more accessible. Nutton refers to these authors as the "medical refrigerators of antiquity".<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-nutton84-83">[83]</a> In late antiquity, medical writing veered increasingly in the direction of the theoretical at the expense of the practical, with many authors merely debating Galenism. Magnus of Nisibis was a pure theorist, as were <a href="/wiki/John_of_Alexandria" title="John of Alexandria">John of Alexandria</a> and Agnellus of Ravenna with their lectures on Galen's De Sectis.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> So strong was Galenism that other authors such as Hippocrates began to be seen through Galen's eyes, while his opponents became marginalised and other medical sects such as Asclepiadism slowly disappeared.<a href="#cite_note-nutton84-83">[83]</a> Greek medicine was part of Greek culture, and Syrian Christians came in contact with it while the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (Byzantium) ruled Syria and western Mesopotamia, regions that were conquered in the 7th century by the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>. After 750, these Syrian Christians made the first translations of Galen into <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>. From then on, Galen and the Greek medical tradition in general became assimilated into the medieval and early modern Islamic Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Job_of_Edessa" title="Job of Edessa">Job of Edessa</a> is said to have translated 36 of Galen's works into Syriac, some of which were later translated into Arabic by <a href="/wiki/Hunain_ibn_Ishaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunain ibn Ishaq">Hunain ibn Ishaq</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Islam">Medieval Islam</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Medieval Islam">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine in the medieval Islamic world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galen_in_Kitab_al-diryaq,_Vienna_AF_10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Galen_in_Kitab_al-diryaq%2C_Vienna_AF_10.jpg/250px-Galen_in_Kitab_al-diryaq%2C_Vienna_AF_10.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Galen_in_Kitab_al-diryaq%2C_Vienna_AF_10.jpg/330px-Galen_in_Kitab_al-diryaq%2C_Vienna_AF_10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Galen_in_Kitab_al-diryaq%2C_Vienna_AF_10.jpg/500px-Galen_in_Kitab_al-diryaq%2C_Vienna_AF_10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="773" data-file-height="596" /></a><figcaption>Galen (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: جالينوس, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: Jalinus) in <a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Dariyak" class="mw-redirect" title="Kitab al-Dariyak">Kitab al-Dariyak</a>, 1225–1250, Syria. Vienna AF 10, Syria.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kitab_al-Dariyaq,_folio_26.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Kitab_al-Dariyaq%2C_folio_26.jpg/220px-Kitab_al-Dariyaq%2C_folio_26.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Kitab_al-Dariyaq%2C_folio_26.jpg/330px-Kitab_al-Dariyaq%2C_folio_26.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Kitab_al-Dariyaq%2C_folio_26.jpg/440px-Kitab_al-Dariyaq%2C_folio_26.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1724" data-file-height="919" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Dariyak" class="mw-redirect" title="Kitab al-Dariyak">Kitab al-Dariyak</a> was allegedly based on the work of Galen. Here, <a href="/wiki/Andromachus_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Andromachus the Elder">Andromachus the Elder</a> on horseback, questioning a patient who has received a snake bite. Kitab al-Dariyak, 1198–1199, Syria.<a href="#cite_note-OP-86">[86]</a></figcaption></figure> Galen's approach to medicine became and remains influential in the Islamic world. The first major translator of Galen into Arabic was the Arab Christian <a href="/wiki/Hunayn_ibn_Ishaq" title="Hunayn ibn Ishaq">Hunayn ibn Ishaq</a>. He translated (c. 830–870) 129 works of "Jalinos"<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> into <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>. Arabic sources, such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi</a> (AD 865–925), continue to be the source of discovery of new or relatively inaccessible Galenic writings.<a href="#cite_note-nuttonchoice-79">[79]</a> One of Hunayn's Arabic translations, Kitab ila Aglooqan fi Shifa al Amrad, which is extant in the Library of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina_Academy_of_Medieval_Medicine_and_Sciences" title="Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences">Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences</a>, is regarded as a masterpiece of Galen's literary works. A part of the Alexandrian compendium of Galen's work, this 10th-century manuscript comprises two parts that include details regarding various types of fevers (Humyat) and different inflammatory conditions of the body. More important is that it includes details of more than 150 single and compound formulations of both herbal and animal origin. The book provides an insight into understanding the traditions and methods of treatment in the Greek and Roman eras. In addition, this book provides a direct source for the study of more than 150 single and compound drugs used during the Greco-Roman period. As the title of Doubts on Galen by al-Rāzi implies, as well as the writings of physicians such as <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Ibn Zuhr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> the works of Galen were not accepted unquestioningly, but as a challengeable basis for further <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">inquiry</a>. A strong emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimentation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> led to new results and new observations, which were contrasted and combined with those of Galen by writers such as al-Rāzi, <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abbas_al-Majusi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi">Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Qasim_al-Zahrawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi">Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina</a> (Avicenna), Ibn Zuhr, and Ibn al-Nafis. For example, Ibn al-Nafis' discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a> contradicted the Galenic theory on the heart.<a href="#cite_note-Dabbagh-89">[89]</a> The influence of Galen's writings, including humorism, remains strong in modern <a href="/wiki/Unani_medicine" title="Unani medicine">Unani medicine</a>, now closely identified with Islamic culture, and widely practiced from India (where it is officially recognized) to Morocco.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Moses_Maimonides" class="mw-redirect" title="Moses Maimonides">Maimonides</a> was influenced by Galen, whom he cited most often in his medical works, and whom he considered to be the greatest <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a> of all time.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> In India many Hindu physicians studied Persian and Urdu languages and learnt Galenic medicine. This trend of studies among Hindu physicians began in the 17th century and lasted until the early 20th century (Speziale 2018). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galenus_-_De_pulsibus._Greek_manuscript_with_latin_translation._Venice,_ca._1550..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Galenus_-_De_pulsibus._Greek_manuscript_with_latin_translation._Venice%2C_ca._1550..jpg/200px-Galenus_-_De_pulsibus._Greek_manuscript_with_latin_translation._Venice%2C_ca._1550..jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Galenus_-_De_pulsibus._Greek_manuscript_with_latin_translation._Venice%2C_ca._1550..jpg/300px-Galenus_-_De_pulsibus._Greek_manuscript_with_latin_translation._Venice%2C_ca._1550..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Galenus_-_De_pulsibus._Greek_manuscript_with_latin_translation._Venice%2C_ca._1550..jpg/400px-Galenus_-_De_pulsibus._Greek_manuscript_with_latin_translation._Venice%2C_ca._1550..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1111" /></a><figcaption>De Pulsibus (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1550), Galen's treatise on the pulse, in Greek and Latin</figcaption></figure> From the 11th century onwards, <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Latin translations of Islamic medical texts</a> began to appear in the West, alongside the <a href="/wiki/Schola_Medica_Salernitana" title="Schola Medica Salernitana">Salerno</a> school of thought, and were soon incorporated into the curriculum at the universities of <a href="/wiki/Naples_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Naples University">Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montpellier_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Montpellier University">Montpellier</a>. From that time, Galenism took on a new, unquestioned authority,<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Galen even being referred to as the "Medical Pope of the Middle Ages".<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_African" title="Constantine the African">Constantine the African</a> was amongst those who translated both Hippocrates and Galen from Arabic. In addition to the more numerous translations of Arabic texts in this period, there were a few translations of Galenic works directly from the Greek, such as <a href="/wiki/Burgundio_of_Pisa" title="Burgundio of Pisa">Burgundio of Pisa</a>'s translation of De complexionibus. Galen's works on anatomy and medicine became the mainstay of the medieval physician's university curriculum, alongside Ibn Sina's <a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a>, which elaborated on Galen's works. Unlike pagan Rome, Christian Europe did not exercise a universal prohibition of the dissection and autopsy of the human body and such examinations were carried out regularly from at least the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> However, Galen's influence was so great that when dissections discovered anomalies compared with Galen's anatomy, the physicians often tried to fit these into the Galenic system. An example of this is <a href="/wiki/Mondino_de_Liuzzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mondino de Liuzzi">Mondino de Liuzzi</a>, who describes rudimentary blood circulation in his writings but still asserts that the left ventricle should contain air. Some cited these changes as proof that human anatomy had changed since the time of Galen.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The most important translator of Galen's works into Latin was Niccolò di Deoprepio da Reggio, who spent several years working on Galen. Niccolò worked at the Angevin Court during the reign of king <a href="/wiki/Robert,_King_of_Naples" title="Robert, King of Naples">Robert of Naples</a>. Among Niccolò's translations is a piece from a medical treatise by Galen, of which the original text is lost.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Renaissance">edit</a>]</div> The first edition of Galen's complete works in Latin translation was edited by Diomede Bonardo of Brescia and printed at Venice by Filippo Pinzi in 1490.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The Renaissance, and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of the Byzantine Empire</a> (1453), were accompanied by an influx of Greek scholars and manuscripts to the West, allowing direct comparison between the Arabic commentaries and the original Greek texts of Galen. This <a href="/wiki/New_Learning" title="New Learning">New Learning</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanist</a> movement, particularly the work of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Linacre" title="Thomas Linacre">Linacre</a>, promoted <a href="/wiki/Literae_humaniores" title="Literae humaniores">literae humaniores</a> including Galen in the Latin scientific canon, De Naturalibus Facultatibus appearing in London in 1523. Debates on medical science now had two traditions, the more conservative Arabian and the liberal Greek.<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a> The more extreme liberal movements began to challenge the role of authority in medicine, as exemplified by <a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a>' symbolically burning the works of Avicenna and Galen at his medical school in <a href="/wiki/University_of_Basel" title="University of Basel">Basel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a> Nevertheless, Galen's pre-eminence amongst the great thinkers of the millennium is exemplified by a 16th-century mural in the refectory of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lavra" title="Great Lavra">Great Lavra</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mt_Athos" class="mw-redirect" title="Mt Athos">Mt Athos</a>. It depicts pagan sages at the foot of the <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_Jesse" title="Tree of Jesse">Tree of Jesse</a>, with Galen between the <a href="/wiki/Sibyl" title="Sibyl">Sibyl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nutton84-83">[83]</a> Galenism's final defeat came from a combination of the negativism of Paracelsus and the constructivism of the Italian Renaissance anatomists, such as <a href="/wiki/Vesalius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesalius">Vesalius</a> in the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a> In the 1530s, the Flemish anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Vesalius' most famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form. Seeking to examine critically Galen's methods and outlook, Vesalius turned to human cadaver dissection as a means of verification. Galen's writings were shown by Vesalius to describe details present in monkeys but not in humans, and he demonstrated Galen's limitations through books and hands-on demonstrations despite fierce opposition from orthodox pro-Galenists such as <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Dubois" title="Jacques Dubois">Jacobus Sylvius</a>. Since Galen states that he is using observations of monkeys (human dissection was prohibited) to give an account of what the body looks like, Vesalius could portray himself as using Galen's approach of description of direct observation to create a record of the exact details of the human body, since he worked in a time when human dissection was allowed. Galen argued that monkey anatomy was close enough to humans for physicians to learn anatomy with monkey dissections and then make observations of similar structures in the wounds of their patients, rather than trying to learn anatomy only from wounds in human patients, as would be done by students trained in the Empiricist model.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The examinations of Vesalius also disproved medical theories of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mondino_de_Liuzzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mondino de Liuzzi">Mondino de Liuzzi</a>. One of the best known examples of Vesalius' overturning of Galenism was his demonstration that the <a href="/wiki/Interventricular_septum" title="Interventricular septum">interventricular septum</a> of the heart was not permeable, as Galen had taught (Nat Fac III xv). However, this had been revealed two years before by Michael Servetus in his fateful "Christianismi restitutio" (1553) with only three copies of the book surviving, but these remained hidden for decades; the rest were burned shortly after its publication because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Servetus" title="Michael Servetus">Michael Servetus</a>, using the name "Michel de Villeneuve" during his stay in France, was <a href="/wiki/Vesalius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesalius">Vesalius</a>' fellow student and the best Galenist at the University of Paris, according to <a href="/wiki/Johann_Winter_von_Andernach" title="Johann Winter von Andernach">Johann Winter von Andernach</a>,<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> who taught both. In the Galenism of the Renaissance, editions of the Opera Omnia by Galen were very important, beginning from the <a href="/wiki/Aldine_Press" title="Aldine Press">Aldine Press</a>' <a href="/wiki/List_of_editiones_principes_in_Greek" title="List of editiones principes in Greek">editio princeps in Venice in 1525</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> It was followed in Venice in 1541–1542 by the Giunta. There were fourteen editions of the book from that date until 1625. Just one edition was produced from Lyon between 1548 and 1551. The Lyon edition has commentaries on breathing and blood streaming that correct the work of earlier renowned authors such as <a href="/wiki/Vesalius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesalius">Vesalius</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Caius" title="John Caius">Caius</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Janus_Cornarius" title="Janus Cornarius">Janus Cornarius</a>. "Michel De Villeneuve" had contracts with Jean Frellon for that work, and the Servetus scholar-researcher Francisco Javier González Echeverría<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> presented research that became an accepted communication in the <a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_the_History_of_Medicine" title="International Society for the History of Medicine">International Society for the History of Medicine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> which concluded that Michael De Villeneuve (<a href="/wiki/Michael_Servetus" title="Michael Servetus">Michael Servetus</a>) is the author of the commentaries of this edition of Frellon, in <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Another convincing case where understanding of the body was extended beyond where Galen had left it came from these demonstrations of the nature of human circulation and the subsequent work of <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Cesalpino" title="Andrea Cesalpino">Andrea Cesalpino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Fabricius" title="Hieronymus Fabricius">Fabricio of Acquapendente</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-brock-8">[8]</a> Some Galenic teaching, such as his emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">bloodletting</a> as a remedy for many ailments, however, remained influential until well into the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_scholarship">Contemporary scholarship</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Contemporary scholarship">edit</a>]</div> Galenic scholarship remains an intense and vibrant field, with interest in Galen's work bolstered by the German encyclopedia <a href="/wiki/Realencyclop%C3%A4die_der_Classischen_Altertumswissenschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft">Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kotrc-72">[72]</a> Copies of his works translated by Robert M. Green are held at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> In 2018, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Basel" title="University of Basel">University of Basel</a> discovered that a mysterious Greek <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> with <a href="/wiki/Mirror_writing" title="Mirror writing">mirror writing</a> on both sides, which is in the collection of <a href="/wiki/Basilius_Amerbach" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilius Amerbach">Basilius Amerbach</a>, a professor of <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> at the university in the 16th century, is an unknown medical document of Galen or an unknown commentary on his work. The medical text describes the phenomenon of "hysterical apnea".<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abascantus" title="Abascantus">Abascantus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galenic_formulation" title="Galenic formulation">Galenic formulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galenic_corpus" title="Galenic corpus">Galenic corpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology" title="Timeline of medicine and medical technology">Timeline of medicine and medical technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peri_Alypias" title="Peri Alypias">Peri Alypias</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-portraits-1"><a href="#cite_ref-portraits_1-0">^</a> Since no contemporary depictions or descriptions of Galen are known to have existed, later artists' impressions are unlikely to have reproduced his appearance accurately. </li> <li id="cite_note-alexandru21-2"><a href="#cite_ref-alexandru21_2-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFS._Alexandru2021" class="citation journal cs1">S. Alexandru (2021). "Critical Remarks on Codices in which Galen Appears as a Member of the gens Claudia". Mnemosyne. 74 (4): 553–597. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1568525x-12342720">10.1163/1568525x-12342720</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225298224">225298224</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mnemosyne&rft.atitle=Critical+Remarks+on+Codices+in+which+Galen+Appears+as+a+Member+of+the+gens+Claudia&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E553-%3C%2Fspan%3E597&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1568525x-12342720&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225298224%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=S.+Alexandru&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/galen">"Galen"</a> entry in <a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Life, death, and entertainment in the Roman Empire. David Stone Potter, D. J. Mattingly (1999). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HPjqJWakX7IC&pg=PA63">p. 63</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-08568-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-08568-9">0-472-08568-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQY9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1">Galen on bloodletting: a study of the origins, development, and validity of his opinions, with a translation of the three works</a>". Peter Brain, Galen (1986). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 1. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-32085-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-32085-2">0-521-32085-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-nutton73-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nutton73_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nutton73_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nutton73_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nutton73_6-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNutton_Vivian1973" class="citation journal cs1">Nutton Vivian (1973). "The Chronology of Galen's Early Career". Classical Quarterly. 23 (1): 158–171. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009838800036600">10.1017/S0009838800036600</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11624046">11624046</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35645790">35645790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Chronology+of+Galen%27s+Early+Career&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E158-%3C%2Fspan%3E171&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35645790%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11624046&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0009838800036600&rft.au=Nutton+Vivian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1081972">"Galen on the affected parts. Translation from the Greek text with explanatory notes"</a>. Med Hist. 21 (2): 212. 1977. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025727300037935">10.1017/s0025727300037935</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1081972">1081972</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Med+Hist&rft.atitle=Galen+on+the+affected+parts.+Translation+from+the+Greek+text+with+explanatory+notes&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=212&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1081972%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0025727300037935&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1081972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-brock-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brock_8-11">l</a> Arthur John Brock (translator), Introduction. Galen. On the Natural Faculties. Edinburgh 1916 </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDebru1997" class="citation book cs1">Debru, Armelle (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=al9FH5tynlAC&q=galen+on+pharmacology">Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium, Lille, 16–18 March 1995</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004104037" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004104037"><bdi>978-9004104037</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galen+on+Pharmacology%3A+Philosophy%2C+History%2C+and+Medicine+%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Vth+International+Galen+Colloquium%2C+Lille%2C+16%E2%80%9318+March+1995&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-9004104037&rft.aulast=Debru&rft.aufirst=Armelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dal9FH5tynlAC%26q%3Dgalen%2Bon%2Bpharmacology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galen_on_the_brain-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galen_on_the_brain_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galen_on_the_brain_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galen_on_the_brain_10-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRocca2003" class="citation journal cs1">Rocca, Julius (2003). 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(2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/science-in-context/article/abs/fatal-embrace-galen-and-the-history-of-ancient-medicine/B593B7BD348DB7E16303AA46FD2E42E6">"The Fatal Embrace: Galen and the History of Ancient Medicine"</a>. Science in Context. 18 (1): 111–121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0269889705000384">10.1017/S0269889705000384</a> (inactive 25 March 2025). <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16075496">16075496</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10878807">10878807</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+in+Context&rft.atitle=The+Fatal+Embrace%3A+Galen+and+the+History+of+Ancient+Medicine&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E111-%3C%2Fspan%3E121&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10878807%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16075496&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0269889705000384&rft.aulast=Nutton&rft.aufirst=V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fscience-in-context%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Ffatal-embrace-galen-and-the-history-of-ancient-medicine%2FB593B7BD348DB7E16303AA46FD2E42E6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2025 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_March_2025" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2025">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHankinson2008" class="citation cs1">Hankinson, R. 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Life and work of Michael Servetus", (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), González Echeverría, Francisco Javier, printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations. Note 481 (.."primum Andrea Vesalem..Post hunc, Michael Villanovanus familiariter milhi in consectionibus adhibitus est, vir in omni genere litterarum ornatissimus in Galenic doctrina, vix illi secundus.." Audrey, Jean </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> J. P. Byrne, Encyclopedia of the Black Death, ABC-CLIO, 2012, p. 231 </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> 2002 " Michael Servetus in the 'Opera Omnia' of Galenus of 1548–1551 printed by Jean Frellon", González Echeverría, Francisco Javier. Book of communications, XII National Congress on History of Medicine., Albacete, 7–9 February, pp. 42–43 </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> 2004 "The edition of Lyon of the "Opera omnia' by Galenus of the printer Jean Frellon (1548–1551) commented by Michael Servetus", Francisco Javier González Echeverría and Ancín Chandía, Teresa. In: Medicine in the presence of the new millennium: a historical perspective. Coordinators: José Martínez Pérez, Isabel Porras Gallo, Pedro Samblás Tilve, Mercedes Del Cura González, Minutes from the XII Congress in History of Medicine, 7–9 February 2002, Albacete. Ed. Of the University of Castilla-La Mancha. Cuenca, pp. 645–657. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> 2011 September 9th, Francisco González Echeverría VI International Meeting for the History of Medicine, (S-11: Biographies in History of Medicine (I)), Barcelona. New Discoveries on the biography of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) & New discoverys on the work of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> 2011 "The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus", (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), Francisco Javier González Echeverría, Francisco Javier, printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations. pp. 194–204 </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html">Michael Servetus Research</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170221134108/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html">Archived</a> 21 February 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Website with a study on the Opera Omnia of Galen, by Michael de Villanueva </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Brian, P., 1986, Galen on Bloodletting, Cambridge University Press </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oculus.nlm.nih.gov/green082">"Selected works of Galen / translated by Robert Montraville Green for Sidney Licht [c. 1953] 1951–1979"</a>. National Library of Medicine.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Selected+works+of+Galen+%2F+translated+by+Robert+Montraville+Green+for+Sidney+Licht+%5Bc.+1953%5D+1951%E2%80%931979&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Medicine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foculus.nlm.nih.gov%2Fgreen082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unibas.ch/en/News-Events/News/Uni-Research/Mystery-of-the-Basel-papyrus-solved.html">"Mystery of the Basel papyrus solved"</a>. University of Basel.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mystery+of+the+Basel+papyrus+solved&rft.pub=University+of+Basel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unibas.ch%2Fen%2FNews-Events%2FNews%2FUni-Research%2FMystery-of-the-Basel-papyrus-solved.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dd><dl><dd>The works of Galen are listed in <a href="/wiki/Galenic_corpus" title="Galenic corpus">Galenic corpus</a>.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Algra K (ed.) The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-35275-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-35275-9">978-90-04-35275-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNutton2008" class="citation journal cs1">Nutton, Vivian (1 January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2175042">"Book Review: Galien: Introduction générale; Sur l'ordre de ses propres livres; Sur ses propres livres; Que l'excellent médecin est aussi philosophe"</a>. Medical History. 52 (1): 144–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025727300002209">10.1017/S0025727300002209</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2175042">2175042</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=Book+Review%3A+Galien%3A+Introduction+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale%3B+Sur+l%27ordre+de+ses+propres+livres%3B+Sur+ses+propres+livres%3B+Que+l%27excellent+m%C3%A9decin+est+aussi+philosophe&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E144-%3C%2Fspan%3E145&rft.date=2008-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2175042%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025727300002209&rft.aulast=Nutton&rft.aufirst=Vivian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2175042&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kai_Brodersen" title="Kai Brodersen">Brodersen K.</a> Galenos, Die verbrannte Bibliothek: Peri Alypias. Marix, Wiesbaden 2015, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7374-0962-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7374-0962-9">978-3-7374-0962-9</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=al9FH5tynlAC">Debru A. "Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium", Lille, 16–18 March 1995 Brill, 1997</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10403-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10403-7">978-90-04-10403-7</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=12937057">Dunn PM. Galen (AD 129–200) of Pergamun: anatomist and experimental physiologist. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003 Sep;88(5):F441–443.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8eyqsqFgQ8C">Everson S. (ed.) Language. Cambridge University Press, 1994</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35795-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35795-1">978-0-521-35795-1</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hf1htsj-usAC">French RK. Medicine Before Science: The Rational and Learned Doctor from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2003.</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00761-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00761-0">978-0-521-00761-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGleason2007" class="citation web cs1">Gleason, MW (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220531062146/http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/gleason/010702.pdf">"Shock and Awe: The Performance Dimension of Galen's Anatomy Demonstrations Version 5"</a> (PDF). Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/gleason/010702.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 31 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Princeton%2FStanford+Working+Papers+in+Classics&rft.atitle=Shock+and+Awe%3A+The+Performance+Dimension+of+Galen%27s+Anatomy+Demonstrations+Version+5&rft.date=2007-01&rft.aulast=Gleason&rft.aufirst=MW&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~pswpc%2Fpdfs%2Fgleason%2F010702.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gleason MW. Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome. Princeton 1995</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521819541">Hankinson RJ (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Galen. CUP 2008</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81954-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81954-1">978-0-521-81954-1</a></li> <li>Hankinson R.J. Cause and explanation in ancient Greek thought. Oxford University Press, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924656-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924656-4">978-0-19-924656-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHouston2003" class="citation journal cs1">Houston, George W. (2003). "Galen, His Books, and the Horrea Piperataria at Rome". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 48. University of Michigan Press: 45–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4238804">10.2307/4238804</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238804">4238804</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+American+Academy+in+Rome&rft.atitle=Galen%2C+His+Books%2C+and+the+Horrea+Piperataria+at+Rome&rft.volume=48&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E45-%3C%2Fspan%3E51&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4238804&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4238804%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Houston&rft.aufirst=George+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Ilberg" title="Johannes Ilberg">Johannes Ilberg</a>. "Aus Galens Praxis. Neue Jahrbücher für das Klassische Altertum", Geschichte und Deutsche Literatur 15: 276–312, 1905</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakim_Syed_Zillur_Rahman" title="Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman">Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman</a> (ed.). Jawami Kitab Al-Nabd Al-Saghir by Galen (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibnsinaacademy.org">Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences</a>, Aligarh, India; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-901362-7-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-901362-7-3">978-81-901362-7-3</a></li> <li>Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.). Kitab fi Firaq al Tibb by Galen (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibnsinaacademy.org">Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences</a>, Aligarh, India; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-906070-1-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-906070-1-8">978-81-906070-1-8</a></li> <li>Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.). Kitab al Anasir by Galen (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibnsinaacademy.org">Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences</a>, Aligarh, India; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-906070-2-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-906070-2-5">978-81-906070-2-5</a></li> <li>Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.). Kitab al Mizaj of Galen (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibnsinaacademy.org">Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences</a>, Aligarh, India, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-906070-3-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-906070-3-2">978-81-906070-3-2</a></li> <li>Kotrc RF, Walters KR. "A bibliography of the Galenic Corpus. A newly researched list and arrangement of the titles of the treatises extant in Greek, Latin, and Arabic". Trans Stud Coll Physicians Phila. 1979 December;1(4):256–304</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/bulletin_of_the_history_of_medicine/v073/73.1mattern.html">Mattern SP. Physicians and the Roman Imperial Aristocracy: The Patronage of Therapeutics. Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Volume 73, Number 1, Spring 1999, pp. 1–18</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NrEeAAAAIAAJ">Metzger BM. New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. Brill, 1980</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-06163-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-06163-7">978-90-04-06163-7</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/medical_sects/title.htm">Muhaqqiq M. Medical Sects in Islam. al-Tawhid Islamic Journal, vol. VIII, No.2</a></li> <li>Nutton V. "Roman Medicine, 250 BC to AD 200, and Medicine in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages", in Lawrence C.(ed.) The Western Medical Tradition: 800–1800 A.D. 1995</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oShfkIhduowC">Nutton V. Ancient Medicine. Routledge, 2004</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08611-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08611-0">978-0-415-08611-0</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lzO3zQ3dK0cC">Osler W. The Evolution of Modern Medicine 1913. Plain Label Books 1987. Chapter II: Greek Medicine</a></li> <li>Peterson DW. "Observations on the chronology of the Galenic Corpus". Bull Hist Med 51(3): 484, 1977</li> <li>Siegel RE. Galen's System of Physiology and Medicine, Basel 1968 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars)</li> <li>Siegel RE. Galen on Sense Perception, His Doctrines, Observations and Experiments on Vision, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Touch and Pain, and Their Historical Sources. Karger, Basel 1970 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars)</li> <li>Siegel RE. Galen on Psychology, Psychopathology, and Function and Diseases of the Nervous System 1973 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wJ4YAAAAIAAJ">Smith WG. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. J Walton 1849</a></li> <li>Stakelum JW, Galen and the Logic of Proposition, Rome, Angelicum, 1940</li> <li>Taylor HO. Greek Biology And Medicine. Marshall Jones 1922. Chapter 5: The Final System – Galen</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswei_Temkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Oswei Temkin">Temkin O.</a> Galenism: Rise and Decline of a Medical Philosophy. Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1973</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mhNUGgG2eacC">The Cambridge Ancient History: Second Edition. XI The High Empire A.D. 70–192 Cambridge University Press, 2000</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26335-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26335-1">978-0-521-26335-1</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tlg.uci.edu/">Thesaurus Linguae Graecae: TLG</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Aesg-6eBWCYC">van der Eijk P. Medicine and Philosophy in Classical Antiquity: Doctors and Philosophers on Nature, Soul, Health and Disease. Cambridge University Press, 2005</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81800-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81800-1">978-0-521-81800-1</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/marcusaureliusan00watsrich">Watson PB. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Harper & brothers, 1884</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Galen <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Galen&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Galen">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Galen&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow">By Galen <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Galen&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Galen">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Galen&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBacalexi2014" class="citation conference cs1">Bacalexi, Dina (April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01639720/document">Ancient medicine, humanistic medicine: the Renaissance commentaries of Galen, transmission and transformation of knowledge</a>. International Conference Scientiae 2014: Disciplines of knowing in the Early Modern World, Scientiae International Research Group. Vienna: HAL.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=conference&rft.jtitle=International+Conference+Scientiae+2014%3A+Disciplines+of+knowing+in+the+Early+Modern+World%2C+Scientiae+International+Research+Group&rft.atitle=Ancient+medicine%2C+humanistic+medicine%3A+the+Renaissance+commentaries+of+Galen%2C+transmission+and+transformation+of+knowledge&rft.date=2014-04&rft.aulast=Bacalexi&rft.aufirst=Dina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhalshs.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhalshs-01639720%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Boudon-Millot, V. Introduction Générale, Sur L'ordre de ses Propres Livres, Sur ses Propres Livres, Que L'excellent Médecin est Aussi Philosophe Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2007.</li> <li>Garcia Ballester, Luis. 2002. Galen and Galenism. Theory and Medical Practice from Antiquity to the European Renaissance. Collected Studies Series 710. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Variorum.</li> <li>Gilbert, N. Ward. 1960. Renaissance Concepts of Method. New York: Columbia University Press.</li> <li>Gill, Christopher, Tim Whitmarsh, and John Wilkins, eds. 2012. Galen and the World of Knowledge. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.</li> <li>Kudlien, Fridolf, and Richard J Durling. 1991. Galen's Method of Healing: Proceedings of the 1982 Galen Symposium. Leiden: E.J. Brill.</li> <li>Lloyd, G. E. R. 1991. Methods and Problems in Greek Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Mattern, Susan P. 2013. The Prince of Medicine: Galen In the Roman Empire. New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Nutton, Vivian. 2004. Ancient Medicine. London and New York: Routledge.</li> <li>Rocca, Julius. 2003. Galen on the Brain: Anatomical Knowledge and Physiological Speculation in the Second Century A.D. Studies in Ancient Medicine 26. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.</li> <li>Rosen, Ralph M. 2013. "Galen on Poetic Testimony" In Writing Science: Medical and Mathematical Authorship in Ancient Greece. Edited by M. Asper, 177–189. Berlin: De Gruyter.</li> <li>Rosen, Ralph M. 2013. "Galen, Plato, and the Physiology of Eros." In Eros Edited by E. Sanders, C. Carey and N. Lowe, 111–127. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Sarton, George. 1954. Galen of Pergamon. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.</li> <li>Schlange-Schöningen, H. Die römische Gesellschaft bei Galen. Biographie und Sozialgeschichte (= Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur und Geschichte, Bd. 65) Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSinger2023" class="citation book cs1">Singer, R. N. (2023). Galen: Writings on Health. Cambridge Galen Translations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-15951-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-15951-7"><bdi>978-1-009-15951-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galen%3A+Writings+on+Health&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+Galen+Translations&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-15951-7&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=R.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Speziale, Fabrizio. Culture persane et médecine ayurvédique an Asie du Sud, Leiden – Boston, E. J. Brill, Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Science. Texts and Studies, 2018. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-35275-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-35275-9">978-90-04-35275-9</a>.</li> <li>Walzer, Richard. 1949. Galen On Jews and Christians. London: Oxford University Press.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrock1929" class="citation book cs1">Brock, Arthur John (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greekmedicinebei0000broc">Greek Medicine, Being Extracts Illustrative of Medical Writers from Hippocrates to Galen</a>. London: Dent.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Medicine%2C+Being+Extracts+Illustrative+of+Medical+Writers+from+Hippocrates+to+Galen&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Dent&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Brock&rft.aufirst=Arthur+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreekmedicinebei0000broc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGalen1991" class="citation book cs1">Galen (1991). On the Therapeutic Method. R.J. Hankinson, trans. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Therapeutic+Method&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Galen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galen&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/120px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about: <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Claudius_Galenus" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Claudius Galenus">Galen</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Galen" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Galen">Galen</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Galen">Works by Galen</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cmg.bbaw.de/epubl/online/galges.html">Works by Galen</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201024064111/http://cmg.bbaw.de/epubl/online/galges.html">Archived</a> 24 October 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at the <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Medicorum_Graecorum/Latinorum" class="extiw" title="de:Corpus Medicorum Graecorum/Latinorum">Corpus Medicorum Graecorum</a> with links to digitized editions, manuscripts and modern translations.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Galen%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Galen%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Galen%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Galen%22%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Galen</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Galenus%2C%20Claudius%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Claudius%20Galenus%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Galenus%2C%20Claudius%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Claudius%20Galenus%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Galenus%2C%20C%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Claudius%20Galenus%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Galenus%2C%20Claudius%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Claudius%20Galenus%22%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Claudius Galenus</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSinger" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Singer, P. N. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/galen/">"Galen"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Galen&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=P.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fgalen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalen" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/galen/">Galen</a> entry in the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>*<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classicsindex.wikispaces.com/Galen">Classicsindex: Galen</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081224233754/http://classicsindex.wikispaces.com/Galen">Archived</a> 24 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresults?q=Galen&redirect=true">Works by Galen at Perseus Digital Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cmg.bbaw.de/epubl/online/editionencmg_05.html">Online Editions by the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galen.bbaw.de/online-publications/hippokrates-und-galenbibliographie-fichtner">Gerhard Fichtner, Galen bibliography</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120712011351/http://galen.bbaw.de/online-publications/hippokrates-und-galenbibliographie-fichtner">Archived</a> 12 July 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/library/historical/artifacts/antiqua/galen.cfm">University of Virginia: Health Sciences Library. Galen</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071210172030/http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/library/historical/artifacts/antiqua/galen.cfm">Archived</a> 10 December 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/a-b/ancientsurgery7.html">Channel 4 – History – Ancient surgery</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exploregalen.com/">The Empire's Physician: Prosperity, Plague, and Healing in Ancient Rome</a>, NYU's Institute for the Study of the Ancient World</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi2097.htm">Lienhard JH. Engines of our Ingenuity, Number 2097 – Constantine the African</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-223895/Galen-of-Pergamum">Nutton V. Galen of Pergamum, Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgajpd/medicina%20antiqua/bio_gal.html">Pearcy L. Galen: A biographical sketch. Medicina Antiqua</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070406023427/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0109.html">Taylor HO. Greek Biology and Medicine 1922: Chapter 5 – "The Final System: Galen"</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://robl.de/galen/galen.htm">Galenus von Pergamon – Leben und Werk. Includes alphabetical list of Latin Titles</a></li> <li>(in French) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923222338/http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/histmed/medica/galien_vf.htm">Galien's works</a> digitized by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111101181049/http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/debut.htm">BIUM (Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d'odontologie, Paris)</a>, see its digital library <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141007025741/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica.htm">Medic@</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.slub-dresden.de/id337794197">Galeni opera varia – Mscr.Dresd.Db.93</a> Digital Version of the Manuscript at the Saxon State and University Library, Dresden (SLUB)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgajpd/medicina%20antiqua/mm_hypertexts.html">Hypertexts – Medicina Antiqua, University College London</a> (Commentary on Hippocrates' On the Nature of Man; On the Natural Faculties; Exhortation to Study the Arts: To Menodotus; On Diagnosis from Dreams)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170221134108/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html">Michael Servetus Research</a> Website with a study on the Opera Omnia of Galen by the galenist Michael de Villanueva, and also the first description of the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a> in his Manuscript of Paris in 1546.</li> <li>Claudii Galeni opera omnia in Medicorum graecorum opera quae exstant, editionem curavit D. Carolus Gottlob Kühn, Lipsiae prostat in officina libraria Car. Cnoblochii, 1821–1833 in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/livanc/?intro=galien_vf&statut=charge&fille=o&cotemere=45674">20 volumines</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03c4dys">Discussion of Galens</a> on <a href="/wiki/BBC_Radio_4" title="BBC Radio 4">BBC Radio 4</a>'s programme <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)">In Our Time</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-18076">Digital edition: Galeni septima Classis (1550)</a> by the <a href="/wiki/University_and_State_Library_D%C3%BCsseldorf" title="University and State Library Düsseldorf">University and State Library Düsseldorf</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalgalen.net/">The Galen Syriac Palimpsest – On the Mixtures and Powers of Simple Drugs</a></li></ul> <div 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href="/wiki/Soranus_of_Ephesus" title="Soranus of Ephesus">Soranus of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiades_of_Bithynia" title="Asclepiades of Bithynia">Asclepiades of Bithynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Cornelius_Celsus" title="Aulus Cornelius Celsus">Aulus Cornelius Celsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oribasius" title="Oribasius">Oribasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscio" title="Muscio">Muscio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philonides_(physician)" title="Philonides (physician)">Philonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochis_of_Tlos" title="Antiochis of Tlos">Antiochis of Tlos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonius_Musa" title="Antonius Musa">Antonius Musa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Opilius" title="Aurelius Opilius">Aurelius Opilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meges_of_Sidon" title="Meges of Sidon">Meges of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextius_Niger" title="Sextius Niger">Sextius Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archagathus_(son_of_Lysanias)" title="Archagathus (son of Lysanias)">Archagathus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caelius_Aurelianus" title="Caelius Aurelianus">Caelius Aurelianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Felix" title="Cassius Felix">Cassius Felix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gessius_of_Petra" title="Gessius of Petra">Gessius of Petra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antyllus" title="Antyllus">Antyllus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criton_of_Heraclea" title="Criton of Heraclea">Criton of Heraclea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_of_Side" title="Marcellus of Side">Marcellus of Side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serenus_Sammonicus" title="Serenus Sammonicus">Serenus Sammonicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Placitus" title="Sextus Placitus">Sextus Placitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aemilia_Hilaria" title="Aemilia Hilaria">Aemilia Hilaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Gargilius_Martialis" title="Quintus Gargilius Martialis">Quintus Gargilius Martialis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessalus_of_Tralles" title="Thessalus of Tralles">Thessalus of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albucius" title="Albucius">Albucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcyon" title="Arcyon">Arcyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenaeus_of_Attalia" title="Athenaeus of Attalia">Athenaeus of Attalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crinas_of_Marseilles" title="Crinas of Marseilles">Crinas of Marseilles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damocrates" title="Damocrates">Damocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charmis_of_Marseilles" title="Charmis of Marseilles">Charmis of Marseilles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scribonius_Largus" title="Scribonius Largus">Scribonius Largus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andromachus_(physician)" title="Andromachus (physician)">Andromachus</a></li> <li><a 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Roles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archiater" title="Archiater">Archiater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentistry_in_ancient_Rome" title="Dentistry in ancient Rome">Dentistry in ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_ancient_Rome" title="Disability in ancient Rome">Disability in ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_in_Imperial_Rome" title="Disease in Imperial Rome">Disease in Imperial Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_diet_in_ancient_medicine" title="Food and diet in ancient medicine">Food and diet in ancient medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynecology_in_ancient_Rome" title="Gynecology in ancient Rome">Gynecology in ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_illness_in_ancient_Rome" title="Mental illness in ancient Rome">Mental illness in ancient 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href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000182355">Chile</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=153553">Greece</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=16360">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/vs688b4d1lwrknr">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810553551205606">Poland</a></li><li><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/44656">Vatican</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007261393305171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118537202.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118537202">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/02776897X">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6h23n6v">SNAC</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/galen">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galen&oldid=1282946829">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galen&oldid=1282946829</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:129_births" title="Category:129 births">129 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:216_deaths" title="Category:216 deaths">216 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:2nd-century_births" title="Category:2nd-century births">2nd-century births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:2nd-century_Greek_physicians" title="Category:2nd-century Greek physicians">2nd-century Greek physicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:2nd-century_Greek_philosophers" title="Category:2nd-century Greek philosophers">2nd-century Greek 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title="Category:Aelii">Aelii</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_anatomists" title="Category:Ancient Greek anatomists">Ancient Greek anatomists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_logicians" title="Category:Ancient Greek logicians">Ancient Greek logicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of mind">Ancient Greek philosophers of mind</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_science_writers" title="Category:Ancient Greek science writers">Ancient Greek science writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_ophthalmologists" title="Category:Ancient ophthalmologists">Ancient ophthalmologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Court_physicians" title="Category:Court physicians">Court physicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Herbalists" title="Category:Herbalists">Herbalists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Platonists" title="Category:Middle 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-07-04T06:56:28Z","dateModified":"2025-03-29T15:12:13Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/80\/Galenus.jpg","headline":"1st-century Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher"}</script> </body> </html>