CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Addiction - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"ed953fb1-e259-4820-a00e-eec00947f6ea","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Addiction","wgTitle":"Addiction","wgCurRevisionId":1259272586,"wgRevisionId":1259272586,"wgArticleId":27158894,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2018","All articles containing potentially dated statements","CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024","CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use American English from March 2023","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","Use dmy dates from February 2023", "Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2011","Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from March 2023","Commons category link from Wikidata","Addiction","Behavioral addiction","Brain disorders","Substance-related disorders"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Addiction","wgRelevantArticleId":27158894,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Drug_addict","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true, "watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Addiction#Drug_addiction","wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q12029","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready", "skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.tablesorter.styles":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.tablesorter","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions", "wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cjquery.tablesorter.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="667"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="445"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg/640px-Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="356"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Addiction - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction#Drug_addiction"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction#Drug_addiction"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Addiction rootpage-Addiction skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Addiction" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Addiction" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Addiction" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Addiction" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs_and_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Signs and symptoms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Definitions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Substance_addiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substance_addiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Substance addiction </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Substance_addiction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Substance addiction subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Substance_addiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drug_addiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drug_addiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Drug addiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drug_addiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_addiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_addiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Food addiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_addiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Behavioral_addiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behavioral_addiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Behavioral addiction </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Behavioral_addiction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Behavioral addiction subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Behavioral_addiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sexual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Sexual </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gambling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gambling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Gambling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gambling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Internet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Video_games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Video_games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Video games </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Video_games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shopping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shopping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Shopping </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shopping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Screening_and_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Screening_and_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Screening and assessment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Screening_and_assessment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Screening and assessment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Screening_and_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Addictions_Neuroclinical_Assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Addictions_Neuroclinical_Assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Addictions Neuroclinical Assessment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Addictions_Neuroclinical_Assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tobacco,_Alcohol,_Prescription_Medication,_and_Other_Substance_Use_(TAPS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tobacco,_Alcohol,_Prescription_Medication,_and_Other_Substance_Use_(TAPS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Tobacco, Alcohol, Prescription Medication, and Other Substance Use (TAPS) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tobacco,_Alcohol,_Prescription_Medication,_and_Other_Substance_Use_(TAPS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CRAFFT" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CRAFFT"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 CRAFFT </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CRAFFT-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drug_Abuse_Screening_Test_(DAST-10)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drug_Abuse_Screening_Test_(DAST-10)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drug_Abuse_Screening_Test_(DAST-10)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alcohol,_Smoking,_and_Substance_Involvement_Test_(ASSIST)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcohol,_Smoking,_and_Substance_Involvement_Test_(ASSIST)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Test (ASSIST) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcohol,_Smoking,_and_Substance_Involvement_Test_(ASSIST)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Causes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personality_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personality_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Personality theories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personality_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuropsychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuropsychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Neuropsychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuropsychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stimulus_control_of_behavior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stimulus_control_of_behavior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Stimulus control of behavior </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stimulus_control_of_behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_control_of_behavior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_control_of_behavior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Cognitive control of behavior </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_control_of_behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risk_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risk_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Risk factors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Risk_factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Risk factors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Risk_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetic_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Genetic factors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Environmental factors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_control_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_control_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Social control theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_control_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Age </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comorbid_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comorbid_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Comorbid disorders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comorbid_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epigenetic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epigenetic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Epigenetic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epigenetic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.1 Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Mechanisms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mechanisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mechanisms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reward_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reward_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Reward system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reward_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mesocorticolimbic_pathway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesocorticolimbic_pathway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.1 Mesocorticolimbic pathway </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesocorticolimbic_pathway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_dopamine_and_glutamate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_dopamine_and_glutamate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.2 Role of dopamine and glutamate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_dopamine_and_glutamate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reward_sensitization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reward_sensitization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Reward sensitization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reward_sensitization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuroepigenetic_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuroepigenetic_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Neuroepigenetic mechanisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuroepigenetic_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Diagnosis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Diagnosis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-DSM-5" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DSM-5"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.1 DSM-5 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DSM-5-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ICD-11" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ICD-11"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.2 ICD-11 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ICD-11-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Prevention </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prevention subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abuse_liability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abuse_liability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Abuse liability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abuse_liability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_vaccines_for_addiction_to_substances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_vaccines_for_addiction_to_substances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Potential vaccines for addiction to substances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_vaccines_for_addiction_to_substances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment_and_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment_and_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Treatment and management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment_and_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Epidemiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Epidemiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.4 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.5 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.6 South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Addiction_and_the_humanities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Addiction_and_the_humanities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Addiction and the humanities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Addiction_and_the_humanities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Addiction and the humanities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Addiction_and_the_humanities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_and_etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 History and etymology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_and_etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_suffixes_"-holic"_and_"-holism"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_suffixes_"-holic"_and_"-holism""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 The suffixes "-holic" and "-holism" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_suffixes_"-holic"_and_"-holism"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-As_therapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_therapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3.1 As therapy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_therapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_an_assessment_tool" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_an_assessment_tool"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3.2 As an assessment tool </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_an_assessment_tool-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advocacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advocacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3.3 Advocacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advocacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Narrative_Approach_and_Addiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Narrative_Approach_and_Addiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.4 Narrative Approach and Addiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Narrative_Approach_and_Addiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.5 Philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_scientific_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_scientific_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Social scientific models </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_scientific_models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Social scientific models subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Social_scientific_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 Cultural model </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subcultural_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subcultural_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.3 Subcultural model </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subcultural_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critical_medical_anthropology_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critical_medical_anthropology_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.4 Critical medical anthropology model </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critical_medical_anthropology_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_learning_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_learning_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Social learning models </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_learning_models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Social learning models subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Social_learning_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_learning_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_learning_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Social learning theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_learning_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transtheoretical_model_(stages_of_change_model)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transtheoretical_model_(stages_of_change_model)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.2 Transtheoretical model (stages of change model) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transtheoretical_model_(stages_of_change_model)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Endnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Endnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Endnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Endnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 20 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 21 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Addiction</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 98 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-98" aria-hidden="true" > 98 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verslawing" title="Verslawing – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Verslawing" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abh%C3%A4ngigkeit_(Medizin)" title="Abhängigkeit (Medizin) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Abhängigkeit (Medizin)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="إدمان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إدمان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adicci%C3%B3n" title="Adicción – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Adicción" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="আসক্তি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="আসক্তি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adicci%C3%B3n" title="Adicción – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Adicción" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiksiya" title="Addiksiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Addiksiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="اعتیاد – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اعتیاد" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="আসক্তি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আসক্তি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%C3%A0n-phiah" title="Giàn-phiah – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Giàn-phiah" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8B_%D0%B1%D3%99%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA_(%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Зарарлы бәйлелек (аддикция) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Зарарлы бәйлелек (аддикция)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Аддыкцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аддыкцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Залежнасьць – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Залежнасьць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiksyon" title="Adiksyon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Adiksyon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Пристрастяване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Пристрастяване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovisnost" title="Ovisnost – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ovisnost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sujedigezh" title="Sujedigezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Sujedigezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addicci%C3%B3" title="Addicció – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Addicció" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1vislost_(psychologie)" title="Závislost (psychologie) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Závislost (psychologie)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dibyniaeth" title="Dibyniaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dibyniaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afh%C3%A6ngighed" title="Afhængighed – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Afhængighed" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="بلية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="بلية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abh%C3%A4ngigkeit_(Medizin)" title="Abhängigkeit (Medizin) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Abhängigkeit (Medizin)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B5ltuvush%C3%A4ire" title="Sõltuvushäire – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sõltuvushäire" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B8%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Εθισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εθισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adicci%C3%B3n" title="Adicción – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Adicción" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependeco_(medicino)" title="Dependeco (medicino) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dependeco (medicino)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adikzio" title="Adikzio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Adikzio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="اعتیاد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اعتیاد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharaab_aadat" title="Kharaab aadat – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Kharaab aadat" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction" title="Addiction – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Addiction" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adicci%C3%B3n" title="Adicción – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Adicción" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%90%EB%8B%89" title="탐닉 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="탐닉" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction" title="Addiction – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Addiction" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%A4%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%AF%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Ադդիկցիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ադդիկցիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8" title="व्यसन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="व्यसन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovisnost" title="Ovisnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ovisnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannakairuam" title="Pannakairuam – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pannakairuam" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kecanduan" title="Kecanduan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kecanduan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADkn" title="Fíkn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fíkn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipendenza" title="Dipendenza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dipendenza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA" title="התמכרות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התמכרות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%9F" title="ಚಟ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಚಟ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аддикция – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аддикция" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraibu" title="Uraibu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uraibu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiksyon" title="Adiksyon – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Adiksyon" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependentia_(medicina)" title="Dependentia (medicina) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Dependentia (medicina)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kait%C4%ABgs_ieradums" title="Kaitīgs ieradums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kaitīgs ieradums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priklausomyb%C4%97" title="Priklausomybė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Priklausomybė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verslaving" title="Verslaving – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Verslaving" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependenza" title="Dependenza – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Dependenza" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addikci%C3%B3" title="Addikció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Addikció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%BB" title="അഡിക്‌ഷൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അഡിക്‌ഷൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ادمان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ادمان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="اعتیاد – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="اعتیاد" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketagihan" title="Ketagihan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ketagihan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2%E1%80%9C%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="စွဲလမ်းခြင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="စွဲလမ်းခြင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verslaving" title="Verslaving – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verslaving" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8D" title="गुलु ल्वय् – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="गुलु ल्वय्" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%97%9C%E7%99%96" title="嗜癖 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="嗜癖" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Аддикци – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Аддикци" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avhengighet" title="Avhengighet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Avhengighet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avhengnad" title="Avhengnad – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Avhengnad" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiccion" title="Addiccion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Addiccion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%A4" title="ਲਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%92_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D9%84%D8%AA" title="نشے دی لت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نشے دی لت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adikshan" title="Adikshan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Adikshan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucht" title="Sucht – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Sucht" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzale%C5%BCnienie" title="Uzależnienie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Uzależnienie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adic%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Adicção – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Adicção" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependen%C8%9B%C4%83_de_substan%C8%9Be_psihotrope" title="Dependență de substanțe psihotrope – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dependență de substanțe psihotrope" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аддикция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аддикция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аддикция – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Аддикция" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Var%C3%ABsia" title="Varësia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Varësia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction" title="Addiction – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Addiction" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1vislos%C5%A5_(medic%C3%ADna)" title="Závislosť (medicína) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Závislosť (medicína)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zasvojenost" title="Zasvojenost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zasvojenost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%DA%B5%D9%88%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86" title="ئاڵوودەبوون – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئاڵوودەبوون" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Зависност – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Зависност" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovisnost" title="Ovisnost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ovisnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riippuvuus" title="Riippuvuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Riippuvuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beroende" title="Beroende – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Beroende" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiksiyon" title="Adiksiyon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Adiksiyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பழக்க அடிமைத்தனம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பழக்க அடிமைத்தனம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аддикция – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Аддикция" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81" title="వ్యసనములు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వ్యసనములు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94" title="การติด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การติด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C4%9F%C4%B1ml%C4%B1l%C4%B1k" title="Bağımlılık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bağımlılık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Залежність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Залежність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="خوگری – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="خوگری" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nghi%E1%BB%87n" title="Nghiện – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nghiện" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagkagumon" title="Pagkagumon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pagkagumon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%B5" title="念 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="念" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="אדיקציע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אדיקציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%AE" title="癮 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="癮" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prigolm%C4%ABb%C4%97" title="Prigolmībė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Prigolmībė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%90%E7%98%BE" title="成瘾 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="成瘾" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenyadikan" title="Kenyadikan – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Kenyadikan" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12029#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Addiction" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Addiction" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Addiction">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Addiction">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Addiction" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Addiction" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&oldid=1259272586" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Addiction&id=1259272586&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAddiction%23Drug_addiction">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAddiction%23Drug_addiction">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Addiction&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Addictions" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Addiction" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12029" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Drug_addict&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug addict">Drug addict</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Disorder resulting in compulsive behaviours</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Addictive" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Addiction_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Addiction (disambiguation)">Addiction (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Addictive_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Addictive (disambiguation)">Addictive (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Psychological_dependence" title="Psychological dependence">Psychological dependence</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Addiction</th></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="PET images showing brain metabolism in drug addicts vs controls" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg/220px-Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg/330px-Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg/440px-Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="377" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Brain_positron_emission_tomography" title="Brain positron emission tomography">Brain positron emission tomography</a> images that compare <a href="/wiki/Human_brain#Metabolism" title="Human brain">brain metabolism</a> in a healthy individual and an individual with a cocaine addiction</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">clinical psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">toxicology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">addiction medicine</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Reoccurring <a href="/wiki/Compulsive_behavior" title="Compulsive behavior">compulsion</a> to engage in <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">rewarding</a> activity despite negative consequences</td></tr></tbody></table> Addiction is a <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropsychological">neuropsychological</a> <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">disorder</a> characterized by a persistent and intense urge to use a <a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">drug</a> or engage in a behavior that produces natural reward, despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use often alters <a href="/wiki/Brain#Function" title="Brain">brain function</a> in ways that perpetuate <a href="/wiki/Craving_(withdrawal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Craving (withdrawal)">craving</a>, and weakens (but does not completely negate) <a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">self-control</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Heilig-et-al-2021-1">[1]</a> This phenomenon – drugs <a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">reshaping</a> <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a> function – has led to an understanding of addiction as a <a href="/wiki/Brain_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain disorder">brain disorder</a> with a complex variety of <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">psychosocial</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neurobiological</a> (and thus involuntary)<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> factors that are implicated in the development of addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NIDA2020-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> Classic signs of addiction include <a href="/wiki/Compulsive_behavior" title="Compulsive behavior">compulsive</a> engagement in <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">rewarding</a> stimuli, preoccupation with substances or behavior, and continued use despite negative consequences. <a href="/wiki/Habit" title="Habit">Habits</a> and patterns associated with addiction are typically characterized by immediate <a href="/wiki/Gratification" title="Gratification">gratification</a> (short-term reward),<a href="#cite_note-pmid18790142-6">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-NHM_addiction-reward-reinforcement-7">[6]</a> coupled with delayed deleterious effects (long-term costs).<a href="#cite_note-NIDA2020-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid3278676-8">[7]</a> Examples of substance addiction include <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_use_disorder" title="Cannabis use disorder">cannabis addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphetamine addiction">amphetamine addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocaine_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocaine addiction">cocaine addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicotine#Reinforcement_disorders" title="Nicotine">nicotine addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opioid_use_disorder" title="Opioid use disorder">opioid addiction</a>, and eating or <a href="/wiki/Food_addiction" title="Food addiction">food addiction</a>. Behavioral addictions may include <a href="/wiki/Gambling_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gambling addiction">gambling addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shopping_addiction" title="Shopping addiction">shopping addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stalking" title="Stalking">stalking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet_addiction_disorder" title="Internet addiction disorder">internet addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_media_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social media addiction">social media addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_game_addiction" title="Video game addiction">video game addiction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_addiction" title="Sexual addiction">sexual addiction</a>. The <a href="/wiki/DSM-5" title="DSM-5">DSM-5</a> and <a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">ICD-10</a> only recognize gambling addictions as behavioral addictions, but the <a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">ICD-11</a> also recognizes gaming addictions.<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms">edit</a>]</div> Signs and symptoms of addiction can vary depending on the type of addiction. Symptoms of drug addictions may include: <ul><li>Continuation of drug use despite the knowledge of consequences<a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a></li> <li>Disregarding financial status when it comes to drug purchases</li> <li>Ensuring a stable supply of the drug</li> <li>Experiencing withdrawal symptoms when stopping the drug<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a></li> <li>Needing more of the drug over time to achieve similar effects<a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a></li> <li>Social and work life impacted due to drug use<a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a></li> <li>Unsuccessful attempts to stop drug use<a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a></li> <li>Urge to use drug regularly</li></ul> Signs and symptoms of addiction may include: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Behavioral Changes </th> <th>Physical Changes </th> <th>Social Changes </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td> <ul><li>Angry and irritable</li> <li>Changes to eating or sleeping habits</li> <li>Changes to personality and attitude</li> <li>Decreased attendance and performance in workplace or school setting<a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a></li> <li>Fearful, paranoid and anxious without probable cause<a href="#cite_note-mentalhealth.gov-12">[11]</a></li> <li>Frequently engaging in conflicts (fights, illegal activity)</li> <li>Frequent or sudden changes in mood and temperament</li> <li>Hiding or in denial of certain behaviors</li> <li>Lack of motivation</li> <li>Periodic hyperactivity</li> <li>Using substances in inappropriate settings</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>Abnormal pupil size</li> <li>Bloodshot eyes</li> <li>Body odor</li> <li>Impaired motor coordination<a href="#cite_note-mentalhealth.gov-12">[11]</a></li> <li>Periodic tremors</li> <li>Poor physical appearance</li> <li>Slurred speech</li> <li>Sudden changes in weight</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>Changes in hobbies</li> <li>Changes to financial status (unexplained need for money)</li> <li>Legal problems related to substance abuse</li> <li>Sudden changes in friends and associates</li> <li>Use of substance despite consequences to personal relationships<a href="#cite_note-mentalhealth.gov-12">[11]</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definitions">edit</a>]</div> "Addiction" and "addictive behaviour" are <a href="/wiki/Polyseme" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyseme">polysemes</a> denoting a category of <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorders</a>, of neuropsychological <a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">symptoms</a>, or of merely <a href="/wiki/Maladaptation" title="Maladaptation">maladaptive</a>/harmful <a href="/wiki/Habit" title="Habit">habits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_(social_sciences)" title="Lifestyle (social sciences)">lifestyles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Steverson_(2020)-13">[12]</a> A common use of "addiction" in medicine is for neuropsychological symptoms denoting pervasive/excessive and intense urges to engage in a category of behavioral <a href="/wiki/Compulsive_behavior" title="Compulsive behavior">compulsions</a> or <a href="/wiki/Impulsivity#Impulse" title="Impulsivity">impulses</a> towards sensory <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">rewards</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Betel_quid" class="mw-redirect" title="Betel quid">betel quid</a>, drugs, sex, gambling, video gaming).<a href="#cite_note-Gowing_et_al._(2015)-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gilley_(2018)-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._(2018)-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sahithya_et_al._(2022)-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-ICD-11_(disorders_due_to_substance_use_or_addictive_behaviours)-18">[17]</a> Addictive disorders or addiction disorders are mental disorders involving high intensities of addictions (as neuropsychological symptoms) that induce <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">functional disabilities</a> (i.e., limit subjects' social/family and occupational activities); the two categories of such disorders are substance-use addictions and behavioral addictions.<a href="#cite_note-Destoop_et_al._(2019)-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Steverson_(2020)-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sahithya_et_al._(2022)-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-ICD-11_(disorders_due_to_substance_use_or_addictive_behaviours)-18">[17]</a> The <a href="/wiki/DSM-5" title="DSM-5">DSM-5</a> classifies addiction the most severe stage of substance use disorder, due to significant loss of control and the presence of compulsive behaviours despite the desire to stop.<a href="#cite_note-Volkow_et_al._(2016)-20">[19]</a> It is a definition that many scientific papers and reports use.<a href="#cite_note-Koob_et_al._(2014)-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Surgeon_General_severe_SUD-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ko_et_al._(2020)-23">[22]</a> "Dependence" is also a polyseme denoting either neuropsychological symptoms or mental disorders. In the DSM-5, dependences differ from addictions and can even normally happen without addictions;<a href="#cite_note-APA_(2013)-24">[23]</a> besides, substance-use dependences are severe stages of substance-use addictions (i.e. mental disorders) involving <a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">withdrawal issues</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> In the ICD-11, "substance-use dependence" is a synonym of "substance-use addiction" (i.e. neuropsychological symptoms) that can but do not necessarily involve withdrawal issues.<a href="#cite_note-ICD-11-26">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Substance_addiction">Substance addiction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Substance addiction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">Substance use disorder</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Substance-related_disorder" title="Substance-related disorder">Substance-related disorder</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width:{{{width}}}; ; border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:100%; background:#FFCC66; box-shadow: inset 3px 3px 0 #fafafa, inset -3px -3px 0 #fafafa;; padding:5px;">Addiction and dependence glossary<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Addiction_glossary-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brain_disease-28">[27]</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">addiction</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Biopsychosocial" class="mw-redirect" title="Biopsychosocial">biopsychosocial</a> disorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (including <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">addictive drug</a> – psychoactive substances that with repeated use are associated with significantly higher rates of substance use disorders, due in large part to the drug's effect on brain <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">dependence</a> – an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_tolerance" title="Reverse tolerance">drug sensitization</a> or reverse tolerance – the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">drug withdrawal</a> – symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">physical dependence</a> – dependence that involves persistent physical–<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/somatic" class="extiw" title="wikt:somatic">somatic</a> withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and <a href="/wiki/Delirium_tremens" title="Delirium tremens">delirium tremens</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_dependence" title="Psychological dependence">psychological dependence</a> – dependence socially seen as being extremely mild compared to physical dependence (e.g., with enough willpower it could be overcome)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement" title="Reinforcement">reinforcing</a> stimuli – stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">rewarding</a> stimuli – stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensitization" title="Sensitization">sensitization</a> – an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">substance use disorder</a> – a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_tolerance" title="Drug tolerance">tolerance</a> – the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="text-align:right; padding-top:0; padding-right:5px;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Addiction_glossary" title="Template:Addiction glossary"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Addiction_glossary" title="Template talk:Addiction glossary"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Addiction_glossary" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Addiction glossary"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drug_addiction">Drug addiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Drug addiction">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">Drug addiction</a>, which belongs to the class of <a href="/wiki/Substance-related_disorder" title="Substance-related disorder">substance-related disorders</a>, is a chronic and relapsing brain disorder that features drug seeking and drug abuse, despite their harmful effects.<a href="#cite_note-NIDA_2020-29">[28]</a> This form of addiction changes brain circuitry such that the brain's reward system is compromised,<a href="#cite_note-Levy2019-30">[29]</a> causing functional consequences for stress management and self-control.<a href="#cite_note-NIDA_2020-29">[28]</a> Damage to the functions of the organs involved can persist throughout a lifetime and cause death if untreated.<a href="#cite_note-NIDA_2020-29">[28]</a> Substances involved with drug addiction include alcohol, nicotine, marijuana, opioids, cocaine, amphetamines, and even foods with high fat and sugar content.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> Addictions can begin experimentally in social contexts<a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a> and can arise from the use of prescribed medications or a variety of other measures.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> Drug addiction has been shown to work in <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(psychology)" title="Phenomenology (psychology)">phenomenological</a>, conditioning (<a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">operant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical</a>), cognitive models, and the <a href="/wiki/Cue_reactivity" title="Cue reactivity">cue reactivity</a> model. However, no one model completely illustrates substance abuse.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> Risk factors for addiction include: <ul><li>Aggressive behavior (particularly in childhood)</li> <li>Availability of substance<a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a></li> <li>Community economic status</li> <li>Experimentation<a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impulsivity" title="Impulsivity">Impulsivity</a> (attentional, motor, or non-planning)<a href="#cite_note-Maxwell2020-35">[34]</a></li> <li>Lack of parental supervision<a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a></li> <li>Lack of peer refusal skills<a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a></li> <li>Mental disorders<a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a></li> <li>Method substance is taken<a href="#cite_note-NIDA_2020-29">[28]</a></li> <li>Usage of substance in youth<a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_addiction">Food addiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Food addiction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Food_addiction" title="Food addiction">Food addiction</a></div> The diagnostic criteria for food or eating addiction has not been categorized or defined in references such as the <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders" title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a> (DSM or DSM-5) and is based on subjective experiences similar to substance use disorders.<a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maxwell2020-35">[34]</a> Food addiction may be found in those with eating disorders, though not all people with eating disorders have food addiction and not all of those with food addiction have a diagnosed eating disorder.<a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a> Long-term frequent and excessive consumption of foods high in fat, salt, or sugar, such as chocolate, can produce an addiction<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a> similar to drugs since they trigger the brain's reward system, such that the individual may desire the same foods to an increasing degree over time.<a href="#cite_note-Goodman_2022-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maxwell2020-35">[34]</a> The signals sent when consuming highly palatable foods have the ability to counteract the body's signals for fullness and persistent cravings will result.<a href="#cite_note-Goodman_2022-38">[37]</a> Those who show signs of food addiction may develop food tolerances, in which they eat more, despite the food becoming less satisfactory.<a href="#cite_note-Goodman_2022-38">[37]</a> Chocolate's sweet flavor and pharmacological ingredients are known to create a strong craving or feel 'addictive' by the consumer.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> A person who has a strong liking for chocolate may refer to themselves as a <a href="/wiki/Chocoholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chocoholic">chocoholic</a>. Risk factors for developing food addiction include excessive <a href="/wiki/Overeating" title="Overeating">overeating</a> and impulsivity.<a href="#cite_note-Maxwell2020-35">[34]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yale_Food_Addiction_Scale" title="Yale Food Addiction Scale">Yale Food Addiction Scale</a> (YFAS), version 2.0, is the current standard measure for assessing whether an individual exhibits signs and symptoms of food addiction.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maxwell2020-35">[34]</a> It was developed in 2009 at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> on the hypothesis that foods high in fat, sugar, and salt have addictive-like effects which contribute to problematic eating habits.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goodman_2022-38">[37]</a> The YFAS is designed to address 11 substance-related and addictive disorders (SRADs) using a 25-item self-report questionnaire, based on the diagnostic criteria for SRADs as per DSM-5.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a> A potential food addiction diagnosis is predicted by the presence of at least two out of 11 SRADs and a significant impairment to daily activities.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Barratt_Impulsiveness_Scale" title="Barratt Impulsiveness Scale">Barratt Impulsiveness Scale</a>, specifically the BIS-11 scale, and the <a href="/wiki/Impulsivity#UPPS_Impulsive_Behavior_Scale" title="Impulsivity">UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior</a> subscales of Negative Urgency and Lack of Perseverance have been shown to have relation to food addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Maxwell2020-35">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Behavioral_addiction">Behavioral addiction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Behavioral addiction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_addiction" title="Behavioral addiction">Behavioral addiction</a></div> The term behavioral addiction refers to a <a href="/wiki/Compulsive_behavior" title="Compulsive behavior">compulsion</a> to engage in a <a href="/wiki/Natural_reward" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural reward">natural reward</a> – which is a behavior that is inherently rewarding (i.e., desirable or appealing) – despite adverse consequences.<a href="#cite_note-NHM_addiction-reward-reinforcement-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a> Preclinical evidence has demonstrated that marked increases in the expression of <a href="/wiki/%CE%94FosB" class="mw-redirect" title="ΔFosB">ΔFosB</a> through repetitive and excessive exposure to a natural reward induces the same behavioral effects and <a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">neuroplasticity</a> as occurs in a drug addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Systematic_review_-_yet_another_DSM_fail-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_D1_signaling-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_NMDA_signaling-46">[45]</a> Addiction can exist in the absence of psychotropic drugs, which was popularized by Peele.<a href="#cite_note-Alavi_2012-47">[46]</a> These are termed behavioral addictions. Such addictions may be passive or active, but they commonly contain reinforcing features, which are found in most addictions.<a href="#cite_note-Alavi_2012-47">[46]</a> Sexual behavior, eating, gambling, playing video games, and shopping are all associated with compulsive behaviors in humans and have been shown to activate the mesolimbic pathway and other parts of the reward system.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> Based on this evidence, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_addiction" title="Sexual addiction">sexual addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gambling_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gambling addiction">gambling addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_game_addiction" title="Video game addiction">video game addiction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shopping_addiction" title="Shopping addiction">shopping addiction</a> are classified accordingly.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual">Sexual</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sexual">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_addiction" title="Sexual addiction">Sexual addiction</a></div> Sexual addiction involves an engagement in excessive, compulsive, or otherwise problematic sexual behavior that persists despite negative physiological, psychological, social, and occupational consequences.<a href="#cite_note-Derbyshire_2015-48">[47]</a> Sexual addiction may be referred to as <a href="/wiki/Hypersexuality" title="Hypersexuality">hypersexuality</a> or <a href="/wiki/Compulsive_sexual_behavior_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Compulsive sexual behavior disorder">compulsive sexual behavior disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Derbyshire_2015-48">[47]</a> The <a href="/wiki/DSM-5" title="DSM-5">DSM-5</a> does not recognize sexual addiction as a clinical diagnosis. Hypersexuality disorder and internet addiction disorder were among proposed addictions to the DSM-5, but were later rejected due to the insufficient evidence available in support of the existence of these disorders as discrete mental health conditions.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> Reviews of both clinical research in humans and preclinical studies involving ΔFosB have identified compulsive sexual activity – specifically, any form of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">sexual intercourse</a> – as an addiction (i.e., sexual addiction).<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Systematic_review_-_yet_another_DSM_fail-44">[43]</a> <a href="#Reward_sensitization">Reward cross-sensitization</a> between <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamine</a> and sexual activity, meaning that exposure to one increases the desire for both, has been shown to occur as a <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_dysregulation_syndrome" title="Dopamine dysregulation syndrome">dopamine dysregulation syndrome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Systematic_review_-_yet_another_DSM_fail-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_D1_signaling-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_NMDA_signaling-46">[45]</a> ΔFosB <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression</a> is required for this cross-sensitization effect, which intensifies with the level of ΔFosB expression.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_D1_signaling-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_NMDA_signaling-46">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gambling">Gambling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gambling">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">Gambling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Problem_gambling" title="Problem gambling">Problem gambling</a></div> Gambling provides a natural reward that is associated with compulsive behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> Functional <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> evidence shows that gambling activates the <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward system</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mesolimbic_pathway" title="Mesolimbic pathway">mesolimbic pathway</a> in particular.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> It is known that <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> is involved in learning, motivation, as well as the reward system.<a href="#cite_note-Yau_2015-50">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levy2019-30">[29]</a> The exact role of dopamine in gambling addiction has been debated.<a href="#cite_note-Yau_2015-50">[49]</a> Suggested roles for <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D2" title="Dopamine receptor D2">D2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D3" title="Dopamine receptor D3">D3</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D4" title="Dopamine receptor D4">D4</a> <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor" title="Dopamine receptor">dopamine receptors</a>, as well as D3 receptors in the <a href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra" title="Substantia nigra">substantia nigra</a> have been found in rat and human models, showing a correlation with the severity of the gambling behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Yau_2015-50">[49]</a> This in turn was linked with greater dopamine release in the <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">dorsal striatum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Yau_2015-50">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Problem_gambling" title="Problem gambling">Gambling addictions</a> are linked with <a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">comorbidities</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric disorder">mental health disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcohol use disorder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Personality_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality disorders">personality disorders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ford_2020-51">[50]</a> Risk factors for gambling addictions include antisocial behavior, impulsive personality,<a href="#cite_note-Maxwell2020-35">[34]</a> male sex, sensation seeking,<a href="#cite_note-Menchon_2018-52">[51]</a> substance use, and young age. Gambling addiction has been associated with some personality traits, including: harm avoidance, low self direction, decision making and planning insufficiencies, impulsivity, as well as sensation seeking individuals.<a href="#cite_note-Menchon_2018-52">[51]</a> Although some personality traits can be linked with gambling addiction, there is no general description of individuals addicted to gambling.<a href="#cite_note-Menchon_2018-52">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet">Internet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Internet">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Internet_addiction_disorder" title="Internet addiction disorder">Internet addiction disorder</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Internet_addiction_disorder" title="Internet addiction disorder">Internet addiction</a> does not have any standardized definition, yet there is widespread agreement that this problem exists.<a href="#cite_note-Chou-2005-53">[52]</a> Debate over the classification of problematic internet use considers whether it should be thought of as a behavioral addiction, an impulse control disorder, or an obsessive-compulsive disorder.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> Others argue that internet addiction should be considered a symptom of an underlying mental health condition and not a disorder in itself.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> Internet addiction has been described as "a psychological dependence on the Internet, regardless of the type of activity once logged on."<a href="#cite_note-Chou-2005-53">[52]</a> Problematic internet use may include a preoccupation with the internet and/or digital media, excessive time spent using the internet despite resultant distress in the individual, increase in the amount of internet use required to achieve the same desired emotional response, loss of control over one's internet use habits, withdrawal symptoms, and continued problematic internet use despite negative consequences to one's work, social, academic, or personal life.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> Studies conducted in India, United States, Asia, and Europe have identified Internet addiction prevalence rates ranging in value from 1% to 19%, with the adolescent population having high rates compared to other age groups.<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Joseph2021-59">[58]</a> Prevalence rates have been difficult to establish due to a lack of universally accepted diagnostic criteria, a lack of diagnostic instruments demonstrating cross-cultural validity and reliability, and existing controversy surrounding the validity of labeling problematic internet use as an addictive disorder.<a href="#cite_note-Weinstein_2010-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Joseph2021-59">[58]</a> The most common scale used to measure addiction is the Internet Addiction Test developed by <a href="/wiki/Kimberly_Young" title="Kimberly Young">Kimberly Young</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Joseph2021-59">[58]</a> People with internet addiction are likely to have a comorbid psychiatric disorder. Comorbid diagnoses identified alongside internet addiction include affective mood disorders, anxiety disorders, substance use disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.<a href="#cite_note-Weinstein_2010-60">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Video_games">Video games</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Video games">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Video_game_addiction" title="Video game addiction">Video game addiction</a></div> Video game addiction is characterized by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) as excessive gaming behavior, potentially prioritized over other interests, despite the negative consequences that may arise, for a period of at least 12 months.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Gaming-61">[60]</a> In May 2019, the WHO introduced <a href="/wiki/Gaming_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaming disorder">gaming disorder</a> in the 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases.<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> Video game addiction has been shown to be more prevalent in males than females, higher by 2.9 times.<a href="#cite_note-Wittek_2016-63">[62]</a> It has been suggested that people of younger ages are more prone to become addicted to video games.<a href="#cite_note-Wittek_2016-63">[62]</a> People with certain personalities may be more susceptible to gaming addictions.<a href="#cite_note-Wittek_2016-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> Risk factors for video game addiction include: <ul><li>Male,</li> <li>Psychopathologies (e.g. ADHD or MDD), and</li> <li>Social anxiety.<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shopping">Shopping</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Shopping">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Shopping_addiction" title="Shopping addiction">Shopping addiction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compulsive_buying_disorder" title="Compulsive buying disorder">Compulsive buying disorder</a></div> Shopping addiction, or <a href="/wiki/Compulsive_buying_disorder" title="Compulsive buying disorder">compulsive buying disorder</a> (CBD), is the excessive urge to shop or spend, potentially resulting in unwanted consequences.<a href="#cite_note-Hague_2016-66">[65]</a> These consequences can have serious impacts, such as increased <a href="/wiki/Consumer_debt" title="Consumer debt">consumer debt</a>, negatively affected relationships, increased risk of illegal behavior, and suicide attempts.<a href="#cite_note-Hague_2016-66">[65]</a> Shopping addiction occurs worldwide and has shown a 5.8% prevalence in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Black_2007-67">[66]</a> Similar to other behavioral addictions, CBD can be linked to mood disorders, substance use disorders, eating disorders, and other disorders involving a lack of control.<a href="#cite_note-Black_2007-67">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Screening_and_assessment">Screening and assessment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Screening and assessment">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Addictions_Neuroclinical_Assessment">Addictions Neuroclinical Assessment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Addictions Neuroclinical Assessment">edit</a>]</div> The Addictions Neuroclinical Assessment is used to diagnose addiction disorders. This tool measures three different domains: <a href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">executive function</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motivational_salience#Incentive_salience" title="Motivational salience">incentive salience</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emotionality#Negative" title="Emotionality">negative emotionality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Koob2020-68">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kwako_2016-69">[68]</a> Executive functioning consists of processes that would be disrupted in addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Kwako_2016-69">[68]</a> In the context of addiction, incentive salience determines how one perceives the addictive substance.<a href="#cite_note-Kwako_2016-69">[68]</a> Increased negative emotional responses have been found with individuals with addictions.<a href="#cite_note-Kwako_2016-69">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tobacco,_Alcohol,_Prescription_Medication,_and_Other_Substance_Use_(TAPS)">Tobacco, Alcohol, Prescription Medication, and Other Substance Use (TAPS)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tobacco, Alcohol, Prescription Medication, and Other Substance Use (TAPS)">edit</a>]</div> This is a screening and assessment tool in one, assessing commonly used substances. This tool allows for a simple diagnosis, eliminating the need for several screening and assessment tools, as it includes both TAPS-1 and TAPS-2, screening and assessment tools respectively. The screening component asks about the frequency of use of the specific substance (tobacco, alcohol, prescription medication, and other).<a href="#cite_note-nida-70">[69]</a> If an individual screens positive, the second component will begin. This dictates the risk level of the substance.<a href="#cite_note-nida-70">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CRAFFT">CRAFFT</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: CRAFFT">edit</a>]</div> The CRAFFT (Car-Relax-Alone-Forget-Family and Friends-Trouble) is a screening tool that is used in medical centers. The CRAFFT is in version 2.1 and has a version for nicotine and tobacco use called the CRAFFT 2.1+N.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> This tool is used to identify substance use, substance related driving risk, and addictions among adolescents. This tool uses a set of questions for different scenarios.<a href="#cite_note-crafft.org-72">[71]</a> In the case of a specific combination of answers, different question sets can be used to yield a more accurate answer. After the questions, the DSM-5 criteria are used to identify the likelihood of the person having substance use disorder.<a href="#cite_note-crafft.org-72">[71]</a> After these tests are done, the clinician is to give the "5 RS" of brief counseling. The five Rs of brief counseling includes: <ol><li>REVIEW screening results</li> <li>RECOMMEND to not use</li> <li>RIDING/DRIVING risk counseling</li> <li>RESPONSE: elicit self-motivational statements</li> <li>REINFORCE self-efficacy<a href="#cite_note-crafft.org-72">[71]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drug_Abuse_Screening_Test_(DAST-10)">Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10)">edit</a>]</div> The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST) is a self-reporting tool that measures problematic substance use.<a href="#cite_note-Yudko_2007-73">[72]</a> Responses to this test are recorded as yes or no answers, and scored as a number between zero and 28. Drug abuse or dependence, are indicated by a cut off score of 6.<a href="#cite_note-Yudko_2007-73">[72]</a> Three versions of this screening tool are in use: DAST-28, DAST-20, and DAST-10. Each of these instruments are copyrighted by Dr. Harvey A. Skinner.<a href="#cite_note-Yudko_2007-73">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alcohol,_Smoking,_and_Substance_Involvement_Test_(ASSIST)">Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Test (ASSIST)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Test (ASSIST)">edit</a>]</div> The Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Test (ASSIST) is an interview-based questionnaire consisting of eight questions developed by the WHO.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> The questions ask about lifetime use; frequency of use; urge to use; frequency of health, financial, social, or legal problems related to use; failure to perform duties; if anyone has raised concerns over use; attempts to limit or moderate use; and use by injection.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personality_theories">Personality theories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Personality theories">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Personality_theories_of_addiction" title="Personality theories of addiction">Personality theories of addiction</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Personality_theories_of_addiction" title="Personality theories of addiction">Personality theories of addiction</a> are <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychological models</a> that associate <a href="/wiki/Personality_traits" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality traits">personality traits</a> or modes of thinking (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">affective states</a>) with an individual's proclivity for developing an addiction. <a href="/wiki/Data_analysis" title="Data analysis">Data analysis</a> demonstrates that psychological profiles of drug users and non-users have significant differences and the psychological predisposition to using different drugs may be different.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> Models of addiction risk that have been proposed in psychology literature include: an <a href="/wiki/Affect_dysregulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Affect dysregulation">affect dysregulation</a> model of positive and negative <a href="/wiki/Psychological_affect" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological affect">psychological affects</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_sensitivity_theory" title="Reinforcement sensitivity theory">reinforcement sensitivity theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Impulsiveness" class="mw-redirect" title="Impulsiveness">impulsiveness</a> and behavioral inhibition, and an impulsivity model of <a href="#Sensitization">reward sensitization</a> and impulsiveness.<a href="#cite_note-Cheetham_2010-77">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Franken_2006-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18232522-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kimbrel_2007-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dawe-81">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Neuropsychology">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">transtheoretical model</a> of change (TTM) can point to how someone may be conceptualizing their addiction and the thoughts around it, including not being aware of their addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Hill2021-82">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive control">Cognitive control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_control" title="Stimulus control">stimulus control</a>, which is associated with <a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">operant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a>, represent opposite processes (i.e., internal vs external or environmental, respectively) that compete over the control of an individual's elicited behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-Cognitive_-_stimulus-83">[82]</a> Cognitive control, and particularly <a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_control" title="Inhibitory control">inhibitory control over behavior</a>, is impaired in both addiction and <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Executive_functions-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-NHM-Cognitive_Control-85">[84]</a> Stimulus-driven behavioral responses (i.e., stimulus control) that are associated with a particular <a href="/wiki/Rewarding_stimulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Rewarding stimulus">rewarding stimulus</a> tend to dominate one's behavior in an addiction.<a href="#cite_note-NHM-Cognitive_Control-85">[84]</a> <div class="floatright" style="margin-left:1em; border:3px solid #ddd; padding:0em; font-size:80%"> <table style="border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: separate;"> <tbody><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">Operant conditioning</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Extinction_(psychology)" title="Extinction (psychology)">Extinction</a></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement" title="Reinforcement">Reinforcement</a> Increase behavior</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Punishment_(psychology)" title="Punishment (psychology)">Punishment</a> Decrease behavior</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Positive_reinforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive reinforcement">Positive reinforcement</a> Add appetitive stimulus following correct behavior</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Negative_reinforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative reinforcement">Negative reinforcement</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Positive_punishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive punishment">Positive punishment</a> Add noxious stimulus following behavior</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Negative_punishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative punishment">Negative punishment</a> Remove appetitive stimulus following behavior</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Escape_response" title="Escape response">Escape</a> Remove noxious stimulus following correct behavior</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Avoidance_response" title="Avoidance response">Active avoidance</a> Behavior avoids noxious stimulus</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> </tbody></table> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stimulus_control_of_behavior">Stimulus control of behavior</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Stimulus control of behavior">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_control" title="Stimulus control">Stimulus control</a></div> In operant conditioning, behavior is influenced by outside stimulus, such as a drug. The operant conditioning theory of learning is useful in understanding why the mood-altering or stimulating consequences of drug use can reinforce continued use (an example of <a href="/wiki/Positive_reinforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive reinforcement">positive reinforcement</a>) and why the addicted person seeks to avoid withdrawal through continued use (an example of <a href="/wiki/Negative_reinforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative reinforcement">negative reinforcement</a>). Stimulus control is using the absence of the stimulus or presence of a reward to influence the resulting behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Hill2021-82">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cognitive_control_of_behavior">Cognitive control of behavior</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Cognitive control of behavior">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive control">Cognitive control</a></div> Cognitive control is the intentional selection of thoughts, behaviors, and emotions, based on our environment. It has been shown that drugs alter the way our brains function, and its structure.<a href="#cite_note-Gould_2010-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levy2019-30">[29]</a> Cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and impulse control, are affected by drugs.<a href="#cite_note-Gould_2010-86">[85]</a> These effects promote drug use, as well as hinder the ability to abstain from it.<a href="#cite_note-Gould_2010-86">[85]</a> The increase in dopamine release is prominent in drug use, specifically in the <a href="/wiki/Ventral_striatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral striatum">ventral striatum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gould_2010-86">[85]</a> Dopamine is responsible for producing pleasurable feelings, as well driving us to perform important life activities. Addictive drugs cause a significant increase in this reward system, causing a large increase in dopamine signaling as well as increase in reward-seeking behavior, in turn motivating drug use.<a href="#cite_note-Gould_2010-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levy2019-30">[29]</a> This promotes the development of a maladaptive drug to stimulus relationship.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> Early drug use leads to these maladaptive associations, later affecting cognitive processes used for coping, which are needed to successfully abstain from them.<a href="#cite_note-Gould_2010-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hill2021-82">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Risk_factors">Risk factors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Risk factors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Addiction_vulnerability" title="Addiction vulnerability">Addiction vulnerability</a></div> A number of genetic and environmental risk factors exist for developing an addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> Genetic and environmental risk factors each account for roughly half of an individual's risk for developing an addiction;<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a> the contribution from epigenetic risk factors to the total risk is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> Even in individuals with a relatively low genetic risk, exposure to sufficiently high doses of an addictive drug for a long period of time (e.g., weeks–months) can result in an addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a> Adverse childhood events are associated with negative health outcomes, such as substance use disorder. Childhood abuse or exposure to violent crime is related to developing a mood or anxiety disorder, as well as a substance dependence risk.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_factors">Genetic factors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Genetic factors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics_of_cocaine_addiction" title="Epigenetics of cocaine addiction">Epigenetics of cocaine addiction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_and_epigenetic_mechanisms_of_alcoholism" title="Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of alcoholism">Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of alcoholism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism#Genetic_variation" title="Alcoholism">Alcoholism § Genetic variation</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_drinking" class="mw-redirect" title="History of drinking">History of drinking</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_smoking" title="History of smoking">History of smoking</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prevalence_of_tobacco_use" title="Prevalence of tobacco use">Prevalence of tobacco use</a></div> Genetic factors, along with <a href="/wiki/Social" title="Social">socio</a>-environmental (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Biopsychosocial_model" title="Biopsychosocial model">psychosocial</a>) factors, have been established as significant contributors to addiction vulnerability.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nature_2022-90">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a> Studies done on 350 hospitalized drug-dependent patients showed that over half met the criteria for alcohol abuse, with a role of familial factors being prevalent.<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> Genetic factors account for 40–60% of the risk factors for alcoholism.<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> Similar rates of heritability for other types of drug addiction have been indicated, specifically in genes that encode the <a href="/wiki/Alpha5_Nicotinic_Acetylcholine_Receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha5 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor">Alpha5 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kendler94-93">[92]</a> Knestler hypothesized in 1964 that a gene or group of genes might contribute to predisposition to addiction in several ways. For example, altered levels of a normal protein due to environmental factors may change the structure or functioning of specific brain neurons during development. These altered brain neurons could affect the susceptibility of an individual to an initial drug use experience. In support of this hypothesis, animal studies have shown that environmental factors such as stress can affect an animal's genetic expression.<a href="#cite_note-Kendler94-93">[92]</a> In humans, twin studies into addiction have provided some of the highest-quality evidence of this link, with results finding that if one twin is affected by addiction, the other twin is likely to be as well, and to the same substance.<a href="#cite_note-Crowe1991-94">[93]</a> Further evidence of a genetic component is research findings from family studies which suggest that if one family member has a history of addiction, the chances of a relative or close family developing those same habits are much higher than one who has not been introduced to addiction at a young age.<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> The data implicating specific genes in the development of drug addiction is mixed for most genes. Many addiction studies that aim to identify specific genes focus on common variants with an allele frequency of greater than 5% in the general population. When associated with disease, these only confer a small amount of additional risk with an <a href="/wiki/Odds_ratio" title="Odds ratio">odds ratio</a> of 1.1–1.3 percent; this has led to the development the rare variant hypothesis, which states that genes with low frequencies in the population (<1%) confer much greater additional risk in the development of the disease.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23454283-96">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Genome-wide_association_study" title="Genome-wide association study">Genome-wide association studies</a> (GWAS) are used to examine genetic associations with dependence, addiction, and drug use.<a href="#cite_note-Nature_2022-90">[89]</a> These studies rarely identify genes from proteins previously described via animal knockout models and candidate gene analysis. Instead, large percentages of genes involved in processes such as cell adhesion are commonly identified. The important effects of <a href="/wiki/Endophenotype" title="Endophenotype">endophenotypes</a> are typically not capable of being captured by these methods. Genes identified in GWAS for drug addiction may be involved either in adjusting brain behavior before drug experiences, subsequent to them, or both.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_factors">Environmental factors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Environmental factors">edit</a>]</div> Environmental risk factors for addiction are the experiences of an individual during their lifetime that interact with the individual's genetic composition to increase or decrease his or her vulnerability to addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a> For example, after the nationwide outbreak of COVID-19, more people quit (vs. started) smoking; and smokers, on average, reduced the quantity of cigarettes they consumed.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> More generally, a number of different environmental factors have been implicated as risk factors for addiction, including various psycho<a href="/wiki/Social_stress" title="Social stress">social stressors</a>. The <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_on_Drug_Abuse" title="National Institute on Drug Abuse">National Institute on Drug Abuse</a> (NIDA) and studies cite lack of parental supervision, the prevalence of peer substance use, substance availability, and poverty as risk factors for substance use among children and adolescents.<a href="#cite_note-Abuse-99">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a> The brain disease model of addiction posits that an individual's exposure to an addictive drug is the most significant environmental risk factor for addiction.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> Many researchers, including neuroscientists, indicate that the brain disease model presents a misleading, incomplete, and potentially detrimental explanation of addiction.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> The psychoanalytic theory model defines addiction as a form of defense against feelings of hopelessness and helplessness as well as a symptom of failure to regulate powerful emotions related to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), various forms of maltreatment and dysfunction experienced in childhood. In this case, the addictive substance provides brief but total relief and positive feelings of control.<a href="#cite_note-Hill2021-82">[81]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Adverse_Childhood_Experiences_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverse Childhood Experiences Study">Adverse Childhood Experiences Study</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> has shown a strong <a href="/wiki/Dose%E2%80%93response_relationship" title="Dose–response relationship">dose–response relationship</a> between ACEs and numerous health, social, and behavioral problems throughout a person's lifespan, including substance use disorder.<a href="#cite_note-SAMHSA_ACE-102">[101]</a> Children's neurological development can be permanently disrupted when they are chronically exposed to stressful events such as physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, physical or emotional neglect, witnessing violence in the household, or a parent being incarcerated or having a mental illness. As a result, the child's cognitive functioning or ability to cope with negative or disruptive emotions may be impaired. Over time, the child may adopt substance use as a coping mechanism or as a result of reduced impulse control, particularly during adolescence.<a href="#cite_note-SAMHSA_ACE-102">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hill2021-82">[81]</a> Vast amounts of children who experienced abuse have gone on to have some form of addiction in their adolescence or adult life.<a href="#cite_note-Enoch2011-103">[102]</a> This pathway towards addiction that is opened through stressful experiences during childhood can be avoided by a change in environmental factors throughout an individual's life and opportunities of professional help.<a href="#cite_note-Enoch2011-103">[102]</a> If one has friends or peers who engage in drug use favorably, the chances of them developing an addiction increases. Family conflict and home management is a cause for one to become engaged in drug use.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_control_theory">Social control theory</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Social control theory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">Social control theory</a></div> According to Travis Hirschi's social control theory, adolescents with stronger attachments to family, religious, academic, and other social institutions are less likely to engage in delinquent and maladaptive behavior such as drug use leading to addiction.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age">Age</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Age">edit</a>]</div> Adolescence represents a period of increased vulnerability for developing an addiction.<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> In adolescence, the incentive-rewards systems in the brain mature well before the cognitive control center. This consequentially grants the incentive-rewards systems a disproportionate amount of power in the behavioral decision-making process. Therefore, adolescents are increasingly likely to act on their impulses and engage in risky, potentially addicting behavior before considering the consequences.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> Not only are adolescents more likely to initiate and maintain drug use, but once addicted they are more resistant to treatment and more liable to relapse.<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> Most individuals are exposed to and use addictive drugs for the first time during their teenage years.<a href="#cite_note-Drug_use_trends-110">[109]</a> In the United States, there were just over 2.8 million new users of illicit drugs in 2013 (7,800 new users per day);<a href="#cite_note-Drug_use_trends-110">[109]</a> among them, 54.1% were under 18 years of age.<a href="#cite_note-Drug_use_trends-110">[109]</a> In 2011, there were approximately 20.6 million people in the United States over the age of 12 with an addiction.<a href="#cite_note-AddictionCenter-111">[110]</a> Over 90% of those with an addiction began drinking, smoking or using illicit drugs before the age of 18.<a href="#cite_note-AddictionCenter-111">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comorbid_disorders">Comorbid disorders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Comorbid disorders">edit</a>]</div> Individuals with <a href="/wiki/Comorbid" class="mw-redirect" title="Comorbid">comorbid</a> (i.e., co-occurring) <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a> disorders such as depression, anxiety, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or post-traumatic stress disorder are more likely to develop substance use disorders.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a> The <abbr title="National Institute on Drug Abuse">NIDA</abbr> cites early aggressive behavior as a risk factor for substance use.<a href="#cite_note-Abuse-99">[98]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="National Bureau of Economic Research">National Bureau of Economic Research</a> found that there is a "definite connection between mental illness and the use of addictive substances" and a majority of mental health patients participate in the use of these substances: 38% alcohol, 44% cocaine, and 40% cigarettes.<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epigenetic">Epigenetic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Epigenetic">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a> is the study of stable <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypic</a> changes that do not involve alterations in the DNA sequence.<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> Illicit drug use has been found to cause epigenetic changes in <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">DNA methylation</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Chromatin_remodeling" title="Chromatin remodeling">chromatin remodeling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen_2012-117">[116]</a> The epigenetic state of chromatin may pose as a risk for the development of substance addictions.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen_2012-117">[116]</a> It has been found that emotional stressors, as well as social adversities may lead to an initial epigenetic response, which causes an alteration to the reward-signalling pathways.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen_2012-117">[116]</a> This change may predispose one to experience a positive response to drug use.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen_2012-117">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Epigenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigenetic">Epigenetic</a> genes and their products (e.g., proteins) are the key components through which environmental influences can affect the genes of an individual:<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> they serve as the mechanism responsible for <a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a>, a phenomenon in which environmental influences on the genes of a parent can affect the associated traits and <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_phenotype" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral phenotype">behavioral phenotypes</a> of their offspring (e.g., behavioral responses to environmental stimuli).<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> In addiction, epigenetic mechanisms play a central role in the <a href="/wiki/Pathophysiology" title="Pathophysiology">pathophysiology</a> of the disease;<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a> it has been noted that some of the alterations to the <a href="/wiki/Epigenome" title="Epigenome">epigenome</a> which arise through chronic exposure to addictive stimuli during an addiction can be transmitted across generations, in turn affecting the behavior of one's children (e.g., the child's behavioral responses to addictive drugs and natural rewards).<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid26572641-118">[117]</a> The general classes of epigenetic alterations that have been implicated in transgenerational epigenetic inheritance include DNA methylation, <a href="/wiki/Histone_modification" class="mw-redirect" title="Histone modification">histone modifications</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Downregulation_and_upregulation" title="Downregulation and upregulation">downregulation or upregulation</a> of <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNAs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> With respect to addiction, more research is needed to determine the specific <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heritable</a> epigenetic alterations that arise from various forms of addiction in humans and the corresponding behavioral phenotypes from these epigenetic alterations that occur in human offspring.<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid26572641-118">[117]</a> Based on preclinical evidence from <a href="/wiki/Animal_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal research">animal research</a>, certain addiction-induced epigenetic alterations in rats can be transmitted from parent to offspring and produce behavioral phenotypes that decrease the offspring's risk of developing an addiction.<a href="#cite_note-119">[note 1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> More generally, the heritable behavioral phenotypes that are derived from addiction-induced epigenetic alterations and transmitted from parent to offspring may serve to either increase or decrease the offspring's risk of developing an addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid26572641-118">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> Addiction is a disorder of the brain's reward system developing through <a href="/wiki/Transcriptional" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcriptional">transcriptional</a> and epigenetic mechanisms as a result of chronically high levels of exposure to an addictive stimulus (e.g., eating food, the use of cocaine, engagement in sexual activity, participation in high-thrill cultural activities such as gambling, etc.) over extended time.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-What_the_ΔFosB?-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/FOSB#DeltaFosB" title="FOSB">DeltaFosB</a> (ΔFosB), a gene <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcription factor</a>, is a critical component and common factor in the development of virtually all forms of behavioral and drug addictions.<a href="#cite_note-What_the_ΔFosB?-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-G9a_reverses_ΔFosB_plasticity-121">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a> Two decades of research into ΔFosB's role in addiction have demonstrated that addiction arises, and the associated compulsive behavior intensifies or attenuates, along with the <a href="/wiki/Overexpression" class="mw-redirect" title="Overexpression">overexpression</a> of ΔFosB in the <a href="/wiki/D1-type" class="mw-redirect" title="D1-type">D1-type</a> <a href="/wiki/Medium_spiny_neuron" title="Medium spiny neuron">medium spiny neurons</a> of the nucleus accumbens.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-What_the_ΔFosB?-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-G9a_reverses_ΔFosB_plasticity-121">[119]</a> Due to the causal relationship between ΔFosB expression and addictions, it is used <a href="/wiki/Preclinical_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Preclinical research">preclinically</a> as an addiction <a href="/wiki/Biomarker_(medicine)" title="Biomarker (medicine)">biomarker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-What_the_ΔFosB?-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-G9a_reverses_ΔFosB_plasticity-121">[119]</a> ΔFosB expression in these neurons directly and positively regulates drug self-administration and <a href="#Sensitization">reward sensitization</a> through positive reinforcement, while decreasing sensitivity to aversion.<a href="#cite_note-ΔFosB_behaviors-122">[note 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-What_the_ΔFosB?-120">[118]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width:610px; ; border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:100%; background:#FFCC66; box-shadow: inset 3px 3px 0 #fafafa, inset -3px -3px 0 #fafafa;; padding:5px;">Transcription factor glossary</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> – the process by which information from a <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product such as a <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a> – the process of making <a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">messenger RNA</a> (mRNA) from a <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> template by <a href="/wiki/RNA_polymerase" title="RNA polymerase">RNA polymerase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcription factor</a> – a protein that binds to DNA and regulates gene expression by promoting or suppressing transcription</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcriptional_regulation" title="Transcriptional regulation">transcriptional regulation</a> – controlling the rate of gene transcription for example by helping or hindering RNA polymerase binding to DNA</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upregulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Upregulation">upregulation</a>, activation, or promotion – increase the rate of gene transcription</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downregulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Downregulation">downregulation</a>, repression, or suppression – decrease the rate of gene transcription</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coactivator_(genetics)" title="Coactivator (genetics)">coactivator</a> – a protein (or a small molecule) that works with transcription factors to increase the rate of gene transcription</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corepressor_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corepressor (genetics)">corepressor</a> – a protein (or a small molecule) that works with transcription factors to decrease the rate of gene transcription</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Response_element" title="Response element">response element</a> – a specific sequence of DNA that a transcription factor binds to</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="text-align:right; padding-top:0; padding-right:5px;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Transcription_factor_glossary" title="Template:Transcription factor glossary"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Transcription_factor_glossary" title="Template talk:Transcription factor glossary"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Transcription_factor_glossary" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Transcription factor glossary"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="skin-invert-image"> <table role="presentation" cellpadding="0" style="border-spacing:0; clear:right; float:right;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:602px;"> <div style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; font-size: 106.4%; text-align: center; background-color: #F0F8FF;margin-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/Signaling_cascade" class="mw-redirect" title="Signaling cascade">Signaling cascade</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a> that results in psychostimulant addiction <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Psychostimulant_addiction" title="Template:Psychostimulant addiction"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Psychostimulant_addiction" title="Template talk:Psychostimulant addiction"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Psychostimulant_addiction" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Psychostimulant addiction"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></div> <div style="position:relative; width:600px; height:620px; overflow:hidden; border:solid #ccc 1px; background-color:white;"> <div style="left:0px; top:0px; width:600px; position:absolute"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%CE%94FosB.svg" title="commons:File:ΔFosB.svg"><img alt="The signaling cascade involved in psychostimulant addiction" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%CE%94FosB.svg/600px-%CE%94FosB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="619" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%CE%94FosB.svg/900px-%CE%94FosB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%CE%94FosB.svg/1200px-%CE%94FosB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="935" data-file-height="965" /></a> </div> <div style="text-align:center; font-size:14px; line-height:110%"> <div style="background-color:transparent; color:black"><div id="annotation_475x5" style="position:absolute; left:475px; top:5px; font-size:12px; font-size:12; line-height:14px;">Note: colored text contains article links.</div> <div id="annotation_320x325" style="position:absolute; left:320px; top:325px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_pore" title="Nuclear pore">Nuclear pore</a></div> <div id="annotation_350x362" style="position:absolute; left:350px; top:362px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear membrane">Nuclear membrane</a></div> <div id="annotation_475x425" style="position:absolute; left:475px; top:425px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Plasma_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma membrane">Plasma membrane</a></div> <div id="annotation_65x48" style="position:absolute; left:65px; top:48px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium_channel,_voltage-dependent,_L_type,_alpha_1C_subunit" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcium channel, voltage-dependent, L type, alpha 1C subunit">Cav1.2</a></div> <div id="annotation_43x98" style="position:absolute; left:43px; top:98px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDAR</a></div> <div id="annotation_33x185" style="position:absolute; left:33px; top:185px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/AMPA_receptor" title="AMPA receptor">AMPAR</a></div> <div id="annotation_41x238" style="position:absolute; left:41px; top:238px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D1" title="Dopamine receptor D1">DRD1</a></div> <div id="annotation_42x285" style="position:absolute; left:42px; top:285px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D5" title="Dopamine receptor D5">DRD5</a></div> <div id="annotation_47x331" style="position:absolute; left:47px; top:331px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D2" title="Dopamine receptor D2">DRD2</a></div> <div id="annotation_56x366" style="position:absolute; left:56px; top:366px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D3" title="Dopamine receptor D3">DRD3</a></div> <div id="annotation_84x385" style="position:absolute; left:84px; top:385px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D4" title="Dopamine receptor D4">DRD4</a></div> <div id="annotation_172x256" style="position:absolute; left:172px; top:256px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Gs_alpha_subunit" title="Gs alpha subunit">Gs</a></div> <div id="annotation_173x325" style="position:absolute; left:173px; top:325px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Gi_alpha_subunit" title="Gi alpha subunit">Gi/o</a></div> <div id="annotation_234x288" style="position:absolute; left:234px; top:288px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Adenylyl_cyclase" title="Adenylyl cyclase">AC</a></div> <div id="annotation_18x595" style="position:absolute; left:18px; top:595px; font-size:9.5px; font-size:9.5; line-height:11.5px;"><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic adenosine monophosphate">cAMP</a></div> <div id="annotation_269x340" style="position:absolute; left:269px; top:340px; font-size:10px; font-size:10; line-height:12px;"><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic adenosine monophosphate">cAMP</a></div> <div id="annotation_312x288" style="position:absolute; left:312px; top:288px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Protein_kinase_A" title="Protein kinase A">PKA</a></div> <div id="annotation_228x110.5" style="position:absolute; left:228px; top:110.5px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Calmodulin" title="Calmodulin">CaM</a></div> <div id="annotation_329x99" style="position:absolute; left:329px; top:99px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Ca2%2B/calmodulin-dependent_protein_kinase_II" title="Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II">CaMKII</a></div> <div id="annotation_301x215" style="position:absolute; left:301px; top:215px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Dopamine-_and_cAMP-regulated_neuronal_phosphoprotein" class="mw-redirect" title="Dopamine- and cAMP-regulated neuronal phosphoprotein">DARPP-32</a></div> <div id="annotation_328x161.5" style="position:absolute; left:328px; top:161.5px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Protein_phosphatase_1" title="Protein phosphatase 1">PP1</a></div> <div id="annotation_247.5x159" style="position:absolute; left:247.5px; top:159px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Protein_phosphatase_2B" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein phosphatase 2B">PP2B</a></div> <div id="annotation_458x163" style="position:absolute; left:458px; top:163px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_AMP_response_element-binding_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclic AMP response element-binding protein">CREB</a></div> <div id="annotation_440x222" style="position:absolute; left:440px; top:222px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/%CE%94FosB" class="mw-redirect" title="ΔFosB">ΔFosB</a></div> <div id="annotation_447x241" style="position:absolute; left:447px; top:241px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/JunD" title="JunD">JunD</a></div> <div id="annotation_542x233.5" style="position:absolute; left:542px; top:233.5px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/C-Fos" class="mw-redirect" title="C-Fos">c-Fos</a></div> <div id="annotation_442x274.5" style="position:absolute; left:442px; top:274.5px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Sirtuin_1" title="Sirtuin 1">SIRT1</a></div> <div id="annotation_468.5x299" style="position:absolute; left:468.5px; top:299px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Histone_deacetylase_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Histone deacetylase 1">HDAC1</a></div> <div id="annotation_495x35" style="position:absolute; left:495px; top:35px; line-height:110%;"><a href="#cite_note-123">[Color legend 1]</a></div></div> </div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left"><div style="float:left;margin-right:0.5em"><img alt="The image above contains clickable links" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/18px-Interactive_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/27px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/36px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="133" data-file-height="200" /></div>This diagram depicts the signaling events in the <a href="/wiki/Mesolimbic_pathway" title="Mesolimbic pathway">brain's reward center</a> that are induced by chronic high-dose exposure to psychostimulants that increase the concentration of synaptic dopamine, like <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">methamphetamine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phenethylamine" title="Phenethylamine">phenethylamine</a>. Following presynaptic <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a> <a href="/wiki/Cotransmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotransmission">co-release</a> by such psychostimulants,<a href="#cite_note-Nestler-Renthal_Figure_2-124">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Glutamate-dopamine_cotransmission_review-125">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_receptor" title="Neurotransmitter receptor">postsynaptic receptors</a> for these <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> trigger internal signaling events through a <a href="/wiki/CAMP-dependent_pathway" title="CAMP-dependent pathway">cAMP-dependent pathway</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Calcium_signaling" title="Calcium signaling">calcium-dependent pathway</a> that ultimately result in increased <abbr title="cAMP response element-binding protein">CREB</abbr> phosphorylation.<a href="#cite_note-Nestler-Renthal_Figure_2-124">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amphetamine_KEGG_ΔFosB-126">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Meth_cAMP/calcium-dependent_cascade-127">[123]</a> Phosphorylated CREB increases levels of ΔFosB, which in turn represses the c-Fos gene with the help of <a href="/wiki/Corepressor" title="Corepressor">corepressors</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Nestler-Renthal_Figure_2-124">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler1-128">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler2-129">[125]</a> c-Fos <a href="/wiki/Gene_repression" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene repression">repression</a> acts as a molecular switch that enables the accumulation of ΔFosB in the neuron.<a href="#cite_note-c-Fos_repression-130">[126]</a> A highly stable (phosphorylated) form of ΔFosB, one that persists in neurons for 1–2 months, slowly accumulates following repeated high-dose exposure to stimulants through this process.<a href="#cite_note-Nestler1-128">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler2-129">[125]</a> ΔFosB functions as "one of the master control proteins" that produces addiction-related <a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">structural changes in the brain</a>, and upon sufficient accumulation, with the help of its downstream targets (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_factor_kappa_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear factor kappa B">nuclear factor kappa B</a>), it induces an addictive state.<a href="#cite_note-Nestler1-128">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler2-129">[125]</a></div> </div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> Chronic addictive drug use causes alterations in gene expression in the <a href="/wiki/Mesocorticolimbic_projection" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesocorticolimbic projection">mesocorticolimbic projection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler,_Hyman,_and_Malenka_2-131">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Addiction_genetics-132">[128]</a> The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB, <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic adenosine monophosphate">cAMP</a> response element binding protein (<a href="/wiki/CAMP_response_element_binding_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="CAMP response element binding protein">CREB</a>), and nuclear factor kappa B (<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_factor_kappa_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear factor kappa B">NF-κB</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a> ΔFosB is the most significant biomolecular mechanism in addiction because the overexpression of ΔFosB in the D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessary and sufficient">necessary and sufficient</a> for many of the neural adaptations and behavioral effects (e.g., expression-dependent increases in drug self-administration and <a href="#Sensitization">reward sensitization</a>) seen in drug addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a> ΔFosB expression in nucleus accumbens D1-type medium spiny neurons directly and positively regulates drug <a href="/wiki/Self-administration" title="Self-administration">self-administration</a> and <a href="#Sensitization">reward sensitization</a> through positive reinforcement while decreasing sensitivity to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aversion" class="extiw" title="wikt:aversion">aversion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ΔFosB_behaviors-122">[note 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-What_the_ΔFosB?-120">[118]</a> ΔFosB has been implicated in mediating addictions to many different drugs and drug classes, including alcohol, amphetamine and other <a href="/wiki/Substituted_amphetamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Substituted amphetamines">substituted amphetamines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid" title="Cannabinoid">cannabinoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">methylphenidate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opiates" class="mw-redirect" title="Opiates">opiates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenylcyclidine" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenylcyclidine">phenylcyclidine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Propofol" title="Propofol">propofol</a>, among others.<a href="#cite_note-What_the_ΔFosB?-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler,_Hyman,_and_Malenka_2-131">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Alcoholism_ΔFosB-133">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-MPH_ΔFosB-134">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/%CE%94JunD" class="mw-redirect" title="ΔJunD">ΔJunD</a>, a transcription factor, and <a href="/wiki/EHMT2" title="EHMT2">G9a</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Histone_methyltransferase" title="Histone methyltransferase">histone methyltransferase</a>, both oppose the function of ΔFosB and inhibit increases in its expression.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler_2014_epigenetics-135">[131]</a> Increases in nucleus accumbens ΔJunD expression (via <a href="/wiki/Viral_vector" title="Viral vector">viral vector</a>-mediated gene transfer) or G9a expression (via pharmacological means) reduces, or with a large increase can even block, many of the neural and behavioral alterations that result from chronic high-dose use of addictive drugs (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB).<a href="#cite_note-G9a_reverses_ΔFosB_plasticity-121">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a> ΔFosB plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise.<a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-ΔFosB_reward-136">[132]</a> Natural rewards, like drugs of abuse, <a href="/wiki/Inducible_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="Inducible gene">induce gene expression</a> of ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens, and chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological addictive state through ΔFosB overexpression.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-ΔFosB_reward-136">[132]</a> Consequently, ΔFosB is the key transcription factor involved in addictions to natural rewards (i.e., behavioral addictions) as well;<a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-ΔFosB_reward-136">[132]</a> in particular, ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens is critical for the <a href="/wiki/Reinforcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforcing">reinforcing</a> effects of sexual reward.<a href="#cite_note-ΔFosB_reward-136">[132]</a> Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that dopaminergic psychostimulants (e.g., amphetamine) and sexual behavior act on similar biomolecular mechanisms to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens and possess bidirectional cross-<a href="/wiki/Sensitization" title="Sensitization">sensitization</a> effects that are mediated through ΔFosB.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_D1_signaling-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_NMDA_signaling-46">[45]</a> This phenomenon is notable since, in humans, a dopamine dysregulation syndrome, characterized by drug-induced compulsive engagement in natural rewards (specifically, sexual activity, shopping, and gambling), has been observed in some individuals taking <a href="/wiki/Dopaminergic" title="Dopaminergic">dopaminergic</a> medications.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> ΔFosB inhibitors (drugs or treatments that oppose its action) may be an effective treatment for addiction and addictive disorders.<a href="#cite_note-Malenka_2009_04-137">[133]</a> The release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens plays a role in the reinforcing qualities of many forms of stimuli, including naturally reinforcing stimuli like palatable food and sex.<a href="#cite_note-Salamone-138">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kauer-139">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a> Altered dopamine <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">neurotransmission</a> is frequently observed following the development of an addictive state.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levy2019-30">[29]</a> In humans and lab animals that have developed an addiction, alterations in dopamine or <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioid</a> neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens and other parts of the striatum are evident.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> Use of certain drugs (e.g., cocaine) affect <a href="/wiki/Cholinergic_neuron" title="Cholinergic neuron">cholinergic neurons</a> that innervate the reward system, in turn affecting dopamine signaling in this region.<a href="#cite_note-Witten-140">[136]</a> A recent study in <a href="/wiki/Addiction_(journal)" title="Addiction (journal)">Addiction</a> reports that <a href="/wiki/GLP-1_receptor_agonist" title="GLP-1 receptor agonist">GLP-1 agonist</a> medications, such as <a href="/wiki/Semaglutide" title="Semaglutide">semaglutide</a>, which are commonly used for <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a> and weight management, may also reduce the risk of overdose and alcohol intoxication in people with substance use disorders.<a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a> The study analyzed nearly nine years of health records from 1.3 million individuals across 136 U.S. hospitals, including 500,000 with opioid use disorder and over 800,000 with alcohol use disorder.<a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a> Researchers found that those who used Ozempic or similar medications had a 40% lower risk of opioid overdose and a 50% lower risk of alcohol intoxication compared to those not using these drugs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reward_system">Reward system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Reward system">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">Reward system</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesocorticolimbic_pathway">Mesocorticolimbic pathway</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Mesocorticolimbic pathway">edit</a>]</div> <table role="presentation" cellpadding="0" style="border-spacing:0; clear:right; float:right;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:402px;"> <div style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; font-size: 106.4%; text-align: center; background-color: aliceblue;margin-bottom:3px;">ΔFosB accumulation from excessive drug use</div> <div style="position:relative; width:400px; height:440px; overflow:hidden; border:solid #ccc 1px; background-color:white;"> <div style="left:0px; top:0px; width:400px; position:absolute"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%CE%94FosB_accumulation.svg" title="commons:File:ΔFosB accumulation.svg"><img alt="ΔFosB accumulation graph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/%CE%94FosB_accumulation.svg/400px-%CE%94FosB_accumulation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="440" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/%CE%94FosB_accumulation.svg/600px-%CE%94FosB_accumulation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/%CE%94FosB_accumulation.svg/800px-%CE%94FosB_accumulation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="440" /></a> </div> <div style="text-align:center; line-height:110%;"> <div style="background-color:transparent; color:black"></div> </div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">Top: this depicts the initial effects of high dose exposure to an addictive drug on <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a> for various Fos family proteins (i.e., <a href="/wiki/C-Fos" class="mw-redirect" title="C-Fos">c-Fos</a>, <a href="/wiki/FosB" class="mw-redirect" title="FosB">FosB</a>, <a href="/wiki/%CE%94FosB" class="mw-redirect" title="ΔFosB">ΔFosB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fra1" class="mw-redirect" title="Fra1">Fra1</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fra2" class="mw-redirect" title="Fra2">Fra2</a>). Bottom: this illustrates the progressive increase in ΔFosB expression in the nucleus accumbens following repeated twice daily drug binges, where these <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylated" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphorylated">phosphorylated</a> (35–37 <a href="/wiki/Kilodalton" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilodalton">kilodalton</a>) ΔFosB <a href="/wiki/Isoform" class="mw-redirect" title="Isoform">isoforms</a> persist in the <a href="/wiki/D1-type" class="mw-redirect" title="D1-type">D1-type</a> <a href="/wiki/Medium_spiny_neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Medium spiny neurons">medium spiny neurons</a> of the nucleus accumbens for up to 2 months.<a href="#cite_note-Nestler2-129">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid11572966-143">[139]</a></div> </div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> Understanding the pathways in which drugs act and how drugs can alter those pathways is key when examining the biological basis of drug addiction. The reward pathway, known as the <a href="/wiki/Mesolimbic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesolimbic system">mesolimbic pathway</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Levy2019-30">[29]</a> or its extension, the <a href="/wiki/Mesocorticolimbic_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesocorticolimbic pathway">mesocorticolimbic pathway</a>, is characterized by the interaction of several areas of the brain. <ul><li>The projections from the <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral tegmentum">ventral tegmental area</a> (VTA) are a network of <a href="/wiki/Dopaminergic" title="Dopaminergic">dopaminergic</a> <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a> with <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/colocalize" class="extiw" title="wikt:colocalize">co-localized</a> postsynaptic <a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a> receptors (<a href="/wiki/AMPAR" class="mw-redirect" title="AMPAR">AMPAR</a> and <a href="/wiki/NMDAR" class="mw-redirect" title="NMDAR">NMDAR</a>). These cells respond when stimuli indicative of a reward are present.<a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a> The VTA supports learning and sensitization development and releases dopamine (DA) into the <a href="/wiki/Forebrain" title="Forebrain">forebrain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_and_Bonci-144">[140]</a> These neurons project and release DA into the nucleus accumbens,<a href="#cite_note-Eisch_and_Harburg-145">[141]</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Mesolimbic_pathway" title="Mesolimbic pathway">mesolimbic pathway</a>. Virtually all drugs causing drug addiction increase the DA release in the mesolimbic pathway.<a href="#cite_note-Rang-146">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levy2019-30">[29]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a> (NAcc) is one output of the VTA projections. The nucleus accumbens itself consists mainly of <a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABAergic</a> <a href="/wiki/Medium_spiny_neuron" title="Medium spiny neuron">medium spiny neurons</a> (MSNs).<a href="#cite_note-Kourrich-147">[143]</a> The NAcc is associated with acquiring and eliciting conditioned behaviors, and is involved in the increased sensitivity to drugs as addiction progresses.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_and_Bonci-144">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maxwell2020-35">[34]</a> Overexpression of <a href="/wiki/%CE%94FosB" class="mw-redirect" title="ΔFosB">ΔFosB</a> in the nucleus accumbens is a necessary common factor in essentially all known forms of addiction;<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a> ΔFosB is a strong positive modulator of <a href="/wiki/Positively_reinforced" class="mw-redirect" title="Positively reinforced">positively reinforced</a> behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior cingulate">anterior cingulate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">orbitofrontal</a> cortices,<a href="#cite_note-Kalivas_and_Volkow-148">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maxwell2020-35">[34]</a> is another VTA output in the mesocorticolimbic pathway; it is important for the integration of information which helps determine whether a behavior will be elicited.<a href="#cite_note-Floresco-149">[145]</a> It is critical for forming associations between the rewarding experience of drug use and cues in the environment. Importantly, these cues are strong mediators of drug-seeking behavior and can trigger relapse even after months or years of abstinence.<a href="#cite_note-150">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levy2019-30">[29]</a></li></ul> Other brain structures that are involved in addiction include: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Basolateral_amygdala" title="Basolateral amygdala">basolateral amygdala</a> projects into the NAcc and is thought to be important for motivation.<a href="#cite_note-Floresco-149">[145]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a> is involved in drug addiction, because of its role in learning and memory. Much of this evidence stems from investigations showing that manipulating cells in the hippocampus alters DA levels in NAcc and firing rates of VTA dopaminergic cells.<a href="#cite_note-Eisch_and_Harburg-145">[141]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_of_dopamine_and_glutamate">Role of dopamine and glutamate</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Role of dopamine and glutamate">edit</a>]</div> Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter of the reward system in the brain. It plays a role in regulating movement, emotion, cognition, motivation, and feelings of pleasure.<a href="#cite_note-arch-151">[147]</a> Natural rewards, like eating, as well as recreational drug use cause a release of dopamine, and are associated with the reinforcing nature of these stimuli.<a href="#cite_note-arch-151">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-drugs-brain-152">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">[9]</a> Nearly all addictive drugs, directly or indirectly, act on the brain's reward system by heightening dopaminergic activity.<a href="#cite_note-addict-153">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levy2019-30">[29]</a> Excessive intake of many types of addictive drugs results in repeated release of high amounts of dopamine, which in turn affects the reward pathway directly through heightened dopamine receptor activation. Prolonged and abnormally high levels of dopamine in the <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_cleft" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic cleft">synaptic cleft</a> can induce receptor downregulation in the neural pathway. Downregulation of <a href="/wiki/Mesolimbic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesolimbic">mesolimbic</a> dopamine receptors can result in a decrease in the sensitivity to natural reinforcers.<a href="#cite_note-arch-151">[147]</a> Drug seeking behavior is induced by glutamatergic projections from the prefrontal cortex to the nucleus accumbens. This idea is supported with data from experiments showing that drug seeking behavior can be prevented following the inhibition of <a href="/wiki/AMPA" title="AMPA">AMPA</a> glutamate receptors and glutamate release in the nucleus accumbens.<a href="#cite_note-Kalivas_and_Volkow-148">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reward_sensitization">Reward sensitization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Reward sensitization">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left:1em;"> <caption>Neural and behavioral effects of validated ΔFosB transcriptional targets in the <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a><a href="#cite_note-What_the_ΔFosB?-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18640924-154">[150]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Target gene </th> <th scope="col">Target <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression</a> </th> <th scope="col">Neural effects </th> <th scope="col">Behavioral effects </th></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px"><a href="/wiki/C-Fos" class="mw-redirect" title="C-Fos">c-Fos</a></td> <td>↓</td> <td>Molecular switch enabling the chronic induction of ΔFosB<a href="#cite_note-155">[note 3]</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px"><a href="/wiki/Dynorphin" title="Dynorphin">dynorphin</a></td> <td>↓ <a href="#cite_note-156">[note 4]</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"> • Downregulation of <a href="/wiki/%CE%9A-opioid_receptor" title="Κ-opioid receptor">κ-opioid</a> feedback loop</td> <td style="text-align:left"> • Increased drug reward </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px"><a href="/wiki/NF-%CE%BAB" title="NF-κB">NF-κB</a></td> <td>↑</td> <td style="text-align:left"> • Expansion of <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">NAcc</a> dendritic processes  • NF-κB inflammatory response in the <abbr title="nucleus accumbens">NAcc</abbr>  • NF-κB inflammatory response in the <a href="/wiki/Caudate_putamen" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudate putamen"><abbr title="caudate putamen">CP</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip caudate putamen</td> <td style="text-align:left"> • Increased drug reward  • <a href="/wiki/Stereotypy" title="Stereotypy">Locomotor sensitization</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px"><a href="/wiki/GluR2" class="mw-redirect" title="GluR2">GluR2</a></td> <td>↑</td> <td style="text-align:left"> • Decreased <a href="/wiki/Sensitization" title="Sensitization">sensitivity</a> to <a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"> • Increased drug reward </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px"><a href="/wiki/Cdk5" class="mw-redirect" title="Cdk5">Cdk5</a></td> <td>↑</td> <td style="text-align:left"> • <a href="/wiki/GluR1" class="mw-redirect" title="GluR1">GluR1</a> synaptic protein phosphorylation  • Expansion of <abbr title="nucleus accumbens">NAcc</abbr> dendritic processes</td> <td>Decreased drug reward (net effect) </td></tr></tbody></table> Reward sensitization is a process that causes an increase in the amount of reward (specifically, <a href="/wiki/Incentive_salience" class="mw-redirect" title="Incentive salience">incentive salience</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[note 5]</a>) that is assigned by the brain to a rewarding stimulus (e.g., a drug). In simple terms, when reward sensitization to a specific stimulus (e.g., a drug) occurs, an individual's "wanting" or desire for the stimulus itself and its associated <a href="/wiki/Cue_reactivity" title="Cue reactivity">cues</a> increases.<a href="#cite_note-NAcc_function-158">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review-157">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reinforcement_in_addiction-160">[153]</a> Reward sensitization normally occurs following chronically high levels of exposure to the stimulus.<a href="#cite_note-Levy2019-30">[29]</a> ΔFosB expression in D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens has been shown to directly and positively regulate reward sensitization involving drugs and natural rewards.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-What_the_ΔFosB?-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-G9a_reverses_ΔFosB_plasticity-121">[119]</a> "Cue-induced wanting" or "cue-triggered wanting", a form of craving that occurs in addiction, is responsible for most of the compulsive behavior that people with addictions exhibit.<a href="#cite_note-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review-157">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reinforcement_in_addiction-160">[153]</a> During the development of an addiction, the repeated association of otherwise neutral and even non-rewarding <a href="/wiki/Stimulation" title="Stimulation">stimuli</a> with drug consumption triggers an <a href="/wiki/Associative_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Associative learning">associative learning</a> process that causes these previously neutral stimuli to act as <a href="/wiki/Reinforcement#Secondary_reinforcers" title="Reinforcement">conditioned positive reinforcers</a> of addictive drug use (i.e., these stimuli start to function as <a href="/wiki/Drug_cues" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug cues">drug cues</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review-157">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pleasure_system_-_incentive_sensitization-161">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reinforcement_in_addiction-160">[153]</a> As conditioned positive reinforcers of drug use, these previously neutral stimuli are assigned incentive salience (which manifests as a craving) – sometimes at pathologically high levels due to reward sensitization – which can <a href="/wiki/Pavlovian-instrumental_transfer" title="Pavlovian-instrumental transfer">transfer to the primary reinforcer</a> (e.g., the use of an addictive drug) with which it was originally paired.<a href="#cite_note-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review-157">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pleasure_system_-_incentive_sensitization-161">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reinforcement_in_addiction-160">[153]</a> Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that dopaminergic psychostimulants (e.g., amphetamine) and sexual behavior act on similar biomolecular mechanisms to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens and possess a bidirectional reward cross-sensitization effect<a href="#cite_note-162">[note 6]</a> that is mediated through ΔFosB.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_D1_signaling-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_NMDA_signaling-46">[45]</a> In contrast to ΔFosB's reward-sensitizing effect, <a href="/wiki/CREB" title="CREB">CREB</a> transcriptional activity decreases user's sensitivity to the rewarding effects of the substance. CREB transcription in the nucleus accumbens is implicated in <a href="/wiki/Psychological_dependence" title="Psychological dependence">psychological dependence</a> and symptoms involving a <a href="/wiki/Anhedonia" title="Anhedonia">lack of pleasure or motivation</a> during <a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">drug withdrawal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid11572966-143">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18640924-154">[150]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable unsortable" style="width: 100%; text-align:center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"> <caption>Summary of addiction-related plasticity </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" style="width: 25%;" rowspan="2">Form of <a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">neuroplasticity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_plasticity" title="Behavioral plasticity">behavioral plasticity</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 25%;" colspan="6">Type of <a href="/wiki/Reinforcement#Primary_reinforcers" title="Reinforcement">reinforcer</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 15%;" rowspan="2">Sources </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col" style="width: 15%;">Opiates </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 15%;">Psychostimulants </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 15%;">High fat or sugar food </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 15%;"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 15%;"><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Physical exercise (aerobic)</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 15%;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_enrichment" title="Environmental enrichment">Environmental enrichment</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px"><a href="/wiki/%CE%94FosB" class="mw-redirect" title="ΔFosB">ΔFosB</a> expression in <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a> <a href="/wiki/D1-type" class="mw-redirect" title="D1-type">D1-type</a> <a href="/wiki/Medium_spiny_neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Medium spiny neurons"><abbr title="medium spiny neurons">MSNs</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip medium spiny neurons </td> <td>↑</td> <td>↑</td> <td>↑</td> <td>↑</td> <td>↑</td> <td>↑</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col" colspan="8">Behavioral plasticity </th></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px">Escalation of intake </td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px">Psychostimulant <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Reward_sensitization">cross-sensitization</a> </td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Not applicable</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Attenuated</td> <td>Attenuated</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px">Psychostimulant <a href="/wiki/Self-administration" title="Self-administration">self-administration</a> </td> <td>↑</td> <td>↑</td> <td>↓</td> <td></td> <td>↓</td> <td>↓</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px">Psychostimulant <a href="/wiki/Conditioned_place_preference" title="Conditioned place preference">conditioned place preference</a> </td> <td>↑</td> <td>↑</td> <td>↓</td> <td>↑</td> <td>↓</td> <td>↑</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px"><a href="/wiki/Reinstatement_of_drug-seeking_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior">Reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior</a> </td> <td>↑</td> <td>↑</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>↓</td> <td>↓</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col" colspan="8">Neurochemical plasticity </th></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px"><a href="/wiki/CAMP_response_element-binding_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="CAMP response element-binding protein"><abbr title="cAMP response element-binding protein">CREB</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip cAMP response element-binding protein <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylation</a> in the nucleus accumbens </td> <td>↓</td> <td>↓</td> <td>↓</td> <td></td> <td>↓</td> <td>↓</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px">Sensitized <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> response in the nucleus accumbens </td> <td>No</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>No</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px">Altered <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatal</a> <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor" title="Dopamine receptor">dopamine signaling</a> </td> <td>↓<a href="/wiki/DRD2" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD2">DRD2</a>, ↑<a href="/wiki/DRD3" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD3">DRD3</a></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/DRD1" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD1">DRD1</a>, ↓<a href="/wiki/DRD2" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD2">DRD2</a>, ↑<a href="/wiki/DRD3" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD3">DRD3</a></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/DRD1" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD1">DRD1</a>, ↓<a href="/wiki/DRD2" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD2">DRD2</a>, ↑<a href="/wiki/DRD3" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD3">DRD3</a></td> <td></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/DRD2" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD2">DRD2</a></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/DRD2" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD2">DRD2</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px">Altered striatal <a href="/wiki/Opioid_receptor" title="Opioid receptor">opioid signaling</a> </td> <td>No change or ↑<a href="/wiki/%CE%9C-opioid_receptor" title="Μ-opioid receptor">μ-opioid receptors</a></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/%CE%9C-opioid_receptor" title="Μ-opioid receptor">μ-opioid receptors</a> ↑<a href="/wiki/%CE%9A-opioid_receptor" title="Κ-opioid receptor">κ-opioid receptors</a></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/%CE%9C-opioid_receptor" title="Μ-opioid receptor">μ-opioid receptors</a></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/%CE%9C-opioid_receptor" title="Μ-opioid receptor">μ-opioid receptors</a></td> <td>No change</td> <td>No change</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px">Changes in striatal <a href="/wiki/Opioid_peptide" title="Opioid peptide">opioid peptides</a> </td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/Dynorphin" title="Dynorphin">dynorphin</a> No change: <a href="/wiki/Enkephalin" title="Enkephalin">enkephalin</a></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/Dynorphin" title="Dynorphin">dynorphin</a></td> <td>↓<a href="/wiki/Enkephalin" title="Enkephalin">enkephalin</a></td> <td></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/Dynorphin" title="Dynorphin">dynorphin</a></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/Dynorphin" title="Dynorphin">dynorphin</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/Dopaminergic_pathways#Pathways" title="Dopaminergic pathways">Mesocorticolimbic</a> <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">synaptic plasticity</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px">Number of <a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">dendrites</a> in the nucleus accumbens </td> <td>↓</td> <td>↑</td> <td></td> <td>↑</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row" style="height: 40px"><a href="/wiki/Dendritic_spine" title="Dendritic spine">Dendritic spine</a> density in the nucleus accumbens </td> <td>↓</td> <td>↑</td> <td></td> <td>↑</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuroepigenetic_mechanisms">Neuroepigenetic mechanisms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Neuroepigenetic mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Neuroepigenetics" title="Neuroepigenetics">Neuroepigenetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromatin_remodeling" title="Chromatin remodeling">Chromatin remodeling</a></div> Altered epigenetic regulation of gene expression within the brain's reward system plays a significant and complex role in the development of drug addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Nestler_2014_epigenetics-135">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chromatin_states-163">[155]</a> Addictive drugs are associated with three types of epigenetic modifications within neurons.<a href="#cite_note-Nestler_2014_epigenetics-135">[131]</a> These are (1) histone modifications, (2) <a href="/wiki/Epigenetic_methylation" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigenetic methylation">epigenetic methylation</a> of DNA at <a href="/wiki/CpG_site" title="CpG site">CpG sites</a> at (or adjacent to) particular genes, and (3) epigenetic downregulation or upregulation of microRNAs which have particular target genes.<a href="#cite_note-Nestler_2014_epigenetics-135">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestler-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chromatin_states-163">[155]</a> As an example, while hundreds of genes in the cells of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) exhibit histone modifications following drug exposure – particularly, altered acetylation and methylation states of <a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">histone</a> <a href="/wiki/Residue_(chemistry)#Biochemistry" title="Residue (chemistry)">residues</a><a href="#cite_note-Chromatin_states-163">[155]</a> – most other genes in the NAc cells do not show such changes.<a href="#cite_note-Nestler_2014_epigenetics-135">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder#Diagnosis" title="Substance use disorder">Substance use disorder § Diagnosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Problem_gambling#Diagnosis" title="Problem gambling">Problem gambling § Diagnosis</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="DSM-5">DSM-5</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: DSM-5">edit</a>]</div> The fifth edition of the DSM uses the term substance use disorder to refer to a spectrum of drug use-related disorders. The DSM-5 eliminates the terms <a href="/wiki/Drug_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug abuse">abuse</a> and dependence from diagnostic categories, instead using the specifiers of mild, moderate and severe to indicate the extent of disordered use. These specifiers are determined by the number of diagnostic criteria present in a given case. In the DSM-5, the term drug addiction is synonymous with severe substance use disorder.<a href="#cite_note-Surgeon_General_severe_SUD-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brain_disease-28">[27]</a> The DSM-5 introduced a new diagnostic category for behavioral addictions. Problem gambling is the only condition included in this category in the fifth edition.<a href="#cite_note-APA_(2013)-24">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Internet_gaming_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet gaming disorder">Internet gaming disorder</a> is listed as a "condition requiring further study" in the DSM-5.<a href="#cite_note-164">[156]</a> Past editions have used <a href="/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">physical dependence</a> and the associated withdrawal syndrome to identify an addictive state. Physical dependence occurs when the body has adjusted by incorporating the substance into its "normal" functioning – i.e., attains <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a> – and therefore physical withdrawal symptoms occur on cessation of use.<a href="#cite_note-pmid10511013-165">[157]</a> Tolerance is the process by which the body continually adapts to the substance and requires increasingly larger amounts to achieve the original effects. Withdrawal refers to physical and psychological symptoms experienced when reducing or discontinuing a substance that the body has become dependent on. Symptoms of withdrawal generally include but are not limited to body aches, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irritability" title="Irritability">irritability</a>, intense <a href="/wiki/Craving_(withdrawal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Craving (withdrawal)">cravings</a> for the substance, <a href="/wiki/Dysphoria" title="Dysphoria">dysphoria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hallucinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Hallucinations">hallucinations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Headaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Headaches">headaches</a>, cold sweats, <a href="/wiki/Tremor" title="Tremor">tremors</a>, and seizures. During acute physical opioid withdrawal, symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Restless_legs_syndrome" title="Restless legs syndrome">restless legs syndrome</a> are common and may be profound. This phenomenon originated the idiom "kicking the habit". Medical researchers who actively study addiction have criticized the DSM classification of addiction for being flawed and involving arbitrary diagnostic criteria.<a href="#cite_note-166">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ICD-11">ICD-11</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: ICD-11">edit</a>]</div> The eleventh revision of the <a href="/wiki/International_Classification_of_Diseases" title="International Classification of Diseases">International Classification of Diseases</a>, commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">ICD-11</a>, conceptualizes diagnosis somewhat differently. ICD-11 first distinguishes between problems with psychoactive substance use ("Disorders due to substance use") and behavioral addictions ("Disorders due to addictive behaviours").<a href="#cite_note-ICD-11_(disorders_due_to_substance_use_or_addictive_behaviours)-18">[17]</a> With regard to psychoactive substances, ICD-11 explains that the included substances initially produce "pleasant or appealing psychoactive effects that are rewarding and reinforcing with repeated use, [but] with continued use, many of the included substances have the capacity to produce dependence. They have the potential to cause numerous forms of harm, both to mental and physical health."<a href="#cite_note-substance-disorder-167">[159]</a> Instead of the DSM-5 approach of one diagnosis ("Substance Use Disorder") covering all types of problematic substance use, ICD-11 offers three diagnostic possibilities: 1) Episode of Harmful Psychoactive Substance Use, 2) Harmful Pattern of Psychoactive Substance Use, and 3) Substance Dependence.<a href="#cite_note-substance-disorder-167">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abuse_liability">Abuse liability</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Abuse liability">edit</a>]</div> Abuse or addiction liability is the tendency to use drugs in a non-medical situation. This is typically for euphoria, mood changing, or sedation.<a href="#cite_note-cambridgecognition-168">[160]</a> Abuse liability is used when the person using the drugs wants something that they otherwise can not obtain. The only way to obtain this is through the use of drugs. When looking at abuse liability there are a number of determining factors in whether the drug is abused. These factors are: the chemical makeup of the drug, the effects on the brain, and the age, vulnerability, and the health (mental and physical) of the population being studied.<a href="#cite_note-cambridgecognition-168">[160]</a> There are a few drugs with a specific chemical makeup that leads to a high abuse liability. These are: cocaine, heroin, inhalants, marijuana, MDMA (ecstasy), methamphetamine, PCP, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones (bath salts), nicotine (e.g. tobacco), and alcohol.<a href="#cite_note-169">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_vaccines_for_addiction_to_substances">Potential vaccines for addiction to substances</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Potential vaccines for addiction to substances">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a> for addiction have been investigated as a possibility since the early 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-170">[162]</a> The general theory of a vaccine intended to "immunize" against drug addiction or other <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a> is that it would condition the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> to attack and consume or otherwise disable the molecules of such substances that cause a reaction in the brain, thus preventing the addict from being able to realize the effect of the drug. Addictions that have been floated as targets for such treatment include <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fentanyl" title="Fentanyl">fentanyl</a>.<a href="#cite_note-171">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[166]</a> Vaccines have been identified as potentially being more effective than other anti-addiction treatments, due to "the long duration of action, the certainty of administration and a potential reduction of <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> to important organs".<a href="#cite_note-AAC-175">[167]</a> Specific addiction vaccines in development include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NicVAX" title="NicVAX">NicVAX</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Conjugate_vaccine" title="Conjugate vaccine">conjugate vaccine</a> intended to reduce or eliminate physical dependence on nicotine.<a href="#cite_note-drugabusegov-176">[168]</a> This proprietary vaccine is being developed by Nabi Biopharmaceuticals<a href="#cite_note-Nabiwebsite-177">[169]</a> of Rockville, MD. with the support from the <a href="/wiki/U.S._National_Institute_on_Drug_Abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse">U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse</a>. NicVAX consists of the <a href="/wiki/Hapten" title="Hapten">hapten</a> 3'-aminomethylnicotine which has been conjugated (attached) to <a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_aeruginosa" title="Pseudomonas aeruginosa">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a> <a href="/wiki/Exotoxin_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Exotoxin A">exotoxin A</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cpt-p459-178">[170]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TA-CD" title="TA-CD">TA-CD</a>, an active <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccine</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid16038686-179">[171]</a> developed by the Xenova Group which is used to negate the effects of <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>. It is created by combining <a href="/wiki/Norcocaine" title="Norcocaine">norcocaine</a> with inactivated <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> toxin. It works in much the same way as a regular vaccine. A large <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> molecule attaches to cocaine, which stimulates response from <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a>, which destroy the molecule. This also prevents the cocaine from crossing the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a>, negating the euphoric high and <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">rewarding</a> effect of cocaine caused from stimulation of <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> release in the <a href="/wiki/Mesolimbic_reward_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesolimbic reward pathway">mesolimbic reward pathway</a>. The vaccine does not affect the user's "desire" for cocaine—only the physical effects of the drug.<a href="#cite_note-180">[172]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TA-NIC" title="TA-NIC">TA-NIC</a>, used to create human antibodies to destroy <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a> in the human body so that it is no longer effective.<a href="#cite_note-181">[173]</a></li></ul> As of September 2023, it was further reported that a vaccine "has been tested against <a href="/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">heroin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fentanyl" title="Fentanyl">fentanyl</a> and is on its way to being tested against <a href="/wiki/Oxycontin" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxycontin">oxycontin</a>".<a href="#cite_note-182">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment_and_management">Treatment and management</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Treatment and management">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treatment_and_management_of_addiction" title="Treatment and management of addiction">Treatment and management of addiction</a></div> To be effective, treatment for addiction that is pharmacological or biologically based need to be accompanied by other interventions such as <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">cognitive behavioral therapy</a> (CBT), individual and group psychotherapy, <a href="/wiki/Behavior_modification" title="Behavior modification">behavior modification</a> strategies, <a href="/wiki/Twelve-step_program" title="Twelve-step program">twelve-step programs</a>, and residential treatment facilities.<a href="#cite_note-Reward_system_and_psychostimulants-183">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a> The <abbr title="transtheoretical model of change">TTM</abbr> can be used to determine when treatment can begin and which method will be most effective. If treatment begins too early, it can cause a person to become defensive and resistant to change.<a href="#cite_note-Hill2021-82">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Countries_by_alcohol_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Countries by alcohol consumption">Countries by alcohol consumption</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic" title="Opioid epidemic">Opioid epidemic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prevalence_of_tobacco_use" title="Prevalence of tobacco use">Prevalence of tobacco use</a></div> Due to cultural variations, the proportion of individuals who develop a drug or behavioral addiction within a specified time period (i.e., the <a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">prevalence</a>) varies over time, by country, and across national <a href="/wiki/Demographics" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics">population demographics</a> (e.g., by age group, socioeconomic status, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> Where addiction is viewed as unacceptable, there will be fewer people addicted. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> The prevalence of alcohol dependence is not as high as is seen in other regions. In Asia, not only socioeconomic factors but biological factors influence drinking behavior.<a href="#cite_note-185">[177]</a> Internet addiction disorder is highest in the Philippines, according to both the IAT (Internet Addiction Test) – 5% and the CIAS-R (Revised Chen Internet Addiction Scale) – 21%.<a href="#cite_note-186">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism_in_rural_Australia" title="Alcoholism in rural Australia">Alcoholism in rural Australia</a></div> The prevalence of substance use disorder among Australians was reported at 5.1% in 2009.<a href="#cite_note-187">[179]</a> In 2019 the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Health_and_Welfare" title="Australian Institute of Health and Welfare">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare</a> conducted a national drug survey that quantified drug use for various types of drugs and demographics.<a href="#cite_note-AIHW_2019-188">[180]</a> The survey found that in 2019, 11% of people over 14 years old smoke daily; that 9.9% of those who drink alcohol, which equates to 7.5% of the total population age 14 or older, may qualify as alcohol dependent; that 17.5% of the 2.4 million people who used cannabis in the last year may have hazardous use or a dependence problem; and that 63.5% of about 300000 recent users of meth and amphetamines were at risk for developing problem use.<a href="#cite_note-AIHW_2019-188">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism_in_Ireland" title="Alcoholism in Ireland">Alcoholism in Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholism in Russia">Alcoholism in Russia</a></div> In 2015, the estimated prevalence among the adult population was 18.4% for heavy episodic alcohol use (in the past 30 days); 15.2% for daily tobacco smoking; and 3.8% for cannabis use, 0.77% for amphetamine use, 0.37% for opioid use, and 0.35% for cocaine use in 2017. The mortality rates for alcohol and illicit drugs were highest in Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-189">[181]</a> Data shows a downward trend of alcohol use among children 15 years old in most European countries between 2002 and 2014. First-time alcohol use before the age of 13 was recorded for 28% of European children in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cocaine_in_the_United_States" title="Cocaine in the United States">Cocaine in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic in the United States</a></div> Based on <a href="/wiki/Representative_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Representative sample">representative samples</a> of the US youth population in 2011<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit">[update]</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lifetime_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifetime prevalence">lifetime prevalence</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[note 7]</a> of addictions to alcohol and illicit drugs has been estimated to be approximately 8% and 2–3% respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Epidem-191">[182]</a> Based on representative samples of the US adult population in 2011<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit">[update]</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Period_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Period prevalence">12-month prevalence</a> of alcohol and illicit drug addictions were estimated at 12% and 2–3% respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Epidem-191">[182]</a> The lifetime prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug" title="Prescription drug">prescription drug</a> addictions is around 4.7%.<a href="#cite_note-192">[183]</a> As of 2021,<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit">[update]</a> 43.7 million people aged 12 or older surveyed by the National Survey on Drug Use and Health in the United States needed treatment for an addiction to alcohol, nicotine, or other drugs. The groups with the highest number of people were 18–25 years (25.1%) and "American Indian or Alaska Native" (28.7%).<a href="#cite_note-2021_NSDUH_Report-193">[184]</a> Only about 10%, or a little over 2 million, receive any form of treatments, and those that do generally do not receive <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">evidence-based care</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ABAM-194">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-NIDA_Addiction_Medicine-195">[186]</a> One-third of <a href="/wiki/Inpatient_care" title="Inpatient care">inpatient</a> hospital costs and 20% of all deaths in the US every year are the result of untreated addictions and risky substance use.<a href="#cite_note-ABAM-194">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-NIDA_Addiction_Medicine-195">[186]</a> In spite of the massive overall economic cost to society, which is greater than the cost of <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a> and all forms of cancer combined, most doctors in the US lack the training to effectively address a drug addiction.<a href="#cite_note-ABAM-194">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-NIDA_Addiction_Medicine-195">[186]</a> Estimates of lifetime prevalence rates in the US are 1–2% for compulsive gambling, 5% for sexual addiction, 2.8% for food addiction, and 5–6% for compulsive shopping.<a href="#cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">[35]</a> The time-invariant prevalence rate for sexual addiction and related compulsive sexual behavior (e.g., compulsive masturbation with or without pornography, compulsive cybersex, etc.) within the US ranges from 3–6% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-Systematic_review_-_yet_another_DSM_fail-44">[43]</a> According to a 2017 poll conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>, almost half of US adults know a family member or close friend who has struggled with a drug addiction at some point in their life.<a href="#cite_note-196">[187]</a> In 2019, opioid addiction was acknowledged as a national crisis in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-197">[188]</a> An article in <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> stated that "America's largest drug companies flooded the country with pain pills from 2006 through 2012, even when it became apparent that they were fueling addiction and overdoses." The National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions found that from 2012 to 2013 the prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_use_disorder" title="Cannabis use disorder">Cannabis use disorder</a> in U.S. adults was 2.9%.<a href="#cite_note-198">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Statistics_Canada" title="Statistics Canada">Statistics Canada</a> Survey in 2012 found the lifetime prevalence and 12-month prevalence of substance use disorders were 21.6%, and 4.4% in those 15 and older.<a href="#cite_note-StatisticsCanada-199">[190]</a> Alcohol abuse or dependence reported a lifetime prevalence of 18.1% and a 12-month prevalence of 3.2%.<a href="#cite_note-StatisticsCanada-199">[190]</a> Cannabis abuse or dependence reported a lifetime prevalence of 6.8% and a 12-month prevalence of 3.2%.<a href="#cite_note-StatisticsCanada-199">[190]</a> Other drug abuse or dependence has a lifetime prevalence of 4.0% and a 12-month prevalence of 0.7%.<a href="#cite_note-StatisticsCanada-199">[190]</a> Substance use disorder is a term used interchangeably with a drug addiction.<a href="#cite_note-200">[191]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario, Canada</a> between 2009 and 2017, outpatient visits for mental health and addiction increased from 52.6 to 57.2 per 100 people, emergency department visits increased from 13.5 to 19.7 per 1000 people and the number of hospitalizations increased from 4.5 to 5.5 per 1000 people.<a href="#cite_note-Ontario_Scorecard-201">[192]</a> Prevalence of care needed increased the most among the 14–17 age group overall.<a href="#cite_note-Ontario_Scorecard-201">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: South America">edit</a>]</div> The realities of opioid use and <a href="/wiki/Opioid_use_disorder" title="Opioid use disorder">opioid use disorder</a> in Latin America may be deceptive if observations are limited to epidemiological findings. In the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_on_Drugs_and_Crime" title="United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime">United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime</a> report,<a href="#cite_note-202">[193]</a> although South America produced 3% of the world's morphine and heroin and 0.01% of its opium, prevalence of use is uneven. According to the Inter-American Commission on Drug Abuse Control, consumption of heroin is low in most Latin American countries, although Colombia is the area's largest opium producer. Mexico, because of its border with the United States, has the highest incidence of use.<a href="#cite_note-203">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Addiction_and_the_humanities">Addiction and the humanities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Addiction and the humanities">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_and_etymology">History and etymology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: History and etymology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">Recreational drug use</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_models_of_human_drug_use" title="Evolutionary models of human drug use">Evolutionary models of human drug use</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_drinking" class="mw-redirect" title="History of drinking">History of drinking</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_smoking" title="History of smoking">History of smoking</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse_in_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance abuse in Ancient Rome">Substance abuse in Ancient Rome</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> of the term addiction throughout history has been misunderstood and has taken on various meanings associated with the word.<a href="#cite_note-Crocq_2007-204">[195]</a> An example is the usage of the word in the religious landscape of <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">early modern Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lemon_2018-205">[196]</a> "Addiction" at the time meant "to attach" to something, giving it both positive and negative connotations. The object of this attachment could be characterized as "good or bad".<a href="#cite_note-Rosenthal_2019-206">[197]</a> The meaning of addiction during the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> was mostly associated with positivity and goodness;<a href="#cite_note-Lemon_2018-205">[196]</a> during this early modern and highly religious era of <a href="/wiki/Christian_revivalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian revivalism">Christian revivalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietistic tendencies</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lemon_2018-205">[196]</a> it was seen as a way of "devoting oneself to another".<a href="#cite_note-Rosenthal_2019-206">[197]</a> <a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Modern research on addiction</a> has led to a better understanding of the disease with research on the topic dating back to 1875, specifically on <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine addiction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-207">[198]</a> This furthered the understanding of addiction being a medical condition. It was not until the 19th century that addiction was seen and acknowledged in the Western world as a disease, being both a physical condition and <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-208">[199]</a> Today, addiction is understood both as a biopsychosocial and <a href="/wiki/Brain_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain disorder">neurological disorder</a> that negatively impacts those who are affected by it, most commonly associated with the use of drugs and <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_use_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol use disorder">excessive use of alcohol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIDA2020-4">[3]</a> The understanding of addiction has changed throughout history, which has impacted and continues to impact the ways it is medically treated and diagnosed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_suffixes_"-holic"_and_"-holism"">The suffixes "-holic" and "-holism"</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: The suffixes "-holic" and "-holism"">edit</a>]</div> In contemporary modern English "-holic" is a <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a> that can be added to a subject to denote an addiction to it. It was extracted from the word alcoholism (one of the first addictions to be widely identified both medically and socially) (correctly the root "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alcohol" class="extiw" title="wikt:alcohol">alcohol</a>" plus the suffix "-ism") by misdividing or <a href="/wiki/Rebracketing" title="Rebracketing">rebracketing</a> it into "alco" and "-holism". There are correct <a href="/wiki/Medico-legal" class="mw-redirect" title="Medico-legal">medico-legal</a> terms for such addictions: <a href="/wiki/Dipsomania" title="Dipsomania">dipsomania</a> is the medico-legal term for alcoholism;<a href="#cite_note-209">[200]</a> other examples are in this table: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Colloquial term </th> <th>Addiction to </th> <th>Medico-legal term </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chocoholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chocoholic">chocoholic</a> </td> <td>chocolate </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>danceaholic </td> <td>dance </td> <td>choreomania </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rageaholic" title="Rageaholic">rageaholic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rage_(emotion)" title="Rage (emotion)">rage</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sexaholic </td> <td>sex </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Erotomania" title="Erotomania">erotomania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satyriasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyriasis">satyriasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nymphomania" class="mw-redirect" title="Nymphomania">nymphomania</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sugarholic </td> <td>sugar </td> <td>saccharomania </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Workaholic" title="Workaholic">workaholic</a> </td> <td>work </td> <td>ergomania </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts">Arts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Arts">edit</a>]</div> The arts can be used in a variety of ways to address issues related to addiction. Art can be used as a form of therapy in the treatment of substance use disorders. Creative activities like painting, sculpting, music, and writing can help people express their feelings and experiences in safe and healthy ways. The arts can be used as an assessment tool to identify underlying issues that may be contributing to a person's substance use disorder. Through art, individuals can gain insights into their own motivations and behaviors that can be helpful in determining a course of treatment. Finally, the arts can be used to advocate for those suffering from a substance use disorder by raising awareness of the issue and promoting understanding and compassion. Through art, individuals can share their stories, increase awareness, and offer support and hope to those struggling with substance use disorders. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_therapy">As therapy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: As therapy">edit</a>]</div> Addiction treatment is complex and not always effective due to engagement and service availability concerns, so researchers prioritize efforts to improve treatment retention and decrease relapse rates.<a href="#cite_note-210">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[202]</a> Characteristics of substance abuse may include feelings of isolation, a lack of confidence, communication difficulties, and a perceived lack of control.<a href="#cite_note-212">[203]</a> In a similar vein, people suffering from substance use disorders tend to be highly sensitive, creative, and as such, are likely able to express themselves meaningfully in creative arts such as dancing, painting, writing, music, and acting.<a href="#cite_note-213">[204]</a> Further evidenced by Waller and Mahony (2002)<a href="#cite_note-214">[205]</a> and Kaufman (1981),<a href="#cite_note-215">[206]</a> the creative arts therapies can be a suitable treatment option for this population especially when verbal communication is ineffective. Primary advantages of art therapy in the treatment of addiction have been identified as:<a href="#cite_note-216">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schmanke_2015-217">[208]</a> <ul><li>Assess and characterize a client's substance use issues</li> <li>Bypassing a client's resistances, defenses, and denial</li> <li>Containing shame or anger</li> <li>Facilitating the expression of suppressed and/or complicated emotions</li> <li>Highlighting a client's strengths</li> <li>Providing an alternative to verbal communication (via use of symbols) and conventional forms of therapy</li> <li>Providing clients with a sense of control</li> <li>Tackling feelings of isolation</li></ul> Art therapy is an effective method of dealing with substance abuse in comprehensive treatment models. When included in psychoeducational programs, art therapy in a group setting can help clients internalize taught concepts in a more personalized manner.<a href="#cite_note-Schmanke_2019-218">[209]</a> During the course of treatment, by examining and comparing artwork created at different times, art therapists can be helpful in identifying and diagnosing issues, as well as charting the extent or direction of improvement as a person detoxifies.<a href="#cite_note-Schmanke_2019-218">[209]</a> Where increasing adherence to treatment regimes and maintaining abstinence is the target; art therapists can aid by customizing treatment directives (encourage the client to create collages that compare pros and cons, pictures that compare past and present and future, and drawings that depict what happened when a client went off medication).<a href="#cite_note-Schmanke_2019-218">[209]</a> Art therapy can function as a complementary therapy used in conjunction with more conventional therapies and can can integrate with harm reduction protocols to minimize the negative effects of drug use.<a href="#cite_note-219">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schmanke_2015-217">[208]</a> An evaluation of art therapy incorporation within a pre-existing Addiction Treatment Programme based on the 12 step Minnesota Model endorsed by the Alcoholics Anonymous found that 66% of participants expressed the usefulness of art therapy as a part of treatment.<a href="#cite_note-220">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schmanke_2015-217">[208]</a> Within the weekly art therapy session, clients were able to reflect and process the intense emotions and cognitions evoked by the programme. In turn, the art therapy component of the programme fostered stronger self-awareness, exploration, and externalization of repressed and unconscious emotions of clients, promoting the development of a more integrated 'authentic self'.<a href="#cite_note-221">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schmanke_2015-217">[208]</a> Despite the large number of randomized control trials, clinical control trials, and anecdotal evidence supporting the effectiveness of art therapies for use in addiction treatment, a systematic review conducted in 2018 could not find enough evidence on visual art, drama, dance and movement therapy, or 'arts in health' methodologies to confirm their effectiveness as interventions for reducing substance misuse.<a href="#cite_note-Megranahan_2018-222">[213]</a> Music therapy was identified to have potentially strong beneficial effects in aiding contemplation and preparing those diagnosed with substance use for treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Megranahan_2018-222">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_an_assessment_tool">As an assessment tool</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: As an assessment tool">edit</a>]</div> The Formal Elements Art Therapy Scale (FEATS) is an assessment tool used to evaluate drawings created by people suffering from substance use disorders by comparing them to drawings of a control group (consisting of individuals without SUDs).<a href="#cite_note-Rockwell_2006-223">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schmanke_2015-217">[208]</a> FEATS consists of twelve elements, three of which were found to be particularly effective at distinguishing the drawings of those with SUDs from those without: Person, Realism, and Developmental. The Person element assesses the degree to which a human features are depicted realistically, the Realism element assesses the overall complexity of the artwork, and the Developmental element assesses "developmental age" of the artwork in relation to standardized drawings from children and adolescents.<a href="#cite_note-Rockwell_2006-223">[214]</a> By using the FEATS assessment tool, clinicians can gain valuable insight into the drawings of individuals with SUDs, and can compare them to those of the control group. Formal assessments such as FEATS provide healthcare providers with a means to quantify, standardize, and communicate abstract and visceral characteristics of SUDs to provide more accurate diagnoses and informed treatment decisions.<a href="#cite_note-Rockwell_2006-223">[214]</a> Other artistic assessment methods include the Bird's Nest Drawing: a useful tool for visualizing a client's attachment security.<a href="#cite_note-224">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schmanke_2015-217">[208]</a> This assessment method looks at the amount of color used in the drawing, with a lack of color indicating an 'insecure attachment', a factor that the client's therapist or recovery framework must take into account.<a href="#cite_note-225">[216]</a> Art therapists working with children of parents suffering from alcoholism can use the Kinetic Family Drawings assessment tool to shed light on family dynamics and help children express and understand their family experiences.<a href="#cite_note-Indicators_of_Familial_Alcoholism_i-226">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schmanke_2015-217">[208]</a> The KFD can be used in family sessions to allow children to share their experiences and needs with parents who may be in recovery from alcohol use disorder. Depiction of isolation of self and isolation of other family members may be an indicator of parental alcoholism.<a href="#cite_note-Indicators_of_Familial_Alcoholism_i-226">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Advocacy">Advocacy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Advocacy">edit</a>]</div> Stigma can lead to feelings of shame that can prevent people with substance use disorders from seeking help and interfere with provision of harm reduction services.<a href="#cite_note-227">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[220]</a> It can influence healthcare policy, making it difficult for these individuals to access treatment.<a href="#cite_note-230">[221]</a> Artists attempt to change the societal perception of addiction from a punishable moral offense to instead a chronic illness necessitating treatment. This form of advocacy can help to relocate the fight of addiction from a judicial perspective to the public health system.<a href="#cite_note-Henningfield_2010-231">[222]</a> Artists who have personally lived with addiction and/or undergone recovery may use art to depict their experiences in a manner that uncovers the "human face of addiction". By bringing experiences of addiction and recovery to a personal level and breaking down the "us and them", the viewer may be more inclined to show compassion, forego stereotypes and stigma of addiction, and label addiction as a social rather than individual problem.<a href="#cite_note-Henningfield_2010-231">[222]</a> According to Santora<a href="#cite_note-Henningfield_2010-231">[222]</a> the main purposes in using art as a form of advocacy in the education and prevention of substance use disorders include: <ul><li>Addiction art exhibitions can come from a variety of sources, but the underlying message of these works is the same: to communicate through emotions without relying on intellectually demanding/gatekept facts and figures. These exhibitions can either stand alone, reinforce, or challenge facts.</li> <li>A powerful educational tool for increasing awareness and understanding of addiction as a medical illness. Exhibitions featuring personal stories and images can help to create lasting impressions on diverse audiences (including addiction scientists/researchers, family/friends of those affected by addiction etc.), highlighting the humanity of the problem and in turn encouraging compassion and understanding.</li> <li>A way to destigmatize substance use disorders and shift public perception from viewing them as a moral failing to understanding them as a chronic medical condition which requires treatment.</li> <li>Provide those who are struggling with addiction assurance and encouragement of healing, and let them know that they are not alone in their struggle.</li> <li>The use of visual arts can help bring attention to the lack of adequate substance use treatment, prevention, and education programs and services in a healthcare system. Messages can encourage policymakers to allocate more resources to addiction treatment and prevention from federal, state, and local levels.</li></ul> The Temple University College of Public Health department conducted a project to promote awareness around opioid use and reduce associated stigma by asking students to create art pieces that were displayed on a website they created and promoted via social media.<a href="#cite_note-Dingman_2021-232">[223]</a> Quantitative and qualitative data was recorded to measure engagement, and the student artists were interviewed, which revealed a change in perspective and understanding, as well as greater appreciation of diverse experiences. Ultimately, the project found that art was an effective medium for empowering both the artist creating the work and the person interacting with it.<a href="#cite_note-Dingman_2021-232">[223]</a> Another author critically examined works by contemporary Canadian artists that deal with addiction via the metaphor of a cultural landscape to "unmap" and "remap" ideologies related to Indigenous communities and addiction to demonstrate how colonial violence in Canada has drastically impacted the relationship between Indigenous peoples, their land, and substance abuse.<a href="#cite_note-233">[224]</a> A project known as "Voice" was a collection of art, poetry and narratives created by women living with a history of addiction to explore women's understanding of harm reduction, challenge the effects of stigma and give voice to those who have historically been silenced or devalued.<a href="#cite_note-Paivinen_2008-234">[225]</a> In the project, nurses with knowledge of mainstream systems, aesthetic knowing, feminism and substance use organized weekly gatherings, wherein women with histories of substance use and addiction worked alongside a nurse to create artistic expressions. Creations were presented at several venues, including an International Conference on Drug Related Harm, a Nursing Conference and a local gallery to positive community response.<a href="#cite_note-Paivinen_2008-234">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Narrative_Approach_and_Addiction">Narrative Approach and Addiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Narrative Approach and Addiction">edit</a>]</div> The narrative medicine to addiction focuses on recognizing, absorbing, and interpreting the stories of those suffering from addiction, allowing for better understanding of their experiences<a href="#cite_note-235">[226]</a> with narrative analysis being used to study the discourse of those with addiction. This knowledge can be used to develop better care plans with the potential to increase patient compliance and make treatment more effective. A narrative study demonstrated and studied cognitive and emotional tendencies among substance abusers during treatment periods to learn more about motivation and ambivalence inherent in recovery over the course of a residential treatment program.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor_&_Francis_Ltd-236">[227]</a> Seven narrative types emerged from the overall analysis: optimistic, overly optimistic, pessimistic, overly pessimistic, "tough life," troubled/confused, and balanced. Narratives tended to express a basic level of emotionality in early stages of treatment ("optimistic", "pessimistic" narrative). Over time, as clients progressed through the program, their stories became more complex and detailed, including their drug abuse and recovery efforts, more skeptical positions towards treatment began to emerge. Clients began to distinguish between the positive and negative aspects of treatment, creating more "balanced" narratives in the process.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor_&_Francis_Ltd-236">[227]</a> Due to higher medication consumption, social isolation, financial worries, and other factors, older adults are particularly vulnerable to substance use problems.<a href="#cite_note-Gardner_2009-237">[228]</a> Incidence of addiction among this population is inaccurately reported. Narrative therapy can provide an avenue to unearth stories of addiction in an empowering manner, and thus serves as a viable therapeutic tool in applied gerontology.<a href="#cite_note-Gardner_2009-237">[228]</a> When treating substance abuse in older adults, it is essential to ensure that the client is respected and comfortable disclosing information. This should be done at the outset of treatment when the therapist and older adult are developing the therapeutic relationship.<a href="#cite_note-Morgan_2011-238">[229]</a> The social breakdown model is an important tool that can consider the compounded effects of ageism, physical changes, social changes, and substance abuse. The narrative approach integrates the social breakdown model with substance abuse challenges and can be an effective way to address addiction in this population.<a href="#cite_note-Morgan_2011-238">[229]</a> A study conducted in 2009 in the Republic of Moldova looked into the social dynamics of initiating injection drug usage by examining 42 audio-recorded, semi-structured interviews with present and former injectors.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes_2011-239">[230]</a> A thematic analysis suggested that self-injection was viewed as a symbolic transition of identity, enabled by interpersonal interactions and collective influences. Personal narratives of self-transition were connected to larger narratives of social transitions. The personal narratives of self-initiation and transition are contextualized and understood in terms of political (social) narratives within the core concept of the 'transitional society'.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes_2011-239">[230]</a> Another study examined the narratives of 'initiators': people who help people who inject drugs (PWID) with their first injection.<a href="#cite_note-Weicker_2021-240">[231]</a> Through their accounts, respondents described initiation events as meaningful transitions to a life characterized by predictable downfalls of homelessness, infections, and <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">social stigma</a>. Initiators used examples from their own personal experience to explain the process of initiation and assistance, attributing personal agency and predicting specific injection-related harms for initiates. They distinguished between two forms of harm: potentially avoidable proximal harm caused by risky injection practices (e.g. overdose, HIV) and perceived inevitable distal harm caused by long-term injection (e.g. socioeconomic decline).<a href="#cite_note-Weicker_2021-240">[231]</a> In this way, these narratives reflect a balance of individual agency, harm reduction intentions, and accepted notions of 'life after initiation' interact with the narrative experiences and intentions of PWIDs.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes_2011-239">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weicker_2021-240">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Philosophy">edit</a>]</div> From a philosophy perspective, the behavior of many with addiction that is not explained by executive dysfunction or biological reasons can be explained by folk psychology – specifically the <a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology#Belief–desire_model" title="Folk psychology">belief–desire model</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Levy2019-30">[29]</a> According to this model, a person acquires and uses a substance or does an addictive activity in belief that it will help them achieve a goal. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_scientific_models">Social scientific models</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Social scientific models">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_alcoholic_man_with_delirium_Wellcome_L0060780_(level_correction).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/An_alcoholic_man_with_delirium_Wellcome_L0060780_%28level_correction%29.jpg/220px-An_alcoholic_man_with_delirium_Wellcome_L0060780_%28level_correction%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/An_alcoholic_man_with_delirium_Wellcome_L0060780_%28level_correction%29.jpg/330px-An_alcoholic_man_with_delirium_Wellcome_L0060780_%28level_correction%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/An_alcoholic_man_with_delirium_Wellcome_L0060780_%28level_correction%29.jpg/440px-An_alcoholic_man_with_delirium_Wellcome_L0060780_%28level_correction%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4231" data-file-height="6056" /></a><figcaption>Acute confusional state caused by <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_withdrawal_syndrome" title="Alcohol withdrawal syndrome">alcohol withdrawal</a>, otherwise known as <a href="/wiki/Delirium_tremens" title="Delirium tremens">delirium tremens</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual">Biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual">edit</a>]</div> While regarded <a href="/wiki/Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">biomedically</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychological</a> disorder, addiction is multi-layered, with <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological</a>, psychological, social, <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> (biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual) elements.<a href="#cite_note-241">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[233]</a> A biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual approach fosters the crossing of <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">disciplinary</a> boundaries, and promotes <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holistic</a> considerations of addiction.<a href="#cite_note-243">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-245">[236]</a> A biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual approach considers, for example, how physical environments influence experiences, habits, and patterns of addiction. <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a> engagements and developments in fields of knowledge have contributed to biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual understandings of addiction, including the work of <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Bourgois" title="Philippe Bourgois">Philippe Bourgois</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Field_research#In_anthropology" title="Field research">fieldwork</a> with street-level drug dealers in <a href="/wiki/East_Harlem" title="East Harlem">East Harlem</a> highlights correlations between drug use and structural <a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">oppression</a> in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-246">[237]</a> Prior models that have informed the prevailing biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual consideration of addiction include: <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_model">Cultural model</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Cultural model">edit</a>]</div> The cultural model, an <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropological</a> understanding of the emergence of drug use and abuse, was developed by <a href="/wiki/Dwight_B._Heath" title="Dwight B. Heath">Dwight Heath</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> Heath undertook ethnographic research and <a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">fieldwork</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Camba" title="Camba">Camba</a> people of <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> from June 1956 to August 1957.<a href="#cite_note-Heath_1958-248">[239]</a> Heath observed that adult members of society drank 'large quantities of <a href="/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">rum</a> and became intoxicated for several contiguous days at least twice a month'.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> This frequent, heavy drinking from which <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication" title="Alcohol intoxication">intoxication</a> followed was typically undertaken socially, during festivals.<a href="#cite_note-Heath_1958-248">[239]</a> Having returned in 1989, Heath observed that while much had changed, 'drinking parties' remained, as per his initial observations, and 'there appear to be no harmful consequences to anyone'.<a href="#cite_note-249">[240]</a> Heath's observations and <a href="/wiki/Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">interactions</a> reflected that this form of <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a>, the habitual heavy consumption of alcohol, was encouraged and valued, enforcing social bonds in the Camba community.<a href="#cite_note-Heath_1958-248">[239]</a> Despite frequent intoxication, "even to the point of unconsciousness", the Camba held no concept of alcoholism (a form of addiction), and no visible social problems associated with drunkenness, or addiction, were apparent.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> As noted by <a href="/wiki/Merrill_Singer" title="Merrill Singer">Merrill Singer</a>, Heath's findings, when considered alongside subsequent cross-cultural experiences, challenged the perception that <a href="/wiki/Substance_intoxication" title="Substance intoxication">intoxication</a> is socially 'inherently disruptive'.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> Following this <a href="/wiki/Fieldwork" class="mw-redirect" title="Fieldwork">fieldwork</a>, Heath proposed the 'cultural model', suggesting that 'problems' associated with heavy drinking, such as alcoholism – a recognised form addiction – were cultural: that is, that alcoholism is determined by cultural beliefs, and therefore varies among cultures. Heath's findings challenged the notion that 'continued use [of alcohol] is inexorably addictive and damaging to the consumer's health'.<a href="#cite_note-Heath_1958-248">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> The cultural model did face criticism by <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Robin_Room" title="Robin Room">Robin Room</a> and others, who felt anthropologists could "downgrade the severity of the problem".<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> Merrill Singer found it notable that the ethnographers working within the prominence of the cultural model were part of the 'wet generation': while not blind to the 'disruptive, dysfunctional and debilitating effects of alcohol consumption', they were products 'socialized to view alcohol consumption as normal'.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subcultural_model">Subcultural model</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Subcultural model">edit</a>]</div> Historically, addiction has been viewed from the <a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">etic</a> perspective, defining users through the <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathology</a> of their condition.<a href="#cite_note-250">[241]</a> As reports of drug use rapidly increased, the cultural model found application in anthropological research exploring western drug <a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">subculture</a> practices.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> The approach evolved from the ethnographic exploration into the lived experiences and <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjectivities</a> of 1960s and 1970s drug subcultures.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> The seminal publication "Taking care of business", by Edward Preble and John J. Casey, documented the daily lives of New York street-based intravenous heroin users in rich detail, providing unique insight into the dynamic social worlds and activities that surrounded their drug use.<a href="#cite_note-251">[242]</a> These findings challenge popular narratives of <a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">immorality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviance</a>, conceptualizing substance abuse as a social <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a>. The prevailing culture can have a greater influence on drug taking behaviors than the physical and psychological effects of the drug itself.<a href="#cite_note-Golub_2005-252">[243]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] To <a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">marginalized</a> individuals, drug subcultures can provide social connection, <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolic</a> meaning, and socially constructed purpose that they may feel is unattainable through conventional means.<a href="#cite_note-Golub_2005-252">[243]</a> The subcultural model demonstrates the complexities of addiction, highlighting the need for an integrated approach. It contends that a <a href="/wiki/Biosocial_theory" title="Biosocial theory">biosocial</a> approach is required to achieve a holistic understanding of addiction.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critical_medical_anthropology_model">Critical medical anthropology model</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Critical medical anthropology model">edit</a>]</div> Emerging in the early 1980s, the critical medical anthropology model was introduced, and as Merrill Singer offers 'was applied quickly to the analysis of drug use'.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> Where the cultural model of the 1950s looked at the social body, the critical medical anthropology model revealed the <a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">body politic</a>, considering drug use and addiction within the context of macro level structures including larger political systems, <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economic inequalities</a>, and the institutional power held over social processes.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> Highly relevant to addiction, the three issues emphasized in the model are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-medication" title="Self-medication">Self-medication</a></li> <li>The social production of suffering</li> <li>The political economy (<a href="/wiki/Licit_and_Illicit_Drugs" title="Licit and Illicit Drugs">Licit and Illicit Drugs</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a></li></ul> These three key points highlight how drugs may come to be used to self-medicate the <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">psychological trauma</a> of socio-political disparity and <a href="/wiki/Injustice" title="Injustice">injustice</a>, intertwining with <a href="/wiki/Licit_and_Illicit_Drugs" title="Licit and Illicit Drugs">licit and illicit drug</a> market politics.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> Social suffering, "the misery among those on the weaker end of power relations in terms of physical health, mental health and lived experience", is used by anthropologists to analyze how individuals may have personal problems caused by political and economic power.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> From the perspective of critical medical anthropology heavy drug use and addiction is a consequence of such larger scale unequal distributions of power.<a href="#cite_note-Singer_2012-247">[238]</a> The three models developed here – the cultural model, the subcultural model, and the Critical Medical Anthropology Model – display how addiction is not an experience to be considered only biomedically. Through consideration of addiction alongside the biological, psychological, social, cultural and spiritual (biopsychosocial–spiritual) elements which influence its experience, a holistic and comprehensive understanding can be built. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_learning_models">Social learning models</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Social learning models">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_learning_theory">Social learning theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Social learning theory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">Social learning theory</a></div> Albert Bandura's 1977 social learning theory posits that individuals acquire addictive behaviors by observing and imitating models in their social environment.<a href="#cite_note-253">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[245]</a> The likelihood of engaging in and sustaining similar addictive behaviors is influenced by the reinforcement and punishment observed in others. The principle of reciprocal determinism suggests that the functional relationships between personal, environmental, and behavioral factors act as determinants of addictive behavior.<a href="#cite_note-255">[246]</a> Thus, effective treatment targets each dynamic facet of the biopsychosocial disorder. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transtheoretical_model_(stages_of_change_model)">Transtheoretical model (stages of change model)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Transtheoretical model (stages of change model)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></div> The transtheoretical model of change suggests that overcoming an addiction is a stepwise process that occurs through several stages.<a href="#cite_note-256">[247]</a> Precontemplation: This initial stage precedes individuals considering a change in their behavior. They might be oblivious to or in denial of their addiction, failing to recognize the need for change. Contemplation is the stage in which individuals become aware of the problems caused by their addiction and are considering change. Although they may not fully commit, they weigh the costs and benefits of making a shift. Preparation: Individuals in this stage are getting ready to change. They might have taken preliminary steps, like gathering information or making small commitments, in preparation for behavioral change. Action involves actively modifying behavior by making specific, observable changes to address the addictive behavior. The action stage requires significant effort and commitment. Maintenance: After successfully implementing a change, individuals enter the maintenance stage, where they work to sustain the new behavior and prevent relapse. This stage is characterized by ongoing effort and consolidation of gains. Termination/relapse prevention: Recognizing that relapse is a common part of the change process, this stage focuses on identifying and addressing factors that may lead to a return to old behaviors. Relapse is viewed as an opportunity for learning and strategy adjustment, with the ultimate goal of eliminating or terminating the targeted behavior. The transtheoretical model can be helpful in guiding development of tailored behavioral interventions that can promote lasting change. Progression through these stages may not always follow a linear path, as individuals may move back and forth between stages. Resistance to change is recognized as an expected part of the process. Addiction causes an "astoundingly high financial and human toll" on individuals and society as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-Societal_toll-257">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-Epidem-191">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-ABAM-194">[185]</a> In the United States, the total economic cost to society is greater than that of all types of diabetes and all cancers combined.<a href="#cite_note-ABAM-194">[185]</a> These costs arise from the direct adverse effects of drugs and associated healthcare costs (e.g., emergency medical services and outpatient and inpatient care), long-term complications (e.g., lung cancer from smoking tobacco products, <a href="/wiki/Liver_cirrhosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Liver cirrhosis">liver cirrhosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alcohol-related_dementia" title="Alcohol-related dementia">dementia</a> from chronic alcohol consumption, and <a href="/wiki/Meth_mouth" title="Meth mouth">meth mouth</a> from methamphetamine use), the loss of productivity and associated welfare costs, fatal and non-fatal accidents (e.g., traffic collisions), suicides, homicides, and incarceration, among others.<a href="#cite_note-Societal_toll-257">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-Epidem-191">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-ABAM-194">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-INCB_2013-258">[249]</a> The US National Institute on Drug Abuse has found that overdose deaths in the US have almost tripled among male and females from 2002 to 2017, with 72,306 overdose deaths reported in 2017 in the US.<a href="#cite_note-259">[250]</a> 2020 marked the year with highest number of overdose deaths over a 12-month period, with 81,000 overdose deaths, exceeding the records set in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-260">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">Autonomic nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binge_drinking" title="Binge drinking">Binge drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binge_eating_disorder" title="Binge eating disorder">Binge eating disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Discrimination against drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopaminergic_pathways" title="Dopaminergic pathways">Dopaminergic pathways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavlovian-instrumental_transfer" title="Pavlovian-instrumental transfer">Pavlovian-instrumental transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_medicine" title="Philosophy of medicine">Philosophy of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">Substance dependence</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Endnotes">Endnotes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Endnotes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> In other words, a person cannot control the neurobiological processes that occur in the body in response to using an addictive drug. A person can make a voluntary choice to, for example, start using a drug (or not), or to seek help after becoming addicted, although resisting the urge to use drug(s) becomes increasingly difficult as addiction worsens. See <a href="#cite_note-Heilig-et-al-2021-1">[1]</a> for detailed discussion. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> According to a review of experimental animal models that examined the transgenerational epigenetic inheritance of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetic_mark&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epigenetic mark (page does not exist)">epigenetic marks</a> that occur in addiction, alterations in <a href="/wiki/Histone_acetylation" class="mw-redirect" title="Histone acetylation">histone acetylation</a> – specifically, di-acetylation of <a href="/wiki/Lysine" title="Lysine">lysine</a> <a href="/wiki/Residue_(amino_acid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Residue (amino acid)">residues</a> 9 and 14 on <a href="/wiki/Histone_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Histone 3">histone 3</a> (i.e., <a href="/w/index.php?title=H3K9ac2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="H3K9ac2 (page does not exist)">H3K9ac2</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=H3K14ac2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="H3K14ac2 (page does not exist)">H3K14ac2</a>) in association with <a href="/wiki/BDNF" class="mw-redirect" title="BDNF">BDNF</a> <a href="/wiki/Gene_promoter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene promoter">gene promoters</a> – have been shown to occur within the <a href="/wiki/Medial_prefrontal_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial prefrontal cortex">medial prefrontal cortex</a> (mPFC), <a href="/wiki/Testes" class="mw-redirect" title="Testes">testes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> of cocaine-addicted male rats.<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> These epigenetic alterations in the rat mPFC result in increased BDNF <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> within the mPFC, which in turn blunts the <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">rewarding properties</a> of cocaine and reduces cocaine <a href="/wiki/Self-administration" title="Self-administration">self-administration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> The male but not female offspring of these cocaine-exposed rats inherited both epigenetic marks (i.e., di-acetylation of lysine residues 9 and 14 on histone 3) within mPFC neurons, the corresponding increase in BDNF expression within mPFC neurons, and the behavioral phenotype associated with these effects (i.e., a reduction in cocaine reward, resulting in reduced cocaine-seeking by these male offspring).<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> Consequently, the transmission of these two cocaine-induced epigenetic alterations (i.e., H3K9ac2 and H3K14ac2) in rats from male fathers to male offspring served to reduce the offspring's risk of developing an addiction to cocaine.<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> As of 2018,<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit">[update]</a> neither the heritability of these epigenetic marks in humans nor the behavioral effects of the marks within human mPFC neurons has been established.<a href="#cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">[87]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ΔFosB_behaviors-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ΔFosB_behaviors_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ΔFosB_behaviors_122-1">b</a> A decrease in aversion sensitivity, in simpler terms, means that an individual's behavior is less likely to be influenced by undesirable outcomes. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> In other words, c-Fos <a href="/wiki/Gene_repression" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene repression">repression</a> allows ΔFosB to more rapidly accumulate within the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens because it is selectively induced in this state.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a> Before c-Fos repression, all Fos family proteins (e.g., c-Fos, <a href="/wiki/Fra1" class="mw-redirect" title="Fra1">Fra1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fra2" class="mw-redirect" title="Fra2">Fra2</a>, <a href="/wiki/FosB" class="mw-redirect" title="FosB">FosB</a>, and ΔFosB) are induced together, with ΔFosB expression increasing to a lesser extent.<a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> According to two medical reviews, ΔFosB has been implicated in causing both increases and decreases in dynorphin expression in different studies;<a href="#cite_note-What_the_ΔFosB?-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18640924-154">[150]</a> this table entry reflects only a decrease. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Incentive salience, the "<a href="/wiki/Motivational_salience" title="Motivational salience">motivational salience</a>" for a reward, is a "desire" or "want" attribute, which includes a motivational component, that the brain assigns to a rewarding stimulus.<a href="#cite_note-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review-157">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-NAcc_function-158">[152]</a> As a consequence, incentive salience acts as a motivational "magnet" for a rewarding stimulus that commands attention, induces approach, and causes the rewarding stimulus to be sought out.<a href="#cite_note-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review-157">[151]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> In simplest terms, this means that when either amphetamine or sex is perceived as more alluring or desirable through reward sensitization, this effect occurs with the other as well. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> The lifetime prevalence of an addiction is the percentage of individuals in a population that developed an addiction at some point in their life. </li> </ol></div></div> <dl><dt>Image legend</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">Ion channel</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/G_proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="G proteins">G proteins</a> & <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">linked receptors</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  (Text color) <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">Transcription factors</a></div> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Heilig-et-al-2021-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heilig-et-al-2021_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heilig-et-al-2021_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHeiligMacKillopMartinezRehm2021" class="citation journal cs1">Heilig M, MacKillop J, Martinez D, Rehm J, Leggio L, Vanderschuren LJ (September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8357831">"Addiction as a brain disease revised: why it still matters, and the need for consilience"</a>. Neuropsychopharmacology. 46 (10): 1715–1723. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41386-020-00950-y">10.1038/s41386-020-00950-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0893-133X">0893-133X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8357831">8357831</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33619327">33619327</a>. <q>pre-existing vulnerabilities and persistent drug use lead to a vicious circle of substantive disruptions in the brain that impair and undermine choice capacities for adaptive behavior, but do not annihilate them.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychopharmacology&rft.atitle=Addiction+as+a+brain+disease+revised%3A+why+it+still+matters%2C+and+the+need+for+consilience&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1715-1723&rft.date=2021-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8357831%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0893-133X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33619327&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41386-020-00950-y&rft.aulast=Heilig&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=MacKillop%2C+J&rft.au=Martinez%2C+D&rft.au=Rehm%2C+J&rft.au=Leggio%2C+L&rft.au=Vanderschuren%2C+LJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8357831&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cellular_basis-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-19">t</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNestler_EJ2013" class="citation journal cs1">Nestler EJ (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3898681">"Cellular basis of memory for addiction"</a>. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 15 (4): 431–443. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3898681">3898681</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24459410">24459410</a>. <q>Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use, that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type [nucleus accumbens] neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state.41 ... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+in+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Cellular+basis+of+memory+for+addiction&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=431-443&rft.date=2013-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3898681%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24459410&rft.au=Nestler+EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3898681&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIDA2020-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIDA2020_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIDA2020_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIDA2020_4-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drug-misuse-addiction">"Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction – Drug Misuse and Addiction"</a>. www.drugabuse.gov. <a href="/wiki/North_Bethesda,_Maryland" title="North Bethesda, Maryland">North Bethesda, Maryland</a>: <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_on_Drug_Abuse" title="National Institute on Drug Abuse">National Institute on Drug Abuse</a>. 13 July 2020. Retrieved 23 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.drugabuse.gov&rft.atitle=Drugs%2C+Brains%2C+and+Behavior%3A+The+Science+of+Addiction+%E2%80%93+Drug+Misuse+and+Addiction&rft.date=2020-07-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugabuse.gov%2Fpublications%2Fdrugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction%2Fdrug-misuse-addiction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenden2017" class="citation book cs1">Henden E (2017). "Addiction, Compulsion, and Weakness of the Will: A Dual-Process Perspective.". In Heather N, Gabriel S (eds.). Addiction and Choice: Rethinking the Relationship. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 116–132.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Addiction%2C+Compulsion%2C+and+Weakness+of+the+Will%3A+A+Dual-Process+Perspective.&rft.btitle=Addiction+and+Choice%3A+Rethinking+the+Relationship&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=116-132&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Henden&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid18790142-6"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid18790142_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngresBettinardi-Angres2008" class="citation journal cs1">Angres DH, Bettinardi-Angres K (October 2008). "The disease of addiction: origins, treatment, and recovery". Disease-a-Month. 54 (10): 696–721. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.disamonth.2008.07.002">10.1016/j.disamonth.2008.07.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18790142">18790142</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Disease-a-Month&rft.atitle=The+disease+of+addiction%3A+origins%2C+treatment%2C+and+recovery&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=696-721&rft.date=2008-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.disamonth.2008.07.002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18790142&rft.aulast=Angres&rft.aufirst=DH&rft.au=Bettinardi-Angres%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NHM_addiction-reward-reinforcement-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NHM_addiction-reward-reinforcement_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHM_addiction-reward-reinforcement_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–65, 375. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4"><bdi>978-0-07-148127-4</bdi></a>. <q>The defining feature of addiction is compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. ... compulsive eating, shopping, gambling, and sex – so-called "natural addictions" – Indeed, addiction to both drugs and behavioral rewards may arise from similar dysregulation of the mesolimbic dopamine system.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+15%3A+Reinforcement+and+Addictive+Disorders&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=364-65%2C+375&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-07-148127-4&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid3278676-8"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid3278676_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarlattBaerDonovanKivlahan1988" class="citation journal cs1">Marlatt GA, Baer JS, Donovan DM, Kivlahan DR (1988). "Addictive behaviors: etiology and treatment". Annu Rev Psychol. 39: 223–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ps.39.020188.001255">10.1146/annurev.ps.39.020188.001255</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3278676">3278676</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annu+Rev+Psychol&rft.atitle=Addictive+behaviors%3A+etiology+and+treatment&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=223-52&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ps.39.020188.001255&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3278676&rft.aulast=Marlatt&rft.aufirst=GA&rft.au=Baer%2C+JS&rft.au=Donovan%2C+DM&rft.au=Kivlahan%2C+DR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFME2019" class="citation journal cs1">ME (12 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200303134538/https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/article/gaming-addiction-icd-11-issues-and-implications">"Gaming Addiction in ICD-11: Issues and Implications"</a>. Psychiatric Times. Psychiatric Times Vol 36, Issue 9. 36 (9). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/article/gaming-addiction-icd-11-issues-and-implications">the original</a> on 3 March 2020. Retrieved 3 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+Times&rft.atitle=Gaming+Addiction+in+ICD-11%3A+Issues+and+Implications&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=9&rft.date=2019-09-12&rft.au=ME&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychiatrictimes.com%2Farticle%2Fgaming-addiction-icd-11-issues-and-implications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-diGiacomo2022-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diGiacomo2022_10-14">o</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdi_GiacomoAlibertiPescatoreSantorelli2022" class="citation journal cs1">di Giacomo E, Aliberti F, Pescatore F, Santorelli M, Pessina R, Placenti V, et al. (August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9287203">"Disentangling binge eating disorder and food addiction: a systematic review and meta-analysis"</a>. Eating and Weight Disorders. 27 (6): 1963–1970. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs40519-021-01354-7">10.1007/s40519-021-01354-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9287203">9287203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35041154">35041154</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eating+and+Weight+Disorders&rft.atitle=Disentangling+binge+eating+disorder+and+food+addiction%3A+a+systematic+review+and+meta-analysis&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1963-1970&rft.date=2022-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9287203%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35041154&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs40519-021-01354-7&rft.aulast=di+Giacomo&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Aliberti%2C+F&rft.au=Pescatore%2C+F&rft.au=Santorelli%2C+M&rft.au=Pessina%2C+R&rft.au=Placenti%2C+V&rft.au=Colmegna%2C+F&rft.au=Clerici%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9287203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/drug-addiction/symptoms-causes/syc-20365112">"Drug addiction (substance use disorder) – Symptoms and causes"</a>. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 21 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mayo+Clinic&rft.atitle=Drug+addiction+%28substance+use+disorder%29+%E2%80%93+Symptoms+and+causes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Fdiseases-conditions%2Fdrug-addiction%2Fsymptoms-causes%2Fsyc-20365112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mentalhealth.gov-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mentalhealth.gov_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mentalhealth.gov_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mentalhealth.gov_12-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mentalhealth.gov/what-to-look-for/mental-health-substance-use-disorders">"Mental Health and Substance Use Co-Occurring Disorders"</a>. MentalHealth.gov. Retrieved 29 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MentalHealth.gov&rft.atitle=Mental+Health+and+Substance+Use+Co-Occurring+Disorders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mentalhealth.gov%2Fwhat-to-look-for%2Fmental-health-substance-use-disorders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steverson_(2020)-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Steverson_(2020)_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steverson_(2020)_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteverson2020" class="citation book cs1">Steverson (2020). Addiction reimagined: challenging views of an enduring social problem. Vernon Press. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62273-953-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62273-953-0"><bdi>978-1-62273-953-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Addiction+reimagined%3A+challenging+views+of+an+enduring+social+problem&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Vernon+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-62273-953-0&rft.au=Steverson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gowing_et_al._(2015)-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Gowing_et_al._(2015)_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGowingAliAllsopMarsden2015" class="citation journal cs1">Gowing L, Ali R, Allsop S, Marsden J, Turf E, West E, et al. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1468912/5/West_global%2520addiction%2520report%2520final%2520mark%25202%2520clean_template.pdf">"Global statistics on addictive behaviours: 2014 status report"</a> (PDF). Addiction. 110 (6): 904–919. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fadd.12899">10.1111/add.12899</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25963869">25963869</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addiction&rft.atitle=Global+statistics+on+addictive+behaviours%3A+2014+status+report&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=904-919&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fadd.12899&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25963869&rft.aulast=Gowing&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Ali%2C+R&rft.au=Allsop%2C+S&rft.au=Marsden%2C+J&rft.au=Turf%2C+E&rft.au=West%2C+E&rft.au=Witton%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.ucl.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F1468912%2F5%2FWest_global%252520addiction%252520report%252520final%252520mark%2525202%252520clean_template.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gilley_(2018)-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Gilley_(2018)_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilley2018" class="citation journal cs1">Gilley (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fortunejournals.com/articles/pthe-new-science-of-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-news-from-the-cutting-edge-of-research-sciencep.html">"The new science of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: news from the cutting edge of research science"</a>. Journal of Psychiatry and Psychiatric Disorders. 2 (3). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26502%2Fjppd.2572-519X0043">10.26502/jppd.2572-519X0043</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150196703">150196703</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Psychiatry+and+Psychiatric+Disorders&rft.atitle=The+new+science+of+attention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder%3A+news+from+the+cutting+edge+of+research+science&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.26502%2Fjppd.2572-519X0043&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150196703%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Gilley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fortunejournals.com%2Farticles%2Fpthe-new-science-of-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-news-from-the-cutting-edge-of-research-sciencep.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee_et_al._(2018)-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._(2018)_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeKoYang2018" class="citation journal cs1">Lee C, Ko A, Yang F (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5885949">"Association of DSM-5 betel-quid use disorder with oral potentially malignant disorder in 6 betel-quid endemic Asian populations"</a>. JAMA Psychiatry. 75 (3): 261–269. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjamapsychiatry.2017.4307">10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4307</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5885949">5885949</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29417149">29417149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Association+of+DSM-5+betel-quid+use+disorder+with+oral+potentially+malignant+disorder+in+6+betel-quid+endemic+Asian+populations&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=261-269&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5885949%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29417149&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjamapsychiatry.2017.4307&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Ko%2C+A&rft.au=Yang%2C+F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5885949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sahithya_et_al._(2022)-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sahithya_et_al._(2022)_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sahithya_et_al._(2022)_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahithyaKashyap2020" class="citation journal cs1">Sahithya B, Kashyap R (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F26318318221081080">"Sexual Addiction Disorder—a review with recent updates"</a>. Journal of Psychosexual Health. 4 (2): 95–101. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F26318318221081080">10.1177/26318318221081080</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248835855">248835855</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Psychosexual+Health&rft.atitle=Sexual+Addiction+Disorder%26mdash%3Ba+review+with+recent+updates&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=95-101&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F26318318221081080&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248835855%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sahithya&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Kashyap%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F26318318221081080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICD-11_(disorders_due_to_substance_use_or_addictive_behaviours)-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ICD-11_(disorders_due_to_substance_use_or_addictive_behaviours)_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICD-11_(disorders_due_to_substance_use_or_addictive_behaviours)_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICD-11_(disorders_due_to_substance_use_or_addictive_behaviours)_18-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/1602669465">"International Classification of Diseases 11th revision – ICD-11. Disorders due to substance use or addictive behaviours"</a>. World Health Organization. Geneva. 2023. Retrieved 10 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=International+Classification+of+Diseases+11th+revision+%26ndash%3B+ICD-11.+Disorders+due+to+substance+use+or+addictive+behaviours&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ficd.who.int%2Fbrowse11%2Fl-m%2Fen%23%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fid.who.int%2Ficd%2Fentity%2F1602669465&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Destoop_et_al._(2019)-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Destoop_et_al._(2019)_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDestoopMorrensCoppensDom2019" class="citation journal cs1">Destoop M, Morrens M, Coppens V, Dom G (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6538808">"Addiction, anhedonia, and comorbid mood disorder. A narrative review"</a>. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 10: 311. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyt.2019.00311">10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00311</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6538808">6538808</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31178763">31178763</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Addiction%2C+anhedonia%2C+and+comorbid+mood+disorder.+A+narrative+review&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=311&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6538808%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31178763&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyt.2019.00311&rft.aulast=Destoop&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Morrens%2C+M&rft.au=Coppens%2C+V&rft.au=Dom%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6538808&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volkow_et_al._(2016)-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Volkow_et_al._(2016)_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolkowKoobMcLellan2016" class="citation journal cs1">Volkow N, Koob G, McLellan T (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6135257">"Neurobiologic advances from the brain disease model of addiction"</a>. The New England Journal of Medicine. 374 (4): 363–371. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMra1511480">10.1056/NEJMra1511480</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6135257">6135257</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26816013">26816013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Neurobiologic+advances+from+the+brain+disease+model+of+addiction&rft.volume=374&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=363-371&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6135257%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26816013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMra1511480&rft.aulast=Volkow&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Koob%2C+G&rft.au=McLellan%2C+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6135257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koob_et_al._(2014)-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Koob_et_al._(2014)_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoobBuckCohenEdwards2014" class="citation journal cs1">Koob G, Buck G, Cohen A, Edwards S, Park P, Schlosburg J, et al. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3830720">"Addiction as a stress surfeit disorder"</a>. Neuropharmacology. 76: 370–382. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2013.05.024">10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.05.024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3830720">3830720</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23747571">23747571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuropharmacology&rft.atitle=Addiction+as+a+stress+surfeit+disorder&rft.volume=76&rft.pages=370-382&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3830720%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23747571&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2013.05.024&rft.aulast=Koob&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Buck%2C+G&rft.au=Cohen%2C+A&rft.au=Edwards%2C+S&rft.au=Park%2C+P&rft.au=Schlosburg%2C+J&rft.au=Schmeichel%2C+B&rft.au=Vendruscolo%2C+L&rft.au=Wade%2C+C&rft.au=Whitfield%2C+T&rft.au=George%2C+O&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3830720&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Surgeon_General_severe_SUD-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Surgeon_General_severe_SUD_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Surgeon_General_severe_SUD_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-generals-report.pdf">"Facing Addiction in America: The Surgeon General's Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health"</a> (PDF). Office of the Surgeon General. US Department of Health and Human Services. November 2016. pp. 35–37, 45, 63, 155, 317, 338. Retrieved 28 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Office+of+the+Surgeon+General&rft.atitle=Facing+Addiction+in+America%3A+The+Surgeon+General%27s+Report+on+Alcohol%2C+Drugs%2C+and+Health&rft.pages=35-37%2C+45%2C+63%2C+155%2C+317%2C+338&rft.date=2016-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faddiction.surgeongeneral.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fsurgeon-generals-report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ko_et_al._(2020)-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Ko_et_al._(2020)_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoYenYenChen2020" class="citation journal cs1">Ko C, Yen J, Yen C, Chen C, ChenC (2020). "The association between Internet addiction and psychiatric disorder: A review of the literature". European Psychiatry. 27 (1): 1–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eurpsy.2010.04.011">10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.04.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22153731">22153731</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3558840">3558840</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=The+association+between+Internet+addiction+and+psychiatric+disorder%3A+A+review+of+the+literature&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3558840%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22153731&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.eurpsy.2010.04.011&rft.aulast=Ko&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Yen%2C+J&rft.au=Yen%2C+C&rft.au=Chen%2C+C&rft.au=ChenC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-APA_(2013)-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-APA_(2013)_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-APA_(2013)_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Psychiatric_Association2013" class="citation web cs1">American Psychiatric Association (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150815050402/http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/Substance%20Use%20Disorder%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf">"Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders"</a> (PDF). American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 1–2. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dsm5.org/documents/substance%20use%20disorder%20fact%20sheet.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 15 August 2015. Retrieved 8 April 2023. <q>Additionally, the diagnosis of dependence caused much confusion. Most people link dependence with "addiction" when in fact dependence can be a normal body response to a substance.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Substance-Related+and+Addictive+Disorders&rft.pages=1-2&rft.pub=American+Psychiatric+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.au=American+Psychiatric+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dsm5.org%2Fdocuments%2Fsubstance%2520use%2520disorder%2520fact%2520sheet.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHymanHoltzman2015" class="citation book cs1">Malenka R, Nestler E, Hyman S, Holtzman D (2015). "Chapter 16: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-182770-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-182770-6"><bdi>978-0-07-182770-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+16%3A+Reinforcement+and+Addictive+Disorders&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-07-182770-6&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Nestler%2C+E&rft.au=Hyman%2C+S&rft.au=Holtzman%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICD-11-26"><a href="#cite_ref-ICD-11_26-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (2023). <a href="/wiki/International_Classification_of_Diseases" title="International Classification of Diseases">International Classification of Diseases</a>, eleventh revision – ICD-11. Geneva – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int">icd.who.int</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Addiction_glossary-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Addiction_glossary_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–375. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4"><bdi>978-0-07-148127-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+15%3A+Reinforcement+and+Addictive+Disorders&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=364-375&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-07-148127-4&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brain_disease-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brain_disease_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brain_disease_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolkowKoobMcLellan2016" class="citation journal cs1">Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT (January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6135257">"Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction"</a>. New England Journal of Medicine. 374 (4): 363–371. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMra1511480">10.1056/NEJMra1511480</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6135257">6135257</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26816013">26816013</a>. <q>Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe. Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification of severe substance-use disorder.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Neurobiologic+Advances+from+the+Brain+Disease+Model+of+Addiction&rft.volume=374&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=363-371&rft.date=2016-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6135257%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26816013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMra1511480&rft.aulast=Volkow&rft.aufirst=ND&rft.au=Koob%2C+GF&rft.au=McLellan%2C+AT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6135257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIDA_2020-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIDA_2020_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIDA_2020_29-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIDA_2020_29-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIDA_2020_29-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNIDA2020" class="citation web cs1">NIDA (13 July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drug-misuse-addiction">"Drug Misuse and Addiction"</a>. National Institute of Drug Abuse. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 15 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Institute+of+Drug+Abuse&rft.atitle=Drug+Misuse+and+Addiction&rft.date=2020-07-13&rft.au=NIDA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnida.nih.gov%2Fpublications%2Fdrugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction%2Fdrug-misuse-addiction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levy2019-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Levy2019_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy2019_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy2019_30-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy2019_30-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy2019_30-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy2019_30-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy2019_30-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy2019_30-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy2019_30-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy2019_30-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy2019_30-10">k</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy2019" class="citation book cs1">Levy N (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK540394/">"Chapter 5 Addiction: The belief oscillation hypothesis"</a>. In Pickard H, Ahmed SH (eds.). The Routledge handbook of philosophy and science of addiction. Wellcome Trust–Funded Monographs and Book Chapters. Oxon (UK): Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315689197-6">10.4324/9781315689197-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-90928-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-90928-1"><bdi>978-1-138-90928-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042341025">1042341025</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31017751">31017751</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242067468">242067468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5+Addiction%3A+The+belief+oscillation+hypothesis&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+handbook+of+philosophy+and+science+of+addiction&rft.place=Oxon+%28UK%29&rft.series=Wellcome+Trust%E2%80%93Funded+Monographs+and+Book+Chapters&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242067468%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315689197-6&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1042341025&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31017751&rft.isbn=978-1-138-90928-1&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=N&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK540394%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/319670">"Food addiction: Symptoms and management"</a>. www.medicalnewstoday.com. 17 February 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.medicalnewstoday.com&rft.atitle=Food+addiction%3A+Symptoms+and+management&rft.date=2020-02-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medicalnewstoday.com%2Farticles%2F319670&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skylstad2022-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skylstad2022_32-11">l</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkylstadBabiryeKiguliSolheim_Skar2022" class="citation journal cs1">Skylstad V, Babirye JN, Kiguli J, Solheim Skar AM, et al. (March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8905875">"Are we overlooking alcohol use by younger children?"</a>. BMJ Paediatrics Open. 6 (1): e001242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmjpo-2021-001242">10.1136/bmjpo-2021-001242</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8905875">8905875</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36053657">36053657</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ+Paediatrics+Open&rft.atitle=Are+we+overlooking+alcohol+use+by+younger+children%3F&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e001242&rft.date=2022-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8905875%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36053657&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmjpo-2021-001242&rft.aulast=Skylstad&rft.aufirst=V&rft.au=Babirye%2C+JN&rft.au=Kiguli%2C+J&rft.au=Solheim+Skar%2C+AM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8905875&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/drug-addiction/symptoms-causes/syc-20365112">"Drug addiction (substance use disorder) – Symptoms and causes"</a>. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 15 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mayo+Clinic&rft.atitle=Drug+addiction+%28substance+use+disorder%29+%E2%80%93+Symptoms+and+causes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Fdiseases-conditions%2Fdrug-addiction%2Fsymptoms-causes%2Fsyc-20365112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrummond2002" class="citation journal cs1">Drummond DC (3 May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961333.x">"Theories of drug craving, ancient and modern"</a>. Addiction. 96 (1): 33–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1360-0443.2001.961333.x">10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961333.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11177518">11177518</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addiction&rft.atitle=Theories+of+drug+craving%2C+ancient+and+modern&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-46&rft.date=2002-05-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1360-0443.2001.961333.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11177518&rft.aulast=Drummond&rft.aufirst=D.+Colin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1046%2Fj.1360-0443.2001.961333.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maxwell2020-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell2020_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell2020_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell2020_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell2020_35-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell2020_35-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell2020_35-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell2020_35-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell2020_35-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell2020_35-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwellGardinerLoxton2020" class="citation journal cs1">Maxwell AL, Gardiner E, Loxton NJ (9 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.2732">"Investigating the relationship between reward sensitivity, impulsivity, and food addiction: A systematic review"</a>. European Eating Disorders Review. 28 (4): 368–384. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Ferv.2732">10.1002/erv.2732</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1099-0968">1099-0968</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32142199">32142199</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:212565361">212565361</a>. Retrieved 9 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Eating+Disorders+Review&rft.atitle=Investigating+the+relationship+between+reward+sensitivity%2C+impulsivity%2C+and+food+addiction%3A+A+systematic+review&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=368-384&rft.date=2020-02-09&rft.issn=1099-0968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A212565361%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32142199&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Ferv.2732&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=AL&rft.au=Gardiner%2C+E&rft.au=Loxton%2C+NJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%2Ferv.2732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Natural_and_drug_addictions-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-28">ac</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-29">ad</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-30">ae</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-31">af</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-32">ag</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_and_drug_addictions_36-33">ah</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsen2011" class="citation journal cs1">Olsen CM (December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3139704">"Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions"</a>. Neuropharmacology. 61 (7): 1109–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2011.03.010">10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3139704">3139704</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21459101">21459101</a>. <q>Functional neuroimaging studies in humans have shown that gambling (Breiter et al, 2001), shopping (Knutson et al, 2007), orgasm (<a href="/wiki/Barry_Komisaruk" title="Barry Komisaruk">Komisaruk</a> et al, 2004), playing video games (Koepp et al, 1998; Hoeft et al, 2008) and the sight of appetizing food (Wang et al, 2004a) activate many of the same brain regions (i.e., the mesocorticolimbic system and extended amygdala) as drugs of abuse (Volkow et al, 2004). ... Cross-sensitization is also bidirectional, as a history of amphetamine administration facilitates sexual behavior and enhances the associated increase in NAc DA ... As described for food reward, sexual experience can also lead to activation of plasticity-related signaling cascades. The transcription factor delta FosB is increased in the NAc, PFC, dorsal striatum, and VTA following repeated sexual behavior (Wallace et al., 2008; Pitchers et al., 2010b). This natural increase in delta FosB or viral overexpression of delta FosB within the NAc modulates sexual performance, and NAc blockade of delta FosB attenuates this behavior (Hedges et al, 2009; Pitchers et al., 2010b). Further, viral overexpression of delta FosB enhances the conditioned place preference for an environment paired with sexual experience (Hedges et al., 2009). ... In some people, there is a transition from "normal" to compulsive engagement in natural rewards (such as food or sex), a condition that some have termed behavioral or non-drug addictions (Holden, 2001; Grant et al., 2006a). ... In humans, the role of dopamine signaling in incentive-sensitization processes has recently been highlighted by the observation of a dopamine dysregulation syndrome in some people taking dopaminergic drugs. This syndrome is characterized by a medication-induced increase in (or compulsive) engagement in non-drug rewards such as gambling, shopping, or sex (Evans et al, 2006; Aiken, 2007; Lader, 2008)."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuropharmacology&rft.atitle=Natural+rewards%2C+neuroplasticity%2C+and+non-drug+addictions&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1109-22&rft.date=2011-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3139704%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21459101&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2011.03.010&rft.aulast=Olsen&rft.aufirst=CM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3139704&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3139704/table/T1/">Table 1: Summary of plasticity observed following exposure to drug or natural reinforcers</a>" </li> <li id="cite_note-Nestler-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_37-12">m</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobisonNestler2011" class="citation journal cs1">Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3272277">"Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction"</a>. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 12 (11): 623–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn3111">10.1038/nrn3111</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3272277">3272277</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21989194">21989194</a>. <q>ΔFosB has been linked directly to several addiction-related behaviors ... Importantly, genetic or viral overexpression of ΔJunD, a dominant negative mutant of JunD which antagonizes ΔFosB- and other AP-1-mediated transcriptional activity, in the NAc or OFC blocks these key effects of drug exposure14,22–24. This indicates that ΔFosB is both necessary and sufficient for many of the changes wrought in the brain by chronic drug exposure. ΔFosB is induced in D1-type NAc MSNs by chronic consumption of several natural rewards, including sucrose, high fat food, sex, wheel running, where it promotes that consumption14,26–30. This implicates ΔFosB in the regulation of natural rewards under normal conditions and perhaps during pathological addictive-like states.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nat.+Rev.+Neurosci.&rft.atitle=Transcriptional+and+epigenetic+mechanisms+of+addiction&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=623-37&rft.date=2011-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3272277%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21989194&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrn3111&rft.aulast=Robison&rft.aufirst=AJ&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3272277&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodman_2022-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goodman_2022_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodman_2022_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodman_2022_38-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodman_2022_38-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2022" class="citation web cs1">Goodman B (3 September 2022). Casarella J (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/eating-disorders/binge-eating-disorder/mental-health-food-addiction">"Food Addiction Signs and Treatments"</a>. WebMD. Retrieved 9 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WebMD&rft.atitle=Food+Addiction+Signs+and+Treatments&rft.date=2022-09-03&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webmd.com%2Fmental-health%2Feating-disorders%2Fbinge-eating-disorder%2Fmental-health-food-addiction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNehlig2004" class="citation book cs1">Nehlig A (2004). Coffee, tea, chocolate, and the brain. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 203–218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-21192-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-21192-8"><bdi>978-0-429-21192-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coffee%2C+tea%2C+chocolate%2C+and+the+brain.&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pages=203-218&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-429-21192-8&rft.aulast=Nehlig&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/fastlab/yale-food-addiction-scale/">"Yale Food Addiction Scale"</a>. Food and Addiction Science & Treatment Lab. Department of Psychology, University of Michigan. Retrieved 1 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Food+and+Addiction+Science+%26+Treatment+Lab&rft.atitle=Yale+Food+Addiction+Scale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.lsa.umich.edu%2Ffastlab%2Fyale-food-addiction-scale%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGearhardtCorbinBrownell2016" class="citation journal cs1">Gearhardt AN, Corbin WR, Brownell KD (February 2016). "Development of the Yale Food Addiction Scale Version 2.0". Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. 30 (1): 113–121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fadb0000136">10.1037/adb0000136</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26866783">26866783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+of+Addictive+Behaviors&rft.atitle=Development+of+the+Yale+Food+Addiction+Scale+Version+2.0&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=113-121&rft.date=2016-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fadb0000136&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26866783&rft.aulast=Gearhardt&rft.aufirst=AN&rft.au=Corbin%2C+WR&rft.au=Brownell%2C+KD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrunaultBerthozGearhardtGierski2020" class="citation journal cs1">Brunault P, Berthoz S, Gearhardt AN, Gierski F, Kaladjian A, Bertin E, et al. (8 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7509420">"The Modified Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0: Validation Among Non-Clinical and Clinical French-Speaking Samples and Comparison With the Full Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0"</a>. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 11: 480671. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyt.2020.480671">10.3389/fpsyt.2020.480671</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7509420">7509420</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33033480">33033480</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=The+Modified+Yale+Food+Addiction+Scale+2.0%3A+Validation+Among+Non-Clinical+and+Clinical+French-Speaking+Samples+and+Comparison+With+the+Full+Yale+Food+Addiction+Scale+2.0&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=480671&rft.date=2020-09-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7509420%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33033480&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyt.2020.480671&rft.aulast=Brunault&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Berthoz%2C+S&rft.au=Gearhardt%2C+AN&rft.au=Gierski%2C+F&rft.au=Kaladjian%2C+A&rft.au=Bertin%2C+E&rft.au=Tchernof%2C+A&rft.au=Biertho%2C+L&rft.au=de+Luca%2C+A&rft.au=Hankard%2C+R&rft.au=Courtois%2C+R&rft.au=Ballon%2C+N&rft.au=Benzerouk%2C+F&rft.au=B%C3%A9gin%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7509420&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHauckCookEllrott2020" class="citation journal cs1">Hauck C, Cook B, Ellrott T (February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0029665119001162">"Food addiction, eating addiction and eating disorders"</a>. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 79 (1): 103–112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0029665119001162">10.1017/S0029665119001162</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31744566">31744566</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208186539">208186539</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Proceedings+of+the+Nutrition+Society&rft.atitle=Food+addiction%2C+eating+addiction+and+eating+disorders&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=103-112&rft.date=2020-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A208186539%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31744566&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0029665119001162&rft.aulast=Hauck&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Cook%2C+B&rft.au=Ellrott%2C+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0029665119001162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Systematic_review_-_yet_another_DSM_fail-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Systematic_review_-_yet_another_DSM_fail_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Systematic_review_-_yet_another_DSM_fail_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Systematic_review_-_yet_another_DSM_fail_44-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Systematic_review_-_yet_another_DSM_fail_44-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarilaWéryWeinsteinCottencin2014" class="citation journal cs1">Karila L, Wéry A, Weinstein A, Cottencin O, Petit A, Reynaud M, et al. (2014). "Sexual addiction or hypersexual disorder: different terms for the same problem? A review of the literature". Curr. Pharm. Des. 20 (25): 4012–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F13816128113199990619">10.2174/13816128113199990619</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24001295">24001295</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19042860">19042860</a>. <q>Sexual addiction, which is also known as hypersexual disorder, has largely been ignored by psychiatrists, even though the condition causes serious psychosocial problems for many people. A lack of empirical evidence on sexual addiction is the result of the disease's complete absence from versions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. ... Existing prevalence rates of sexual addiction-related disorders range from 3% to 6%. Sexual addiction/hypersexual disorder is used as an umbrella construct to encompass various types of problematic behaviors, including excessive masturbation, cybersex, pornography use, sexual behavior with consenting adults, telephone sex, strip club visitation, and other behaviors. The adverse consequences of sexual addiction are similar to the consequences of other addictive disorders. Addictive, somatic and psychiatric disorders coexist with sexual addiction. In recent years, research on sexual addiction has proliferated, and screening instruments have increasingly been developed to diagnose or quantify sexual addiction disorders. In our systematic review of the existing measures, 22 questionnaires were identified. As with other behavioral addictions, the appropriate treatment of sexual addiction should combine pharmacological and psychological approaches.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Curr.+Pharm.+Des.&rft.atitle=Sexual+addiction+or+hypersexual+disorder%3A+different+terms+for+the+same+problem%3F+A+review+of+the+literature&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=25&rft.pages=4012-20&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19042860%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24001295&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F13816128113199990619&rft.aulast=Karila&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=W%C3%A9ry%2C+A&rft.au=Weinstein%2C+A&rft.au=Cottencin%2C+O&rft.au=Petit%2C+A&rft.au=Reynaud%2C+M&rft.au=Billieux%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_D1_signaling-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_D1_signaling_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_D1_signaling_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_D1_signaling_45-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_D1_signaling_45-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_D1_signaling_45-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPitchersVialouNestlerLaviolette2013" class="citation journal cs1">Pitchers KK, Vialou V, Nestler EJ, Laviolette SR, Lehman MN, Coolen LM (February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3865508">"Natural and drug rewards act on common neural plasticity mechanisms with ΔFosB as a key mediator"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Neuroscience" title="The Journal of Neuroscience">The Journal of Neuroscience</a>. 33 (8): 3434–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.4881-12.2013">10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4881-12.2013</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3865508">3865508</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23426671">23426671</a>. <q>Drugs of abuse induce neuroplasticity in the natural reward pathway, specifically the nucleus accumbens (NAc), thereby causing development and expression of addictive behavior. ... Together, these findings demonstrate that drugs of abuse and natural reward behaviors act on common molecular and cellular mechanisms of plasticity that control vulnerability to drug addiction, and that this increased vulnerability is mediated by ΔFosB and its downstream transcriptional targets. ... Sexual behavior is highly rewarding (Tenk et al., 2009), and sexual experience causes sensitized drug-related behaviors, including cross-sensitization to amphetamine (Amph)-induced locomotor activity (Bradley and Meisel, 2001; Pitchers et al., 2010a) and enhanced Amph reward (Pitchers et al., 2010a). Moreover, sexual experience induces neural plasticity in the NAc similar to that induced by psychostimulant exposure, including increased dendritic spine density (Meisel and Mullins, 2006; Pitchers et al., 2010a), altered glutamate receptor trafficking, and decreased synaptic strength in prefrontal cortex-responding NAc shell neurons (Pitchers et al., 2012). Finally, periods of abstinence from sexual experience were found to be critical for enhanced Amph reward, NAc spinogenesis (Pitchers et al., 2010a), and glutamate receptor trafficking (Pitchers et al., 2012). These findings suggest that natural and drug reward experiences share common mechanisms of neural plasticity</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Natural+and+drug+rewards+act+on+common+neural+plasticity+mechanisms+with+%CE%94FosB+as+a+key+mediator&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=3434-42&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3865508%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23426671&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.4881-12.2013&rft.aulast=Pitchers&rft.aufirst=KK&rft.au=Vialou%2C+V&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Laviolette%2C+SR&rft.au=Lehman%2C+MN&rft.au=Coolen%2C+LM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3865508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_NMDA_signaling-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_NMDA_signaling_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_NMDA_signaling_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_NMDA_signaling_46-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_NMDA_signaling_46-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amph-Sex_X-sensitization_through_NMDA_signaling_46-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeloateWeemsCaseyWebb2016" class="citation journal cs1">Beloate LN, Weems PW, Casey GR, Webb IC, Coolen LM (February 2016). "Nucleus accumbens NMDA receptor activation regulates amphetamine cross-sensitization and deltaFosB expression following sexual experience in male rats". Neuropharmacology. 101: 154–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2015.09.023">10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.09.023</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26391065">26391065</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25317397">25317397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuropharmacology&rft.atitle=Nucleus+accumbens+NMDA+receptor+activation+regulates+amphetamine+cross-sensitization+and+deltaFosB+expression+following+sexual+experience+in+male+rats&rft.volume=101&rft.pages=154-64&rft.date=2016-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A25317397%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26391065&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2015.09.023&rft.aulast=Beloate&rft.aufirst=LN&rft.au=Weems%2C+PW&rft.au=Casey%2C+GR&rft.au=Webb%2C+IC&rft.au=Coolen%2C+LM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alavi_2012-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alavi_2012_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alavi_2012_47-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlaviFerdosiJannatifardEslami2012" class="citation journal cs1">Alavi SS, Ferdosi M, Jannatifard F, Eslami M, Alaghemandan H, Setare M (April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3354400">"Behavioral Addiction versus Substance Addiction: Correspondence of Psychiatric and Psychological Views"</a>. International Journal of Preventive Medicine. 3 (4): 290–294. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3354400">3354400</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22624087">22624087</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Preventive+Medicine&rft.atitle=Behavioral+Addiction+versus+Substance+Addiction%3A+Correspondence+of+Psychiatric+and+Psychological+Views&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=290-294&rft.date=2012-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3354400%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22624087&rft.aulast=Alavi&rft.aufirst=SS&rft.au=Ferdosi%2C+M&rft.au=Jannatifard%2C+F&rft.au=Eslami%2C+M&rft.au=Alaghemandan%2C+H&rft.au=Setare%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3354400&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Derbyshire_2015-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Derbyshire_2015_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Derbyshire_2015_48-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerbyshireGrant2015" class="citation journal cs1">Derbyshire KL, Grant JE (June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4500883">"Compulsive sexual behavior: a review of the literature"</a>. Journal of Behavioral Addictions. 4 (2): 37–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1556%2F2006.4.2015.003">10.1556/2006.4.2015.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4500883">4500883</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26014671">26014671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Behavioral+Addictions&rft.atitle=Compulsive+sexual+behavior%3A+a+review+of+the+literature&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=37-43&rft.date=2015-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4500883%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26014671&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1556%2F2006.4.2015.003&rft.aulast=Derbyshire&rft.aufirst=KL&rft.au=Grant%2C+JE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4500883&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Psychiatric_AssociationAmerican_Psychiatric_AssociationDSM-5_Task_Force2013" class="citation book cs1">American Psychiatric Association, American Psychiatric Association, DSM-5 Task Force (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/830807378">Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5</a> (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. p. 481. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89042-554-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89042-554-1"><bdi>978-0-89042-554-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/830807378">830807378</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diagnostic+and+statistical+manual+of+mental+disorders+%3A+DSM-5.&rft.place=Arlington%2C+VA&rft.pages=481&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=American+Psychiatric+Association&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F830807378&rft.isbn=978-0-89042-554-1&rft.au=American+Psychiatric+Association&rft.au=American+Psychiatric+Association&rft.au=DSM-5+Task+Force&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F830807378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Yau_2015-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yau_2015_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yau_2015_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yau_2015_50-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yau_2015_50-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYauPotenza2015" class="citation journal cs1">Yau YH, Potenza MN (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4458066">"Gambling disorder and other behavioral addictions: recognition and treatment"</a>. Harvard Review of Psychiatry. 23 (2): 134–146. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FHRP.0000000000000051">10.1097/HRP.0000000000000051</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4458066">4458066</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25747926">25747926</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Review+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Gambling+disorder+and+other+behavioral+addictions%3A+recognition+and+treatment&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=134-146&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4458066%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25747926&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FHRP.0000000000000051&rft.aulast=Yau&rft.aufirst=YH&rft.au=Potenza%2C+MN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4458066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ford_2020-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Ford_2020_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFordHåkansson2020" class="citation journal cs1">Ford M, Håkansson A (10 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6953879">"Problem gambling, associations with comorbid health conditions, substance use, and behavioural addictions: Opportunities for pathways to treatment"</a>. PLOS ONE. 15 (1): e0227644. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020PLoSO..1527644F">2020PLoSO..1527644F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0227644">10.1371/journal.pone.0227644</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6953879">6953879</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31923269">31923269</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Problem+gambling%2C+associations+with+comorbid+health+conditions%2C+substance+use%2C+and+behavioural+addictions%3A+Opportunities+for+pathways+to+treatment&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e0227644&rft.date=2020-01-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6953879%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31923269&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0227644&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020PLoSO..1527644F&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=H%C3%A5kansson%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6953879&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Menchon_2018-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Menchon_2018_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Menchon_2018_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Menchon_2018_52-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenchonMestre-BachStewardFernández-Aranda2018" class="citation journal cs1">Menchon JM, Mestre-Bach G, Steward T, Fernández-Aranda F, Jiménez-Murcia S (9 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5893944">"An overview of gambling disorder: from treatment approaches to risk factors"</a>. F1000Research. 7: 434. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12688%2Ff1000research.12784.1">10.12688/f1000research.12784.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5893944">5893944</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30090625">30090625</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=F1000Research&rft.atitle=An+overview+of+gambling+disorder%3A+from+treatment+approaches+to+risk+factors&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=434&rft.date=2018-04-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5893944%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30090625&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12688%2Ff1000research.12784.1&rft.aulast=Menchon&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Mestre-Bach%2C+G&rft.au=Steward%2C+T&rft.au=Fern%C3%A1ndez-Aranda%2C+F&rft.au=Jim%C3%A9nez-Murcia%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5893944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chou-2005-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chou-2005_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chou-2005_53-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChouCondronBelland2005" class="citation journal cs1">Chou C, Condron L, Belland JC (2005). "A Review of the Research on Internet Addiction". Educational Psychology Review. 17 (4): 363–388. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10648-005-8138-1">10.1007/s10648-005-8138-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1040-726X">1040-726X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7014879">7014879</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Educational+Psychology+Review&rft.atitle=A+Review+of+the+Research+on+Internet+Addiction&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=363-388&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7014879%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1040-726X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10648-005-8138-1&rft.aulast=Chou&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Condron%2C+L&rft.au=Belland%2C+JC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusettiCattivelliGiacobbiZuglian2016" class="citation journal cs1">Musetti A, Cattivelli R, Giacobbi M, Zuglian P, Ceccarini M, Capelli F, et al. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4894006">"Challenges in Internet Addiction Disorder: Is a Diagnosis Feasible or Not?"</a>. Frontiers in Psychology. 7: 842. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2016.00842">10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00842</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4894006">4894006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27375523">27375523</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Challenges+in+Internet+Addiction+Disorder%3A+Is+a+Diagnosis+Feasible+or+Not%3F&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=842&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4894006%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27375523&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2016.00842&rft.aulast=Musetti&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Cattivelli%2C+R&rft.au=Giacobbi%2C+M&rft.au=Zuglian%2C+P&rft.au=Ceccarini%2C+M&rft.au=Capelli%2C+F&rft.au=Pietrabissa%2C+G&rft.au=Castelnuovo%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4894006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBipetaYerramilliKarredlaGopinath2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bipeta R, Yerramilli SS, Karredla AR, Gopinath S (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4420165">"Diagnostic Stability of Internet Addiction in Obsessive-compulsive Disorder: Data from a Naturalistic One-year Treatment Study"</a>. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience. 12 (3–4): 14–23. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4420165">4420165</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26000201">26000201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Innovations+in+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Diagnostic+Stability+of+Internet+Addiction+in+Obsessive-compulsive+Disorder%3A+Data+from+a+Naturalistic+One-year+Treatment+Study&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=14-23&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4420165%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26000201&rft.aulast=Bipeta&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Yerramilli%2C+SS&rft.au=Karredla%2C+AR&rft.au=Gopinath%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4420165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCashRaeSteelWinkler2012" class="citation journal cs1">Cash H, Rae CD, Steel AH, Winkler A (November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480687">"Internet Addiction: A Brief Summary of Research and Practice"</a>. Current Psychiatry Reviews. 8 (4): 292–298. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F157340012803520513">10.2174/157340012803520513</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480687">3480687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23125561">23125561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Psychiatry+Reviews&rft.atitle=Internet+Addiction%3A+A+Brief+Summary+of+Research+and+Practice&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=292-298&rft.date=2012-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3480687%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23125561&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F157340012803520513&rft.aulast=Cash&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Rae%2C+CD&rft.au=Steel%2C+AH&rft.au=Winkler%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3480687&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlock2008" class="citation journal cs1">Block JJ (March 2008). "Issues for DSM-V: internet addiction". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 165 (3): 306–307. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.2007.07101556">10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101556</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18316427">18316427</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Issues+for+DSM-V%3A+internet+addiction&rft.volume=165&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=306-307&rft.date=2008-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.2007.07101556&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18316427&rft.aulast=Block&rft.aufirst=JJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTangYuDuMa2014" class="citation journal cs1">Tang J, Yu Y, Du Y, Ma Y, Zhang D, Wang J (March 2014). "Prevalence of internet addiction and its association with stressful life events and psychological symptoms among adolescent internet users". Addictive Behaviors. 39 (3): 744–747. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.addbeh.2013.12.010">10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.12.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2436%2F622804">2436/622804</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24388433">24388433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addictive+Behaviors&rft.atitle=Prevalence+of+internet+addiction+and+its+association+with+stressful+life+events+and+psychological+symptoms+among+adolescent+internet+users&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=744-747&rft.date=2014-03&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2436%2F622804&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24388433&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.addbeh.2013.12.010&rft.aulast=Tang&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Yu%2C+Y&rft.au=Du%2C+Y&rft.au=Ma%2C+Y&rft.au=Zhang%2C+D&rft.au=Wang%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joseph2021-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Joseph2021_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Joseph2021_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Joseph2021_59-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosephVargheseVrDhandapani2021" class="citation journal cs1">Joseph J, Varghese A, Vr V, Dhandapani M, Grover S, Sharma S, et al. (August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8381302">"Prevalence of internet addiction among college students in the Indian setting: a systematic review and meta-analysis"</a>. General Psychiatry. 34 (4): e100496. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fgpsych-2021-100496">10.1136/gpsych-2021-100496</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8381302">8381302</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34504996">34504996</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=General+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Prevalence+of+internet+addiction+among+college+students+in+the+Indian+setting%3A+a+systematic+review+and+meta-analysis&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e100496&rft.date=2021-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8381302%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34504996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fgpsych-2021-100496&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Varghese%2C+A&rft.au=Vr%2C+V&rft.au=Dhandapani%2C+M&rft.au=Grover%2C+S&rft.au=Sharma%2C+S&rft.au=Khakha%2C+D&rft.au=Mann%2C+S&rft.au=Varkey%2C+BP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8381302&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weinstein_2010-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weinstein_2010_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weinstein_2010_60-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinsteinLejoyeux2010" class="citation journal cs1">Weinstein A, Lejoyeux M (September 2010). "Internet addiction or excessive internet use". The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 36 (5): 277–283. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F00952990.2010.491880">10.3109/00952990.2010.491880</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20545603">20545603</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17713327">17713327</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Drug+and+Alcohol+Abuse&rft.atitle=Internet+addiction+or+excessive+internet+use&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=277-283&rft.date=2010-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17713327%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20545603&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F00952990.2010.491880&rft.aulast=Weinstein&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Lejoyeux%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO_Gaming-61"><a href="#cite_ref-WHO_Gaming_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/addictive-behaviours-gaming-disorder">"Addictive behaviours: Gaming disorder"</a>. www.who.int. Retrieved 25 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.who.int&rft.atitle=Addictive+behaviours%3A+Gaming+disorder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fnews-room%2Fquestions-and-answers%2Fitem%2Faddictive-behaviours-gaming-disorder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/en">"International Classification of Diseases 11th revision – ICD-11"</a>. icd.who.int. Geneva. Retrieved 25 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=icd.who.int&rft.atitle=International+Classification+of+Diseases+11th+revision+%26ndash%3B+ICD-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ficd.who.int%2Fen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wittek_2016-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wittek_2016_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wittek_2016_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wittek_2016_63-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWittekFinseråsPallesenMentzoni2016" class="citation journal cs1">Wittek CT, Finserås TR, Pallesen S, Mentzoni RA, Hanss D, Griffiths MD, et al. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5023737">"Prevalence and Predictors of Video Game Addiction: A Study Based on a National Representative Sample of Gamers"</a>. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 14 (5): 672–686. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11469-015-9592-8">10.1007/s11469-015-9592-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5023737">5023737</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27688739">27688739</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Mental+Health+and+Addiction&rft.atitle=Prevalence+and+Predictors+of+Video+Game+Addiction%3A+A+Study+Based+on+a+National+Representative+Sample+of+Gamers&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=672-686&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5023737%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27688739&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11469-015-9592-8&rft.aulast=Wittek&rft.aufirst=CT&rft.au=Finser%C3%A5s%2C+TR&rft.au=Pallesen%2C+S&rft.au=Mentzoni%2C+RA&rft.au=Hanss%2C+D&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+MD&rft.au=Molde%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5023737&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersMalesky2008" class="citation journal cs1">Peters CS, Malesky LA (August 2008). "Problematic usage among highly-engaged players of massively multiplayer online role playing games". Cyberpsychology & Behavior. 11 (4): 481–484. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fcpb.2007.0140">10.1089/cpb.2007.0140</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18721098">18721098</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cyberpsychology+%26+Behavior&rft.atitle=Problematic+usage+among+highly-engaged+players+of+massively+multiplayer+online+role+playing+games&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=481-484&rft.date=2008-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fcpb.2007.0140&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18721098&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=CS&rft.au=Malesky%2C+LA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyunHanLeeKang2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hyun GJ, Han DH, Lee YS, Kang KD, Yoo SK, Chung US, et al. (1 July 2015). "Risk factors associated with online game addiction: A hierarchical model". Computers in Human Behavior. 48: 706–713. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chb.2015.02.008">10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0747-5632">0747-5632</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computers+in+Human+Behavior&rft.atitle=Risk+factors+associated+with+online+game+addiction%3A+A+hierarchical+model&rft.volume=48&rft.pages=706-713&rft.date=2015-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.chb.2015.02.008&rft.issn=0747-5632&rft.aulast=Hyun&rft.aufirst=GJ&rft.au=Han%2C+DH&rft.au=Lee%2C+YS&rft.au=Kang%2C+KD&rft.au=Yoo%2C+SK&rft.au=Chung%2C+US&rft.au=Renshaw%2C+PF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hague_2016-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hague_2016_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hague_2016_66-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHagueHallKellett2016" class="citation journal cs1">Hague B, Hall J, Kellett S (September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5264404">"Treatments for compulsive buying: A systematic review of the quality, effectiveness and progression of the outcome evidence"</a>. Journal of Behavioral Addictions. 5 (3): 379–394. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1556%2F2006.5.2016.064">10.1556/2006.5.2016.064</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5264404">5264404</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27640529">27640529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Behavioral+Addictions&rft.atitle=Treatments+for+compulsive+buying%3A+A+systematic+review+of+the+quality%2C+effectiveness+and+progression+of+the+outcome+evidence&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=379-394&rft.date=2016-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5264404%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27640529&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1556%2F2006.5.2016.064&rft.aulast=Hague&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Hall%2C+J&rft.au=Kellett%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5264404&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Black_2007-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Black_2007_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Black_2007_67-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2007" class="citation journal cs1">Black DW (February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1805733">"A review of compulsive buying disorder"</a>. World Psychiatry. 6 (1): 14–18. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1805733">1805733</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17342214">17342214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=A+review+of+compulsive+buying+disorder&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=14-18&rft.date=2007-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1805733%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17342214&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=DW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1805733&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koob2020-68"><a href="#cite_ref-Koob2020_68-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoobPowellWhite2020" class="citation journal cs1">Koob GF, Powell P, White A (November 2020). "Addiction as a Coping Response: Hyperkatifeia, Deaths of Despair, and COVID-19". Am J Psychiatry. 177 (11): 1031–1037. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.2020.20091375">10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20091375</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33135468">33135468</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226233515">226233515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am+J+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Addiction+as+a+Coping+Response%3A+Hyperkatifeia%2C+Deaths+of+Despair%2C+and+COVID-19&rft.volume=177&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1031-1037&rft.date=2020-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226233515%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33135468&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.2020.20091375&rft.aulast=Koob&rft.aufirst=GF&rft.au=Powell%2C+P&rft.au=White%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kwako_2016-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kwako_2016_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kwako_2016_69-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kwako_2016_69-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kwako_2016_69-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwakoMomenanLittenKoob2016" class="citation journal cs1">Kwako LE, Momenan R, Litten RZ, Koob GF, Goldman D (August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4870153">"Addictions Neuroclinical Assessment: A Neuroscience-Based Framework for Addictive Disorders"</a>. Biological Psychiatry. 80 (3): 179–189. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biopsych.2015.10.024">10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.10.024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4870153">4870153</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26772405">26772405</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Addictions+Neuroclinical+Assessment%3A+A+Neuroscience-Based+Framework+for+Addictive+Disorders&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=179-189&rft.date=2016-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4870153%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26772405&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.biopsych.2015.10.024&rft.aulast=Kwako&rft.aufirst=LE&rft.au=Momenan%2C+R&rft.au=Litten%2C+RZ&rft.au=Koob%2C+GF&rft.au=Goldman%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4870153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nida-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nida_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nida_70-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nida.nih.gov/taps2/">"Tobacco, Alcohol, Prescription medication, and other Substance use (TAPS) Tool"</a>. nida.nih.gov. Retrieved 29 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nida.nih.gov&rft.atitle=Tobacco%2C+Alcohol%2C+Prescription+medication%2C+and+other+Substance+use+%28TAPS%29+Tool&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnida.nih.gov%2Ftaps2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://crafft.org/about-the-crafft/">"About the CRAFFT – CRAFFT"</a>. Retrieved 3 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+the+CRAFFT+%E2%80%93+CRAFFT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcrafft.org%2Fabout-the-crafft%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-crafft.org-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crafft.org_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-crafft.org_72-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-crafft.org_72-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://crafft.org/use-the-crafft/">"Use the CRAFFT – CRAFFT"</a>. Retrieved 3 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Use+the+CRAFFT+%E2%80%93+CRAFFT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcrafft.org%2Fuse-the-crafft%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yudko_2007-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yudko_2007_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yudko_2007_73-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yudko_2007_73-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYudkoLozhkinaFouts2007" class="citation journal cs1">Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A (March 2007). "A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test". Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 32 (2): 189–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jsat.2006.08.002">10.1016/j.jsat.2006.08.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17306727">17306727</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Substance+Abuse+Treatment&rft.atitle=A+comprehensive+review+of+the+psychometric+properties+of+the+Drug+Abuse+Screening+Test&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=189-198&rft.date=2007-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jsat.2006.08.002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17306727&rft.aulast=Yudko&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Lozhkina%2C+O&rft.au=Fouts%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanMoore2018" class="citation journal cs1">Han BH, Moore AA (February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5718360">"Prevention and Screening of Unhealthy Substance Use by Older Adults"</a>. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine. 34 (1): 117–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cger.2017.08.005">10.1016/j.cger.2017.08.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5718360">5718360</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29129212">29129212</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinics+in+Geriatric+Medicine&rft.atitle=Prevention+and+Screening+of+Unhealthy+Substance+Use+by+Older+Adults&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=117-129&rft.date=2018-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5718360%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29129212&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cger.2017.08.005&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=BH&rft.au=Moore%2C+AA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5718360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAliMeenaEastwoodRichards2013" class="citation journal cs1">Ali R, Meena S, Eastwood B, Richards I, Marsden J (September 2013). "Ultra-rapid screening for substance-use disorders: the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST-Lite)". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 132 (1–2): 352–361. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.drugalcdep.2013.03.001">10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.03.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23561823">23561823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Drug+and+Alcohol+Dependence&rft.atitle=Ultra-rapid+screening+for+substance-use+disorders%3A+the+Alcohol%2C+Smoking+and+Substance+Involvement+Screening+Test+%28ASSIST-Lite%29&rft.volume=132&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=352-361&rft.date=2013-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.drugalcdep.2013.03.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23561823&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Meena%2C+S&rft.au=Eastwood%2C+B&rft.au=Richards%2C+I&rft.au=Marsden%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFehrmanEganGorbanLevesley2019" class="citation book cs1">Fehrman E, Egan V, Gorban AN, Levesley J, Mirkes EM, Muhammad AK (2019). Personality Traits and Drug Consumption. A Story Told by Data. Springer, Cham. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2001.06520">2001.06520</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-10442-9">10.1007/978-3-030-10442-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-10441-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-10441-2"><bdi>978-3-030-10441-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151160405">151160405</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Personality+Traits+and+Drug+Consumption.+A+Story+Told+by+Data&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Cham&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2001.06520&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151160405%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-10442-9&rft.isbn=978-3-030-10441-2&rft.aulast=Fehrman&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Egan%2C+V&rft.au=Gorban%2C+AN&rft.au=Levesley%2C+J&rft.au=Mirkes%2C+EM&rft.au=Muhammad%2C+AK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cheetham_2010-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Cheetham_2010_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheethamAllenYücelLubman2010" class="citation journal cs1">Cheetham A, Allen NB, Yücel M, Lubman DI (August 2010). "The role of affective dysregulation in drug addiction". Clin Psychol Rev. 30 (6): 621–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2010.04.005">10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20546986">20546986</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clin+Psychol+Rev&rft.atitle=The+role+of+affective+dysregulation+in+drug+addiction&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=621-34&rft.date=2010-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2010.04.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20546986&rft.aulast=Cheetham&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Allen%2C+NB&rft.au=Y%C3%BCcel%2C+M&rft.au=Lubman%2C+DI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Franken_2006-78"><a href="#cite_ref-Franken_2006_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankenMuris2006" class="citation journal cs1">Franken IH, Muris P (2006). "BIS/BAS personality characteristics and college students' substance use". Personality and Individual Differences. 40 (7): 1497–503. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.paid.2005.12.005">10.1016/j.paid.2005.12.005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Personality+and+Individual+Differences&rft.atitle=BIS%2FBAS+personality+characteristics+and+college+students%27+substance+use&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1497-503&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.paid.2005.12.005&rft.aulast=Franken&rft.aufirst=IH&rft.au=Muris%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid18232522-79"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid18232522_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGenoveseWallace2007" class="citation journal cs1">Genovese JE, Wallace D (December 2007). "Reward sensitivity and substance abuse in middle school and high school students". J Genet Psychol. 168 (4): 465–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3200%2FGNTP.168.4.465-469">10.3200/GNTP.168.4.465-469</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18232522">18232522</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207640075">207640075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Genet+Psychol&rft.atitle=Reward+sensitivity+and+substance+abuse+in+middle+school+and+high+school+students&rft.volume=168&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=465-69&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207640075%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18232522&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3200%2FGNTP.168.4.465-469&rft.aulast=Genovese&rft.aufirst=JE&rft.au=Wallace%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kimbrel_2007-80"><a href="#cite_ref-Kimbrel_2007_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimbrelNelson-GrayMitchell2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kimbrel NA, Nelson-Gray RO, Mitchell JT (April 2007). "Reinforcement sensitivity and maternal style as predictors of psychopathology". Personality and Individual Differences. 42 (6): 1139–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.paid.2006.06.028">10.1016/j.paid.2006.06.028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Personality+and+Individual+Differences&rft.atitle=Reinforcement+sensitivity+and+maternal+style+as+predictors+of+psychopathology&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1139-49&rft.date=2007-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.paid.2006.06.028&rft.aulast=Kimbrel&rft.aufirst=NA&rft.au=Nelson-Gray%2C+RO&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+JT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dawe-81"><a href="#cite_ref-Dawe_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaweLoxton2004" class="citation journal cs1">Dawe S, Loxton NJ (May 2004). "The role of impulsivity in the development of substance use and eating disorders". Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 28 (3): 343–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2004.03.007">10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15225976">15225976</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24435589">24435589</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neurosci+Biobehav+Rev&rft.atitle=The+role+of+impulsivity+in+the+development+of+substance+use+and+eating+disorders&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=343-51&rft.date=2004-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24435589%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15225976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2004.03.007&rft.aulast=Dawe&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Loxton%2C+NJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hill2021-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hill2021_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hill2021_82-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hill2021_82-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hill2021_82-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hill2021_82-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hill2021_82-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillHarris2021" class="citation book cs1">Hill R, Harris J (2 November 2021). "Psychological Approaches to Addiction". In Day E (ed.). Seminars in addiction psychiatry (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 147–169. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781911623199.009">10.1017/9781911623199.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-911623-19-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-911623-19-9"><bdi>978-1-911623-19-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242036830">242036830</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Psychological+Approaches+to+Addiction&rft.btitle=Seminars+in+addiction+psychiatry&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=147-169&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021-11-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242036830%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781911623199.009&rft.isbn=978-1-911623-19-9&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Harris%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cognitive_-_stimulus-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Cognitive_-_stimulus_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashburn2016" class="citation journal cs1">Washburn DA (2016). "The Stroop effect at 80: The competition between stimulus control and cognitive control". J Exp Anal Behav. 105 (1): 3–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjeab.194">10.1002/jeab.194</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26781048">26781048</a>. <q>Today, arguably more than at any time in history, the constructs of attention, executive functioning, and cognitive control seem to be pervasive and preeminent in research and theory. Even within the cognitive framework, however, there has long been an understanding that behavior is multiply determined, and that many responses are relatively automatic, unattended, contention-scheduled, and habitual. Indeed, the cognitive flexibility, response inhibition, and self-regulation that appear to be hallmarks of cognitive control are noteworthy only in contrast to responses that are relatively rigid, associative, and involuntary.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Exp+Anal+Behav&rft.atitle=The+Stroop+effect+at+80%3A+The+competition+between+stimulus+control+and+cognitive+control&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-13&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjeab.194&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26781048&rft.aulast=Washburn&rft.aufirst=DA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Executive_functions-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Executive_functions_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond2013" class="citation journal cs1">Diamond A (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4084861">"Executive functions"</a>. Annu Rev Psychol. 64: 135–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-psych-113011-143750">10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4084861">4084861</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23020641">23020641</a>. <q>Core EFs are inhibition [response inhibition (self-control – resisting temptations and resisting acting impulsively) and interference control (selective attention and cognitive inhibition)], working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking "outside the box," seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). ... EFs and prefrontal cortex are the first to suffer, and suffer disproportionately, if something is not right in your life. They suffer first, and most, if you are stressed (Arnsten 1998, Liston et al. 2009, Oaten & Cheng 2005), sad (Hirt et al. 2008, von Hecker & Meiser 2005), lonely (Baumeister et al. 2002, Cacioppo & Patrick 2008, Campbell et al. 2006, Tun et al. 2012), sleep deprived (Barnes et al. 2012, Huang et al. 2007), or not physically fit (Best 2010, Chaddock et al. 2011, Hillman et al. 2008). Any of these can cause you to appear to have a disorder of EFs, such as ADHD, when you do not. You can see the deleterious effects of stress, sadness, loneliness, and lack of physical health or fitness at the physiological and neuroanatomical level in prefrontal cortex and at the behavioral level in worse EFs (poorer reasoning and problem solving, forgetting things, and impaired ability to exercise discipline and self-control). ... EFs can be improved (Diamond & Lee 2011, Klingberg 2010). ... At any age across the life cycle EFs can be improved, including in the elderly and in infants. There has been much work with excellent results on improving EFs in the elderly by improving physical fitness (Erickson & Kramer 2009, Voss et al. 2011) ... Inhibitory control (one of the core EFs) involves being able to control one's attention, behavior, thoughts, and/or emotions to override a strong internal predisposition or external lure, and instead do what's more appropriate or needed. Without inhibitory control we would be at the mercy of impulses, old habits of thought or action (conditioned responses), and/or stimuli in the environment that pull us this way or that. Thus, inhibitory control makes it possible for us to change and for us to choose how we react and how we behave rather than being unthinking creatures of habit. It doesn't make it easy. Indeed, we usually are creatures of habit and our behavior is under the control of environmental stimuli far more than we usually realize, but having the ability to exercise inhibitory control creates the possibility of change and choice. ... The subthalamic nucleus appears to play a critical role in preventing such impulsive or premature responding (Frank 2006).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annu+Rev+Psychol&rft.atitle=Executive+functions&rft.volume=64&rft.pages=135-68&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4084861%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23020641&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-psych-113011-143750&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4084861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NHM-Cognitive_Control-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NHM-Cognitive_Control_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHM-Cognitive_Control_85-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 313–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4"><bdi>978-0-07-148127-4</bdi></a>. <q> • Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.  • Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior. ... These diverse inputs and back projections to both cortical and subcortical structures put the prefrontal cortex in a position to exert what is called "top-down" control or cognitive control of behavior. ... The prefrontal cortex receives inputs not only from other cortical regions, including association cortex, but also, via the thalamus, inputs from subcortical structures subserving emotion and motivation, such as the amygdala (Chapter 14) and ventral striatum (or nucleus accumbens; Chapter 15). ... In conditions in which prepotent responses tend to dominate behavior, such as in drug addiction, where drug cues can elicit drug seeking (Chapter 15), or in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; described below), significant negative consequences can result. ... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression). ... Functional neuroimaging in humans demonstrates activation of the prefrontal cortex and caudate nucleus (part of the striatum) in tasks that demand inhibitory control of behavior. Subjects with ADHD exhibit less activation of the medial prefrontal cortex than healthy controls even when they succeed in such tasks and utilize different circuits. ... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+13%3A+Higher+Cognitive+Function+and+Behavioral+Control&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=313-21&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-07-148127-4&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould_2010-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gould_2010_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould_2010_86-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould_2010_86-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould_2010_86-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould_2010_86-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould_2010_86-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould2010" class="citation journal cs1">Gould TJ (December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3120118">"Addiction and cognition"</a>. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice. 5 (2): 4–14. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3120118">3120118</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22002448">22002448</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addiction+Science+%26+Clinical+Practice&rft.atitle=Addiction+and+cognition&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=4-14&rft.date=2010-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3120118%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22002448&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=TJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3120118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeltensteinSee2008" class="citation journal cs1">Feltenstein MW, See RE (May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2442446">"The neurocircuitry of addiction: an overview"</a>. British Journal of Pharmacology. 154 (2): 261–274. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fbjp.2008.51">10.1038/bjp.2008.51</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2442446">2442446</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18311189">18311189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=The+neurocircuitry+of+addiction%3A+an+overview&rft.volume=154&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=261-274&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2442446%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18311189&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fbjp.2008.51&rft.aulast=Feltenstein&rft.aufirst=MW&rft.au=See%2C+RE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2442446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance_in_addiction_88-15">p</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVassolerSadri-Vakili2014" class="citation journal cs1">Vassoler FM, Sadri-Vakili G (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3872494">"Mechanisms of transgenerational inheritance of addictive-like behaviors"</a>. Neuroscience. 264: 198–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuroscience.2013.07.064">10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.07.064</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3872494">3872494</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23920159">23920159</a>. <q>However, the components that are responsible for the heritability of characteristics that make an individual more susceptible to drug addiction in humans remain largely unknown given that patterns of inheritance cannot be explained by simple genetic mechanisms (Cloninger et al., 1981; Schuckit et al., 1972). The environment plays a large role in the development of addiction as evidenced by great societal variability in drug use patterns between countries and across time (UNODC, 2012). Therefore, both genetics and the environment contribute to an individual's vulnerability to become addicted following an initial exposure to drugs of abuse. ... The evidence presented here demonstrates that rapid environmental adaptation occurs following exposure to a number of stimuli. Epigenetic mechanisms represent the key components by which the environment can influence genetics, and they provide the missing link between genetic heritability and environmental influences on the behavioral and physiological phenotypes of the offspring.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Mechanisms+of+transgenerational+inheritance+of+addictive-like+behaviors&rft.volume=264&rft.pages=198-206&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3872494%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23920159&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuroscience.2013.07.064&rft.aulast=Vassoler&rft.aufirst=FM&rft.au=Sadri-Vakili%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3872494&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglasChanGelernterArias2010" class="citation journal cs1">Douglas KR, Chan G, Gelernter J, Arias AJ, Anton RF, Weiss RD, et al. (January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2763992">"Adverse childhood events as risk factors for substance dependence: partial mediation by mood and anxiety disorders"</a>. Addictive Behaviors. 35 (1): 7–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.addbeh.2009.07.004">10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.07.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2763992">2763992</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19720467">19720467</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addictive+Behaviors&rft.atitle=Adverse+childhood+events+as+risk+factors+for+substance+dependence%3A+partial+mediation+by+mood+and+anxiety+disorders&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-13&rft.date=2010-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2763992%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19720467&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.addbeh.2009.07.004&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=KR&rft.au=Chan%2C+G&rft.au=Gelernter%2C+J&rft.au=Arias%2C+AJ&rft.au=Anton%2C+RF&rft.au=Weiss%2C+RD&rft.au=Brady%2C+K&rft.au=Poling%2C+J&rft.au=Farrer%2C+L&rft.au=Kranzler%2C+HR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2763992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nature_2022-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nature_2022_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nature_2022_90-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaundersWangChenJang2022" class="citation journal cs1">Saunders GR, Wang X, Chen F, Jang SK, Liu M, Wang C, et al. (December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9771818">"Genetic diversity fuels gene discovery for tobacco and alcohol use"</a>. Nature. 612 (7941). <a href="/wiki/Nature_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature Research">Nature Research</a>: 720–724. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Natur.612..720S">2022Natur.612..720S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05477-4">10.1038/s41586-022-05477-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9771818">9771818</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36477530">36477530</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254434507">254434507</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Genetic+diversity+fuels+gene+discovery+for+tobacco+and+alcohol+use&rft.volume=612&rft.issue=7941&rft.pages=720-724&rft.date=2022-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9771818%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A254434507%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Natur.612..720S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36477530&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05477-4&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=GR&rft.au=Wang%2C+X&rft.au=Chen%2C+F&rft.au=Jang%2C+SK&rft.au=Liu%2C+M&rft.au=Wang%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9771818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMirinWeissGriffinMichael1991" class="citation journal cs1">Mirin SM, Weiss RD, Griffin ML, Michael JL (1 January 1991). "Psychopathology in drug abusers and their families". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 32 (1): 36–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0010-440X%2891%2990068-N">10.1016/0010-440X(91)90068-N</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2001619">2001619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comprehensive+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Psychopathology+in+drug+abusers+and+their+families&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=36-51&rft.date=1991-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0010-440X%2891%2990068-N&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2001619&rft.aulast=Mirin&rft.aufirst=SM&rft.au=Weiss%2C+RD&rft.au=Griffin%2C+ML&rft.au=Michael%2C+JL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayfieldHarrisSchuckit2008" class="citation journal cs1">Mayfield RD, Harris RA, Schuckit MA (May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2442454">"Genetic factors influencing alcohol dependence"</a>. British Journal of Pharmacology. 154 (2): 275–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fbjp.2008.88">10.1038/bjp.2008.88</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2442454">2442454</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18362899">18362899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Genetic+factors+influencing+alcohol+dependence&rft.volume=154&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=275-287&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2442454%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18362899&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fbjp.2008.88&rft.aulast=Mayfield&rft.aufirst=RD&rft.au=Harris%2C+RA&rft.au=Schuckit%2C+MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2442454&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kendler94-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kendler94_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kendler94_93-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKendlerNealeHeathKessler1994" class="citation journal cs1">Kendler KS, Neale MC, Heath AC, Kessler RC, Eaves LJ (May 1994). "A twin-family study of alcoholism in women". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 151 (5): 707–715. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fajp.151.5.707">10.1176/ajp.151.5.707</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8166312">8166312</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=A+twin-family+study+of+alcoholism+in+women&rft.volume=151&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=707-715&rft.date=1994-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fajp.151.5.707&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8166312&rft.aulast=Kendler&rft.aufirst=KS&rft.au=Neale%2C+MC&rft.au=Heath%2C+AC&rft.au=Kessler%2C+RC&rft.au=Eaves%2C+LJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crowe1991-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Crowe1991_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowe" class="citation journal cs1">Crowe JR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993-22020-001">"Genetics of alcoholism"</a>. Alcohol Health and Research World: 1–11. Retrieved 13 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Alcohol+Health+and+Research+World&rft.atitle=Genetics+of+alcoholism&rft.pages=1-11&rft.aulast=Crowe&rft.aufirst=JR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2Frecord%2F1993-22020-001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelemis" class="citation news cs1">Melemis SM. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.addictionsandrecovery.org/is-addiction-a-disease.htm">"The Genetics of Addiction – Is Addiction a Disease?"</a>. I Want to Change My Life. Retrieved 17 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=I+Want+to+Change+My+Life&rft.atitle=The+Genetics+of+Addiction+%E2%80%93+Is+Addiction+a+Disease%3F&rft.aulast=Melemis&rft.aufirst=SM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.addictionsandrecovery.org%2Fis-addiction-a-disease.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid23454283-96"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid23454283_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkeCristKampmanDackis2013" class="citation journal cs1">Clarke TK, Crist RC, Kampman KM, Dackis CA, Pettinati HM, O'Brien CP, et al. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3640707">"Low frequency genetic variants in the μ-opioid receptor (OPRM1) affect risk for addiction to heroin and cocaine"</a>. Neuroscience Letters. 542: 71–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neulet.2013.02.018">10.1016/j.neulet.2013.02.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3640707">3640707</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23454283">23454283</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience+Letters&rft.atitle=Low+frequency+genetic+variants+in+the+%CE%BC-opioid+receptor+%28OPRM1%29+affect+risk+for+addiction+to+heroin+and+cocaine&rft.volume=542&rft.pages=71-75&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3640707%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23454283&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neulet.2013.02.018&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=TK&rft.au=Crist%2C+RC&rft.au=Kampman%2C+KM&rft.au=Dackis%2C+CA&rft.au=Pettinati%2C+HM&rft.au=O%27Brien%2C+CP&rft.au=Oslin%2C+DW&rft.au=Ferraro%2C+TN&rft.au=Lohoff%2C+FW&rft.au=Berrettini%2C+WH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3640707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallDrgonovaJainUhl2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hall FS, Drgonova J, Jain S, Uhl GR (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3797854">"Implications of genome wide association studies for addiction: are our a priori assumptions all wrong?"</a>. Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 140 (3): 267–79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pharmthera.2013.07.006">10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.07.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3797854">3797854</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23872493">23872493</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pharmacology+%26+Therapeutics&rft.atitle=Implications+of+genome+wide+association+studies+for+addiction%3A+are+our+a+priori+assumptions+all+wrong%3F&rft.volume=140&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=267-79&rft.date=2013-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3797854%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23872493&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.pharmthera.2013.07.006&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=FS&rft.au=Drgonova%2C+J&rft.au=Jain%2C+S&rft.au=Uhl%2C+GR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3797854&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangMa2021" class="citation journal cs1">Yang H, Ma J (August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9186053">"How the COVID-19 pandemic impacts tobacco addiction: Changes in smoking behavior and associations with well-being"</a>. Addictive Behaviors. 119: 106917. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.addbeh.2021.106917">10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106917</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9186053">9186053</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33862579">33862579</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233278782">233278782</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addictive+Behaviors&rft.atitle=How+the+COVID-19+pandemic+impacts+tobacco+addiction%3A+Changes+in+smoking+behavior+and+associations+with+well-being&rft.volume=119&rft.pages=106917&rft.date=2021-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9186053%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A233278782%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33862579&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.addbeh.2021.106917&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Ma%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9186053&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abuse-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abuse_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abuse_99-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200430061000/https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/preventing-drug-abuse-among-children-adolescents/chapter-1-risk-factors-protective-factors/what-are-risk-factors">"What are risk factors and protective factors?"</a>. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/preventing-drug-abuse-among-children-adolescents/chapter-1-risk-factors-protective-factors/what-are-risk-factors">the original</a> on 30 April 2020. Retrieved 13 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=What+are+risk+factors+and+protective+factors%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugabuse.gov%2Fpublications%2Fpreventing-drug-abuse-among-children-adolescents%2Fchapter-1-risk-factors-protective-factors%2Fwhat-are-risk-factors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/understanding-drug-use-addiction">"Understanding Drug Use and Addiction"</a>. www.drugabuse.gov. National Institute on Drug Abuse. 6 June 2018. Retrieved 29 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.drugabuse.gov&rft.atitle=Understanding+Drug+Use+and+Addiction&rft.date=2018-06-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugabuse.gov%2Fpublications%2Fdrugfacts%2Funderstanding-drug-use-addiction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2018" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis M (October 2018). Longo DL (ed.). "Brain Change in Addiction as Learning, Not Disease". The New England Journal of Medicine. 379 (16): 1551–1560. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMra1602872">10.1056/NEJMra1602872</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30332573">30332573</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205117578">205117578</a>. <q>Addictive activities are determined neither solely by brain changes nor solely by social conditions ... the narrowing seen in addiction takes place within the behavioral repertoire, the social surround, and the brain — all at the same time.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Brain+Change+in+Addiction+as+Learning%2C+Not+Disease&rft.volume=379&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=1551-1560&rft.date=2018-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205117578%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30332573&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMra1602872&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SAMHSA_ACE-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SAMHSA_ACE_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SAMHSA_ACE_102-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161009181048/http://www.samhsa.gov/capt/practicing-effective-prevention/prevention-behavioral-health/adverse-childhood-experiences">"Adverse Childhood Experiences"</a>. samhsa.gov. Rockville, Maryland, United States: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.samhsa.gov/capt/practicing-effective-prevention/prevention-behavioral-health/adverse-childhood-experiences">the original</a> on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=samhsa.gov&rft.atitle=Adverse+Childhood+Experiences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.samhsa.gov%2Fcapt%2Fpracticing-effective-prevention%2Fprevention-behavioral-health%2Fadverse-childhood-experiences&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Enoch2011-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Enoch2011_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Enoch2011_103-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnoch2011" class="citation journal cs1">Enoch MA (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005022">"The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence"</a>. Psychopharmacology. 214 (1): 17–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00213-010-1916-6">10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005022">3005022</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20596857">20596857</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychopharmacology&rft.atitle=The+role+of+early+life+stress+as+a+predictor+for+alcohol+and+drug+dependence&rft.volume=214&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17-31&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3005022%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20596857&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00213-010-1916-6&rft.aulast=Enoch&rft.aufirst=MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3005022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180917105112/https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/addiction/environment/">"Environmental Risk Factors"</a>. learn.genetics.utah.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/addiction/environment/">the original</a> on 17 September 2018. Retrieved 17 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=learn.genetics.utah.edu&rft.atitle=Environmental+Risk+Factors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flearn.genetics.utah.edu%2Fcontent%2Faddiction%2Fenvironment%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcosBahr1988" class="citation journal cs1">Marcos AC, Bahr SJ (June 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0044118X88019004003">"Control Theory and Adolescent Drug Use"</a>. Youth & Society. 19 (4): 395–425. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0044118X88019004003">10.1177/0044118X88019004003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0044-118X">0044-118X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143860602">143860602</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Youth+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Control+Theory+and+Adolescent+Drug+Use&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=395-425&rft.date=1988-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143860602%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0044-118X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0044118X88019004003&rft.aulast=Marcos&rft.aufirst=Anastasios+C.&rft.au=Bahr%2C+Stephen+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F0044118X88019004003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpear2000" class="citation journal cs1">Spear LP (June 2000). "The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 24 (4): 417–63. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.461.3295">10.1.1.461.3295</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0149-7634%2800%2900014-2">10.1016/s0149-7634(00)00014-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10817843">10817843</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14686245">14686245</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience+and+Biobehavioral+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+adolescent+brain+and+age-related+behavioral+manifestations&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=417-63&rft.date=2000-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.461.3295%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14686245%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10817843&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0149-7634%2800%2900014-2&rft.aulast=Spear&rft.aufirst=LP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammondMayesPotenza2014" class="citation journal cs1">Hammond CJ, Mayes LC, Potenza MN (April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4446977">"Neurobiology of adolescent substance use and addictive behaviors: treatment implications"</a>. Adolescent Medicine. 25 (1): 15–32. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4446977">4446977</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25022184">25022184</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Adolescent+Medicine&rft.atitle=Neurobiology+of+adolescent+substance+use+and+addictive+behaviors%3A+treatment+implications&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=15-32&rft.date=2014-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4446977%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25022184&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=CJ&rft.au=Mayes%2C+LC&rft.au=Potenza%2C+MN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4446977&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatalanoHawkinsWellsMiller1990" class="citation journal cs1">Catalano RF, Hawkins JD, Wells EA, Miller J, Brewer D (1990). "Evaluation of the effectiveness of adolescent drug abuse treatment, assessment of risks for relapse, and promising approaches for relapse prevention". The International Journal of the Addictions. 25 (9A–10A): 1085–140. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F10826089109081039">10.3109/10826089109081039</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2131328">2131328</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+the+Addictions&rft.atitle=Evaluation+of+the+effectiveness+of+adolescent+drug+abuse+treatment%2C+assessment+of+risks+for+relapse%2C+and+promising+approaches+for+relapse+prevention&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=9A%E2%80%9310A&rft.pages=1085-140&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F10826089109081039&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2131328&rft.aulast=Catalano&rft.aufirst=RF&rft.au=Hawkins%2C+JD&rft.au=Wells%2C+EA&rft.au=Miller%2C+J&rft.au=Brewer%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerepletchikovaKrystalKaufman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Perepletchikova F, Krystal JH, Kaufman J (November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4113213">"Practitioner review: adolescent alcohol use disorders: assessment and treatment issues"</a>. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 49 (11): 1131–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-7610.2008.01934.x">10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01934.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4113213">4113213</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017028">19017028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Child+Psychology+and+Psychiatry%2C+and+Allied+Disciplines&rft.atitle=Practitioner+review%3A+adolescent+alcohol+use+disorders%3A+assessment+and+treatment+issues&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1131-54&rft.date=2008-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4113213%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19017028&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-7610.2008.01934.x&rft.aulast=Perepletchikova&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Krystal%2C+JH&rft.au=Kaufman%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4113213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drug_use_trends-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Drug_use_trends_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drug_use_trends_110-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drug_use_trends_110-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/nationwide-trends">"Nationwide Trends"</a>. National Institute on Drug Abuse. June 2015. Retrieved 15 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nationwide+Trends&rft.pub=National+Institute+on+Drug+Abuse&rft.date=2015-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugabuse.gov%2Fpublications%2Fdrugfacts%2Fnationwide-trends&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AddictionCenter-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AddictionCenter_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AddictionCenter_111-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.addictioncenter.com/addiction/addiction-statistics/">"Addiction Statistics – Facts on Drug and Alcohol Addiction"</a>. AddictionCenter. Retrieved 17 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AddictionCenter&rft.atitle=Addiction+Statistics+%E2%80%93+Facts+on+Drug+and+Alcohol+Addiction&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.addictioncenter.com%2Faddiction%2Faddiction-statistics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSAMHSA" class="citation web cs1">SAMHSA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161208181514/http://www.samhsa.gov/capt/practicing-effective-prevention/prevention-behavioral-health/risk-protective-factors">"Risk and Protective Factors"</a>. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.samhsa.gov/capt/practicing-effective-prevention/prevention-behavioral-health/risk-protective-factors">the original</a> on 8 December 2016. Retrieved 19 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Risk+and+Protective+Factors&rft.pub=Substance+Abuse+and+Mental+Health+Administration&rft.au=SAMHSA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.samhsa.gov%2Fcapt%2Fpracticing-effective-prevention%2Fprevention-behavioral-health%2Frisk-protective-factors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161217014124/http://www.recoveryanswers.org/pressrelease/infographic-risk-factors-addiction/">"Infographic – Risk Factors of Addiction | Recovery Research Institute"</a>. www.recoveryanswers.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.recoveryanswers.org/pressrelease/infographic-risk-factors-addiction/">the original</a> on 17 December 2016. Retrieved 19 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.recoveryanswers.org&rft.atitle=Infographic+%E2%80%93+Risk+Factors+of+Addiction+%7C+Recovery+Research+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.recoveryanswers.org%2Fpressrelease%2Finfographic-risk-factors-addiction%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/drug-addiction/basics/risk-factors/con-20020970">"Drug addiction Risk factors – Mayo Clinic"</a>. www.mayoclinic.org. Retrieved 19 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mayoclinic.org&rft.atitle=Drug+addiction+Risk+factors+%E2%80%93+Mayo+Clinic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Fdiseases-conditions%2Fdrug-addiction%2Fbasics%2Frisk-factors%2Fcon-20020970&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dualdiagnosis.org/mental-health-and-addiction/the-connection/">"The Connection Between Mental Illness and Substance Abuse | Dual Diagnosis"</a>. Dual Diagnosis. Retrieved 17 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dual+Diagnosis&rft.atitle=The+Connection+Between+Mental+Illness+and+Substance+Abuse+%7C+Dual+Diagnosis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dualdiagnosis.org%2Fmental-health-and-addiction%2Fthe-connection%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDupontArmantBrenner2009" class="citation journal cs1">Dupont C, Armant DR, Brenner CA (September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2791696">"Epigenetics: definition, mechanisms and clinical perspective"</a>. Seminars in Reproductive Medicine. 27 (5): 351–357. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1055%2Fs-0029-1237423">10.1055/s-0029-1237423</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2791696">2791696</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19711245">19711245</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seminars+in+Reproductive+Medicine&rft.atitle=Epigenetics%3A+definition%2C+mechanisms+and+clinical+perspective&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=351-357&rft.date=2009-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2791696%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19711245&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1055%2Fs-0029-1237423&rft.aulast=Dupont&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Armant%2C+DR&rft.au=Brenner%2C+CA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2791696&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nielsen_2012-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen_2012_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen_2012_117-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen_2012_117-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen_2012_117-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNielsenUtrankarReyesSimons2012" class="citation journal cs1">Nielsen DA, Utrankar A, Reyes JA, Simons DD, Kosten TR (July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3463407">"Epigenetics of drug abuse: predisposition or response"</a>. Pharmacogenomics. 13 (10): 1149–1160. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2217%2Fpgs.12.94">10.2217/pgs.12.94</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3463407">3463407</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22909205">22909205</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pharmacogenomics&rft.atitle=Epigenetics+of+drug+abuse%3A+predisposition+or+response&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1149-1160&rft.date=2012-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3463407%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22909205&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2217%2Fpgs.12.94&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=DA&rft.au=Utrankar%2C+A&rft.au=Reyes%2C+JA&rft.au=Simons%2C+DD&rft.au=Kosten%2C+TR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3463407&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid26572641-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid26572641_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid26572641_118-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid26572641_118-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuanLiSunOuyang2015" class="citation journal cs1">Yuan TF, Li A, Sun X, Ouyang H, Campos C, Rocha NB, et al. (2015). "Transgenerational Inheritance of Paternal Neurobehavioral Phenotypes: Stress, Addiction, Ageing and Metabolism". Mol. Neurobiol. 53 (9): 6367–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12035-015-9526-2">10.1007/s12035-015-9526-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10400.22%2F7331">10400.22/7331</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26572641">26572641</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25694221">25694221</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mol.+Neurobiol.&rft.atitle=Transgenerational+Inheritance+of+Paternal+Neurobehavioral+Phenotypes%3A+Stress%2C+Addiction%2C+Ageing+and+Metabolism&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=6367-76&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10400.22%2F7331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A25694221%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26572641&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12035-015-9526-2&rft.aulast=Yuan&rft.aufirst=TF&rft.au=Li%2C+A&rft.au=Sun%2C+X&rft.au=Ouyang%2C+H&rft.au=Campos%2C+C&rft.au=Rocha%2C+NB&rft.au=Arias-Carri%C3%B3n%2C+O&rft.au=Machado%2C+S&rft.au=Hou%2C+G&rft.au=So%2C+KF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-What_the_ΔFosB?-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-What_the_ΔFosB?_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-What_the_ΔFosB?_120-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-What_the_ΔFosB?_120-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-What_the_ΔFosB?_120-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-What_the_ΔFosB?_120-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-What_the_ΔFosB?_120-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-What_the_ΔFosB?_120-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-What_the_ΔFosB?_120-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-What_the_ΔFosB?_120-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-What_the_ΔFosB?_120-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuffle2014" class="citation journal cs1">Ruffle JK (November 2014). "Molecular neurobiology of addiction: what's all the (Δ)FosB about?". Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse. 40 (6): 428–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F00952990.2014.933840">10.3109/00952990.2014.933840</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25083822">25083822</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19157711">19157711</a>. <q>ΔFosB is an essential transcription factor implicated in the molecular and behavioral pathways of addiction following repeated drug exposure. The formation of ΔFosB in multiple brain regions, and the molecular pathway leading to the formation of AP-1 complexes is well understood. The establishment of a functional purpose for ΔFosB has allowed further determination as to some of the key aspects of its molecular cascades[...]As a consequence of our improved understanding of ΔFosB in addiction, it is possible to evaluate the addictive potential of current medications (119), as well as use it as a biomarker for assessing the efficacy of therapeutic interventions (121,122,124). Some of these proposed interventions have limitations (125) or are in their infancy (75). However, it is hoped that some of these preliminary findings may lead to innovative treatments, which are much needed in addiction.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am.+J.+Drug+Alcohol+Abuse&rft.atitle=Molecular+neurobiology+of+addiction%3A+what%27s+all+the+%28%CE%94%29FosB+about%3F&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=428-37&rft.date=2014-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19157711%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25083822&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F00952990.2014.933840&rft.aulast=Ruffle&rft.aufirst=JK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-G9a_reverses_ΔFosB_plasticity-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-G9a_reverses_ΔFosB_plasticity_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-G9a_reverses_ΔFosB_plasticity_121-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-G9a_reverses_ΔFosB_plasticity_121-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-G9a_reverses_ΔFosB_plasticity_121-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-G9a_reverses_ΔFosB_plasticity_121-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBilińskiWojtyłaKapka-SkrzypczakChwedorowicz2012" class="citation journal cs1">Biliński P, Wojtyła A, Kapka-Skrzypczak L, Chwedorowicz R, Cyranka M, Studziński T (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaem.pl/fulltext.php?ICID=1010966">"Epigenetic regulation in drug addiction"</a>. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 19 (3): 491–96. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23020045">23020045</a>. <q>[...]ΔFosB is considered a primary and causative transcription factor in creating new neural connections in the reward centre, prefrontal cortex, and other regions of the limbic system. This is reflected in the increased, stable and long-lasting level of sensitivity to cocaine and other drugs, and tendency to relapse even after long periods of abstinence.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ann.+Agric.+Environ.+Med.&rft.atitle=Epigenetic+regulation+in+drug+addiction&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=491-96&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23020045&rft.aulast=Bili%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Wojty%C5%82a%2C+A&rft.au=Kapka-Skrzypczak%2C+L&rft.au=Chwedorowicz%2C+R&rft.au=Cyranka%2C+M&rft.au=Studzi%C5%84ski%2C+T&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaem.pl%2Ffulltext.php%3FICID%3D1010966&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nestler-Renthal_Figure_2-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler-Renthal_Figure_2_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler-Renthal_Figure_2_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler-Renthal_Figure_2_124-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenthal_W,_Nestler_EJ2009" class="citation journal cs1">Renthal W, Nestler EJ (September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2834246">"Chromatin regulation in drug addiction and depression"</a>. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 11 (3): 257–268. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31887%2FDCNS.2009.11.3%2Fwrenthal">10.31887/DCNS.2009.11.3/wrenthal</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2834246">2834246</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19877494">19877494</a>. <q>[Psychostimulants] increase cAMP levels in striatum, which activates protein kinase A (PKA) and leads to phosphorylation of its targets. This includes the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), the phosphorylation of which induces its association with the histone acetyltransferase, CREB binding protein (CBP) to acetylate histones and facilitate gene activation. This is known to occur on many genes including fosB and c-fos in response to psychostimulant exposure. ΔFosB is also upregulated by chronic psychostimulant treatments, and is known to activate certain genes (eg, cdk5) and repress others (eg, c-fos) where it recruits HDAC1 as a corepressor. ... Chronic exposure to psychostimulants increases glutamatergic [signaling] from the prefrontal cortex to the NAc. Glutamatergic signaling elevates Ca2+ levels in NAc postsynaptic elements where it activates CaMK (calcium/calmodulin protein kinases) signaling, which, in addition to phosphorylating CREB, also phosphorylates HDAC5.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+in+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Chromatin+regulation+in+drug+addiction+and+depression&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=257-268&rft.date=2009-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2834246%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19877494&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31887%2FDCNS.2009.11.3%2Fwrenthal&rft.au=Renthal+W%2C+Nestler+EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2834246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2834246/figure/DialoguesClinNeurosci-11-257-g002/">Figure 2: Psychostimulant-induced signaling events</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glutamate-dopamine_cotransmission_review-125"><a href="#cite_ref-Glutamate-dopamine_cotransmission_review_125-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroussard2012" class="citation journal cs1">Broussard JI (January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3250102">"Co-transmission of dopamine and glutamate"</a>. The Journal of General Physiology. 139 (1): 93–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1085%2Fjgp.201110659">10.1085/jgp.201110659</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3250102">3250102</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22200950">22200950</a>. <q>Coincident and convergent input often induces plasticity on a postsynaptic neuron. The NAc integrates processed information about the environment from basolateral amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex (PFC), as well as projections from midbrain dopamine neurons. Previous studies have demonstrated how dopamine modulates this integrative process. For example, high frequency stimulation potentiates hippocampal inputs to the NAc while simultaneously depressing PFC synapses (Goto and Grace, 2005). The converse was also shown to be true; stimulation at PFC potentiates PFC–NAc synapses but depresses hippocampal–NAc synapses. In light of the new functional evidence of midbrain dopamine/glutamate co-transmission (references above), new experiments of NAc function will have to test whether midbrain glutamatergic inputs bias or filter either limbic or cortical inputs to guide goal-directed behavior.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+General+Physiology&rft.atitle=Co-transmission+of+dopamine+and+glutamate&rft.volume=139&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=93-96&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3250102%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22200950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1085%2Fjgp.201110659&rft.aulast=Broussard&rft.aufirst=JI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3250102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amphetamine_KEGG_ΔFosB-126"><a href="#cite_ref-Amphetamine_KEGG_ΔFosB_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanehisa_Laboratories2014" class="citation web cs1">Kanehisa Laboratories (10 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/show_pathway?hsa05031+2354">"Amphetamine – Homo sapiens (human)"</a>. KEGG Pathway. Retrieved 31 October 2014. <q>Most addictive drugs increase extracellular concentrations of dopamine (DA) in nucleus accumbens (NAc) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), projection areas of mesocorticolimbic DA neurons and key components of the "brain reward circuit". Amphetamine achieves this elevation in extracellular levels of DA by promoting efflux from synaptic terminals. ... Chronic exposure to amphetamine induces a unique transcription factor delta FosB, which plays an essential role in long-term adaptive changes in the brain.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=KEGG+Pathway&rft.atitle=Amphetamine+%E2%80%93+Homo+sapiens+%28human%29&rft.date=2014-10-10&rft.au=Kanehisa+Laboratories&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.genome.jp%2Fkegg-bin%2Fshow_pathway%3Fhsa05031%2B2354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meth_cAMP/calcium-dependent_cascade-127"><a href="#cite_ref-Meth_cAMP/calcium-dependent_cascade_127-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCadetBrannockJayanthiKrasnova2015" class="citation journal cs1">Cadet JL, Brannock C, Jayanthi S, Krasnova IN (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4359351">"Transcriptional and epigenetic substrates of methamphetamine addiction and withdrawal: evidence from a long-access self-administration model in the rat"</a>. Molecular Neurobiology. 51 (2): 696–717 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4359351/figure/Fig1/">Figure 1</a>). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12035-014-8776-8">10.1007/s12035-014-8776-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4359351">4359351</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24939695">24939695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Transcriptional+and+epigenetic+substrates+of+methamphetamine+addiction+and+withdrawal%3A+evidence+from+a+long-access+self-administration+model+in+the+rat&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=696-717+%28Figure+1%29&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4359351%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24939695&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12035-014-8776-8&rft.aulast=Cadet&rft.aufirst=JL&rft.au=Brannock%2C+C&rft.au=Jayanthi%2C+S&rft.au=Krasnova%2C+IN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4359351&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nestler1-128">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler1_128-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler1_128-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler1_128-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobison_AJ,_Nestler_EJ2011" class="citation journal cs1">Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3272277">"Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction"</a>. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 12 (11): 623–637. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn3111">10.1038/nrn3111</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3272277">3272277</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21989194">21989194</a>. <q>ΔFosB serves as one of the master control proteins governing this structural plasticity. ... ΔFosB also represses G9a expression, leading to reduced repressive histone methylation at the cdk5 gene. The net result is gene activation and increased CDK5 expression. ... In contrast, ΔFosB binds to the c-fos gene and recruits several co-repressors, including HDAC1 (histone deacetylase 1) and SIRT 1 (sirtuin 1). ... The net result is c-fos gene repression.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Transcriptional+and+epigenetic+mechanisms+of+addiction&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=623-637&rft.date=2011-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3272277%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21989194&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrn3111&rft.au=Robison+AJ%2C+Nestler+EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3272277&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3272277/figure/F4/">Figure 4: Epigenetic basis of drug regulation of gene expression</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nestler2-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler2_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler2_129-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler2_129-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler2_129-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNestler_EJ2012" class="citation journal cs1">Nestler EJ (December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3569166">"Transcriptional mechanisms of drug addiction"</a>. Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience. 10 (3): 136–143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.9758%2Fcpn.2012.10.3.136">10.9758/cpn.2012.10.3.136</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3569166">3569166</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23430970">23430970</a>. <q>The 35-37 kD ΔFosB isoforms accumulate with chronic drug exposure due to their extraordinarily long half-lives. ... As a result of its stability, the ΔFosB protein persists in neurons for at least several weeks after cessation of drug exposure. ... ΔFosB overexpression in nucleus accumbens induces NFκB ... In contrast, the ability of ΔFosB to repress the c-Fos gene occurs in concert with the recruitment of a histone deacetylase and presumably several other repressive proteins such as a repressive histone methyltransferase</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Psychopharmacology+and+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Transcriptional+mechanisms+of+drug+addiction&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=136-143&rft.date=2012-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3569166%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23430970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.9758%2Fcpn.2012.10.3.136&rft.au=Nestler+EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3569166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-c-Fos_repression-130"><a href="#cite_ref-c-Fos_repression_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNestler_EJ2008" class="citation journal cs1">Nestler EJ (October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2607320">"Transcriptional mechanisms of addiction: Role of ΔFosB"</a>. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 363 (1507): 3245–3255. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2008.0067">10.1098/rstb.2008.0067</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2607320">2607320</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18640924">18640924</a>. <q>Recent evidence has shown that ΔFosB also represses the c-fos gene that helps create the molecular switch—from the induction of several short-lived Fos family proteins after acute drug exposure to the predominant accumulation of ΔFosB after chronic drug exposure</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Transcriptional+mechanisms+of+addiction%3A+Role+of+%CE%94FosB&rft.volume=363&rft.issue=1507&rft.pages=3245-3255&rft.date=2008-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2607320%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18640924&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2008.0067&rft.au=Nestler+EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2607320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nestler,_Hyman,_and_Malenka_2-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler,_Hyman,_and_Malenka_2_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler,_Hyman,_and_Malenka_2_131-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHymanMalenkaNestler2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hyman SE, Malenka RC, Nestler EJ (2006). "Neural mechanisms of addiction: the role of reward-related learning and memory". Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 29: 565–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.29.051605.113009">10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16776597">16776597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annu.+Rev.+Neurosci.&rft.atitle=Neural+mechanisms+of+addiction%3A+the+role+of+reward-related+learning+and+memory&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=565-98&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.29.051605.113009&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16776597&rft.aulast=Hyman&rft.aufirst=SE&rft.au=Malenka%2C+RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Addiction_genetics-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Addiction_genetics_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinerVan_Waes2013" class="citation journal cs1">Steiner H, Van Waes V (January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3525776">"Addiction-related gene regulation: risks of exposure to cognitive enhancers vs. other psychostimulants"</a>. Prog. Neurobiol. 100: 60–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pneurobio.2012.10.001">10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.10.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3525776">3525776</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23085425">23085425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prog.+Neurobiol.&rft.atitle=Addiction-related+gene+regulation%3A+risks+of+exposure+to+cognitive+enhancers+vs.+other+psychostimulants&rft.volume=100&rft.pages=60-80&rft.date=2013-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3525776%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23085425&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.pneurobio.2012.10.001&rft.aulast=Steiner&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Van+Waes%2C+V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3525776&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alcoholism_ΔFosB-133"><a href="#cite_ref-Alcoholism_ΔFosB_133-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanehisa_Laboratories2013" class="citation web cs1">Kanehisa Laboratories (2 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/show_pathway?hsa05034+2354">"Alcoholism – Homo sapiens (human)"</a>. KEGG Pathway. Retrieved 10 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=KEGG+Pathway&rft.atitle=Alcoholism+%E2%80%93+Homo+sapiens+%28human%29&rft.date=2013-08-02&rft.au=Kanehisa+Laboratories&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.genome.jp%2Fkegg-bin%2Fshow_pathway%3Fhsa05034%2B2354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MPH_ΔFosB-134"><a href="#cite_ref-MPH_ΔFosB_134-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimTeylanBaronSands2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kim Y, Teylan MA, Baron M, Sands A, Nairn AC, Greengard P (February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2650365">"Methylphenidate-induced dendritic spine formation and DeltaFosB expression in nucleus accumbens"</a>. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 106 (8): 2915–20. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PNAS..106.2915K">2009PNAS..106.2915K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0813179106">10.1073/pnas.0813179106</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2650365">2650365</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19202072">19202072</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+USA&rft.atitle=Methylphenidate-induced+dendritic+spine+formation+and+DeltaFosB+expression+in+nucleus+accumbens&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=2915-20&rft.date=2009-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2650365%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19202072&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0813179106&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PNAS..106.2915K&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Teylan%2C+MA&rft.au=Baron%2C+M&rft.au=Sands%2C+A&rft.au=Nairn%2C+AC&rft.au=Greengard%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2650365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nestler_2014_epigenetics-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_2014_epigenetics_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_2014_epigenetics_135-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_2014_epigenetics_135-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_2014_epigenetics_135-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestler_2014_epigenetics_135-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNestler2014" class="citation journal cs1">Nestler EJ (January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3766384">"Epigenetic mechanisms of drug addiction"</a>. Neuropharmacology. 76 (Pt B): 259–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2013.04.004">10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.04.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3766384">3766384</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23643695">23643695</a>. <q>Short-term increases in histone acetylation generally promote behavioral responses to the drugs, while sustained increases oppose cocaine's effects, based on the actions of systemic or intra-NAc administration of HDAC inhibitors. ... Genetic or pharmacological blockade of G9a in the NAc potentiates behavioral responses to cocaine and opiates, whereas increasing G9a function exerts the opposite effect (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a). Such drug-induced downregulation of G9a and H3K9me2 also sensitizes animals to the deleterious effects of subsequent chronic stress (Covington et al., 2011). Downregulation of G9a increases the dendritic arborization of NAc neurons, and is associated with increased expression of numerous proteins implicated in synaptic function, which directly connects altered G9a/H3K9me2 in the synaptic plasticity associated with addiction (Maze et al., 2010). G9a appears to be a critical control point for epigenetic regulation in NAc, as we know it functions in two negative feedback loops. It opposes the induction of ΔFosB, a long-lasting transcription factor important for drug addiction (Robison and Nestler, 2011), while ΔFosB in turn suppresses G9a expression (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a). ... Also, G9a is induced in NAc upon prolonged HDAC inhibition, which explains the paradoxical attenuation of cocaine's behavioral effects seen under these conditions, as noted above (Kennedy et al., 2013). GABAA receptor subunit genes are among those that are controlled by this feedback loop. Thus, chronic cocaine, or prolonged HDAC inhibition, induces several GABAA receptor subunits in NAc, which is associated with increased frequency of inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs). In striking contrast, combined exposure to cocaine and HDAC inhibition, which triggers the induction of G9a and increased global levels of H3K9me2, leads to blockade of GABAA receptor and IPSC regulation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuropharmacology&rft.atitle=Epigenetic+mechanisms+of+drug+addiction&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=Pt+B&rft.pages=259-68&rft.date=2014-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3766384%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23643695&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2013.04.004&rft.aulast=Nestler&rft.aufirst=EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3766384&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ΔFosB_reward-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ΔFosB_reward_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ΔFosB_reward_136-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ΔFosB_reward_136-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ΔFosB_reward_136-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlumWernerCarnesCarnes2012" class="citation journal cs1">Blum K, Werner T, Carnes S, Carnes P, Bowirrat A, Giordano J, et al. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4040958">"Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms"</a>. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 44 (1): 38–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02791072.2012.662112">10.1080/02791072.2012.662112</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4040958">4040958</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22641964">22641964</a>. <q>It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate, and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus. Next, the induction of c-Fos, a downstream (repressed) target of DeltaFosB, was measured in sexually experienced and naive animals. The number of mating-induced c-Fos-IR cells was significantly decreased in sexually experienced animals compared to sexually naive controls. Finally, DeltaFosB levels and its activity in the NAc were manipulated using viral-mediated gene transfer to study its potential role in mediating sexual experience and experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. Animals with DeltaFosB overexpression displayed enhanced facilitation of sexual performance with sexual experience relative to controls. In contrast, the expression of DeltaJunD, a dominant-negative binding partner of DeltaFosB, attenuated sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance, and stunted long-term maintenance of facilitation compared to DeltaFosB overexpressing group. Together, these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. ... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Psychoactive+Drugs&rft.atitle=Sex%2C+drugs%2C+and+rock+%27n%27+roll%3A+hypothesizing+common+mesolimbic+activation+as+a+function+of+reward+gene+polymorphisms&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=38-55&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4040958%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22641964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02791072.2012.662112&rft.aulast=Blum&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Werner%2C+T&rft.au=Carnes%2C+S&rft.au=Carnes%2C+P&rft.au=Bowirrat%2C+A&rft.au=Giordano%2C+J&rft.au=Oscar-Berman%2C+M&rft.au=Gold%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4040958&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malenka_2009_04-137"><a href="#cite_ref-Malenka_2009_04_137-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and addictive disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 384–85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4"><bdi>978-0-07-148127-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+15%3A+Reinforcement+and+addictive+disorders&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=384-85&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-07-148127-4&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Salamone-138"><a href="#cite_ref-Salamone_138-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalamone1992" class="citation journal cs1">Salamone JD (1992). "Complex motor and sensorimotor functions of striatal and accumbens dopamine: involvement in instrumental behavior processes". Psychopharmacology. 107 (2–3): 160–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf02245133">10.1007/bf02245133</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1615120">1615120</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30545845">30545845</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychopharmacology&rft.atitle=Complex+motor+and+sensorimotor+functions+of+striatal+and+accumbens+dopamine%3A+involvement+in+instrumental+behavior+processes&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=160-74&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30545845%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1615120&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf02245133&rft.aulast=Salamone&rft.aufirst=JD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kauer-139"><a href="#cite_ref-Kauer_139-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKauerMalenka2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kauer JA, Malenka RC (November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn2234">"Synaptic plasticity and addiction"</a>. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 8 (11): 844–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn2234">10.1038/nrn2234</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17948030">17948030</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38811195">38811195</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Synaptic+plasticity+and+addiction&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=844-58&rft.date=2007-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38811195%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17948030&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrn2234&rft.aulast=Kauer&rft.aufirst=JA&rft.au=Malenka%2C+RC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnrn2234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Witten-140"><a href="#cite_ref-Witten_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWittenLinBrodskyPrakash2010" class="citation journal cs1">Witten IB, Lin SC, Brodsky M, Prakash R, Diester I, Anikeeva P, et al. (December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3142356">"Cholinergic interneurons control local circuit activity and cocaine conditioning"</a>. Science. 330 (6011): 1677–81. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Sci...330.1677W">2010Sci...330.1677W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1193771">10.1126/science.1193771</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3142356">3142356</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21164015">21164015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Cholinergic+interneurons+control+local+circuit+activity+and+cocaine+conditioning&rft.volume=330&rft.issue=6011&rft.pages=1677-81&rft.date=2010-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3142356%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21164015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1193771&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Sci...330.1677W&rft.aulast=Witten&rft.aufirst=IB&rft.au=Lin%2C+SC&rft.au=Brodsky%2C+M&rft.au=Prakash%2C+R&rft.au=Diester%2C+I&rft.au=Anikeeva%2C+P&rft.au=Gradinaru%2C+V&rft.au=Ramakrishnan%2C+C&rft.au=Deisseroth%2C+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3142356&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQeadanMcCunnTingey2024" class="citation journal cs1">Qeadan F, McCunn A, Tingey B (16 October 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/add.16679">"The association between glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and/or glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist prescriptions and substance-related outcomes in patients with opioid and alcohol use disorders: A real-world data analysis"</a>. Addiction. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fadd.16679">10.1111/add.16679</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0965-2140">0965-2140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addiction&rft.atitle=The+association+between+glucose-dependent+insulinotropic+polypeptide+and%2For+glucagon-like+peptide-1+receptor+agonist+prescriptions+and+substance-related+outcomes+in+patients+with+opioid+and+alcohol+use+disorders%3A+A+real-world+data+analysis&rft.date=2024-10-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fadd.16679&rft.issn=0965-2140&rft.aulast=Qeadan&rft.aufirst=Fares&rft.au=McCunn%2C+Ashlie&rft.au=Tingey%2C+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fadd.16679&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShareef" class="citation web cs1">Shareef F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/Health/weight-loss-drugs-ozempic-reduce-overdose-risks-study/story?id=114875203">"Weight loss drugs like Ozempic may help reduce overdose risks: Study"</a>. ABC News. Retrieved 18 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Weight+loss+drugs+like+Ozempic+may+help+reduce+overdose+risks%3A+Study&rft.aulast=Shareef&rft.aufirst=Faizah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FHealth%2Fweight-loss-drugs-ozempic-reduce-overdose-risks-study%2Fstory%3Fid%3D114875203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid11572966-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid11572966_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid11572966_143-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNestlerBarrotSelf2001" class="citation journal cs1">Nestler EJ, Barrot M, Self DW (September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC58680">"DeltaFosB: a sustained molecular switch for addiction"</a>. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (20): 11042–46. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PNAS...9811042N">2001PNAS...9811042N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.191352698">10.1073/pnas.191352698</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC58680">58680</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11572966">11572966</a>. <q>Although the ΔFosB signal is relatively long-lived, it is not permanent. ΔFosB degrades gradually and can no longer be detected in [the] brain after 1–2 months of drug withdrawal ... Indeed, ΔFosB is the longest-lived adaptation known to occur in [the] adult brain, not only in response to drugs of abuse, but to any other perturbation (that doesn't involve lesions) as well.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=DeltaFosB%3A+a+sustained+molecular+switch+for+addiction&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=11042-46&rft.date=2001-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC58680%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11572966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.191352698&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001PNAS...9811042N&rft.aulast=Nestler&rft.aufirst=EJ&rft.au=Barrot%2C+M&rft.au=Self%2C+DW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC58680&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones_and_Bonci-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_and_Bonci_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_and_Bonci_144-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesBonci2005" class="citation journal cs1">Jones S, Bonci A (2005). "Synaptic plasticity and drug addiction". Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 5 (1): 20–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.coph.2004.08.011">10.1016/j.coph.2004.08.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15661621">15661621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Synaptic+plasticity+and+drug+addiction&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20-25&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.coph.2004.08.011&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15661621&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Bonci%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eisch_and_Harburg-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eisch_and_Harburg_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eisch_and_Harburg_145-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEischHarburg2006" class="citation journal cs1">Eisch AJ, Harburg GC (2006). "Opiates, psychostimulants, and adult hippocampal neurogenesis: Insights for addiction and stem cell biology". Hippocampus. 16 (3): 271–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhipo.20161">10.1002/hipo.20161</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16411230">16411230</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23667629">23667629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hippocampus&rft.atitle=Opiates%2C+psychostimulants%2C+and+adult+hippocampal+neurogenesis%3A+Insights+for+addiction+and+stem+cell+biology&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=271-86&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23667629%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16411230&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fhipo.20161&rft.aulast=Eisch&rft.aufirst=AJ&rft.au=Harburg%2C+GC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rang-146"><a href="#cite_ref-Rang_146-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRang2003" class="citation book cs1">Rang HP (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. p. 596. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-443-07145-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-443-07145-4"><bdi>978-0-443-07145-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pharmacology&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=596&rft.pub=Churchill+Livingstone&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-443-07145-4&rft.aulast=Rang&rft.aufirst=HP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kourrich-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Kourrich_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKourrichRothwellKlugThomas2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kourrich S, Rothwell PE, Klug JR, Thomas MJ (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6672735">"Cocaine experience controls bidirectional synaptic plasticity in the nucleus accumbens"</a>. J. Neurosci. 27 (30): 7921–28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.1859-07.2007">10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1859-07.2007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6672735">6672735</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17652583">17652583</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Neurosci.&rft.atitle=Cocaine+experience+controls+bidirectional+synaptic+plasticity+in+the+nucleus+accumbens&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=30&rft.pages=7921-28&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6672735%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17652583&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.1859-07.2007&rft.aulast=Kourrich&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Rothwell%2C+PE&rft.au=Klug%2C+JR&rft.au=Thomas%2C+MJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6672735&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kalivas_and_Volkow-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kalivas_and_Volkow_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kalivas_and_Volkow_148-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalivasVolkow2005" class="citation journal cs1">Kalivas PW, Volkow ND (August 2005). "The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of motivation and choice". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 162 (8): 1403–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.162.8.1403">10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1403</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16055761">16055761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=The+neural+basis+of+addiction%3A+a+pathology+of+motivation+and+choice&rft.volume=162&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1403-13&rft.date=2005-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.162.8.1403&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16055761&rft.aulast=Kalivas&rft.aufirst=PW&rft.au=Volkow%2C+ND&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Floresco-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Floresco_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Floresco_149-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlorescoGhods-Sharifi2007" class="citation journal cs1">Floresco SB, Ghods-Sharifi S (February 2007). "Amygdala-prefrontal cortical circuitry regulates effort-based decision making". Cerebral Cortex. 17 (2): 251–60. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.335.4681">10.1.1.335.4681</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcercor%2Fbhj143">10.1093/cercor/bhj143</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16495432">16495432</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cerebral+Cortex&rft.atitle=Amygdala-prefrontal+cortical+circuitry+regulates+effort-based+decision+making&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=251-60&rft.date=2007-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.335.4681%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16495432&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcercor%2Fbhj143&rft.aulast=Floresco&rft.aufirst=SB&rft.au=Ghods-Sharifi%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerryZbukvicKimLawrence2014" class="citation journal cs1">Perry CJ, Zbukvic I, Kim JH, Lawrence AJ (October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4209936">"Role of cues and contexts on drug-seeking behaviour"</a>. British Journal of Pharmacology. 171 (20): 4636–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fbph.12735">10.1111/bph.12735</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4209936">4209936</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24749941">24749941</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Role+of+cues+and+contexts+on+drug-seeking+behaviour&rft.volume=171&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=4636-72&rft.date=2014-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4209936%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24749941&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fbph.12735&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=CJ&rft.au=Zbukvic%2C+I&rft.au=Kim%2C+JH&rft.au=Lawrence%2C+AJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4209936&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-arch-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-arch_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-arch_151-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-arch_151-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolkowFowlerWangSwanson2007" class="citation journal cs1">Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Swanson JM, Telang F (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Farchneur.64.11.1575">"Dopamine in drug abuse and addiction: results of imaging studies and treatment implications"</a>. Arch. Neurol. 64 (11): 1575–79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Farchneur.64.11.1575">10.1001/archneur.64.11.1575</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17998440">17998440</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arch.+Neurol.&rft.atitle=Dopamine+in+drug+abuse+and+addiction%3A+results+of+imaging+studies+and+treatment+implications&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1575-79&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Farchneur.64.11.1575&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17998440&rft.aulast=Volkow&rft.aufirst=ND&rft.au=Fowler%2C+JS&rft.au=Wang%2C+GJ&rft.au=Swanson%2C+JM&rft.au=Telang%2C+F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1001%252Farchneur.64.11.1575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-drugs-brain-152"><a href="#cite_ref-drugs-brain_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/science-addiction/drugs-brain">"Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction"</a>. National Institute on Drug Abuse.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Drugs%2C+Brains%2C+and+Behavior%3A+The+Science+of+Addiction&rft.pub=National+Institute+on+Drug+Abuse&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugabuse.gov%2Fpublications%2Fscience-addiction%2Fdrugs-brain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-addict-153"><a href="#cite_ref-addict_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110816044828/http://www.drugabuse.gov/infofacts/understand.html">"Understanding Drug Abuse and Addiction"</a>. National Institute on Drug Abuse. November 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.drugabuse.gov/infofacts/understand.html">the original</a> on 16 August 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Drug+Abuse+and+Addiction&rft.pub=National+Institute+on+Drug+Abuse&rft.date=2012-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugabuse.gov%2Finfofacts%2Funderstand.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid18640924-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid18640924_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid18640924_154-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid18640924_154-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNestler2008" class="citation journal cs1">Nestler EJ (October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2607320">"Review. Transcriptional mechanisms of addiction: role of DeltaFosB"</a>. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 363 (1507): 3245–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2008.0067">10.1098/rstb.2008.0067</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2607320">2607320</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18640924">18640924</a>. <q>Recent evidence has shown that ΔFosB also represses the c-fos gene that helps create the molecular switch – from the induction of several short-lived Fos family proteins after acute drug exposure to the predominant accumulation of ΔFosB after chronic drug exposure – cited earlier (Renthal et al. in press). The mechanism responsible for ΔFosB repression of c-fos expression is complex and is covered below. ... Examples of validated targets for ΔFosB in nucleus accumbens ... GluR2 ... dynorphin ... Cdk5 ... NFκB ... c-Fos</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Review.+Transcriptional+mechanisms+of+addiction%3A+role+of+DeltaFosB&rft.volume=363&rft.issue=1507&rft.pages=3245-55&rft.date=2008-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2607320%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18640924&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2008.0067&rft.aulast=Nestler&rft.aufirst=EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2607320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2607320/table/tbl3/">Table 3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review_157-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review_157-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review_157-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review_157-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Incentive_salience_and_motivation_review_157-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerridge2012" class="citation journal cs1">Berridge KC (April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3325516">"From prediction error to incentive salience: mesolimbic computation of reward motivation"</a>. Eur. J. Neurosci. 35 (7): 1124–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1460-9568.2012.07990.x">10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.07990.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3325516">3325516</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22487042">22487042</a>. <q>Here I discuss how mesocorticolimbic mechanisms generate the motivation component of incentive salience. Incentive salience takes Pavlovian learning and memory as one input and as an equally important input takes neurobiological state factors (e.g. drug states, appetite states, satiety states) that can vary independently of learning. Neurobiological state changes can produce unlearned fluctuations or even reversals in the ability of a previously learned reward cue to trigger motivation. Such fluctuations in cue-triggered motivation can dramatically depart from all previously learned values about the associated reward outcome. ... Associative learning and prediction are important contributors to motivation for rewards. Learning gives incentive value to arbitrary cues such as a Pavlovian conditioned stimulus (CS) that is associated with a reward (unconditioned stimulus or UCS). Learned cues for reward are often potent triggers of desires. For example, learned cues can trigger normal appetites in everyone, and can sometimes trigger compulsive urges and relapse in individuals with addictions. Cue-triggered 'wanting' for the UCS A brief CS encounter (or brief UCS encounter) often primes a pulse of elevated motivation to obtain and consume more reward UCS. This is a signature feature of incentive salience. Cue as attractive motivational magnets When a Pavlovian CS+ is attributed with incentive salience it not only triggers 'wanting' for its UCS, but often the cue itself becomes highly attractive – even to an irrational degree. This cue attraction is another signature feature of incentive salience ... Two recognizable features of incentive salience are often visible that can be used in neuroscience experiments: (i) UCS-directed 'wanting' – CS-triggered pulses of intensified 'wanting' for the UCS reward; and (ii) CS-directed 'wanting' – motivated attraction to the Pavlovian cue, which makes the arbitrary CS stimulus into a motivational magnet.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eur.+J.+Neurosci.&rft.atitle=From+prediction+error+to+incentive+salience%3A+mesolimbic+computation+of+reward+motivation&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1124-43&rft.date=2012-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3325516%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22487042&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1460-9568.2012.07990.x&rft.aulast=Berridge&rft.aufirst=KC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3325516&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NAcc_function-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NAcc_function_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NAcc_function_158-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 147–48, 366–67, 375–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4"><bdi>978-0-07-148127-4</bdi></a>. <q>VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior (Chapter 15), attention, and multiple forms of memory. This organization of the DA system, wide projection from a limited number of cell bodies, permits coordinated responses to potent new rewards. Thus, acting in diverse terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience ("wanting") on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). In this example, dopamine modulates the processing of sensorimotor information in diverse neural circuits to maximize the ability of the organism to obtain future rewards. ... The brain reward circuitry that is targeted by addictive drugs normally mediates the pleasure and strengthening of behaviors associated with natural reinforcers, such as food, water, and sexual contact. Dopamine neurons in the VTA are activated by food and water, and dopamine release in the NAc is stimulated by the presence of natural reinforcers, such as food, water, or a sexual partner. ... The NAc and VTA are central components of the circuitry underlying reward and memory of reward. As previously mentioned, the activity of dopaminergic neurons in the VTA appears to be linked to reward prediction. The NAc is involved in learning associated with reinforcement and the modulation of motoric responses to stimuli that satisfy internal homeostatic needs. The shell of the NAc appears to be particularly important to initial drug actions within reward circuitry; addictive drugs appear to have a greater effect on dopamine release in the shell than in the core of the NAc. ... If motivational drive is described in terms of wanting, and hedonic evaluation in terms of liking, it appears that wanting can be dissociated from liking and that dopamine may influence these phenomena differently. Differences between wanting and liking are confirmed in reports by humans with addictions, who state that their desire for drugs (wanting) increases with continued use even when pleasure (liking) decreases because of tolerance.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=147-48%2C+366-67%2C+375-76&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-07-148127-4&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reinforcement_in_addiction-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reinforcement_in_addiction_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reinforcement_in_addiction_160-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reinforcement_in_addiction_160-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reinforcement_in_addiction_160-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2016" class="citation book cs1">Edwards S (2016). "Reinforcement principles for addiction medicine; from recreational drug use to psychiatric disorder". Neuroscience for Addiction Medicine: From Prevention to Rehabilitation - Constructs and Drugs. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 223. pp. 63–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fbs.pbr.2015.07.005">10.1016/bs.pbr.2015.07.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-63545-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-63545-7"><bdi>978-0-444-63545-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26806771">26806771</a>. <q>An important dimension of reinforcement highly relevant to the addiction process (and particularly relapse) is secondary reinforcement (Stewart, 1992). Secondary reinforcers (in many cases also considered conditioned reinforcers) likely drive the majority of reinforcement processes in humans. In the specific case of drug addiction, cues and contexts that are intimately and repeatedly associated with drug use will themselves become reinforcing ... A fundamental piece of Robinson and Berridge's incentive-sensitization theory of addiction posits that the incentive value or attractive nature of such secondary reinforcement processes, in addition to the primary reinforcers themselves, may persist and even become sensitized over time in league with the development of drug addiction (Robinson and Berridge, 1993).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reinforcement+principles+for+addiction+medicine%3B+from+recreational+drug+use+to+psychiatric+disorder&rft.btitle=Neuroscience+for+Addiction+Medicine%3A+From+Prevention+to+Rehabilitation+-+Constructs+and+Drugs&rft.series=Progress+in+Brain+Research&rft.pages=63-76&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26806771&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fbs.pbr.2015.07.005&rft.isbn=978-0-444-63545-7&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pleasure_system_-_incentive_sensitization-161">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pleasure_system_-_incentive_sensitization_161-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pleasure_system_-_incentive_sensitization_161-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerridgeKringelbach2015" class="citation journal cs1">Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4425246">"Pleasure systems in the brain"</a>. Neuron. 86 (3): 646–664. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2015.02.018">10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4425246">4425246</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25950633">25950633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuron&rft.atitle=Pleasure+systems+in+the+brain&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=646-664&rft.date=2015-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4425246%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25950633&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2015.02.018&rft.aulast=Berridge&rft.aufirst=KC&rft.au=Kringelbach%2C+ML&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4425246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chromatin_states-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chromatin_states_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chromatin_states_163-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chromatin_states_163-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalkerCatesHellerNestler2015" class="citation journal cs1">Walker DM, Cates HM, Heller EA, Nestler EJ (February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4293340">"Regulation of chromatin states by drugs of abuse"</a>. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 30: 112–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.conb.2014.11.002">10.1016/j.conb.2014.11.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4293340">4293340</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25486626">25486626</a>. <q>Studies investigating general HDAC inhibition on behavioral outcomes have produced varying results but it seems that the effects are specific to the timing of exposure (either before, during or after exposure to drugs of abuse) as well as the length of exposure</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Curr.+Opin.+Neurobiol.&rft.atitle=Regulation+of+chromatin+states+by+drugs+of+abuse&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=112-21&rft.date=2015-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4293340%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25486626&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.conb.2014.11.002&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=DM&rft.au=Cates%2C+HM&rft.au=Heller%2C+EA&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4293340&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetryRehbeinGentileLemmens2014" class="citation journal cs1">Petry NM, Rehbein F, Gentile DA, Lemmens JS, Rumpf HJ, Mößle T, et al. (September 2014). "An international consensus for assessing internet gaming disorder using the new DSM-5 approach". Addiction. 109 (9): 1399–406. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fadd.12457">10.1111/add.12457</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24456155">24456155</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addiction&rft.atitle=An+international+consensus+for+assessing+internet+gaming+disorder+using+the+new+DSM-5+approach&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1399-406&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fadd.12457&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24456155&rft.aulast=Petry&rft.aufirst=NM&rft.au=Rehbein%2C+F&rft.au=Gentile%2C+DA&rft.au=Lemmens%2C+JS&rft.au=Rumpf%2C+HJ&rft.au=M%C3%B6%C3%9Fle%2C+T&rft.au=Bischof%2C+G&rft.au=Tao%2C+R&rft.au=Fung%2C+DS&rft.au=Borges%2C+G&rft.au=Auriacombe%2C+M&rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez+Ib%C3%A1%C3%B1ez%2C+A&rft.au=Tam%2C+P&rft.au=O%27Brien%2C+CP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid10511013-165"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid10511013_165-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorresHorowitz1999" class="citation journal cs1">Torres G, Horowitz JM (1999). "Drugs of abuse and brain gene expression". Psychosom Med. 61 (5): 630–50. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.326.4903">10.1.1.326.4903</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00006842-199909000-00007">10.1097/00006842-199909000-00007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10511013">10511013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychosom+Med&rft.atitle=Drugs+of+abuse+and+brain+gene+expression&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=630-50&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.326.4903%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10511013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00006842-199909000-00007&rft.aulast=Torres&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Horowitz%2C+JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHymanHoltzman2015" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM (2015). "Chapter 16: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-182770-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-182770-6"><bdi>978-0-07-182770-6</bdi></a>. <q>The official diagnosis of drug addiction by the Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders (2013), which uses the term substance use disorder, is flawed. Criteria used to make the diagnosis of substance use disorders include tolerance and somatic dependence/withdrawal, even though these processes are not integral to addiction as noted. It is ironic and unfortunate that the manual still avoids use of the term addiction as an official diagnosis, even though addiction provides the best description of the clinical syndrome.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+16%3A+Reinforcement+and+Addictive+Disorders&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-07-182770-6&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rft.au=Holtzman%2C+DM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-substance-disorder-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-substance-disorder_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-substance-disorder_167-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/590211325">"International Classification of Diseases 11th revision – ICD-11. Disorders due to substance use"</a>. World Health Organization. Geneva. 2023. Retrieved 24 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=International+Classification+of+Diseases+11th+revision+%26ndash%3B+ICD-11.+Disorders+due+to+substance+use&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ficd.who.int%2Fbrowse11%2Fl-m%2Fen%23%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fid.who.int%2Ficd%2Fentity%2F590211325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cambridgecognition-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cambridgecognition_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cambridgecognition_168-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridgecognition.com/research-areas/drug-abuse-liability-research/">"Drug abuse liability"</a>. Cambridge Cognition. Retrieved 9 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Cognition&rft.atitle=Drug+abuse+liability&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridgecognition.com%2Fresearch-areas%2Fdrug-abuse-liability-research%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Institute_on_Drug_Abuse2020" class="citation web cs1">National Institute on Drug Abuse (20 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/drug-topics/commonly-used-drugs-charts">"Commonly Used Drugs Charts"</a>. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Retrieved 9 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Institute+on+Drug+Abuse&rft.atitle=Commonly+Used+Drugs+Charts&rft.date=2020-08-20&rft.au=National+Institute+on+Drug+Abuse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugabuse.gov%2Fdrug-topics%2Fcommonly-used-drugs-charts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarwoodMyersAddiction2004" class="citation book cs1">Harwood HJ, Myers TG, Addiction NR (23 July 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK24623/">Vaccines and Immunotherapies to Control Addiction in Minors: The Legal Framework</a>. National Academies Press (US) – via National Center for Biotechnology Information.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vaccines+and+Immunotherapies+to+Control+Addiction+in+Minors%3A+The+Legal+Framework&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press+%28US%29&rft.date=2004-07-23&rft.aulast=Harwood&rft.aufirst=Henrick+J.&rft.au=Myers%2C+Tracy+G.&rft.au=Addiction%2C+National+Research+Council+%28US%29+and+Institute+of+Medicine+%28US%29+Committee+on+Immunotherapies+and+Sustained-Release+Formulations+for+Treating+Drug&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fsites%2Fbooks%2FNBK24623%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scripps.edu/news-and-events/press-room/2020/20200730-janda-heroinvaccine.html">"'Heavy' heroin vaccine provides hope for addiction treatment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scripps_Research" title="Scripps Research">Scripps Research</a>. 30 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Heavy%27+heroin+vaccine+provides+hope+for+addiction+treatment&rft.pub=Scripps+Research&rft.date=2020-07-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scripps.edu%2Fnews-and-events%2Fpress-room%2F2020%2F20200730-janda-heroinvaccine.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cuimc.columbia.edu/news/experimental-opioid-vaccine-being-tested-columbia">"Experimental Opioid Vaccine Being Tested at Columbia"</a>. Columbia University Irving Medical Center. 1 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Columbia+University+Irving+Medical+Center&rft.atitle=Experimental+Opioid+Vaccine+Being+Tested+at+Columbia&rft.date=2021-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cuimc.columbia.edu%2Fnews%2Fexperimental-opioid-vaccine-being-tested-columbia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFurfaro2022" class="citation web cs1">Furfaro H (5 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/mental-health/to-fight-opioid-crisis-uw-researchers-take-new-shot-at-developing-vaccine-against-addictive-drugs/">"To fight opioid crisis, UW researchers take new shot at developing vaccine against addictive drugs"</a>. The Seattle Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Seattle+Times&rft.atitle=To+fight+opioid+crisis%2C+UW+researchers+take+new+shot+at+developing+vaccine+against+addictive+drugs&rft.date=2022-01-05&rft.aulast=Furfaro&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.seattletimes.com%2Fseattle-news%2Fmental-health%2Fto-fight-opioid-crisis-uw-researchers-take-new-shot-at-developing-vaccine-against-addictive-drugs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.addictioncenter.com/news/2022/01/vaccine-against-addiction/">"A Vaccine Against Addiction"</a>. Addiction Center. 12 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Addiction+Center&rft.atitle=A+Vaccine+Against+Addiction&rft.date=2022-01-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.addictioncenter.com%2Fnews%2F2022%2F01%2Fvaccine-against-addiction%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAC-175"><a href="#cite_ref-AAC_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Addiction_Centers_Editorial_Staff2022" class="citation web cs1">American Addiction Centers Editorial Staff (4 January 2022) [December 29, 2016]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://drugabuse.com/blog/why-dont-we-have-addiction-vaccines/">"Why Don't We Have Addiction Vaccines?"</a>. DrugAbuse.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DrugAbuse.com&rft.atitle=Why+Don%27t+We+Have+Addiction+Vaccines%3F&rft.date=2022-01-04&rft.au=American+Addiction+Centers+Editorial+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdrugabuse.com%2Fblog%2Fwhy-dont-we-have-addiction-vaccines%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-drugabusegov-176"><a href="#cite_ref-drugabusegov_176-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Shine2000" class="citation web cs1">Barbara Shine (October 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060810101935/http://www.drugabuse.gov/NIDA_Notes/NNVol15N5/Vaccine.html">"Nicotine Vaccine Moves Toward Clinical Trials"</a>. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.drugabuse.gov/NIDA_Notes/NNVol15N5/Vaccine.html">the original</a> on 10 August 2006. Retrieved 19 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nicotine+Vaccine+Moves+Toward+Clinical+Trials&rft.pub=National+Institute+on+Drug+Abuse&rft.date=2000-10&rft.au=Barbara+Shine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugabuse.gov%2FNIDA_Notes%2FNNVol15N5%2FVaccine.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nabiwebsite-177"><a href="#cite_ref-Nabiwebsite_177-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nabi.com">"Nabi Biopharmaceuticals Website"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nabi+Biopharmaceuticals+Website&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nabi.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cpt-p459-178"><a href="#cite_ref-cpt-p459_178-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatsukamiRennard_SJorenby_DFiore_M2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dorothy_Hatsukami&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dorothy Hatsukami (page does not exist)">Hatsukami DK</a>, Rennard S, Jorenby D, Fiore M, Koopmeiners J, de Vos A, et al. (2005). "Safety and immunogenicity of a nicotine conjugate vaccine in current smokers". Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 78 (5): 456–467. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.clpt.2005.08.007">10.1016/j.clpt.2005.08.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16321612">16321612</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1218556">1218556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Pharmacology+%26+Therapeutics&rft.atitle=Safety+and+immunogenicity+of+a+nicotine+conjugate+vaccine+in+current+smokers&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=456-467&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1218556%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16321612&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.clpt.2005.08.007&rft.aulast=Hatsukami&rft.aufirst=Dorothy+K.&rft.au=Rennard+S&rft.au=Jorenby+D&rft.au=Fiore+M&rft.au=Koopmeiners+J&rft.au=de+Vos+A&rft.au=Horwith+G&rft.au=Pentel+PR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid16038686-179"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid16038686_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartellMitchellPolingGonsai2005" class="citation journal cs1">Martell BA, Mitchell E, Poling J, Gonsai K, Kosten TR (July 2005). "Vaccine pharmacotherapy for the treatment of cocaine dependence". Biol. Psychiatry. 58 (2): 158–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biopsych.2005.04.032">10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.032</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16038686">16038686</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22415520">22415520</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biol.+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Vaccine+pharmacotherapy+for+the+treatment+of+cocaine+dependence&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=158-64&rft.date=2005-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22415520%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16038686&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.biopsych.2005.04.032&rft.aulast=Martell&rft.aufirst=BA&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+E&rft.au=Poling%2C+J&rft.au=Gonsai%2C+K&rft.au=Kosten%2C+TR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3804741.stm">"Cocaine vaccine 'stops addiction'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. 14 June 2004. Retrieved 7 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Cocaine+vaccine+%27stops+addiction%27&rft.date=2004-06-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fhealth%2F3804741.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091206100218/http://www.celticpharma.com/theportfolio/ta-nic.html">"CelticPharma: TA-NIC Nicotine Dependence"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.celticpharma.com/theportfolio/ta-nic.html">the original</a> on 6 December 2009. Retrieved 27 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CelticPharma%3A+TA-NIC+Nicotine+Dependence.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.celticpharma.com%2Ftheportfolio%2Fta-nic.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKIRO_7_News_Staff2023" class="citation news cs1">KIRO 7 News Staff (19 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kiro7.com/news/local/uw-researcher-explains-new-vaccine-being-made-prevent-opioid-overdoses/HXFQ3AZ2YBAGDIELRDIGKCWN6M/">"UW researcher explains new vaccine in the works to prevent opioid overdoses"</a>. <a href="/wiki/KIRO_7" class="mw-redirect" title="KIRO 7">KIRO 7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=KIRO+7&rft.atitle=UW+researcher+explains+new+vaccine+in+the+works+to+prevent+opioid+overdoses&rft.date=2023-09-19&rft.au=KIRO+7+News+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kiro7.com%2Fnews%2Flocal%2Fuw-researcher-explains-new-vaccine-being-made-prevent-opioid-overdoses%2FHXFQ3AZ2YBAGDIELRDIGKCWN6M%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Reward_system_and_psychostimulants-183"><a href="#cite_ref-Reward_system_and_psychostimulants_183-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorLewisOlive2013" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor SB, Lewis CR, Olive MF (February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3931688">"The neurocircuitry of illicit psychostimulant addiction: acute and chronic effects in humans"</a>. Subst. Abuse Rehabil. 4: 29–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2147%2FSAR.S39684">10.2147/SAR.S39684</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3931688">3931688</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24648786">24648786</a>. <q>Initial drug use can be attributed to the ability of the drug to act as a reward (ie, a pleasurable emotional state or positive reinforcer), which can lead to repeated drug use and dependence.8,9 A great deal of research has focused on the molecular and neuroanatomical mechanisms of the initial rewarding or reinforcing effect of drugs of abuse. ... At present, no pharmacological therapy has been approved by the FDA to treat psychostimulant addiction. Many drugs have been tested, but none have shown conclusive efficacy with tolerable side effects in humans.172 ... A new emphasis on larger-scale biomarker, genetic, and epigenetic research focused on the molecular targets of mental disorders has been recently advocated.212 In addition, the integration of cognitive and behavioral modification of circuit-wide neuroplasticity (i.e., computer-based training to enhance executive function) may prove to be an effective adjunct-treatment approach for addiction, particularly when combined with cognitive enhancers.198,213–216 Furthermore, in order to be effective, all pharmacological or biologically based treatments for addiction need to be integrated into other established forms of addiction rehabilitation, such as CBT, individual and group psychotherapy, behavior-modification strategies, twelve-step programs, and residential treatment facilities.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Subst.+Abuse+Rehabil.&rft.atitle=The+neurocircuitry+of+illicit+psychostimulant+addiction%3A+acute+and+chronic+effects+in+humans&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=29-43&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3931688%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24648786&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2147%2FSAR.S39684&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=SB&rft.au=Lewis%2C+CR&rft.au=Olive%2C+MF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3931688&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2000" class="citation journal cs1">Scott CG (July 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/003435520004300405">"Ethical Issues in Addiction Counseling"</a>. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin. 43 (4): 209–214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F003435520004300405">10.1177/003435520004300405</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-3552">0034-3552</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15714702">15714702</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28556555">28556555</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rehabilitation+Counseling+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Ethical+Issues+in+Addiction+Counseling&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=209-214&rft.date=2000-07&rft.issn=0034-3552&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28556555%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15714702&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F003435520004300405&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Cynthia+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F003435520004300405&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChenYin2008" class="citation journal cs1">Chen CC, Yin SJ (October 2008). "Alcohol abuse and related factors in Asia". International Review of Psychiatry. 20 (5): 425–433. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09540260802344075">10.1080/09540260802344075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19012127">19012127</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24571763">24571763</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Review+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Alcohol+abuse+and+related+factors+in+Asia&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=425-433&rft.date=2008-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24571763%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19012127&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09540260802344075&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=CC&rft.au=Yin%2C+SJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakLaiWatanabeKim2014" class="citation journal cs1">Mak KK, Lai CM, Watanabe H, Kim DI, Bahar N, Ramos M, et al. (November 2014). "Epidemiology of internet behaviors and addiction among adolescents in six Asian countries". Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking. 17 (11): 720–728. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fcyber.2014.0139">10.1089/cyber.2014.0139</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25405785">25405785</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cyberpsychology%2C+Behavior+and+Social+Networking&rft.atitle=Epidemiology+of+internet+behaviors+and+addiction+among+adolescents+in+six+Asian+countries&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=720-728&rft.date=2014-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fcyber.2014.0139&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25405785&rft.aulast=Mak&rft.aufirst=KK&rft.au=Lai%2C+CM&rft.au=Watanabe%2C+H&rft.au=Kim%2C+DI&rft.au=Bahar%2C+N&rft.au=Ramos%2C+M&rft.au=Young%2C+KS&rft.au=Ho%2C+RC&rft.au=Aum%2C+NR&rft.au=Cheng%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSladeJohnstonTeessonWhiteford2009" class="citation web cs1">Slade T, Johnston A, <a href="/wiki/Maree_Teesson" title="Maree Teesson">Teesson M</a>, Whiteford H, Burgess P, Pirkis J, et al. (May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/A24556C814804A99CA257BF0001CAC45/$File/mha26.pdf">"The Mental Health of Australians 2: Substance Use Disorders in Australia"</a> (PDF). Department of Health and Ageing, Canberra.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mental+Health+of+Australians+2%3A+Substance+Use+Disorders+in+Australia&rft.pub=Department+of+Health+and+Ageing%2C+Canberra&rft.date=2009-05&rft.aulast=Slade&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Johnston%2C+A&rft.au=Teesson%2C+M&rft.au=Whiteford%2C+H&rft.au=Burgess%2C+P&rft.au=Pirkis%2C+J&rft.au=Saw%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.health.gov.au%2Finternet%2Fmain%2Fpublishing.nsf%2FContent%2FA24556C814804A99CA257BF0001CAC45%2F%24File%2Fmha26.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AIHW_2019-188">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AIHW_2019_188-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AIHW_2019_188-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustralian_Institute_of_Health_and_Welfare_(AIHW)2020" class="citation report cs1">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/illicit-use-of-drugs/national-drug-strategy-household-survey-2019/contents/table-of-contents">National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2019</a> (Report). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25816%2FE42P-A447">10.25816/E42P-A447</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=National+Drug+Strategy+Household+Survey+2019&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.25816%2FE42P-A447&rft.au=Australian+Institute+of+Health+and+Welfare+%28AIHW%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aihw.gov.au%2Freports%2Fillicit-use-of-drugs%2Fnational-drug-strategy-household-survey-2019%2Fcontents%2Ftable-of-contents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeacockLeungLarneyColledge2018" class="citation journal cs1">Peacock A, Leung J, Larney S, Colledge S, Hickman M, Rehm J, et al. (October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10049286/">"Global statistics on alcohol, tobacco and illicit drug use: 2017 status report"</a>. Addiction. 113 (10): 1905–1926. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fadd.14234">10.1111/add.14234</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11343%2F283940">11343/283940</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29749059">29749059</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13674349">13674349</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addiction&rft.atitle=Global+statistics+on+alcohol%2C+tobacco+and+illicit+drug+use%3A+2017+status+report&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1905-1926&rft.date=2018-10&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11343%2F283940&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13674349%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29749059&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fadd.14234&rft.aulast=Peacock&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Leung%2C+J&rft.au=Larney%2C+S&rft.au=Colledge%2C+S&rft.au=Hickman%2C+M&rft.au=Rehm%2C+J&rft.au=Giovino%2C+GA&rft.au=West%2C+R&rft.au=Hall%2C+W&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+P&rft.au=Ali%2C+R&rft.au=Gowing%2C+L&rft.au=Marsden%2C+J&rft.au=Ferrari%2C+AJ&rft.au=Grebely%2C+J&rft.au=Farrell%2C+M&rft.au=Degenhardt%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.ucl.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F10049286%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Epidem-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Epidem_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epidem_191-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epidem_191-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epidem_191-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerikangasMcClair2012" class="citation journal cs1">Merikangas KR, McClair VL (June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4408274">"Epidemiology of Substance Use Disorders"</a>. Hum. Genet. 131 (6): 779–89. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00439-012-1168-0">10.1007/s00439-012-1168-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4408274">4408274</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22543841">22543841</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hum.+Genet.&rft.atitle=Epidemiology+of+Substance+Use+Disorders&rft.volume=131&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=779-89&rft.date=2012-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4408274%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22543841&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00439-012-1168-0&rft.aulast=Merikangas&rft.aufirst=KR&rft.au=McClair%2C+VL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4408274&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManubayMuchowSullivan2011" class="citation journal cs1">Manubay JM, Muchow C, Sullivan MA (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3328297">"Prescription drug abuse: epidemiology, regulatory issues, chronic pain management with narcotic analgesics"</a>. Primary Care. 38 (1): 71–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pop.2010.11.006">10.1016/j.pop.2010.11.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3328297">3328297</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21356422">21356422</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Primary+Care&rft.atitle=Prescription+drug+abuse%3A+epidemiology%2C+regulatory+issues%2C+chronic+pain+management+with+narcotic+analgesics&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-90&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3328297%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21356422&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.pop.2010.11.006&rft.aulast=Manubay&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Muchow%2C+C&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3328297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2021_NSDUH_Report-193"><a href="#cite_ref-2021_NSDUH_Report_193-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubstance_Abuse_and_Mental_Health_Services_Administration2022" class="citation report cs1">Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2021-nsduh-annual-national-report">Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health</a> (Report). Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Retrieved 24 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Key+substance+use+and+mental+health+indicators+in+the+United+States%3A+Results+from+the+2021+National+Survey+on+Drug+Use+and+Health&rft.pub=Center+for+Behavioral+Health+Statistics+and+Quality%2C+Substance+Abuse+and+Mental+Health+Services+Administration&rft.date=2022&rft.au=Substance+Abuse+and+Mental+Health+Services+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.samhsa.gov%2Fdata%2Freport%2F2021-nsduh-annual-national-report&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ABAM-194">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ABAM_194-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABAM_194-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABAM_194-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABAM_194-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABAM_194-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABAM_194-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210321082744/http://www.abam.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/1.-News-Release-ADM.pdf">"American Board of Medical Specialties recognizes the new subspecialty of addiction medicine"</a> (PDF). American Board of Addiction Medicine. 14 March 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abam.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/1.-News-Release-ADM.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2016. <q>Sixteen percent of the non-institutionalized U.S. population age 12 and over – more than 40 million Americans – meets medical criteria for addiction involving nicotine, alcohol or other drugs. This is more than the number of Americans with cancer, diabetes or heart conditions. In 2014, 22.5 million people in the United States needed treatment for addiction involving alcohol or drugs other than nicotine, but only 11.6 percent received any form of inpatient, residential, or outpatient treatment. Of those who do receive treatment, few receive evidence-based care. (There is no information available on how many individuals receive treatment for addiction involving nicotine.) Risky substance use and untreated addiction account for one-third of inpatient hospital costs and 20 percent of all deaths in the United States each year, and cause or contribute to more than 100 other conditions requiring medical care, as well as vehicular crashes, other fatal and non-fatal injuries, overdose deaths, suicides, homicides, domestic discord, the highest incarceration rate in the world and many other costly social consequences. The economic cost to society is greater than the cost of diabetes and all cancers combined. Despite these startling statistics on the prevalence and costs of addiction, few physicians have been trained to prevent or treat it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Board+of+Addiction+Medicine&rft.atitle=American+Board+of+Medical+Specialties+recognizes+the+new+subspecialty+of+addiction+medicine&rft.date=2016-03-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abam.net%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F03%2F1.-News-Release-ADM.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIDA_Addiction_Medicine-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIDA_Addiction_Medicine_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIDA_Addiction_Medicine_195-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIDA_Addiction_Medicine_195-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolkow2016" class="citation web cs1">Volkow N (31 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160405133536/https://www.drugabuse.gov/about-nida/noras-blog/2016/03/major-step-forward-addiction-medicine">"A Major Step Forward for Addiction Medicine"</a>. National Institute on Drug Abuse. National Institutes of Health. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/about-nida/noras-blog/2016/03/major-step-forward-addiction-medicine">the original</a> on 5 April 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2016. <q>Only about 10 percent of the 21 million Americans who meet the need for care for an alcohol or drug use disorder receive any form of treatment, and much of the treatment available does not meet standards for evidence-based care. There are many attitudinal and systemic reasons for this treatment gap, including stigma against treating people with addictions and institutional barriers to providing or funding addiction treatment. ... A major milestone was reached on March 14, 2016, when the American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) formally announced recognition of the field of Addiction Medicine as a medical subspecialty. ... In a statement issued to mark this milestone, ABAM President Robert J. Sokol summed up its significance: 'This landmark event, more than any other, recognizes addiction as a preventable and treatable disease, helping to shed the stigma that has long plagued it. It sends a strong message to the public that American medicine is committed to providing expert care for this disease and services designed to prevent the risky substance use that precedes it.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Institute+on+Drug+Abuse&rft.atitle=A+Major+Step+Forward+for+Addiction+Medicine&rft.date=2016-03-31&rft.aulast=Volkow&rft.aufirst=N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugabuse.gov%2Fabout-nida%2Fnoras-blog%2F2016%2F03%2Fmajor-step-forward-addiction-medicine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGramlich2017" class="citation web cs1">Gramlich J (26 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/10/26/nearly-half-of-americans-have-a-family-member-or-close-friend-whos-been-addicted-to-drugs/">"Nearly half of Americans have a family member or close friend who's been addicted to drugs"</a>. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 14 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nearly+half+of+Americans+have+a+family+member+or+close+friend+who%27s+been+addicted+to+drugs&rft.pub=Pew+Research+Center&rft.date=2017-10-26&rft.aulast=Gramlich&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Ffact-tank%2F2017%2F10%2F26%2Fnearly-half-of-americans-have-a-family-member-or-close-friend-whos-been-addicted-to-drugs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/video/national/we-were-addicted-to-their-pill-but-they-were-addicted-to-the-money/2019/07/21/7c006bc0-4e9b-46a5-bc80-c7e95e46d513_video.html?wpisrc=nl_headlines&wpmm=1">"We were addicted to their pill, but they were addicted to the money"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. Retrieved 22 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=We+were+addicted+to+their+pill%2C+but+they+were+addicted+to+the+money&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fvideo%2Fnational%2Fwe-were-addicted-to-their-pill-but-they-were-addicted-to-the-money%2F2019%2F07%2F21%2F7c006bc0-4e9b-46a5-bc80-c7e95e46d513_video.html%3Fwpisrc%3Dnl_headlines%26wpmm%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasinSahaKerridgeGoldstein2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hasin DS, Saha TD, Kerridge BT, Goldstein RB, Chou SP, Zhang H, et al. (December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037576">"Prevalence of Marijuana Use Disorders in the United States Between 2001–2002 and 2012–2013"</a>. JAMA Psychiatry. 72 (12): 1235–1242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjamapsychiatry.2015.1858">10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1858</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037576">5037576</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26502112">26502112</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Prevalence+of+Marijuana+Use+Disorders+in+the+United+States+Between+2001%E2%80%932002+and+2012%E2%80%932013&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1235-1242&rft.date=2015-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5037576%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26502112&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjamapsychiatry.2015.1858&rft.aulast=Hasin&rft.aufirst=DS&rft.au=Saha%2C+TD&rft.au=Kerridge%2C+BT&rft.au=Goldstein%2C+RB&rft.au=Chou%2C+SP&rft.au=Zhang%2C+H&rft.au=Jung%2C+J&rft.au=Pickering%2C+RP&rft.au=Ruan%2C+WJ&rft.au=Smith%2C+SM&rft.au=Huang%2C+B&rft.au=Grant%2C+BF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5037576&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-StatisticsCanada-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-StatisticsCanada_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-StatisticsCanada_199-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-StatisticsCanada_199-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-StatisticsCanada_199-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/82-624-x/2013001/article/tbl/tbl1-eng.htm">"Mental and substance use disorders in Canada"</a>. Statistics Canada. Government of Canada. 18 September 2013. Retrieved 8 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Statistics+Canada&rft.atitle=Mental+and+substance+use+disorders+in+Canada&rft.date=2013-09-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww150.statcan.gc.ca%2Fn1%2Fpub%2F82-624-x%2F2013001%2Farticle%2Ftbl%2Ftbl1-eng.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/drug-addiction/symptoms-causes/syc-20365112">"Drug addiction (substance use disorder) – Symptoms and causes"</a>. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 8 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mayo+Clinic&rft.atitle=Drug+addiction+%28substance+use+disorder%29+%E2%80%93+Symptoms+and+causes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Fdiseases-conditions%2Fdrug-addiction%2Fsymptoms-causes%2Fsyc-20365112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ontario_Scorecard-201">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ontario_Scorecard_201-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ontario_Scorecard_201-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ices.on.ca/Publications/Atlases-and-Reports/2021/Mental-Health-and-Addictions-System-Performance-in-Ontario-2021-Scorecard">"Mental Health and Addictions System Performance in Ontario: 2021 Scorecard"</a>. www.ices.on.ca. Retrieved 8 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ices.on.ca&rft.atitle=Mental+Health+and+Addictions+System+Performance+in+Ontario%3A+2021+Scorecard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ices.on.ca%2FPublications%2FAtlases-and-Reports%2F2021%2FMental-Health-and-Addictions-System-Performance-in-Ontario-2021-Scorecard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/WDR2012/WDR_2012_web_small.pdf">World Drug Report 2012</a> (PDF). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. June 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-1-148267-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-1-148267-6"><bdi>978-92-1-148267-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Drug+Report+2012&rft.pub=United+Nations+Office+on+Drugs+and+Crime&rft.date=2012-06&rft.isbn=978-92-1-148267-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unodc.org%2Fdocuments%2Fdata-and-analysis%2FWDR2012%2FWDR_2012_web_small.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPacurucu-CastilloOrdóñez-ManchenoHernández-CruzAlarcón2019" class="citation journal cs1">Pacurucu-Castillo SF, Ordóñez-Mancheno JM, Hernández-Cruz A, Alarcón RD (April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9175731">"World opioid and substance use epidemic: a Latin American perspective"</a>. Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice. 1 (1): 32–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.prcp.20180009">10.1176/appi.prcp.20180009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9175731">9175731</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36101564">36101564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+Research+and+Clinical+Practice&rft.atitle=World+opioid+and+substance+use+epidemic%3A+a+Latin+American+perspective.&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-8&rft.date=2019-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9175731%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36101564&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.prcp.20180009&rft.aulast=Pacurucu-Castillo&rft.aufirst=SF&rft.au=Ord%C3%B3%C3%B1ez-Mancheno%2C+JM&rft.au=Hern%C3%A1ndez-Cruz%2C+A&rft.au=Alarc%C3%B3n%2C+RD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9175731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crocq_2007-204"><a href="#cite_ref-Crocq_2007_204-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrocq2007" class="citation journal cs1">Crocq MA (December 2007). Thibaut F (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3202501">"Historical and cultural aspects of man's relationship with addictive drugs"</a>. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 9 (4). <a href="/wiki/Laboratoires_Servier" title="Laboratoires Servier">Laboratoires Servier</a>: 355–361. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31887%2FDCNS.2007.9.4%2Fmacrocq">10.31887/DCNS.2007.9.4/macrocq</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62869913">62869913</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3202501">3202501</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18286796">18286796</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12682928">12682928</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+in+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Historical+and+cultural+aspects+of+man%27s+relationship+with+addictive+drugs&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=355-361&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3202501%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12682928%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31887%2FDCNS.2007.9.4%2Fmacrocq&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62869913&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18286796&rft.aulast=Crocq&rft.aufirst=MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3202501&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lemon_2018-205">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lemon_2018_205-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lemon_2018_205-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lemon_2018_205-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemon2018" class="citation book cs1">Lemon R (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mwVKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">"Introduction: Addiction in (Early) Modernity"</a>. Addiction and Devotion in Early Modern England. Haney Foundation Series. <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. pp. 1–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4996-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4996-5"><bdi>978-0-8122-4996-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Addiction+in+%28Early%29+Modernity&rft.btitle=Addiction+and+Devotion+in+Early+Modern+England&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.series=Haney+Foundation+Series&rft.pages=1-23&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4996-5&rft.aulast=Lemon&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmwVKDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rosenthal_2019-206">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenthal_2019_206-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenthal_2019_206-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenthalFaris2019" class="citation journal cs1">Rosenthal R, Faris S (February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F16066359.2018.1543412">"The etymology and early history of 'addiction'"</a>. Addiction Research & Theory. 27 (5). <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>: 437–449. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F16066359.2018.1543412">10.1080/16066359.2018.1543412</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-7392">1476-7392</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150418396">150418396</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addiction+Research+%26+Theory&rft.atitle=The+etymology+and+early+history+of+%27addiction%27&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=437-449&rft.date=2019-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150418396%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1476-7392&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F16066359.2018.1543412&rft.aulast=Rosenthal&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Faris%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F16066359.2018.1543412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInstitute_of_Medicine1996" class="citation book cs1">Institute of Medicine (1996). Pathways of Addiction: Opportunities in Drug Abuse Research. Washington: National Academies Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pathways+of+Addiction%3A+Opportunities+in+Drug+Abuse+Research&rft.place=Washington&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Institute+of+Medicine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBettinardi-AngresAngres2010" class="citation journal cs1">Bettinardi-Angres K, Angres DH (July 2010). Alexander M (ed.). "Understanding the Disease of Addiction". Journal of Nursing Regulation. 1 (2). <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_State_Boards_of_Nursing" title="National Council of State Boards of Nursing">National Council of State Boards of Nursing</a>: 31–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2155-8256%2815%2930348-3">10.1016/S2155-8256(15)30348-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2155-8256">2155-8256</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143289528">143289528</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Nursing+Regulation&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+Disease+of+Addiction&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=31-37&rft.date=2010-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143289528%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2155-8256&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS2155-8256%2815%2930348-3&rft.aulast=Bettinardi-Angres&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Angres%2C+DH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=alcohol&searchmode=none">"Alcohol"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Alcohol&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3Dalcohol%26searchmode%3Dnone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppelEllisonJanskyOldak2004" class="citation journal cs1">Appel PW, Ellison AA, Jansky HK, Oldak R (2004). "Barriers to enrollment in drug abuse treatment and suggestions for reducing them: opinions of drug injecting street outreach clients and other system stakeholders". The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 30 (1): 129–153. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1081%2Fada-120029870">10.1081/ada-120029870</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15083558">15083558</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20193011">20193011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Drug+and+Alcohol+Abuse&rft.atitle=Barriers+to+enrollment+in+drug+abuse+treatment+and+suggestions+for+reducing+them%3A+opinions+of+drug+injecting+street+outreach+clients+and+other+system+stakeholders&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=129-153&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20193011%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15083558&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1081%2Fada-120029870&rft.aulast=Appel&rft.aufirst=PW&rft.au=Ellison%2C+AA&rft.au=Jansky%2C+HK&rft.au=Oldak%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMegranahanLynskey2018" class="citation journal cs1">Megranahan K, Lynskey MT (February 2018). "Do creative arts therapies reduce substance misuse? A systematic review". The Arts in Psychotherapy. 57: 50–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aip.2017.10.005">10.1016/j.aip.2017.10.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0197-4556">0197-4556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Arts+in+Psychotherapy&rft.atitle=Do+creative+arts+therapies+reduce+substance+misuse%3F+A+systematic+review&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=50-58&rft.date=2018-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.aip.2017.10.005&rft.issn=0197-4556&rft.aulast=Megranahan&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Lynskey%2C+MT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMooreW1983" class="citation journal cs1">Moore RW, W (1 December 1983). "Art therapy with substance abusers: A review of the literature". The Arts in Psychotherapy. 10 (4): 251–260. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0197-4556%2883%2990026-6">10.1016/0197-4556(83)90026-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0197-4556">0197-4556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Arts+in+Psychotherapy&rft.atitle=Art+therapy+with+substance+abusers%3A+A+review+of+the+literature&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=251-260&rft.date=1983-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0197-4556%2883%2990026-6&rft.issn=0197-4556&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=RW&rft.au=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth_American_Drama_Therapy_Association2016" class="citation cs2">North American Drama Therapy Association (2016), Drama therapy with addictions populations</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drama+therapy+with+addictions+populations&rft.date=2016&rft.au=North+American+Drama+Therapy+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallerMahony1998" class="citation book cs1">Waller D, Mahony J, eds. (9 December 1998). Treatment of Addiction: Current Issues for Arts Therapists. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203132395">10.4324/9780203132395</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-13239-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-13239-5"><bdi>978-0-203-13239-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treatment+of+Addiction%3A+Current+Issues+for+Arts+Therapists&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998-12-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203132395&rft.isbn=978-0-203-13239-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufman1981" class="citation journal cs1">Kaufman GH (1 July 1981). "Art therapy with the addicted". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 13 (4). Taylor & Francis: 353–360. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02791072.1981.10471892">10.1080/02791072.1981.10471892</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7040619">7040619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Psychoactive+Drugs&rft.atitle=Art+therapy+with+the+addicted&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=353-360&rft.date=1981-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02791072.1981.10471892&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7040619&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=GH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallerMahony1998" class="citation book cs1">Waller D, Mahony J, eds. (9 December 1998). Treatment of Addiction: Current Issues for Arts Therapists. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203132395">10.4324/9780203132395</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-13239-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-13239-5"><bdi>978-0-203-13239-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treatment+of+Addiction%3A+Current+Issues+for+Arts+Therapists&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998-12-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203132395&rft.isbn=978-0-203-13239-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmanke_2015-217">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schmanke_2015_217-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmanke_2015_217-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmanke_2015_217-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmanke_2015_217-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmanke_2015_217-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmanke_2015_217-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmanke_2015_217-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmanke2015" class="citation book cs1">Schmanke L (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118306543.ch35">"Art Therapy and Substance Abuse"</a>. The Wiley Handbook of Art Therapy. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 361–374. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118306543.ch35">10.1002/9781118306543.ch35</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-30654-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-30654-3"><bdi>978-1-118-30654-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Art+Therapy+and+Substance+Abuse&rft.btitle=The+Wiley+Handbook+of+Art+Therapy&rft.pages=361-374&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Ltd&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118306543.ch35&rft.isbn=978-1-118-30654-3&rft.aulast=Schmanke&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1002%2F9781118306543.ch35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmanke_2019-218">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schmanke_2019_218-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmanke_2019_218-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmanke_2019_218-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmanke2019" class="citation book cs1">Schmanke L (2019). "Art Therapy Applications and Substance Abuse". Art and Expressive Therapies within the Medical Model (1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 177–187. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780429400087-16">10.4324/9780429400087-16</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-02340-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-02340-9"><bdi>978-0-367-02340-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208386296">208386296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Art+Therapy+Applications+and+Substance+Abuse&rft.btitle=Art+and+Expressive+Therapies+within+the+Medical+Model&rft.pages=177-187&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A208386296%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780429400087-16&rft.isbn=978-0-367-02340-9&rft.aulast=Schmanke&rft.aufirst=L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiangReid-VarleyFan2019" class="citation journal cs1">Chiang M, Reid-Varley WB, Fan X (May 2019). "Creative art therapy for mental illness". Psychiatry Research. 275: 129–136. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.psychres.2019.03.025">10.1016/j.psychres.2019.03.025</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30901671">30901671</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:78090920">78090920</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatry+Research&rft.atitle=Creative+art+therapy+for+mental+illness&rft.volume=275&rft.pages=129-136&rft.date=2019-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A78090920%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30901671&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.psychres.2019.03.025&rft.aulast=Chiang&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Reid-Varley%2C+WB&rft.au=Fan%2C+X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickson2007" class="citation journal cs1">Dickson C (June 2007). "An evaluation study of art therapy provision in a residential Addiction Treatment Programme (ATP)". International Journal of Art Therapy. 12 (1): 17–27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17454830701265220">10.1080/17454830701265220</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1745-4832">1745-4832</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:72987664">72987664</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Art+Therapy&rft.atitle=An+evaluation+study+of+art+therapy+provision+in+a+residential+Addiction+Treatment+Programme+%28ATP%29&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17-27&rft.date=2007-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A72987664%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1745-4832&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17454830701265220&rft.aulast=Dickson&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattoCorcoranFasslerA2003" class="citation journal cs1">Matto H, Corcoran J, Fassler, A (January 2003). "Integrating solution-focused and art therapies for substance abuse treatment: guidelines for practice". The Arts in Psychotherapy. 30 (5): 265–272. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aip.2003.08.003">10.1016/j.aip.2003.08.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0197-4556">0197-4556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Arts+in+Psychotherapy&rft.atitle=Integrating+solution-focused+and+art+therapies+for+substance+abuse+treatment%3A+guidelines+for+practice&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=265-272&rft.date=2003-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.aip.2003.08.003&rft.issn=0197-4556&rft.aulast=Matto&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Corcoran%2C+J&rft.au=Fassler&rft.au=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Megranahan_2018-222">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Megranahan_2018_222-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Megranahan_2018_222-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMegranahanLynskey2018" class="citation journal cs1">Megranahan K, Lynskey MT (February 2018). "Do creative arts therapies reduce substance misuse? A systematic review". The Arts in Psychotherapy. 57: 50–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aip.2017.10.005">10.1016/j.aip.2017.10.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0197-4556">0197-4556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Arts+in+Psychotherapy&rft.atitle=Do+creative+arts+therapies+reduce+substance+misuse%3F+A+systematic+review&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=50-58&rft.date=2018-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.aip.2017.10.005&rft.issn=0197-4556&rft.aulast=Megranahan&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Lynskey%2C+MT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rockwell_2006-223">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rockwell_2006_223-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rockwell_2006_223-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rockwell_2006_223-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRockwellDunham2006" class="citation journal cs1">Rockwell P, Dunham M (January 2006). "The Utility of the Formal Elements Art Therapy Scale in Assessment for Substance Use Disorder". Art Therapy. 23 (3): 104–111. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07421656.2006.10129625">10.1080/07421656.2006.10129625</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0742-1656">0742-1656</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5541133">5541133</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Art+Therapy&rft.atitle=The+Utility+of+the+Formal+Elements+Art+Therapy+Scale+in+Assessment+for+Substance+Use+Disorder&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=104-111&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5541133%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0742-1656&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07421656.2006.10129625&rft.aulast=Rockwell&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Dunham%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancisKaiserDeaver2011" class="citation journal cs1">Francis D, Kaiser D, Deaver SP (22 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07421656.2003.10129571">"Representations of Attachment Security in the Bird's Nest Drawings of Clients with Substance Abuse Disorders"</a>. Art Therapy. 20 (3). Routledge: 125–137. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07421656.2003.10129571">10.1080/07421656.2003.10129571</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0742-1656">0742-1656</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142341708">142341708</a>. Retrieved 4 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Art+Therapy&rft.atitle=Representations+of+Attachment+Security+in+the+Bird%27s+Nest+Drawings+of+Clients+with+Substance+Abuse+Disorders&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=125-137&rft.date=2011-04-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142341708%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0742-1656&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07421656.2003.10129571&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Kaiser%2C+D&rft.au=Deaver%2C+SP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F07421656.2003.10129571&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallLegow1996" class="citation journal cs1">Ball SA, Legow NE (November 1996). "Attachment theory as a working model for the therapist transitioning from early to later recovery substance abuse treatment". The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 22 (4). Taylor & Francis: 533–547. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F00952999609001679">10.3109/00952999609001679</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8911591">8911591</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Drug+and+Alcohol+Abuse&rft.atitle=Attachment+theory+as+a+working+model+for+the+therapist+transitioning+from+early+to+later+recovery+substance+abuse+treatment&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=533-547&rft.date=1996-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F00952999609001679&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8911591&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=SA&rft.au=Legow%2C+NE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indicators_of_Familial_Alcoholism_i-226">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Indicators_of_Familial_Alcoholism_i_226-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Indicators_of_Familial_Alcoholism_i_226-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltKaiser2001" class="citation journal cs1">Holt ES, Kaiser DH (January 2001). "Indicators of Familial Alcoholism in Children's Kinetic Family Drawings". Art Therapy. 18 (2): 89–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07421656.2001.10129751">10.1080/07421656.2001.10129751</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0742-1656">0742-1656</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141669979">141669979</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Art+Therapy&rft.atitle=Indicators+of+Familial+Alcoholism+in+Children%27s+Kinetic+Family+Drawings&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=89-95&rft.date=2001-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141669979%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0742-1656&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07421656.2001.10129751&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=ES&rft.au=Kaiser%2C+DH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshfordBrownCurtis2018" class="citation journal cs1">Ashford RD, Brown AM, Curtis B (August 2018). "Systemic barriers in substance use disorder treatment: A prospective qualitative study of professionals in the field". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 189: 62–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.drugalcdep.2018.04.033">10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.04.033</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29883870">29883870</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:47011510">47011510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Drug+and+Alcohol+Dependence&rft.atitle=Systemic+barriers+in+substance+use+disorder+treatment%3A+A+prospective+qualitative+study+of+professionals+in+the+field&rft.volume=189&rft.pages=62-69&rft.date=2018-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A47011510%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29883870&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.drugalcdep.2018.04.033&rft.aulast=Ashford&rft.aufirst=RD&rft.au=Brown%2C+AM&rft.au=Curtis%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarryMcGintyPescosolidoGoldman2014" class="citation journal cs1">Barry CL, McGinty EE, Pescosolido BA, Goldman HH (October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4285770">"Stigma, discrimination, treatment effectiveness, and policy: public views about drug addiction and mental illness"</a>. Psychiatric Services. 65 (10): 1269–1272. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ps.201400140">10.1176/appi.ps.201400140</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4285770">4285770</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25270497">25270497</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+Services&rft.atitle=Stigma%2C+discrimination%2C+treatment+effectiveness%2C+and+policy%3A+public+views+about+drug+addiction+and+mental+illness&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1269-1272&rft.date=2014-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4285770%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25270497&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.ps.201400140&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=CL&rft.au=McGinty%2C+EE&rft.au=Pescosolido%2C+BA&rft.au=Goldman%2C+HH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4285770&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman2020" class="citation cs2">Feldman N (2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whyy.org/articles/bill-to-prevent-supervised-injection-sites-from-opening-in-philly-advances/">Philly Council bill to block supervised injection sites advances - WHYY</a>, retrieved 14 December 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philly+Council+bill+to+block+supervised+injection+sites+advances+-+WHYY&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhyy.org%2Farticles%2Fbill-to-prevent-supervised-injection-sites-from-opening-in-philly-advances%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrug_Enforcement_Administration2018" class="citation cs2">Drug Enforcement Administration (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2018/01/23/2018-01173/implementation-of-the-provision-of-the-comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act-of-2016-relating-to">Implementation of the Provision of the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016 Relating to the Dispensing of Narcotic Drugs for Opioid Use Disorder</a>, retrieved 14 December 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Implementation+of+the+Provision+of+the+Comprehensive+Addiction+and+Recovery+Act+of+2016+Relating+to+the+Dispensing+of+Narcotic+Drugs+for+Opioid+Use+Disorder&rft.date=2018&rft.au=Drug+Enforcement+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.federalregister.gov%2Fdocuments%2F2018%2F01%2F23%2F2018-01173%2Fimplementation-of-the-provision-of-the-comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act-of-2016-relating-to&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Henningfield_2010-231">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Henningfield_2010_231-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Henningfield_2010_231-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Henningfield_2010_231-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenningfieldDowellSantora2010" class="citation book cs1">Henningfield JE, Dowell ML, Santora PB (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/794700340">Addiction and art</a>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0023-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0023-5"><bdi>978-1-4214-0023-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/794700340">794700340</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Addiction+and+art&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F794700340&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-0023-5&rft.aulast=Henningfield&rft.aufirst=JE&rft.au=Dowell%2C+ML&rft.au=Santora%2C+PB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F794700340&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dingman_2021-232">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dingman_2021_232-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dingman_2021_232-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDingmanZibalese-CrawfordM2021" class="citation journal cs1">Dingman DA, Zibalese-Crawford, M (April 2021). "Reducing Substance Use Related Stigma through Expressions of Artwork". Journal of Alcohol & Drug Education. 65 (1). American Alcohol & Drug Information Foundation: 29–39. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0090-1482">0090-1482</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Alcohol+%26+Drug+Education&rft.atitle=Reducing+Substance+Use+Related+Stigma+through+Expressions+of+Artwork&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-39&rft.date=2021-04&rft.issn=0090-1482&rft.aulast=Dingman&rft.aufirst=DA&rft.au=Zibalese-Crawford&rft.au=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkelly2015" class="citation journal cs1">Skelly J (2015). "Alternative Paths: Mapping Addiction in Contemporary Art by Landon Mackenzie, Rebecca Belmore, Manasie Akpaliapik, and Ron Noganosh". Journal of Canadian Studies. 49 (2). University of Toronto Press: 268–295, 356. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2Fjcs.49.2.268">10.3138/jcs.49.2.268</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9495">0021-9495</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148421461">148421461</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Canadian+Studies&rft.atitle=Alternative+Paths%3A+Mapping+Addiction+in+Contemporary+Art+by+Landon+Mackenzie%2C+Rebecca+Belmore%2C+Manasie+Akpaliapik%2C+and+Ron+Noganosh&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=268-295%2C+356&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148421461%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0021-9495&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2Fjcs.49.2.268&rft.aulast=Skelly&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paivinen_2008-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paivinen_2008_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paivinen_2008_234-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaivinenBade2008" class="citation journal cs1">Paivinen H, Bade S (June 2008). "Voice: challenging the stigma of addiction; a nursing perspective". The International Journal on Drug Policy. 19 (3): 214–219. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.drugpo.2008.02.011">10.1016/j.drugpo.2008.02.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18439812">18439812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+on+Drug+Policy&rft.atitle=Voice%3A+challenging+the+stigma+of+addiction%3B+a+nursing+perspective&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=214-219&rft.date=2008-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.drugpo.2008.02.011&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18439812&rft.aulast=Paivinen&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Bade%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarini2016" class="citation book cs1">Marini MM (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/922640395">Narrative medicine : bridging the gap between evidence-based care and medical humanities</a>. Cham. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-22090-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-22090-1"><bdi>978-3-319-22090-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/922640395">922640395</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Narrative+medicine+%3A+bridging+the+gap+between+evidence-based+care+and+medical+humanities&rft.place=Cham&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F922640395&rft.isbn=978-3-319-22090-1&rft.aulast=Marini&rft.aufirst=MM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F922640395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor_&_Francis_Ltd-236">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_&_Francis_Ltd_236-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_&_Francis_Ltd_236-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlora,_K.2012" class="citation journal cs1">Flora, K. (July 2012). "Recovery From Substance Abuse: A Narrative Approach to Understanding the Motivation and Ambivalence About Change". Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions. 12 (3). Taylor & Francis Ltd: 302–315. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1533256X.2012.702630">10.1080/1533256X.2012.702630</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1533-256X">1533-256X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143901063">143901063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+Work+Practice+in+the+Addictions&rft.atitle=Recovery+From+Substance+Abuse%3A+A+Narrative+Approach+to+Understanding+the+Motivation+and+Ambivalence+About+Change&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=302-315&rft.date=2012-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143901063%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1533-256X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F1533256X.2012.702630&rft.au=Flora%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gardner_2009-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gardner_2009_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardner_2009_237-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardnerPoole2009" class="citation journal cs1">Gardner PJ, Poole JM (October 2009). "One Story at a Time: Narrative Therapy, Older Adults, and Addictions". Journal of Applied Gerontology. 28 (5): 600–620. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0733464808330822">10.1177/0733464808330822</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0733-4648">0733-4648</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:71341761">71341761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Gerontology&rft.atitle=One+Story+at+a+Time%3A+Narrative+Therapy%2C+Older+Adults%2C+and+Addictions&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=600-620&rft.date=2009-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A71341761%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0733-4648&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0733464808330822&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=PJ&rft.au=Poole%2C+JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morgan_2011-238">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_2011_238-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_2011_238-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorganBrosiBrosi2011" class="citation journal cs1">Morgan ML, Brosi WA, Brosi MW (10 December 2011). "Restorying Older Adults' Narratives About Self and Substance Abuse". American Journal of Family Therapy. 39 (5): 444–455. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01926187.2011.560784">10.1080/01926187.2011.560784</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0192-6187">0192-6187</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145136521">145136521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Family+Therapy&rft.atitle=Restorying+Older+Adults%27+Narratives+About+Self+and+Substance+Abuse&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=444-455&rft.date=2011-12-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145136521%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0192-6187&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01926187.2011.560784&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=ML&rft.au=Brosi%2C+WA&rft.au=Brosi%2C+MW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhodes_2011-239">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_2011_239-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_2011_239-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_2011_239-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodesBivolScutelniciucHunt2011" class="citation journal cs1">Rhodes T, Bivol S, Scutelniciuc O, Hunt N, Bernays S, Busza J (November 2011). "Narrating the social relations of initiating injecting drug use: Transitions in self and society". International Journal of Drug Policy. 22 (6). Elsevier B.V.: 445–454. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.drugpo.2011.07.012">10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.07.012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0955-3959">0955-3959</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21903372">21903372</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Drug+Policy&rft.atitle=Narrating+the+social+relations+of+initiating+injecting+drug+use%3A+Transitions+in+self+and+society&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=445-454&rft.date=2011-11&rft.issn=0955-3959&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21903372&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.drugpo.2011.07.012&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Bivol%2C+S&rft.au=Scutelniciuc%2C+O&rft.au=Hunt%2C+N&rft.au=Bernays%2C+S&rft.au=Busza%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weicker_2021-240">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weicker_2021_240-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weicker_2021_240-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weicker_2021_240-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeickerWhaleyUrquhartPark2021" class="citation journal cs1">Weicker NP, Whaley S, Urquhart G, Park JN, Sherman SG, Owczarzak J (October 2021). ""I Know It Is Going to Ruin Their Life:" Fortune-Telling, Agency, and Harm Reduction in Narratives Concerning Injection Initiation Assistance". Substance Use & Misuse. 56 (12): 1860–1868. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10826084.2021.1958854">10.1080/10826084.2021.1958854</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1082-6084">1082-6084</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34348070">34348070</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236928168">236928168</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Substance+Use+%26+Misuse&rft.atitle=%22I+Know+It+Is+Going+to+Ruin+Their+Life%3A%22+Fortune-Telling%2C+Agency%2C+and+Harm+Reduction+in+Narratives+Concerning+Injection+Initiation+Assistance&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1860-1868&rft.date=2021-10&rft.issn=1082-6084&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236928168%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34348070&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10826084.2021.1958854&rft.aulast=Weicker&rft.aufirst=NP&rft.au=Whaley%2C+S&rft.au=Urquhart%2C+G&rft.au=Park%2C+JN&rft.au=Sherman%2C+SG&rft.au=Owczarzak%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRau2014" class="citation journal cs1">Rau BL (September 2014). "The Oxford Handbook of Evidence-Based Management, Rousseau DM 2012. 432 pages, hardcover. New York, NY: Oxford University Press". Academy of Management Learning & Education. 13 (3): 485–487. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5465%2Famle.2013.0309">10.5465/amle.2013.0309</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1537-260X">1537-260X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Academy+of+Management+Learning+%26+Education&rft.atitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Evidence-Based+Management%2C+Rousseau+DM+2012.+432+pages%2C+hardcover.+New+York%2C+NY%3A+Oxford+University+Press.&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=485-487&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5465%2Famle.2013.0309&rft.issn=1537-260X&rft.aulast=Rau&rft.aufirst=BL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaley2013" class="citation journal cs1">Daley DC (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4158844">"Family and social aspects of substance use disorders and treatment"</a>. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis. 21 (4): S73–S76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jfda.2013.09.038">10.1016/j.jfda.2013.09.038</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4158844">4158844</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25214748">25214748</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Food+and+Drug+Analysis&rft.atitle=Family+and+social+aspects+of+substance+use+disorders+and+treatment&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=S73-S76&rft.date=2013-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4158844%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25214748&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jfda.2013.09.038&rft.aulast=Daley&rft.aufirst=DC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4158844&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaadde_MedeirosMosini2017" class="citation journal cs1">Saad M, de Medeiros R, Mosini AC (October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5750603">"Are We Ready for a True Biopsychosocial-Spiritual Model? The Many Meanings of "Spiritual""</a>. Medicines. 4 (4): 79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fmedicines4040079">10.3390/medicines4040079</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5750603">5750603</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29088101">29088101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medicines&rft.atitle=Are+We+Ready+for+a+True+Biopsychosocial-Spiritual+Model%3F+The+Many+Meanings+of+%22Spiritual%22&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=79&rft.date=2017-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5750603%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29088101&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fmedicines4040079&rft.aulast=Saad&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=de+Medeiros%2C+R&rft.au=Mosini%2C+AC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5750603&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarmerKleinmanKimBasilico2019" class="citation book cs1">Farmer P, Kleinman A, Kim J, Basilico M, eds. (31 December 2019). Reimagining Global Health: An Introduction. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2F9780520954632">10.1525/9780520954632</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95463-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95463-2"><bdi>978-0-520-95463-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:168489288">168489288</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reimagining+Global+Health%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2019-12-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A168489288%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2F9780520954632&rft.isbn=978-0-520-95463-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeakland1961" class="citation journal cs1">Weakland JH (October 1961). "The Essence of Anthropological Education". American Anthropologist. 63 (5): 1094–1097. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1961.63.5.02a00130">10.1525/aa.1961.63.5.02a00130</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294">0002-7294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=The+Essence+of+Anthropological+Education&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1094-1097&rft.date=1961-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1961.63.5.02a00130&rft.issn=0002-7294&rft.aulast=Weakland&rft.aufirst=JH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourgois2002" class="citation book cs1">Bourgois P (23 December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511808562/type/book">In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio</a>. Structural Analysis in the Social Sciences (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511808562">10.1017/cbo9780511808562</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01711-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01711-4"><bdi>978-0-521-01711-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Respect%3A+Selling+Crack+in+El+Barrio&rft.series=Structural+Analysis+in+the+Social+Sciences&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002-12-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511808562&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01711-4&rft.aulast=Bourgois&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2F9780511808562%2Ftype%2Fbook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Singer_2012-247">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer_2012_247-15">p</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger2012" class="citation journal cs1">Singer M (October 2012). "Anthropology and addiction: an historical review". Addiction. 107 (10): 1747–1755. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1360-0443.2012.03879.x">10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03879.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22962955">22962955</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addiction&rft.atitle=Anthropology+and+addiction%3A+an+historical+review&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1747-1755&rft.date=2012-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1360-0443.2012.03879.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22962955&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heath_1958-248">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heath_1958_248-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heath_1958_248-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heath_1958_248-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heath_1958_248-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeath1958" class="citation journal cs1">Heath DB (September 1958). "Drinking patterns of the Bolivian Camba". Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 19 (3): 491–508. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15288%2Fqjsa.1958.19.491">10.15288/qjsa.1958.19.491</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13579177">13579177</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+Studies+on+Alcohol&rft.atitle=Drinking+patterns+of+the+Bolivian+Camba&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=491-508&rft.date=1958-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15288%2Fqjsa.1958.19.491&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13579177&rft.aulast=Heath&rft.aufirst=DB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeath1995" class="citation journal cs1">Heath DB (January 1995). "Changes in Drinking Patterns in Bolivian Cultures: A Cautionary Tale About Historical Approaches". Addiction Research. 2 (3): 307–318. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F16066359509005215">10.3109/16066359509005215</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1058-6989">1058-6989</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addiction+Research&rft.atitle=Changes+in+Drinking+Patterns+in+Bolivian+Cultures%3A+A+Cautionary+Tale+About+Historical+Approaches&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=307-318&rft.date=1995-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F16066359509005215&rft.issn=1058-6989&rft.aulast=Heath&rft.aufirst=DB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurraway2020" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Burraway J (October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/addiction">"Addiction"</a>. In Stein F, Diemberger H, Stasch R, Robbins J, Sanchez A, Lazar S, Candea M (eds.). <a href="/wiki/Open_Encyclopedia_of_Anthropology" title="Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology">Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.29164%2F20addiction">10.29164/20addiction</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:241689890">241689890</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Addiction&rft.btitle=Open+Encyclopedia+of+Anthropology&rft.date=2020-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.29164%2F20addiction&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A241689890%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burraway&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.anthroencyclopedia.com%2Fentry%2Faddiction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrebleCasey1969" class="citation journal cs1">Preble E, Casey JJ (January 1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10826086909061998">"Taking Care of Business—The Heroin User's Life on the Street"</a>. International Journal of the Addictions. 4 (1): 1–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F10826086909061998">10.3109/10826086909061998</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-773X">0020-773X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+the+Addictions&rft.atitle=Taking+Care+of+Business%E2%80%94The+Heroin+User%27s+Life+on+the+Street&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-24&rft.date=1969-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F10826086909061998&rft.issn=0020-773X&rft.aulast=Preble&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Casey%2C+JJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.3109%2F10826086909061998&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Golub_2005-252">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Golub_2005_252-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Golub_2005_252-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolubJohnsonDunlap2005" class="citation journal cs1">Golub A, Johnson BD, Dunlap E (May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3690817">"Subcultural evolution and illicit drug use"</a>. Addiction Research & Theory. 13 (3): 217–229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F16066350500053497">10.1080/16066350500053497</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3690817">3690817</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23805068">23805068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addiction+Research+%26+Theory&rft.atitle=Subcultural+evolution+and+illicit+drug+use&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=217-229&rft.date=2005-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3690817%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23805068&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F16066350500053497&rft.aulast=Golub&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Johnson%2C+BD&rft.au=Dunlap%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3690817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> Falk, Richard; Kim, Samuel S. (2019-08-15). The War System: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-23507-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-23507-4">978-1-000-23507-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> "Bandura, Albert: Social Learning Theory", Encyclopedia of Criminological Theory, 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2010, retrieved 2023-11-09 </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> Smith, Mark A. (2021-02-01). "Social Learning and Addiction". Behavioural Brain Research. 398: 112954. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbr.2020.112954">10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112954</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0166-4328">0166-4328</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> Brinthaupt, Thomas M.; Lipka, Richard P. (1994-10-11). Changing the Self: Philosophies, Techniques, and Experiences. State University of New York Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-9754-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-9754-8">978-0-7914-9754-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Societal_toll-257">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Societal_toll_257-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Societal_toll_257-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 1: Basic Principles of Neuropharmacology". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148127-4"><bdi>978-0-07-148127-4</bdi></a>. <q>Drug abuse and addiction exact an astoundingly high financial and human toll on society through direct adverse effects, such as lung cancer and hepatic cirrhosis, and indirect adverse effects –for example, accidents and AIDS – on health and productivity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Basic+Principles+of+Neuropharmacology&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-07-148127-4&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-INCB_2013-258"><a href="#cite_ref-INCB_2013_258-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.incb.org/documents/Publications/AnnualReports/Thematic_chapters/English/AR_2013_E_Chapter_I.pdf">"Economic consequences of drug abuse"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.incb.org/documents/Publications/AnnualReports/AR2013/English/AR_2013_E.pdf">International Narcotics Control Board Report: 2013</a> (PDF). United Nations – <a href="/wiki/International_Narcotics_Control_Board" title="International Narcotics Control Board">International Narcotics Control Board</a>. 2013. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-1-148274-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-1-148274-4"><bdi>978-92-1-148274-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Economic+consequences+of+drug+abuse&rft.btitle=International+Narcotics+Control+Board+Report%3A+2013&rft.pub=United+Nations+%E2%80%93+International+Narcotics+Control+Board&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-92-1-148274-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.incb.org%2Fdocuments%2FPublications%2FAnnualReports%2FThematic_chapters%2FEnglish%2FAR_2013_E_Chapter_I.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/related-topics/trends-statistics/overdose-death-rates">"Overdose Death Rates"</a>. National Institute on Drug Abuse. 9 August 2018. Retrieved 17 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Overdose+Death+Rates&rft.date=2018-08-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugabuse.gov%2Frelated-topics%2Ftrends-statistics%2Foverdose-death-rates&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2020/p1218-overdose-deaths-covid-19.html">"Overdose Deaths Accelerating During Covid-19"</a>. Centers For Disease Control Prevention. 18 December 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Overdose+Deaths+Accelerating+During+Covid-19&rft.date=2020-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fmedia%2Freleases%2F2020%2Fp1218-overdose-deaths-covid-19.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelchat2009" class="citation journal cs1">Pelchat ML (March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3945%2Fjn.108.097816">"Food Addiction in Humans"</a>. The Journal of Nutrition. 139 (3): 620–622. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3945%2Fjn.108.097816">10.3945/jn.108.097816</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19176747">19176747</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Food+Addiction+in+Humans&rft.volume=139&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=620-622&rft.date=2009-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3945%2Fjn.108.097816&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19176747&rft.aulast=Pelchat&rft.aufirst=ML&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3945%252Fjn.108.097816&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2016" class="citation journal cs1">Gordon HW (April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4811731">"Laterality of Brain Activation for Risk Factors of Addiction"</a>. Current Drug Abuse Reviews. 9 (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F1874473709666151217121309">10.2174/1874473709666151217121309</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4811731">4811731</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26674074">26674074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Drug+Abuse+Reviews&rft.atitle=Laterality+of+Brain+Activation+for+Risk+Factors+of+Addiction&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2016-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4811731%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26674074&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F1874473709666151217121309&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=HW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4811731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzalavitz2016" class="citation book cs1">Szalavitz M (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unbrokenbrainrev0000szal">Unbroken Brain</a>. St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-05582-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-250-05582-8"><bdi>978-1-250-05582-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unbroken+Brain&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-250-05582-8&rft.aulast=Szalavitz&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funbrokenbrainrev0000szal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Addiction&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-ism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:-ism">-ism</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-holic" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:-holic">-holic</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Addictions" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Addictions">Addictions</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/addiction/">"The Science of Addiction: Genetics and the Brain"</a>. learn.genetics.utah.edu. Learn.Genetics – <a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=learn.genetics.utah.edu&rft.atitle=The+Science+of+Addiction%3A+Genetics+and+the+Brain&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flearn.genetics.utah.edu%2Fcontent%2Faddiction%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAddiction" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tedmed.com/talks/show?id=309096">Why do our brains get addicted?</a> – a <a href="/wiki/TEDMED" title="TEDMED">TEDMED</a> 2014 talk by <a href="/wiki/Nora_Volkow" title="Nora Volkow">Nora Volkow</a>, the director of the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_on_Drug_Abuse" title="National Institute on Drug Abuse">National Institute on Drug Abuse</a> at <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">NIH</a>.</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Encyclopedia_of_Genes_and_Genomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes">Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes</a> (KEGG) signal transduction pathways: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/show_pathway?hsa05034+2354">KEGG – human alcohol addiction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/show_pathway?hsa05031+2354">KEGG – human amphetamine addiction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/show_pathway?hsa05030+2354">KEGG – human cocaine addiction</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12029" class="extiw" title="d:Q12029">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/F10-F19">F10-F19</a> subdivision .2</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Reinforcement_disorders:_addiction_and_dependence" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Addiction" title="Template:Addiction"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Addiction" title="Template talk:Addiction"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Addiction" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Addiction"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Reinforcement_disorders:_addiction_and_dependence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement" title="Reinforcement">Reinforcement</a> disorders: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">addiction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">dependence</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Addiction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Drug</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphetamine#Addiction" title="Amphetamine">Amphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocaine addiction">Cocaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine#Addiction" title="Methamphetamine">Methamphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate#Addiction_and_dependence" title="Methylphenidate">Methylphenidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicotine addiction">Nicotine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_use_disorder" title="Opioid use disorder">Opioid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_addiction" title="Behavioral addiction">Behavioral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Financial <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Problem_gambling" title="Problem gambling">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsive_buying_disorder" title="Compulsive buying disorder">Shopping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_addiction" title="Food addiction">Palatable food</a></li> <li>Sex-related <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_addiction" title="Sexual addiction">Intercourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography_addiction" title="Pornography addiction">Pornography</a></li></ul></li> <li>Internet-related <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_addiction_disorder" title="Internet addiction disorder">Internet addiction disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_sex_addiction" title="Internet sex addiction">Internet sex addiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_addiction" title="Video game addiction">Video game addiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media addictions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Cellular mechanisms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">Transcriptional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FOSB#ΔFosB" title="FOSB">ΔFosB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-Fos" class="mw-redirect" title="C-Fos">c-Fos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cdk5" class="mw-redirect" title="Cdk5">Cdk5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CREB" title="CREB">CREB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GluR2" class="mw-redirect" title="GluR2">GluR2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NF-%CE%BAB" title="NF-κB">NF-κB</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histone-modifying_enzymes" title="Histone-modifying enzymes">Epigenetic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G9a" class="mw-redirect" title="G9a">G9a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G9a-like_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="G9a-like protein">G9a-like protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HDAC1" title="HDAC1">HDAC1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HDAC2" class="mw-redirect" title="HDAC2">HDAC2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HDAC3" title="HDAC3">HDAC3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HDAC4" title="HDAC4">HDAC4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HDAC5" class="mw-redirect" title="HDAC5">HDAC5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HDAC9" title="HDAC9">HDAC9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HDAC10" title="HDAC10">HDAC10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SIRT1" class="mw-redirect" title="SIRT1">SIRT1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SIRT2" class="mw-redirect" title="SIRT2">SIRT2</a></li> <li>...</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">Dependence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences" title="Adverse childhood experiences">Adverse childhood experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">Physical dependence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_dependence" title="Psychological dependence">Psychological dependence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">Withdrawal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Drugs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">Alcoholism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphetamine_dependence" title="Amphetamine dependence">Amphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate_dependence" title="Barbiturate dependence">Barbiturate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_dependence" title="Benzodiazepine dependence">Benzodiazepine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caffeine_dependence" title="Caffeine dependence">Caffeine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannabis dependence">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine_dependence" title="Cocaine dependence">Cocaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine_dependence" title="Nicotine dependence">Nicotine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_use_disorder" title="Opioid use disorder">Opioid</a></li></ul></li> <li>Non-drug stimuli <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanning_dependence" title="Tanning dependence">Tanning dependence</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treatment_and_management_of_addiction" title="Treatment and management of addiction">Treatment and management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Detoxification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_detoxification" title="Alcohol detoxification">Alcohol detoxification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_detoxification" title="Drug detoxification">Drug detoxification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Behavioral therapies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">Cognitive behavioral therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relapse_prevention" title="Relapse prevention">Relapse prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_management" title="Contingency management">Contingency management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_reinforcement_approach_and_family_training" title="Community reinforcement approach and family training">Community reinforcement approach and family training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivational_enhancement_therapy" title="Motivational enhancement therapy">Motivational enhancement therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivational_interviewing" title="Motivational interviewing">Motivational interviewing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivational_therapy" title="Motivational therapy">Motivational therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Addiction" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Physical exercise</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Treatment programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_rehab" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug rehab">Drug rehab</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Residential_treatment_center" title="Residential treatment center">Residential treatment center</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroin-assisted_treatment" title="Heroin-assisted treatment">Heroin-assisted treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_outpatient_program" title="Intensive outpatient program">Intensive outpatient program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methadone_maintenance" class="mw-redirect" title="Methadone maintenance">Methadone maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine_replacement_therapy" title="Nicotine replacement therapy">Nicotine replacement therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_cessation_clinics_in_India" title="Tobacco cessation clinics in India">Tobacco cessation clinics in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve-step_program" title="Twelve-step program">Twelve-step program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Support groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_recovery_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Addiction recovery groups">Addiction recovery groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_twelve-step_groups" title="List of twelve-step groups">List of twelve-step groups</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Harm_reduction" title="Category:Harm reduction">Category:Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_checking" title="Drug checking">Drug checking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagent_testing" title="Reagent testing">Reagent testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-threshold_treatment_programs" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-threshold treatment programs">Low-threshold treatment programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_alcohol_program" title="Managed alcohol program">Managed alcohol program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderation_Management" title="Moderation Management">Moderation Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_exchange_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Needle exchange program">Needle exchange program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsible_drug_use" title="Responsible drug use">Responsible drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulant_maintenance" title="Stimulant maintenance">Stimulant maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_harm_reduction" title="Tobacco harm reduction">Tobacco harm reduction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allen_Carr" title="Allen Carr">Allen Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Addiction" title="Category:Addiction">Category:Addiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vaccines_against_drugs" title="Category:Vaccines against drugs">Category:Vaccines against drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Discrimination against drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_dysregulation_syndrome" title="Dopamine dysregulation syndrome">Dopamine dysregulation syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive control">Cognitive control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_control" title="Inhibitory control">Inhibitory control</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivational_salience" title="Motivational salience">Motivational salience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motivational_salience#Incentive_salience" title="Motivational salience">Incentive salience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sober_companion" title="Sober companion">Sober companion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Addiction" title="Category:Addiction">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Recreational_drug_use" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Drug_use" title="Template:Drug use"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Drug_use" title="Template talk:Drug use"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Drug_use" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Drug use"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Recreational_drug_use" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">Recreational drug use</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div id="Major_recreational_drugs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major recreational drugs</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Depressant" title="Depressant">Depressants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine">Benzodiazepines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbamate" title="Carbamate">Carbamates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">Alcoholic beverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabapentinoid" title="Gabapentinoid">Gabapentinoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-Hydroxybutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid">GHB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inhalant" title="Inhalant">Inhalants</a> <ul><li>Medical <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Recreational_use_of_nitrous_oxide" title="Recreational use of nitrous oxide">recreational use</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Hazardous <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhesive#Contact" title="Adhesive">contact adhesives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">Gasoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nail_polish#Nail_polish_remover" title="Nail polish">nail polish remover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint_thinner" title="Paint thinner">Paint thinner</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">Freon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kava" title="Kava">Kava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">Nonbenzodiazepines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinazolinone" title="Quinazolinone">Quinazolinones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">Opioids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine" title="Buprenorphine">Buprenorphine</a> <ul><li>Suboxone</li> <li>Subutex</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codeine" title="Codeine">Codeine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lean_(drug)" title="Lean (drug)">Lean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desomorphine" title="Desomorphine">Desomorphine</a> <ul><li>Krokodil</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextropropoxyphene" title="Dextropropoxyphene">Dextropropoxyphene</a> <ul><li>Darvocet</li> <li>Darvon</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fentanyl" title="Fentanyl">Fentanyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">Diamorphine</a> <ul><li>Heroin</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrocodone" title="Hydrocodone">Hydrocodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydromorphone" title="Hydromorphone">Hydromorphone</a> <ul><li>Dilaudid</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methadone" title="Methadone">Methadone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitragyna_speciosa" title="Mitragyna speciosa">Mitragyna speciosa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kratom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kratom">Kratom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">Opium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxycodone" title="Oxycodone">Oxycodone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oxycodone/paracetamol" title="Oxycodone/paracetamol">/paracetamol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tramadol" title="Tramadol">Tramadol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stimulant" title="Stimulant">Stimulants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">Amphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arecoline" title="Arecoline">Arecoline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areca" title="Areca">Areca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paan" class="mw-redirect" title="Paan">Betel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">Caffeine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_drink" title="Energy drink">Energy drinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">Tea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathinone" title="Cathinone">Cathinone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khat" title="Khat">Khat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">Cocaine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coca" title="Coca">Coca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_cocaine" title="Crack cocaine">Crack</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephedrine" title="Ephedrine">Ephedrine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ephedra_(medicine)" title="Ephedra (medicine)">Ephedra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylenedioxypyrovalerone" title="Methylenedioxypyrovalerone">MDPV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mephedrone" title="Mephedrone">Mephedrone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">Methamphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylone" title="Methylone">Methylone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">Methylphenidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modafinil" title="Modafinil">Modafinil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">Nicotine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine_polacrilex" title="Nicotine polacrilex">Polacrilex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine_salt" title="Nicotine salt">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">Tobacco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theobromine" title="Theobromine">Theobromine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">Cocoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chocolate" title="Chocolate">Chocolate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Empathogen%E2%80%93entactogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Empathogen–entactogen">Entactogens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2C_(psychedelics)" title="2C (psychedelics)">2C series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6-APB" title="6-APB">6-APB</a> <ul><li>Benzofury</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Methyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Methyltryptamine">AMT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine" title="3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine">MDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MDMA" title="MDMA">MDMA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MDMA#Forms" title="MDMA">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MDMA#Forms" title="MDMA">Molly</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hallucinogen" title="Hallucinogen">Hallucinogens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">Psychedelics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bufotenin" title="Bufotenin">Bufotenin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River_toad" title="Colorado River toad">Psychoactive toads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anadenanthera_colubrina" title="Anadenanthera colubrina">Vilca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anadenanthera_peregrina" title="Anadenanthera peregrina">Yopo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N,N-Dimethyltryptamine" title="N,N-Dimethyltryptamine">DMT</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">Ayahuasca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergine" title="Ergine">LSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LSD" title="LSD">LSD-25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mescaline" title="Mescaline">Mescaline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echinopsis_peruviana" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinopsis peruviana">Peruvian torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peyote" title="Peyote">Peyote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinopsis_pachanoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinopsis pachanoi">San Pedro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">Psilocybin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Psilocin" title="Psilocin">Psilocin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom" title="Psilocybin mushroom">Psilocybin mushrooms</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Dissociative" title="Dissociative">Dissociatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dextromethorphan" title="Dextromethorphan">DXM</a> (<a href="/wiki/Recreational_use_of_dextromethorphan" title="Recreational use of dextromethorphan">recreational use</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaucine" title="Glaucine">Glaucine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inhalant" title="Inhalant">Inhalants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Recreational_use_of_nitrous_oxide" title="Recreational use of nitrous oxide">recreational use</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkyl_nitrites" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkyl nitrites">alkyl nitrites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppers" title="Poppers">poppers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyl_nitrite" title="Amyl nitrite">amyl nitrite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methoxetamine" title="Methoxetamine">MXE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscimol" title="Muscimol">Muscimol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">PCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvinorin_A" title="Salvinorin A">Salvinorin A</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvia_divinorum" title="Salvia divinorum">Salvia divinorum</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Deliriant" title="Deliriant">Deliriants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atropine" title="Atropine">Atropine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scopolamine" title="Scopolamine">Scopolamine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atropa_belladonna" title="Atropa belladonna">Atropa belladonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Datura" title="Datura">Datura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyoscyamus_niger" title="Hyoscyamus niger">Hyoscyamus niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandragora_officinarum" title="Mandragora officinarum">Mandragora officinarum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimenhydrinate" title="Dimenhydrinate">Dimenhydrinate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphenhydramine" title="Diphenhydramine">Diphenhydramine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid" title="Cannabinoid">Cannabinoids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol" title="Tetrahydrocannabinol">THC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">Cannabis (Marijuana)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashish" title="Hashish">Hashish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hash_oil" title="Hash oil">Hash oil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocannabinoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocannabinoid">Neocannabinoid / synthetic cannabinoids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JWH-018" title="JWH-018">JWH-018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APICA_(synthetic_cannabinoid_drug)" title="APICA (synthetic cannabinoid drug)">APICA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APINACA" title="APINACA">APINACA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_(drug)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spice (drug)">Spice</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Oneirogen" title="Oneirogen">Oneirogens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calea_ternifolia" title="Calea ternifolia">Calea zacatechichi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silene_undulata" title="Silene undulata">Silene capensis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Club_drug" title="Club drug">Club drugs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">Cocaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methaqualone" title="Methaqualone">Quaaludes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MDMA" title="MDMA">MDMA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MDMA#Forms" title="MDMA">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MDMA#Forms" title="MDMA">Molly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Recreational_use_of_nitrous_oxide" title="Recreational use of nitrous oxide">recreational use</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppers" title="Poppers">Poppers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div id="Drug_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Drug_culture" title="Drug culture">Drug culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_culture" title="Cannabis culture">Cannabis culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/420_(cannabis_culture)" title="420 (cannabis culture)">420</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_consumption" title="Cannabis consumption">Cannabis consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_cultivation" title="Cannabis cultivation">Cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_edible" title="Cannabis edible">Cannabis edible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_rights" title="Cannabis rights">Cannabis rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cannabis_rights_leaders" title="List of cannabis rights leaders">Cannabis rights leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cannabis_rights_organizations" title="List of cannabis rights organizations">List of cannabis rights organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_smoking" title="Cannabis smoking">Cannabis smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_Social_Club" title="Cannabis Social Club">Cannabis Social Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_tea" title="Cannabis tea">Cannabis tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaporizer_(inhalation_device)#Cannabis_vaporizers" title="Vaporizer (inhalation device)">Cannabis vaping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_shop" title="Head shop">Head shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_cannabis_in_the_United_States" title="Legal history of cannabis in the United States">Legal history of cannabis in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_cannabis" title="Legality of cannabis">Legality of cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marijuana_Policy_Project" title="Marijuana Policy Project">Marijuana Policy Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_cannabis" title="Medical cannabis">Medical cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_the_Reform_of_Marijuana_Laws" title="National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws">NORML</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_and_religion" title="Cannabis and religion">Cannabis and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoner_film" title="Stoner film">Stoner film</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coffee_culture" title="Coffee culture">Coffee culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Break_(work)#Coffee_break" title="Break (work)">Coffee break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffeehouse" title="Coffeehouse">Coffeehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latte_art" title="Latte art">Latte art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teahouse" title="Teahouse">Teahouse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drinking_culture" title="Drinking culture">Drinking culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bartender" title="Bartender">Bartending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer#Beer_and_society" title="Beer">Beer culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_festival" title="Beer festival">Beer festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binge_drinking" title="Binge drinking">Binge drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether#Recreational_use" title="Diethyl ether">Diethyl ether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_game" title="Drinking game">Drinking games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_song" title="Drinking song">Drinking song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happy_hour" title="Happy hour">Happy hour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_flask" title="Hip flask">Hip flask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightclub" title="Nightclub">Nightclub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oktoberfest" title="Oktoberfest">Oktoberfest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pub" title="Pub">Pub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pub_crawl" title="Pub crawl">Pub crawl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sommelier" title="Sommelier">Sommelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(establishment)" title="Bar (establishment)">Sports bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailgate_party" title="Tailgate party">Tailgate party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_bar" title="Wine bar">Wine bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_tasting" title="Wine tasting">Wine tasting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychedelia" title="Psychedelia">Psychedelia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychonautics" title="Psychonautics">Psychonautics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_art" title="Psychedelic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">Drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_era" title="Psychedelic era">Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_experience" title="Psychedelic experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychedelic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_music" title="Psychedelic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_microdosing" title="Psychedelic microdosing">Microdosing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_shop" title="Smart shop">Smart shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_therapy" title="Psychedelic therapy">Therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smoking#Society_and_culture" title="Smoking">Smoking culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cigarette_card" title="Cigarette card">Cigarette card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_cigarettes" title="Fashion cigarettes">Fashion cigarettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud-chasing" title="Cloud-chasing">Cloud-chasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loosie" title="Loosie">Loosie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smokeasy" title="Smokeasy">Smokeasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_fetishism" title="Smoking fetishism">Smoking fetishism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">Tobacco smoking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chasing_the_dragon" title="Chasing the dragon">Chasing the dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Club_drug" title="Club drug">Club drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture of the 1960s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_party" title="Dance party">Dance party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_paraphernalia" title="Drug paraphernalia">Drug paraphernalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_tourism" title="Recreational drug tourism">Drug tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">Hippie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_sharing" title="Needle sharing">Needle sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootropic" title="Nootropic">Nootropic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_and_play" title="Party and play">Party and play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poly_drug_use" class="mw-redirect" title="Poly drug use">Poly drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rave" title="Rave">Rave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_drugs" title="Religion and drugs">Religion and drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-medication" title="Self-medication">Self-medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_drugs" title="Sex and drugs">Sex and drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_about_drugs" title="Urban legends about drugs">Urban legends about drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whoonga" title="Whoonga">Whoonga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div id="Legality_of_drug_use" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Legality of drug use</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_drug_control_conventions" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations drug control conventions">International drug control conventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single_Convention_on_Narcotic_Drugs" title="Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs">1961 Narcotic Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances" title="Convention on Psychotropic Substances">1971 Psychotropic Substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Illicit_Traffic_in_Narcotic_Drugs_and_Psychotropic_Substances" title="United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances">1988 Drug Trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other treaties addressing drugs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">Law of the Sea Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Convention_Against_Doping_in_Sport" title="International Convention Against Doping in Sport">Convention Against Doping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_European_Union_decisions_on_designer_drugs" title="Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs">Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drug policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decriminalization" title="Decriminalization">Decriminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalization" title="Legalization">Legalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition of drugs">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_reduction" title="Supply reduction">Supply reduction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug policy reform">Policy reform</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_reduction" title="Demand reduction">Demand reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Policy_Alliance" title="Drug Policy Alliance">Drug Policy Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Enforcement_Action_Partnership" title="Law Enforcement Action Partnership">Law Enforcement Action Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_liberalization" title="Drug liberalization">Liberalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_drug_legalization" title="Latin American drug legalization">Latin America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Sensible_Drug_Policy" title="Students for Sensible Drug Policy">Students for Sensible Drug Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_Drug_Policy_Foundation" title="Transform Drug Policy Foundation">Transform Drug Policy Foundation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Drug policy by country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy#Australia" title="Drug policy">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Canada" title="Drug policy of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug policy of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy#Germany" title="Drug policy">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_India" title="Drug policy of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Drug policy of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Portugal" title="Drug policy of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Slovakia" title="Drug policy of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Drug policy of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Sweden" title="Drug policy of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy#Switzerland" title="Drug policy">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_drug_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Federal drug policy of the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Just_Say_No" title="Just Say No">Just Say No</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_National_Drug_Control_Policy" title="Office of National Drug Control Policy">Office of National Drug Control Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_district_drug_policies" title="School district drug policies">School district drug policies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_California" title="Drug policy of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Colorado" title="Cannabis in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Maryland" title="Drug policy of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Oregon" title="Drug policy of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Virginia" title="Drug policy of Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Drug legality</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_law" title="Alcohol law">Alcohol legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabolic_steroid#Legal_status" title="Anabolic steroid">Anabolic steroid legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_cannabis" title="Legality of cannabis">Cannabis legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_cocaine" title="Legal status of cocaine">Cocaine legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_methamphetamine" title="Legal status of methamphetamine">Methamphetamine legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psilocybin_decriminalization_in_the_United_States" title="Psilocybin decriminalization in the United States">Psilocybin decriminalization in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_psilocybin_mushrooms" title="Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms">Psilocybin mushrooms legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Salvia_divinorum" title="Legal status of Salvia divinorum">Salvia legality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arguments_for_and_against_drug_prohibition" title="Arguments for and against drug prohibition">Arguments for and against drug prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_rights" title="Cannabis rights">Cannabis rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_drug_trafficking" title="Capital punishment for drug trafficking">Capital punishment for drug trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designer_drug" title="Designer drug">Designer drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_court" title="Drug court">Drug court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_possession" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug possession">Drug possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_test" title="Drug test">Drug test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informant" title="Informant">Narc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_drug_abuse" title="Politics of drug abuse">Politics of drug abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_drug_war" title="Mexican drug war">Mexican drug war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plan_Colombia" title="Plan Colombia">Plan Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_drug_war" title="Philippine drug war">Philippine drug war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_tolerance" title="Zero tolerance">Zero tolerance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div id="Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Drug production and trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Drug production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coca_production_in_Colombia" title="Coca production in Colombia">Coca production in Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precursor_chemicals" title="Precursor chemicals">Drug precursors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_production_in_Afghanistan" title="Opium production in Afghanistan">Opium production in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_meth_lab" title="Rolling meth lab">Rolling meth lab</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Drug trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade" title="Illegal drug trade">Illegal drug trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Aruba" title="Illegal drug trade in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Bangladesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Belize" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Bhutan" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_Cambodia" title="Drugs in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_China" title="Illegal drug trade in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Colombia" title="Illegal drug trade in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Costa_Rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_El_Salvador" title="Illegal drug trade in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Estonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Haiti" title="Illegal drug trade in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_Indian_Ocean_region" title="Illegal drug trade in the Indian Ocean region">Indian Ocean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Japan" title="Illegal drug trade in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Kenya" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Kosovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Kyrgyzstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Latin_America" title="Illegal drug trade in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Latvia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_trafficking_in_Mauritius" title="Drug trafficking in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Moldova" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Oman" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Panama" title="Illegal drug trade in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Papua_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Paraguay" title="Illegal drug trade in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_Philippines" title="Illegal drug trade in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Illegal drug trade in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Seychelles" title="Illegal drug trade in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_South_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Suriname" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Turkey" title="Illegal drug trade in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Illegal drug trade in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Illegal drug trade in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Venezuela" title="Illegal drug trade in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darknet_market" title="Darknet market">Darknet market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_distribution" title="Pharmaceutical distribution">Pharmaceutical distribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer_shop" class="mw-redirect" title="Beer shop">Beer shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_shop" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannabis shop">Cannabis shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquor_store" title="Liquor store">Liquor store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquor_license" title="Liquor license">Liquor license</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues with drug use</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Abuse</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Addiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Date_rape_drug" title="Date rape drug">Date rape drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">Dependence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_under_the_influence" title="Driving under the influence">Driving impaired</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_harmfulness" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug harmfulness">Drug harmfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_cannabis" title="Effects of cannabis">Effects of cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug-related_crime" title="Drug-related crime">Drug-related crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder" title="Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder">Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_cannabis" title="Long-term effects of cannabis">Long-term effects of cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">Neurotoxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">Overdose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_smoking" title="Passive smoking">Passive smoking</a> <ul><li>of tobacco or other substances</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Harm reduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_checking" title="Drug checking">Drug checking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_legalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug legalization">Drug legalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_rehabilitation" title="Drug rehabilitation">Drug rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_and_syringe_programmes" title="Needle and syringe programmes">Needle and syringe programmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_replacement_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Opioid replacement therapy">Opioid replacement therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagent_testing" title="Reagent testing">Reagent testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_therapeutic_goods" title="Regulation of therapeutic goods">Regulation of therapeutic goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsible_drug_use" title="Responsible drug use">Responsible drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse_prevention" title="Substance abuse prevention">Substance abuse prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countries by drug use</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_alcohol_consumption_per_capita" title="List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita">Alcohol consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_prevalence_of_cocaine_use" title="List of countries by prevalence of cocaine use">Cocaine use</a></li> <li>Cannabis <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annual_cannabis_use_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Annual cannabis use by country">Annual use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adult_lifetime_cannabis_use_by_country" title="Adult lifetime cannabis use by country">Lifetime use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_prevalence_of_opiates_use" title="List of countries by prevalence of opiates use">Opiates use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_tobacco_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by tobacco consumption">Tobacco consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/19px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/29px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/38px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/8px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/16px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/21px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/42px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12029#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12029#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12029#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4058361-2">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX539162">Spain</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=42652">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Addiction&oldid=1259272586#Drug_addiction">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Addiction&oldid=1259272586#Drug_addiction</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Addiction" title="Category:Addiction">Addiction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Behavioral_addiction" title="Category:Behavioral addiction">Behavioral addiction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Brain_disorders" title="Category:Brain disorders">Brain disorders</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Substance-related_disorders" title="Category:Substance-related disorders">Substance-related disorders</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2018" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2018">Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements" title="Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements">All articles containing potentially dated statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_March_2023" title="Category:Use American English from March 2023">Use American English from March 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_February_2023" title="Category:Use dmy dates from February 2023">Use dmy dates from February 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2011" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2011">Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2021" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021">Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_March_2023" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from March 2023">Articles lacking reliable references from March 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 November 2024, at 08:00 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Addiction&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile#Drug_addiction" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-thmnn","wgBackendResponseTime":199,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.038","walltime":"3.490","ppvisitednodes":{"value":21398,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":863854,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":27237,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":57,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1159864,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2921.897 1 -total"," 54.98% 1606.434 4 Template:Reflist"," 31.32% 915.269 156 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.71% 225.269 48 Template:Cite_web"," 5.32% 155.383 31 Template:Cite_book"," 4.53% 132.408 2 Template:Short_description"," 4.42% 129.254 3 Template:Infobox"," 3.76% 109.963 3 Template:Sister_project"," 3.69% 107.875 3 Template:Side_box"," 3.12% 91.239 1 Template:Infobox_medical_condition"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.690","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":8748853,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-profile":[["?","280","15.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","14.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","180","9.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","120","6.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","5.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","4.4"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::unstripNoWiki","60","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","40","2.2"],["[others]","560","30.8"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-5dc468848-wdz6c","timestamp":"20241124080027","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Addiction","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Addiction#Drug_addiction","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12029","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12029","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-09-25T22:49:39Z","dateModified":"2024-11-24T08:00:13Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/91\/Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg","headline":"state characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli despite adverse consequences"}</script> </body> </html>