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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Domestic service </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pawnship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pawnship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Pawnship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pawnship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Military slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slaves_for_sacrifice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slaves_for_sacrifice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Slaves for sacrifice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slaves_for_sacrifice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Local slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practices_by_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practices_by_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Practices by region </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Practices_by_region-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Practices by region subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Practices_by_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 North Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Horn_of_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Horn_of_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Horn of Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Horn_of_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Central Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 West Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African_Great_Lakes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_Great_Lakes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 African Great Lakes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_Great_Lakes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transformations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transformations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Transformations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Transformations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Transformations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Transformations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trans-Saharan,_Red_Sea_and_Indian_Ocean_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trans-Saharan,_Red_Sea_and_Indian_Ocean_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Trans-Saharan, Red Sea and Indian Ocean trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trans-Saharan,_Red_Sea_and_Indian_Ocean_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Early history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_traders_and_markets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_traders_and_markets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Arab traders and markets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_traders_and_markets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_traders_and_colonial_markets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_traders_and_colonial_markets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 European traders and colonial markets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_traders_and_colonial_markets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atlantic_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atlantic_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Atlantic slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atlantic_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abolition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Abolition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-18th_and_19th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_and_19th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 18th and 19th centuries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-18th_and_19th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century_up_to_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century_up_to_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 20th century up to World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century_up_to_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 After World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Extent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Extent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debate_about_demographic_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate_about_demographic_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Debate about demographic effect </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debate_about_demographic_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_the_economy_of_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_the_economy_of_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Effect on the economy of Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_the_economy_of_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_Europe's_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_Europe's_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Effects on Europe's economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_Europe's_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_of_racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_of_racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Legacy of racism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy_of_racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Slavery in Africa</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" > 30 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A9" title="تجارة العبيد الأفارقة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تجارة العبيد الأفارقة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esclavatge_a_%C3%80frica" title="Esclavatge a Àfrica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Esclavatge a Àfrica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sklaverei_innerhalb_von_Subsahara-Afrika" title="Sklaverei innerhalb von Subsahara-Afrika – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sklaverei innerhalb von Subsahara-Afrika" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esclavitud_en_%C3%81frica" title="Esclavitud en África – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Esclavitud en África" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sklaveco_en_Afriko" title="Sklaveco en Afriko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sklaveco en Afriko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esklabotza_Afrikan" title="Esklabotza Afrikan – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Esklabotza Afrikan" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7" title="برده‌داری در آفریقا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="برده‌داری در آفریقا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esclavage_en_Afrique" title="Esclavage en Afrique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Esclavage en Afrique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escravitude_en_%C3%81frica" title="Escravitude en África – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Escravitude en África" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%ED%94%84%EB%A6%AC%EC%B9%B4%EC%9D%98_%EB%85%B8%EC%98%88%EC%A0%9C" title="아프리카의 노예제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아프리카의 노예제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6_%D4%B1%D6%86%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Ստրկությունն Աֆրիկայում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ստրկությունն Աֆրիկայում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropstvo_u_Africi" title="Ropstvo u Africi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ropstvo u Africi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perbudakan_di_Afrika" title="Perbudakan di Afrika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perbudakan di Afrika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiavismo_in_Africa" title="Schiavismo in Africa – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Schiavismo in Africa" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="עבדות באפריקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עבדות באפריקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utumwa_barani_Afrika" title="Utumwa barani Afrika – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Utumwa barani Afrika" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikos_verg%C5%B3_prekyba" title="Afrikos vergų prekyba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Afrikos vergų prekyba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%95%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E3%81%AE%E5%A5%B4%E9%9A%B7%E5%88%B6" title="アフリカの奴隷制 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アフリカの奴隷制" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%BE%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7_%DA%A9%DB%90" title="غلامي په افریقا کې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="غلامي په افریقا کې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escravid%C3%A3o_em_%C3%81frica" title="Escravidão em África – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Escravidão em África" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Рабство в Африке – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Рабство в Африке" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_slave_trade" title="African slave trade – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="African slave trade" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropstvo_u_Africi" title="Ropstvo u Africi – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ropstvo u Africi" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaveri_i_Afrika" title="Slaveri i Afrika – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Slaveri i Afrika" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalakalan_ng_mga_aliping_Aprikano" title="Kalakalan ng mga aliping Aprikano – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kalakalan ng mga aliping Aprikano" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrika%27da_k%C3%B6lelik" title="Afrika'da kölelik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Afrika'da kölelik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%96" title="Рабство в Африці – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Рабство в Африці" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-ciavismo_en_Africa" title="S-ciavismo en Africa – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="S-ciavismo en Africa" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BA%BF_%C4%91%E1%BB%99_n%C3%B4_l%E1%BB%87_%E1%BB%9F_ch%C3%A2u_Phi" title="Chế độ nô lệ ở châu Phi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chế độ nô lệ ở châu Phi" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=African_slave_trade&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="African slave trade">African slave trade</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Historical slavery in Africa</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about historical slavery in Africa. For modern slavery in Africa, see <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Slavery in contemporary Africa</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:African_Slave_Trade.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/African_Slave_Trade.png/300px-African_Slave_Trade.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/African_Slave_Trade.png/450px-African_Slave_Trade.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/African_Slave_Trade.png/600px-African_Slave_Trade.png 2x" data-file-width="1955" data-file-height="890" /></a><figcaption>Major routes of transporting slaves out of Africa, by volume of slaves moved</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Slavery has historically been widespread in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>. Systems of servitude and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> were once commonplace in parts of Africa, as they were in much of the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">medieval world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">trans-Saharan slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> (which started in the 16th century) began, many of the pre-existing local African slave systems began supplying captives for <a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">slave markets</a> outside Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sparks_process-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Slavery in contemporary Africa</a> is still practised in some parts despite it being illegal. In the relevant literature African slavery is categorized into indigenous slavery and export slavery, depending on whether or not slaves were traded beyond the continent.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Slavery in historical Africa was practised in many different forms: <a href="/wiki/Debt_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Debt slavery">Debt slavery</a>, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, and enslavement of criminals were all practised in various parts of Africa.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Slavery for domestic and court purposes was widespread throughout Africa. Plantation slavery also occurred, primarily on the eastern coast of Africa and in parts of West Africa. The importance of domestic plantation slavery increased during the 19th century, due to the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade. Many African states dependent on the international slave trade reoriented their economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<a href="#cite_note-Austin-6">[6]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms">Forms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Forms">edit</a>]</div> Multiple forms of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">servitude</a> have existed throughout African history, and were shaped by indigenous practices of slavery as well as the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Roman institution of slavery</a> (and the later <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christian views on slavery</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islamic institutions of slavery</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim slave trade">Muslim slave trade</a>, and eventually the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> Slavery was a part of the economic structure of African societies for many centuries, although the extent varied.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a>, who visited the ancient kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a> in the mid-14th century, recounts that the local inhabitants vied with each other in the number of slaves and servants they had, and was himself given a slave boy as a "hospitality gift."<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>, the slave relationships were often complex, with rights and freedoms given to individuals held in slavery and restrictions on sale and treatment by their masters.<a href="#cite_note-Fage-8">[8]</a> Many communities had hierarchies between different types of slaves: for example, differentiating between those who had been born into slavery and those who had been captured through war.<a href="#cite_note-Rodney-9">[9]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:350px; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "The slaves in Africa, I suppose, are nearly in the proportion of three to one to the freemen. They claim no reward for their services except food and clothing, and are treated with kindness or severity, according to the good or bad disposition of their masters. Custom, however, has established certain rules with regard to the treatment of slaves, which it is thought dishonourable to violate. Thus the domestic slaves, or such as are born in a man's own house, are treated with more lenity than those which are purchased with money. ... But these restrictions on the power of the master extend not to the care of prisoners taken in war, nor to that of slaves purchased with money. All these unfortunate beings are considered as strangers and foreigners, who have no right to the protection of the law, and may be treated with severity, or sold to a stranger, according to the pleasure of their owners." </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Travels in the Interior of Africa, <a href="/wiki/Mungo_Park_(explorer)" title="Mungo Park (explorer)">Mungo Park</a>, Travels in the Interior of Africa <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5305">v. II, Chapter XXII – War and Slavery</a>.</cite> </div> The forms of slavery in Africa were closely related to <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> structures. In many African communities, where land could not be owned, enslavement of individuals was used as a means to increase the influence a person had and expand connections.<a href="#cite_note-Snell-10">[10]</a> This made slaves a permanent part of a master's lineage, and the children of slaves could become closely connected with the larger family ties.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> Children of slaves born into families could be integrated into the master's kinship group and rise to prominent positions within society, even to the level of chief in some instances.<a href="#cite_note-Rodney-9">[9]</a> However, stigma often remained attached, and there could be strict separations between slave members of a kinship group and those related to the master.<a href="#cite_note-Snell-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chattel_slavery">Chattel slavery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Chattel slavery">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">Chattel slavery</a> is a specific servitude relationship where the slave is treated as the <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> of the owner. As such, the owner is free to sell, trade, or treat the slave as he would other pieces of property, and the children of the slave often are retained as the property of the master.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-11">[11]</a> There is evidence of long histories of chattel slavery in the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile River</a> valley, much of the Sahel and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. Evidence is incomplete about the extent and practices of chattel slavery throughout much of the rest of the continent prior to written records by Arab or European traders.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gaspar-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_service">Domestic service</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Domestic service">edit</a>]</div> Many slave relationships in Africa revolved around domestic slavery, where slaves would work primarily in the house of the master, but retain some freedoms. Domestic slaves could be considered part of the master's household and would not be sold to others without extreme cause. The slaves could own the profits from their labour (whether in land or in products), and could marry and pass the land on to their children in many cases.<a href="#cite_note-Rodney-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pawnship">Pawnship</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pawnship">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Pawn_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pawn (law)">Pawnship</a>, or debt bondage slavery, involves the use of people as <a href="/wiki/Collateral_(finance)" title="Collateral (finance)">collateral</a> to secure the repayment of <a href="/wiki/Debt" title="Debt">debt</a>. Slave labour is performed by the <a href="/wiki/Debtor" title="Debtor">debtor</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">relative</a> of the debtor (usually a child). Pawnship was a common form of <a href="/wiki/Collateral_(finance)" title="Collateral (finance)">collateral</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>. It involved the <a href="/wiki/Pledge_(law)" title="Pledge (law)">pledge</a> of a person or a member of that person's family, to serve another person providing <a href="/wiki/Credit_(finance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Credit (finance)">credit</a>. Pawnship was related to, yet distinct from, slavery in most conceptualizations, because the arrangement could include limited, specific terms of service to be provided, and because kinship ties would protect the person from being sold into slavery. Pawnship was a common practice throughout West Africa prior to European contact, including among the <a href="/wiki/Akan_people" title="Akan people">Akan people</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ewe_people" title="Ewe people">Ewe people</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ga_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ga people">Ga people</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba people</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Edo_people" title="Edo people">Edo people</a> (in modified forms, it also existed among the <a href="/wiki/Efik_people" title="Efik people">Efik people</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo people</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ijaw_people" title="Ijaw people">Ijaw people</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Fon_people" title="Fon people">Fon people</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy_and_Richardson-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_slavery">Military slavery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Military slavery">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg/250px-Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg/375px-Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg/500px-Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="655" /></a><figcaption>Slaves for sacrifice at the <a href="/wiki/Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey" title="Annual Customs of Dahomey">Annual Customs of Dahomey</a> – from <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Dalzel" title="Archibald Dalzel">The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa</a>, 1793</figcaption></figure> Military slavery involved the acquisition and training of <a href="/wiki/Conscript" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscript">conscripted</a> military units which would retain the identity of military slaves even after their service.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson-16">[16]</a> Slave soldier groups would be run by a Patron, who could be the head of a government or an independent warlord, and who would send his troops out for money and his own political interests.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson-16">[16]</a> This was most significant in the Nile valley (primarily in <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>), with slave military units organized by various Islamic authorities,<a href="#cite_note-Johnson-16">[16]</a> and with the war chiefs of Western Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Wylie-17">[17]</a> The military units in Sudan were formed in the 1800s through large-scale military raiding in the area which is currently the countries of Sudan and <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slaves_for_sacrifice">Slaves for sacrifice</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Slaves for sacrifice">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice#West_Africa" title="Human sacrifice">Human sacrifice</a> was common in West African states up to and during the 19th century. Although archaeological evidence is not clear on the issue prior to European contact, in those societies that practised human sacrifice, slaves became the most prominent victims.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey" title="Annual Customs of Dahomey">Annual Customs of Dahomey</a> were the most notorious example of human sacrifice of slaves, where 500 prisoners would be sacrificed. Sacrifices were carried out all along the West African coast and further inland. Sacrifices were common in the <a href="/wiki/Benin_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Benin Empire">Benin Empire</a>, in what is now southern <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, and in several small independent states in the same region. In the <a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Region" title="Ashanti Region">Ashanti Region</a>, human sacrifice was often combined with <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_slave_trade">Local slave trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Local slave trade">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg/250px-Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg/375px-Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg/500px-Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="623" /></a><figcaption>Young slave women in <a href="/wiki/Luanda" title="Luanda">Luanda</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1897</figcaption></figure> Many nations such as the <a href="/wiki/Bono_state" title="Bono state">Bono State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a> of present-day Ghana and the <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a> of present-day Nigeria were involved in slave-trading.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Imbangala" title="Imbangala">Imbangala</a> of <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nyamwezi_people" title="Nyamwezi people">Nyamwezi</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> would serve as intermediaries or roving bands, waging war on African states to capture people for export as slaves. Historians <a href="/wiki/John_Thornton_(historian)" title="John Thornton (historian)">John Thornton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linda_Heywood" title="Linda Heywood">Linda Heywood</a> of <a href="/wiki/Boston_University" title="Boston University">Boston University</a> have estimated that of the Africans captured and then sold as slaves to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> in the Atlantic slave trade, around 90% were enslaved by fellow Africans who sold them to European traders.<a href="#cite_note-Ending_the_Slavery_Blame-Game-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Louis Gates">Henry Louis Gates</a>, the Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies, has stated that "without complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders and commercial agents, the slave trade to the New World would have been impossible, at least on the scale it occurred."<a href="#cite_note-Ending_the_Slavery_Blame-Game-22">[22]</a> The entire <a href="/wiki/Bubi_people" title="Bubi people">Bubi</a> ethnic group descends from escaped intertribal slaves owned by various ancient West-central African ethnic groups. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practices_by_region">Practices by region</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Practices by region">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg/220px-Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg/330px-Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg/440px-Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="453" /></a><figcaption>Malagasy slaves (<a href="/wiki/Andevo" title="Andevo">Andevo</a>) carrying Queen <a href="/wiki/Ranavalona_I" title="Ranavalona I">Ranavalona I</a> of Madagascar</figcaption></figure> Like most other regions of the world, slavery and forced labour existed in many kingdoms and societies of Africa for hundreds of years.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1983-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fage-8">[8]</a> Ugo Kwokeji has called early European reports of slavery throughout Africa in the 1600s unreliable, saying they conflated various forms of servitude with chattel slavery.<a href="#cite_note-Nwokeji-24">[24]</a> The best evidence of slave practices in Africa come from the major kingdoms, particularly along the coast, and there is little evidence of widespread slavery practices in stateless societies.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fage-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rodney-9">[9]</a> Slave trading was mostly secondary to other trade relationships; however, there is evidence of a trans-<a href="/wiki/Sahara_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara desert">Saharan</a> slave trade route from <a href="/wiki/Roman_times" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman times">Roman times</a> which persisted in the area after the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-11">[11]</a> However, kinship structures and rights provided to slaves (except those captured in war) appears to have limited the scope of slave trading before the start of the trans-Saharan slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade and the Atlantic slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-Fage-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Africa">North Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: North Africa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Africa" title="History of North Africa">History of North Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Slavery in ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Roman Empire">Slavery in the Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">trans-Saharan slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Slavery in Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Slavery in Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Slavery in Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Slavery in Libya</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Slavery in Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Slave_Market%2C_Mono_version.jpg/250px-Slave_Market%2C_Mono_version.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Slave_Market%2C_Mono_version.jpg/375px-Slave_Market%2C_Mono_version.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Slave_Market%2C_Mono_version.jpg/500px-Slave_Market%2C_Mono_version.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4030" data-file-height="2405" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nubians" title="Nubians">Nubians</a> waiting to be sold at a <a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">slave market</a> in <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a></figcaption></figure> Slavery in northern Africa dates back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>. The <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> (1558–1080 BC) brought large numbers of slaves as prisoners of war up the <a href="/wiki/Nile_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile valley">Nile valley</a> and used them for domestic and supervised labour.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> (305 BC–30 BC) used both land and sea routes to bring in slaves.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg/250px-Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg/375px-Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg/500px-Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2237" data-file-height="1623" /></a><figcaption>Release of Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> in 1661</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa,_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_(p.12,_February_1859,_XVI)_-_Copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg/250px-Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg/375px-Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg/500px-Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="913" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Burning of a village in Africa and capture of its inhabitants (February 1859)<a href="#cite_note-Offering1859-27">[27]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">Chattel slavery</a> was legal and widespread throughout <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, be it under <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a> (ca. 814 BC – 146 BC),<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> or later when the region was controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (145 BC – ca. 430 AD) and the Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). A slave trade bringing <a href="/wiki/Sahara_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara desert">Saharans</a> through the desert to North Africa, which existed in Roman times, continued and documentary evidence in the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile Valley</a> shows it to have been regulated there by treaty.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-11">[11]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/Roman_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman republic">Roman republic</a> expanded, it enslaved defeated enemies and Roman conquests in Africa were no exception. For example, <a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a> records that Rome enslaved 27,000 people from North Africa in 256 BC.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a> became an important source of slaves for the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> and in the 5th century AD pirates would raid coastal North African villages and enslave those captured.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Chattel slavery persisted after the fall of the Roman Empire in the largely Christian communities of the region.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> After the Islamic trade expansion across the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> the practices continued and eventually, the assimilative form of slavery spread to major societies on the southern end of the Sahara (such as <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a>, and Ghana).<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Age">medieval</a> slave trade in Europe was mainly to the East and South: the Christian <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim World">Muslim World</a> were the destinations, and <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> an important source of slaves.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">slave trade in medieval Europe</a> was carried out in parts of Europe by both Christians and Jews. In the early medieval period, Jews had a near-monopoly on trade between Islamic and Christian countries, but by the thirteenth century this no longer applied to the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_%281859%29.jpg/250px-Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_%281859%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_%281859%29.jpg/375px-Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_%281859%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_%281859%29.jpg/500px-Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_%281859%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> slavery in <a href="/wiki/Barbary_Coast" title="Barbary Coast">Barbary</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Mamluks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluks">Mamluks</a> were <a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">slave soldiers</a> who converted to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and served the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliphs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid">Ayyubid</a> <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultans</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. The first Mamluks served the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> caliphs in 9th century <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. Over time, they became a powerful military <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>, and on more than one occasion they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> from 1250 to 1517. From 1250 on Egypt was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Bahri dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kipchak_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kipchak people">Kipchak</a> Turk origin. <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">White</a> enslaved people from the <a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a> served in the army and formed an elite corps of troops, eventually revolting in Egypt to form the <a href="/wiki/Burgi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgi dynasty">Burgi dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by <a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a> and sold as slaves to <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> between the 16th and 19th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grabmeier-37">[37]</a> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<a href="#cite_note-Earle-38">[38]</a></blockquote> Davis' numbers have been disputed by other historians, such as David Earle, who cautions that the true picture of European slaves is clouded by the fact the <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">corsairs</a> also seized non-Christian whites from eastern Europe and black people from West Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Earle-38">[38]</a> In addition, the number of slaves traded was hyperactive, with exaggerated estimates relying on peak years to calculate averages for entire centuries, or millennia. Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Middle East expert John Wright cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation.<a href="#cite_note-Wright-39">[39]</a> Such observations, across the late 1500s and early 1600s observers, estimate that around 35,000 European Christian slaves held throughout this period on the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_Coast" title="Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a>, across <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, but mostly in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>. The majority were sailors taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers, and overall most of the captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Spain and Italy.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-40">[40]</a> The coastal villages and towns of <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Mediterranean" title="List of islands in the Mediterranean">Mediterranean islands</a> were frequently attacked by the pirates, and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants; after 1600 Barbary pirates occasionally entered the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> and struck as far north as <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>. The most famous corsairs were the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> <a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa" title="Hayreddin Barbarossa">Barbarossa</a> ("Redbeard"), and his older brother <a href="/wiki/Aruj" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruj">Oruç</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turgut_Reis" class="mw-redirect" title="Turgut Reis">Turgut Reis</a> (known as <a href="/wiki/Dragut" title="Dragut">Dragut</a> in the West), <a href="/wiki/Kurto%C4%9Flu_Muslihiddin_Reis" title="Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis">Kurtoğlu</a> (known as <a href="/wiki/Kurto%C4%9Flu_Muslihiddin_Reis" title="Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis">Curtogoli</a> in the West), <a href="/wiki/Kemal_Reis" title="Kemal Reis">Kemal Reis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salih_Reis" class="mw-redirect" title="Salih Reis">Salih Reis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Murat_Reis_the_Older" class="mw-redirect" title="Murat Reis the Older">Koca Murat Reis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Grabmeier-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> In 1544, <a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa" title="Hayreddin Barbarossa">Hayreddin Barbarossa</a> captured <a href="/wiki/Ischia" title="Ischia">Ischia</a>, taking 4,000 prisoners in the process, and deported to slavery some 9,000 inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Lipari" title="Lipari">Lipari</a>, almost the entire population.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In 1551, Dragut enslaved the entire population of the <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Maltese</a> island <a href="/wiki/Gozo" title="Gozo">Gozo</a>, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>. When pirates sacked <a href="/wiki/Vieste" title="Vieste">Vieste</a> in southern Italy in 1554 they took an estimated 7,000 slaves. In 1555, Turgut Reis sailed to <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a> and ransacked <a href="/wiki/Bastia" title="Bastia">Bastia</a>, taking 6,000 prisoners. In 1558 Barbary corsairs captured the town of <a href="/wiki/Ciutadella_de_Menorca" title="Ciutadella de Menorca">Ciutadella</a>, destroyed it, <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">slaughtered</a> the inhabitants, and carried off 3,000 survivors to <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> as slaves. In 1563 Turgut Reis landed at the shores of the province of <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a>, Spain, and captured the coastal settlements in the area like <a href="/wiki/Almu%C3%B1%C3%A9car" title="Almuñécar">Almuñécar</a>, along with 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates frequently attacked the <a href="/wiki/Balearic_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Balearic islands">Balearic islands</a>, resulting in many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches being erected. The threat was so severe that <a href="/wiki/Formentera" title="Formentera">Formentera</a> became uninhabited.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/220px-Arabslavers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/330px-Arabslavers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/440px-Arabslavers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="378" /></a><figcaption>Black <a href="/wiki/Zanj" title="Zanj">Zanjs</a> captured in a <a href="/wiki/Slave_raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raid">slave raid</a> being marched to a <a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">slave market</a> in the Arab world</figcaption></figure> Early modern sources are full of descriptions of the sufferings of Christian <a href="/wiki/Galley_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Galley slaves">galley slaves</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_corsairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary corsairs">Barbary corsairs</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></blockquote> As late as 1798, the islet near <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> was attacked by the <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisians</a> and over 900 inhabitants were taken away as slaves. <a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahrawi people">Sahrawi</a>-<a href="/wiki/Moorish" class="mw-redirect" title="Moorish">Moorish</a> society in <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwest Africa">Northwest Africa</a> was traditionally (and still is, to some extent) stratified into several tribal castes, with the <a href="/wiki/Hassane" title="Hassane">Hassane</a> warrior tribes ruling and extracting tribute – <a href="/wiki/Horma" title="Horma">horma</a> – from the subservient <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berber</a>-descended <a href="/wiki/Znaga" class="mw-redirect" title="Znaga">znaga</a> tribes. Below them ranked servile groups known as <a href="/wiki/Haratin" title="Haratin">Haratin</a>, a black population.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans were also transported across North Africa into Arabia to do agricultural work because of their resistance to <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> that plagued the Arabia and North Africa at the time of early enslavement. Sub-Saharan Africans were able to endure the malaria-infested lands they were transported to, which is why North Africans were not transported despite their close proximity to Arabia and its surrounding lands.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horn_of_Africa">Horn of Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Horn of Africa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Slavery in Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Slavery in Somalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg/190px-Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg/285px-Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg/380px-Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="444" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A "servant-slave" woman in <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> (1882–1883)</figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Solomonic_dynasty" title="Solomonic dynasty">Christian kings</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian Empire</a> captured slaves primarily from the pagan <a href="/wiki/Nilotic_peoples" title="Nilotic peoples">Nilotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Shanqella" title="Shanqella">Shanqella</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oromos" class="mw-redirect" title="Oromos">Oromo</a> peoples from their western borderlands, or from newly conquered or reconquered lowland territories.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pkhst-48">[48]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afar_people" title="Afar people">Afar</a> Muslim sultanates, such as the medieval <a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a>, through their ports also traded <a href="/wiki/Zanj" title="Zanj">Zanj</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a>) slaves captured from the hinterland.<a href="#cite_note-Eoahac-49">[49]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg/220px-Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg/330px-Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg/440px-Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="802" data-file-height="722" /></a><figcaption>Slaves in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, 19th century</figcaption></figure> Slavery, as practised in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, was essentially domestic and was geared more towards women; this was the trend for most of Africa as well. Women were transported across the Sahara, the Middle East, the Mediterranean and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> trade more than men.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-50">[50]</a> Enslaved people served in the houses of their masters or mistresses, and were not employed to any significant extent for productive purpose. The enslaved were regarded as second-class members of their owners' family.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The first attempt to abolish slavery in Ethiopia was made by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Tewodros_II_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tewodros II of Ethiopia">Tewodros II</a> (r. 1855–68),<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] although the slave trade was not legally abolished until 1923 when Ethiopia ascended to the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in the early 1930s, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Slavery continued in Ethiopia until the Italian invasion in October 1935, when the institution was abolished by order of the Italian occupying forces.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In response to pressure by Western <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies of World War II</a>, Ethiopia officially abolished slavery and involuntary servitude after it regained its independence in 1942.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> On 26 August 1942, <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a> issued a proclamation outlawing slavery.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] In <a href="/wiki/Greater_Somalia" title="Greater Somalia">Somali territories</a>, slaves were purchased in the slave market exclusively to do work on plantations.<a href="#cite_note-USRCLS-59">[59]</a> In terms of legal considerations, the customs regarding the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a> slaves were established by the decree of <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultans</a> and local administrative <a href="/wiki/Delegation" title="Delegation">delegates</a>. These plantation slaves often acquired their freedom through eventual emancipation, escape, and ransom.<a href="#cite_note-USRCLS-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_Africa">Central Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Central Africa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png/250px-Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png/375px-Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png/500px-Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png 2x" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>A slave market in <a href="/wiki/Khartoum" title="Khartoum">Khartoum</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1876</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Old_slave%2C_in_Cameroon_%28IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2%29.jpg/190px-Old_slave%2C_in_Cameroon_%28IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Old_slave%2C_in_Cameroon_%28IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2%29.jpg/285px-Old_slave%2C_in_Cameroon_%28IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Old_slave%2C_in_Cameroon_%28IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2%29.jpg/380px-Old_slave%2C_in_Cameroon_%28IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2931" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Elderly female slave, c. 1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bamum" title="Kingdom of Bamum">Bamum</a> king <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Njoya" title="Ibrahim Njoya">Ibrahim Njoya</a></figcaption></figure> Slaves were transported since antiquity along trade routes crossing the Sahara.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Oral tradition recounts slavery existing in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a> from the time of its formation with <a href="/wiki/Lukeni_lua_Nimi" title="Lukeni lua Nimi">Lukeni lua Nimi</a> enslaving the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mwene_Kabunga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mwene Kabunga (page does not exist)">Mwene Kabunga</a> whom he conquered to establish the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-Heywood-61">[61]</a> Early Portuguese writings show that the Kingdom did have slavery before contact, but that they were primarily war captives from the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ndongo" title="Kingdom of Ndongo">Kingdom of Ndongo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Heywood-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Birmingham-62">[62]</a> Slavery was common along the Upper <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a>, and in the second half of the 18th century the region became a major source of slaves for the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>, when high slave prices on the coast made long-distance slave trading profitable. When the Atlantic trade came to an end, the price of slaves dropped dramatically, and the regional slave trade grew, dominated by <a href="/wiki/Bangi_language" title="Bangi language">Bobangi</a> traders. The Bobangi also purchased many slaves with profits from selling ivory, whom they used to populate their villages. Slaves who had been sold by their kin group, typically as a result of undesirable behaviour such as adultery, were unlikely to attempt to flee. The sale of children was also common in times of famine. Captured slaves were however likely to attempt to escape and had to be moved hundreds of kilometres from their homes as a safeguard against this.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The slave trade had a profound impact on this region of Central Africa, completely reshaping various aspects of society. For instance, the slave trade helped to create a robust regional trade network for the foodstuffs and crafted goods of small producers along the river. As only a few slaves in a canoe were sufficient to cover the cost of a trip and still make a profit, traders could fill any unused space on their canoes with other goods and transport them long distances without a significant markup on price. While the large profits from the Congo River slave trade only went to a small number of traders, this aspect of the trade provided some benefit to local producers and consumers.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In parts of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Basin" title="Congo Basin">Congo Basin</a>, it was not rare for slaves to be killed and <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">eaten</a>, especially (but not only) at festive occasions.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Eyewitness accounts describe the purchase, butchering, and consumption of slaves as a "daily-life activity, free from strong emotions", seen by those who practised it as not essentially different from the eating of goats and other animals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEkholm_Friedman2013230-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiefkes202291,_96–97-72">[72]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cannibalism_in_Africa#Congo_Basin" title="Cannibalism in Africa">Cannibalism in Africa § Congo Basin</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_Africa">West Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: West Africa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_%28_Slave_Trade_references_%29_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg/250px-1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_%28_Slave_Trade_references_%29_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_%28_Slave_Trade_references_%29_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg/375px-1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_%28_Slave_Trade_references_%29_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_%28_Slave_Trade_references_%29_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg/500px-1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_%28_Slave_Trade_references_%29_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2562" /></a><figcaption>Homann Heirs map of the slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and <a href="/wiki/Ras_Nouadhibou" title="Ras Nouadhibou">Cape Blanc</a> to Guinea, the <a href="/wiki/Chiloango_River" title="Chiloango River">Cacongo</a> and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on the Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)</figcaption></figure> Various forms of slavery were practised in diverse ways in different communities of West Africa prior to European trade.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1983-23">[23]</a> According to Ghanaian historian <a href="/wiki/Akosua_Adoma_Perbi" title="Akosua Adoma Perbi">Akosua Perbi</a>, indigenous slavery in locations like Ghana had been established by the 1st century AD, with origins sometime in the ancient period.<a href="#cite_note-Perbi_Ghana-73">[73]</a> Even though slavery did exist, it was not nearly as prevalent within most West African societies that were not Islamic before the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<a href="#cite_note-:4-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-75">[75]</a> The prerequisites for slave societies to exist weren't present in West Africa prior to the Atlantic slave trade considering the small market sizes and the lack of a <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-74">[74]</a> Most West African societies were formed in kinship units which would make slavery a rather marginal part of the production process within them.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> Slaves within Kinship-based societies would have had almost the same roles that free members had.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> However, Nigerian historian Professor <a href="/wiki/Philip_Igbafe" title="Philip Igbafe">Philip Igbafe</a> says that until the late 19th Century, slavery in the Kingdom of Benin, as well as in other West African kingdoms had its own place in the structure of the state, having its roots in the "economic, military, social and political necessities of the Benin kingdom". Slaves were owned by the Oba (king) and by ordinary citizens. In pre-colonial Benin, they were acquired in a number of ways: through wars of conquest and expansion, through gifts to the Oba, who also inherited the slaves of those who died intestate and by tribute paid by dependent territories to the Oba and prominent chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those guilty of serious crimes were either executed or sold into slavery. The possession of a large number of slaves was an index of a man's status. Slaves served in the militia and were also the main labour force for the chiefs, as well as serving the local need for human sacrifices. The eventual abolition of slavery created a host of problems which had economic, political and social ramifications.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Martin Klein has said that before the Atlantic trade, slaves in <a href="/wiki/Western_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Sudan">Western Sudan</a> "made up a small part of the population, lived within the household, worked alongside free members of the household, and participated in a network of face-to-face links."<a href="#cite_note-:4-74">[74]</a> With the development of the trans-<a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Saharan</a> slave trade and the economies of gold in the western <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>, a number of the major states became organized around the slave trade, including the <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bono_state" title="Bono state">Bono State</a> and <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Meillassoux-77">[77]</a> However, other communities in West Africa largely resisted the slave trade. The <a href="/wiki/Jola_people" title="Jola people">Jola</a> refused to participate in the slave trade up into the end of the seventeenth century, and did not use slave labour within their own communities until the nineteenth century. The <a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baga_people" title="Baga people">Baga</a> also fought against the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mossi_Kingdoms" title="Mossi Kingdoms">Mossi Kingdoms</a> tried to take over key sites in the trans-Saharan trade and, when these efforts failed, became defenders against slave raiding by the powerful states of the western Sahel. The Mossi eventually entered the slave trade in the 1800s, mainly in the Atlantic slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-Meillassoux-77">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> was a catalyst for the slave trade, and from the Homann Heirs map figure shown, shows a starting point for migration and a firm port of trade.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] The culture of the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(region)" title="Gold Coast (region)">Gold Coast</a> was based largely on the power that individuals held, rather than the land cultivated by a family. <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">Western Africa</a>, developed slavery by analysing the advantages to the aristocracy of slavery and what would best suit the region. This sort of governing used the "political tool" of discerning the different labours and methods of <a href="/wiki/Chattel_Slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel Slavery">assimilative slavery</a>. Domestic and agricultural labour became more evidently primary in Western Africa due to slaves being regarded as "political tools" of access and status. Slaves often had more wives than their owners, and this boosted the status of their owners. Slaves were not all used for the same purpose. European colonizing countries participated in the trade to suit the economic needs of their individual countries. The parallel of "Moorish" traders in the desert compared to Portuguese traders who were not as established pointed out the differences in uses of slaves at this point, and where they were headed in the trade. Historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a> identified no slavery or significant domestic servitude in early European accounts on the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Guinea" title="Upper Guinea">Upper Guinea</a> region<a href="#cite_note-Rodney-9">[9]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Adeagbo_Akinjogbin" title="Isaac Adeagbo Akinjogbin">I. A. Akinjogbin</a> contends that European accounts reveal that the slave trade was not a major activity along the coast controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba people</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aja_people" title="Aja people">Aja people</a> before Europeans arrived.<a href="#cite_note-Akinjogbin-79">[79]</a> In a paper read to the <a href="/wiki/Ethnological_Society_of_London" title="Ethnological Society of London">Ethnological Society of London</a> in 1866, the <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lokoja" title="Lokoja">Lokoja</a>, Mr T. Valentine Robins, who in 1864 accompanied an expedition up the <a href="/wiki/River_Niger" class="mw-redirect" title="River Niger">River Niger</a> aboard <a href="/wiki/HMS_Investigator_(1861)" title="HMS Investigator (1861)">HMS Investigator</a>, described slavery in the region: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<a href="#cite_note-Paisley_Herald-1866-80">[80]</a></blockquote> With the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade, demand for slaves in West Africa increased and a number of states became centered on the slave trade and domestic slavery increased dramatically.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1990-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Clapperton" title="Hugh Clapperton">Hugh Clapperton</a> in 1824 believed that half the population of <a href="/wiki/Kano_(city)" title="Kano (city)">Kano</a> were enslaved people.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Near the Gold Coast, many of those enslaved came from deep inside the interior of the continent as defeated people from numerous wars and were sold off as part of a practice called "eating the country" that aimed to disperse fallen enemies and prevent regrouping.<a href="#cite_note-Sparks_process-3">[3]</a> According to Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi, from the 15th to 19th centuries in Ghana, major sources of slaves were warfare, slave markets, pawning, raids, kidnapping and tributes, while minor sources were from gifts, convictions, communal or private deals.<a href="#cite_note-Perbi_Ghana-73">[73]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_%27Marchand_d%27Esclaves_de_Goree%27_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Marchand_d%27Esclaves_de_Goree%27_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg/190px-Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Marchand_d%27Esclaves_de_Goree%27_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Marchand_d%27Esclaves_de_Goree%27_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg/285px-Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Marchand_d%27Esclaves_de_Goree%27_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Marchand_d%27Esclaves_de_Goree%27_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg/380px-Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Marchand_d%27Esclaves_de_Goree%27_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1439" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>A slave trader of <a href="/wiki/Gor%C3%A9e" title="Gorée">Gorée</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1797</figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Senegambia_(geography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Senegambia (geography)">Senegambia</a> region between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> states of the western Sahel, including <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana</a> (750–1076), <a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a> (1235–1645), <a href="/wiki/Bamana_Empire" title="Bamana Empire">Segou</a> (1712–1861), and <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a> (1275–1591), about a third of the population were enslaved. In <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of enslaved people. Among the <a href="/wiki/Vai_people" title="Vai people">Vai</a> people during the 19th century, three quarters of the people were slaves. In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the <a href="/wiki/Duala_people" title="Duala people">Duala</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> and other peoples of the lower <a href="/wiki/Niger_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Niger river">Niger</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kongo</a>, and the Kasanje kingdom and <a href="/wiki/Chokwe_people" title="Chokwe people">Chokwe</a> of <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>. Among the <a href="/wiki/Ashanti_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti people">Ashanti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a> a third of the population consisted of enslaved people. The population of the <a href="/wiki/Kanem_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanem Empire">Kanem</a> (1600–1800) was about one-third enslaved. It was perhaps 40% in <a href="/wiki/Bornu_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bornu Empire">Bornu</a> (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the <a href="/wiki/Fulani_jihad" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulani jihad">Fulani jihad</a> states consisted of enslaved people. The population of the largest Fulani state, <a href="/wiki/Sokoto" title="Sokoto">Sokoto</a>, was at least half-enslaved in the 19th century. Among the Adrar 15 per cent of people were enslaved, and 75 per cent of the <a href="/wiki/Gurma" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurma">Gurma</a> were enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Slavery was extremely common among the <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_people" title="Tuareg people">Tuareg peoples</a> and many still hold slaves today.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> When British rule was first imposed on the <a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a> and the surrounding areas in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Nigeria">northern Nigeria</a> at the turn of the 20th century, approximately 2 million to 2.5 million people there were enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Slavery in northern Nigeria was finally outlawed in 1936.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_Great_Lakes">African Great Lakes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: African Great Lakes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/TipputipPortrait.jpg/190px-TipputipPortrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/TipputipPortrait.jpg/285px-TipputipPortrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/TipputipPortrait.jpg/380px-TipputipPortrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1555" data-file-height="1884" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibari</a> slave trader <a href="/wiki/Tippu_Tip" title="Tippu Tip">Tippu Tip</a> owned 10,000 slaves</figcaption></figure> With sea trade from the eastern <a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">African Great Lakes</a> region to <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, China, and India during the first millennium AD, slaves are mentioned as a commodity of secondary importance to gold and ivory. When mentioned, the slave trade appears to have been small-scale and mostly involves slave raiding of women and children along the islands of <a href="/wiki/Kilwa_Kisiwani" title="Kilwa Kisiwani">Kilwa Kisiwani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pemba_Island" title="Pemba Island">Pemba</a>. In places such as <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, the experience for women in slavery was different from that of customary slavery practices at the time. The roles assumed were based on gender and position within the society. First one must make the distinction in Ugandan slavery of peasants and slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard assert the distinction with the following: "Peasants were rewarded for valour in battle by the present of slaves by the lord or chief for whom they had fought. They could be given slaves by relatives who had been promoted to the rank of chiefs, and they could inherit slaves from their fathers. There were the abanyage (those pillaged or stolen in war) as well as the abagule (those bought). All these came under the category of abenvumu or true slaves, that is to say people not free in any sense. In a superior position were the young Ganda given by their maternal uncles into slavery (or pawnship), usually in lieu of debts... Besides such slaves both chiefs and king were served by sons of well to do men who wanted to please them and attract favour for themselves or their children. These were the abasige and formed a big addition to a noble household.... All these different classes of dependents in a household were classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants) whether they were slave or free-born.(175)" In the Great Lakes region of Africa (around present-day Uganda), linguistic evidence shows the existence of slavery through war capture, trade, and pawning going back hundreds of years; however, these forms, particularly pawning, appear to have increased significantly in the 18th and 19th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Schoenbrun-88">[88]</a> These slaves were considered to be more trustworthy than those from the Gold Coast. They were regarded with more prestige because of the training they responded to. The language for slaves in the Great Lakes region varied. This region of water made it easy for capture of slaves and transport. Captive, refugee, slave, peasant were all used in order to describe those in the trade. The distinction was made by where and for what purpose they would be utilized for. Methods like pillage, <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">plunder</a>, and capture were all semantics common in this region to depict the trade. Historians Campbell and Alpers argue that there were a host of different categories of labour in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Africa" title="Southeast Africa">Southeast Africa</a> and that the distinction between slave and free individuals was not particularly relevant in most societies.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell_&_Alpers-89">[89]</a> However, with increasing international trade in the 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa began to be involved significantly in the Atlantic slave trade; for example, with the king of Kilwa island signing a treaty with a French merchant in 1776 for the delivery of 1,000 slaves per year.<a href="#cite_note-Kusimba-90">[90]</a> At about the same time, merchants from <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and Southeast Africa began establishing plantations along the coasts and on the islands,<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> To provide workers on these plantations, slave raiding and slave holding became increasingly important in the region and slave traders (most notably <a href="/wiki/Tippu_Tip" title="Tippu Tip">Tippu Tip</a>) became prominent in the political environment of the region.<a href="#cite_note-Kusimba-90">[90]</a> The Southeast African trade reached its height in the early decades of the 1800s with up to 30,000 slaves sold per year. However, slavery never became a significant part of the domestic economies except in <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Sultanate of Zanzibar</a> where plantations and agricultural slavery were maintained.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1990-81">[81]</a> Author and historian <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Insoll" title="Timothy Insoll">Timothy Insoll</a> wrote: "Figures record the exporting of 718,000 slaves from the Swahili coast during the 19th century, and the retention of 769,000 on the coast."<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> At various times, between 65 and 90 per cent of <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> was enslaved. Along the <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> coast, 90 per cent of the population was enslaved, while half of <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>'s population was enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transformations">Transformations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Transformations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a></div> Slave relationships in Africa have been transformed through four large-scale processes: the trans-Saharan slave trade, the Indian Ocean slave trade, the Atlantic slave trade, and the slave emancipation policies and movements in the 19th and 20th centuries. Each of these processes significantly changed the forms, level, and economics of slavery in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> Slave practices in Africa were used during different periods to justify specific forms of European engagement with the peoples of Africa. Eighteenth century writers in Europe claimed that slavery in Africa was quite brutal in order to justify the Atlantic slave trade. Later writers used similar arguments to justify intervention and eventual colonization by European powers to end slavery in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Klein-1978-94">[94]</a> Africans knew what awaited slaves in the New World. Many elite Africans visited Europe on slave ships following the prevailing winds through the New World. One example of this occurred when <a href="/wiki/Emanuele_Ne_Vunda" title="Emanuele Ne Vunda">Antonio Manuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kongo</a>'s ambassador to the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican</a>, went to Europe in 1604, stopping first in <a href="/wiki/Bahia,_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahia, Brazil">Bahia</a>, Brazil, where he arranged to free a countryman who had been wrongfully enslaved. African monarchs also sent their children along these same slave routes to be educated in Europe, and thousands of former slaves eventually returned to settle <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trans-Saharan,_Red_Sea_and_Indian_Ocean_trade">Trans-Saharan, Red Sea and Indian Ocean trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Trans-Saharan, Red Sea and Indian Ocean trade">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_history">Early history</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Early history">edit</a>]</div> Early records of the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">trans-Saharan slave trade</a> come from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> in the 5th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-apuleius2-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-exports22-96">[96]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Garamentes" class="mw-redirect" title="Garamentes">Garamentes</a> were recorded by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> as engaging in the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">trans-Saharan slave trade</a> and enslaving cave-dwelling "Ethiopians" (Ethiopian being a Greek term for Black as opposed to being from the region of Ethiopia), or <a href="/wiki/Troglodytae" title="Troglodytae">Troglodytae</a>. The Berber <a href="/wiki/Garamantes" title="Garamantes">Garamentes</a> relied heavily on the labour of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa,<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> and used slaves in their own communities to construct and maintain underground irrigation systems known to <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berbers</a> as <a href="/wiki/Foggara" class="mw-redirect" title="Foggara">foggara</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, the city of <a href="/wiki/Lepcis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lepcis">Lepcis</a> established a <a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">slave market</a> to buy and sell slaves from the African interior.<a href="#cite_note-apuleius2-95">[95]</a> The empire imposed a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_taxes#Slave_taxes" title="List of Roman taxes">customs tax</a> on the trade of slaves.<a href="#cite_note-apuleius2-95">[95]</a> In 5th century AD, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">Roman Carthage</a> was trading in black slaves brought across the Sahara.<a href="#cite_note-exports22-96">[96]</a> Black slaves seem to have been valued in the Mediterranean as household slaves for their exotic appearance. Some historians argue that the scale of slave trade in this period may have been higher than in medieval times due to the high demand for slaves in the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-exports22-96">[96]</a> Slave trading in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> goes back to 2500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-indianocean-99">[99]</a> Ancient <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonians">Babylonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">Indians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Persia">Persians</a> all traded slaves on small scale across the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> (and sometimes the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>).<a href="#cite_note-indianocean2-100">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Slave trading in the Red Sea</a> around the time of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> is described by <a href="/wiki/Agatharchides" title="Agatharchides">Agatharchides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-indianocean2-100">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a> (completed after 23 AD) mentions Greeks from Egypt trading slaves at the port of <a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a> and other ports on the <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somali</a> coast.<a href="#cite_note-indianocean4-101">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a> (published in 77 AD) also described Indian Ocean slave trading.<a href="#cite_note-indianocean2-100">[100]</a> In the 1st century AD, <a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a> advised of slave trading opportunities in the region, particularly in the trading of "beautiful girls for concubinage."<a href="#cite_note-indianocean2-100">[100]</a> According to this manual, slaves were exported from Omana (likely near modern-day Oman) and <a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea#Frankincense_kingdom" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Kanê</a> to the west coast of India.<a href="#cite_note-indianocean2-100">[100]</a> The ancient <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> was enabled by <a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">building boats</a> capable of carrying large numbers of human beings across the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> with wood imported from India. This shipbuilding goes back to <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> times.<a href="#cite_note-indianocean3-102">[102]</a> After the involvement of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sassanian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanian Empire">Sassanian Empire</a> in slave trading in the 1st century, it became a major enterprise.<a href="#cite_note-indianocean2-100">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cosmas_Indicopleustes" title="Cosmas Indicopleustes">Cosmas Indicopleustes</a> wrote in his <a href="/wiki/Christian_Topography" title="Christian Topography">Christian Topography</a> (550 AD) that slaves captured in Ethiopia would be imported into <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> via the Red Sea.<a href="#cite_note-indianocean4-101">[101]</a> He also mentioned the import of non African <a href="/wiki/Eunuchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuchs">eunuchs</a> by the Byzantines from Mesopotamia and India.<a href="#cite_note-indianocean4-101">[101]</a> After the 1st century, the export of black Africans became a "constant factor".<a href="#cite_note-indianocean3-102">[102]</a> Under the Sassanians, the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a> transported not just slaves, but also scholars and merchants.<a href="#cite_note-indianocean2-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arab_traders_and_markets">Arab traders and markets</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Arab traders and markets">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg/220px-089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg/330px-089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg/440px-089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3229" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The slave market in Zanzibar, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1860</figcaption></figure> The enslavement of Africans for eastern markets started before the 7th century but remained at low levels until 1750.<a href="#cite_note-Oriental12-103">[103]</a> The volume of the trade peaked around 1850 but may largely have ended around 1900.<a href="#cite_note-Oriental12-103">[103]</a> Muslim participation in the slave trade started in the eighth and ninth centuries AD, beginning with small-scale movements of people, largely from the eastern <a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> region and the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>. <a href="/wiki/Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic law">Islamic law</a> allowed slavery, but prohibited slavery involving other pre-existing <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a>; as a result, the main targets for enslavement were the people who lived in the frontier areas of Islam in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-11">[11]</a> The trade of slaves across the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> also has a long history beginning with the control of sea routes by <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> traders in the ninth century. It is estimated that, at that time, a few thousand enslaved people were taken each year from the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> and Indian Ocean coast. They were sold throughout the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. This trade accelerated as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantation</a>. Eventually, tens of thousands per year were being taken.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> On the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Swahili Coast">Swahili Coast</a>, the Afro-Arab slavers captured <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu peoples</a> from the interior and brought them to the <a href="/wiki/Littoral" class="mw-redirect" title="Littoral">littoral</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lodhi-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tannenbaum-106">[106]</a> There, the slaves gradually assimilated in the rural areas, particularly on the <a href="/wiki/Unguja" title="Unguja">Unguja</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pemba_Island" title="Pemba Island">Pemba</a> islands.<a href="#cite_note-Lodhi-105">[105]</a> This changed the slave relationships by creating new forms of employment by slaves (as <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a> to guard <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harems</a>, and in military units) and creating conditions for freedom (namely <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Islam" title="Conversion to Islam">conversion</a>—although it would only free a slave's children).<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-16">[16]</a> Although the level of trade remained relatively small, the total number of slaves over the multiple centuries of the trade's existence.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> Because of its small and gradual nature, the impact on slavery practices in communities that did not convert to Islam was relatively small.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> However, in the 1800s, the slave trade from Africa to the Islamic countries picked up significantly. When the European slave trade ended around the 1850s, the slave trade to the east picked up significantly only to end with the European colonization of Africa around 1900.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1990-81">[81]</a> Between 1500 and 1900, up to 17 million Africans slaves were transported by Muslim traders to the coast of the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bbcFocus-107">[107]</a> In 1814, Swiss explorer <a href="/wiki/Johann_Ludwig_Burckhardt" title="Johann Ludwig Burckhardt">Johann Burckhardt</a> wrote of his travels in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, where he saw the practice of slave trading: "I frequently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> or Arabia in a state of virginity."<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_ruvuma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/220px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/330px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/440px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>Swahili-Arab slave traders and their captives along the <a href="/wiki/Ruvuma_River" title="Ruvuma River">Ruvuma River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, 19th century</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/David_Livingstone" title="David Livingstone">David Livingstone</a> talking about the slave trade in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> in his journals: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">To overdraw its evil is a simple impossibility.<a href="#cite_note-LivingstoneWaller2011-109">[109]</a>: 442  </blockquote> Livingstone wrote about a group of slaves forced by Arab slave traders to march in the <a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">African Great Lakes</a> region when he was travelling there in 1866: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">19th June 1866 – We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead, the people of the country explained that she had been unable to keep up with the other slaves in a gang, and her master had determined that she should not become anyone's property if she recovered.<a href="#cite_note-LivingstoneWaller2011-109">[109]</a>: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path: a group of men stood about a hundred yards off on one side, and another of the women on the other side, looking on; they said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer. 27th June 1866 – To-day we came upon a man dead from starvation, as he was very thin. One of our men wandered and found many slaves with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Slave-stick&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slave-stick (page does not exist)">slave-sticks</a> on, abandoned by their masters from want of food; they were too weak to be able to speak or say where they had come from; some were quite young.<a href="#cite_note-LivingstoneWaller2011-109">[109]</a>: 62 </blockquote> The lethality of the trans-Saharan routes is comparable to those of the trans-Atlantic. Deaths of slaves in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> were very high, even if they were fed and treated well. Medieval manuals for slave buyers – written in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> – explained that Africans from Sudanic and Ethiopian areas are prone to illness and death in their new environments.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Omani</a> Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year via the <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="European_traders_and_colonial_markets">European traders and colonial markets</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: European traders and colonial markets">edit</a>]</div> European slave trade in the Indian Ocean began when Portugal established <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Estado da Índia</a> in the early 16th century. Until the 1830s <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 slaves were exported from Mozambique annually and similar figures have been estimated for slaves brought from <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> to the Philippines during the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> (1580–1640).<a href="#cite_note-Allen-2017-overview2-112">[112]</a> The establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> in the early 17th century led to a quick increase in volume of the slave trade in the region; there were perhaps up to 500,000 slaves in various <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch colonies</a> in the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indian Ocean. For example, some 4000 African slaves were used to build the <a href="/wiki/Fort_(Colombo)" title="Fort (Colombo)">Colombo fortress</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Ceylon" title="Dutch Ceylon">Dutch Ceylon</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a> and neighbouring islands supplied regional networks with <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 100,000–150,000 slaves 1620–1830. <a href="/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese</a> slave traders supplied Dutch Indonesia with perhaps 250,000 slaves during the 17th and 18th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Allen-2017-overview2-112">[112]</a> The <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> (EIC) was established during the period and in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the <a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Coast" title="Coromandel Coast">Coromandel Coast</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>. The EIC mostly traded in African slaves but also in some Asian slaves purchased from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. The French established colonies on the islands of <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the <a href="/wiki/Mascarene_Islands" title="Mascarene Islands">Mascarene Islands</a>, a number which reached 133,000 in 1807. The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</a> captured the islands in 1810, however, and because the British had <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">prohibited the slave trade in</a> 1807 a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to French planters on the islands; in all 336,000–388,000 slaves were exported to the Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<a href="#cite_note-Allen-2017-overview2-112">[112]</a> In all, Europeans traders exported 567,900–733,200 slaves within the Indian Ocean between 1500 and 1850 and almost as many from the Indian Ocean to the Americas during the same period. Slave trade in the Indian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to the <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 12,000,000 slaves exported across the Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-Allen-2017-overview2-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atlantic_slave_trade">Atlantic slave trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Atlantic slave trade">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tobacco_cultivation_(Virginia,_ca._1670).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg/250px-Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg/375px-Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg/500px-Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption>African slaves working in 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, by an unknown artist, 1670</figcaption></figure> The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> from the 15th through to the 19th centuries. According to Patrick Manning, the Atlantic slave trade was significant in transforming Africans from a minority of the global population of slaves in 1600 into the overwhelming majority by 1800. By 1850 the number of African slaves within Africa exceeded those in the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-113">[113]</a> The slave trade was transformed from a marginal aspect of the economies into the largest sector in a relatively short span. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">agricultural plantations</a> increased significantly and became a key aspect in many societies.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> Economic urban centers that served as the root of main trade routes shifted towards the West coast.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> At the same time, many African communities relocated far away from slave trade routes, often protecting themselves from the Atlantic slave trade but hindering economic and technological development at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-:1-115">[115]</a> In many African societies traditional lineage slavery became more like chattel slavery due to an increased work demand.<a href="#cite_note-:2-116">[116]</a> This resulted in a general decrease in quality of life, working conditions, and status of slaves in West African societies. Assimilative slavery was increasingly replaced with chattel slavery. Assimilitave slavery in Africa often allowed eventual freedom and also significant cultural, social, and/or economic influence. Slaves were often treated as part of their owner's family, rather than simply property.<a href="#cite_note-:2-116">[116]</a> The distribution of sex among enslaved peoples under traditional lineage slavery saw women as more desirable slaves due to demands for domestic labour and for reproductive reasons.<a href="#cite_note-:2-116">[116]</a> Male slaves were used for more physical agricultural labour,<a href="#cite_note-:3-117">[117]</a> but as more enslaved men were taken to the West Coast and across the Atlantic to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, female slaves were increasingly used for physical and agricultural labour and <a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygyny</a> also increased. Chattel slavery in America was highly demanding because of the physical nature of plantation work and this was the most common destination for male slaves in the New World.<a href="#cite_note-:2-116">[116]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Brazilian_family_in_Rio_de_Janeiro_by_Jean-Baptiste_Debret_1839.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/A_Brazilian_family_in_Rio_de_Janeiro_by_Jean-Baptiste_Debret_1839.jpg/220px-A_Brazilian_family_in_Rio_de_Janeiro_by_Jean-Baptiste_Debret_1839.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/A_Brazilian_family_in_Rio_de_Janeiro_by_Jean-Baptiste_Debret_1839.jpg/330px-A_Brazilian_family_in_Rio_de_Janeiro_by_Jean-Baptiste_Debret_1839.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/A_Brazilian_family_in_Rio_de_Janeiro_by_Jean-Baptiste_Debret_1839.jpg/440px-A_Brazilian_family_in_Rio_de_Janeiro_by_Jean-Baptiste_Debret_1839.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2028" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Debret" title="Jean-Baptiste Debret">Jean-Baptiste Debret</a>'s conception of enslaved persons in Brazil (1839)</figcaption></figure> It has been argued that a decrease in able-bodied people as a result of the Atlantic slave trade limited many societies ability to cultivate land and develop. Many scholars argue that the transatlantic slave trade left Africa underdeveloped, demographically unbalanced, and vulnerable to future European colonization.<a href="#cite_note-:1-115">[115]</a> The first Europeans to arrive on the coast of <a href="/wiki/Guinea_(region)" title="Guinea (region)">Guinea</a> were the <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a>; the first European to actually buy enslaved Africans in the region of Guinea was <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%A3o_Gon%C3%A7alves" title="Antão Gonçalves">Antão Gonçalves</a>, a Portuguese explorer in 1441 AD. Originally interested in trading mainly for <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a>, they set up colonies on the uninhabited islands of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9" title="São Tomé">São Tomé</a>. In the 16th century the Portuguese settlers found that these volcanic islands were ideal for growing sugar. Sugar growing is a labour-intensive undertaking and Portuguese settlers were difficult to attract due to the heat, lack of infrastructure, and hard life. To cultivate the sugar the Portuguese turned to large numbers of enslaved Africans. <a href="/wiki/Elmina_Castle" title="Elmina Castle">Elmina Castle</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)" title="Gold Coast (British colony)">Gold Coast</a>, originally built by African labour for the Portuguese in 1482 to control the gold trade, became an important depot for slaves that were to be transported to the New World.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/VillageCayor-1821.jpg/220px-VillageCayor-1821.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/VillageCayor-1821.jpg/330px-VillageCayor-1821.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/VillageCayor-1821.jpg/440px-VillageCayor-1821.jpg 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>Slave trade along the <a href="/wiki/Senegal_River" title="Senegal River">Senegal River</a>, kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Cayor" title="Cayor">Cayor</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Spanish</a> were the first Europeans to use enslaved Africans in America on islands such as <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>,<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> where the alarming death rate in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population (<a href="/wiki/Laws_of_Burgos" title="Laws of Burgos">Laws of Burgos</a>, 1512–13). The first enslaved Africans arrived in Hispaniola in 1501 soon after the <a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Papal Bull of 1493</a> gave almost all of the New World to Spain.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Igboland" title="Igboland">Igboland</a>, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Aro_Confederacy" title="Aro Confederacy">Aro</a> oracle (the <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a> religious authority) began condemning more people to slavery due to small infractions that previously probably wouldn't have been punishable by slavery, thus increasing the number of enslaved men available for purchase.<a href="#cite_note-:2-116">[116]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of people were bought or captured from West Africa and taken to the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The increase of demand for slaves due to the expansion of European colonial powers to the New World made the slave trade much more lucrative to the West African powers, leading to the establishment of a number of actual <a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">West African empires</a> thriving on slave trade. These included the <a href="/wiki/Bono_state" title="Bono state">Bono State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oyo_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Oyo empire">Oyo empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a>), <a href="/wiki/Kong_Empire" title="Kong Empire">Kong Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imamate_of_Futa_Jallon" title="Imamate of Futa Jallon">Imamate of Futa Jallon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imamate_of_Futa_Toro" title="Imamate of Futa Toro">Imamate of Futa Toro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Koya" title="Kingdom of Koya">Kingdom of Koya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khasso" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Khasso">Kingdom of Khasso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaabu" title="Kaabu">Kingdom of Kaabu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fante_Confederacy" title="Fante Confederacy">Fante Confederacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Confederacy">Ashanti Confederacy</a>, and the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a>. These kingdoms relied on a militaristic culture of constant warfare to generate the great numbers of human captives required for trade with the Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> It is documented in the Slave Trade Debates of England in the early 19th century: "All the old writers concur in stating not only that wars are entered into for the sole purpose of making slaves, but that they are fomented by Europeans, with a view to that object."<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> The gradual abolition of slavery in European colonial empires during the 19th century again led to the decline and collapse of these African empires. When European powers began to stop the Atlantic slave trade, this caused a further change in that large holders of slaves in Africa began to exploit enslaved people on plantations and other agricultural products.<a href="#cite_note-Gueye-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abolition">Abolition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Abolition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="18th_and_19th_centuries">18th and 19th centuries</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 18th and 19th centuries">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slave_trade_suppression" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Suppression_of_the_Slave_Trade" title="Template:Campaignbox Suppression of the Slave Trade"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Suppression_of_the_Slave_Trade" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Suppression of the Slave Trade"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Suppression_of_the_Slave_Trade" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Suppression of the Slave Trade"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slave_trade_suppression" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Slave trade suppression</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firman_of_1830" title="Firman of 1830">Firman of 1830</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_slave_trade_in_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Suppression of the slave trade in the Persian Gulf">Suppression of the slave trade in the Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firman_of_1854" class="mw-redirect" title="Firman of 1854">Firman of 1854</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firman_of_1857" class="mw-redirect" title="Firman of 1857">Firman of 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Ottoman_Convention_of_1880" title="Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1880">Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1880</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanunname_of_1889" title="Kanunname of 1889">Kanunname of 1889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Conference_Act_of_1890" title="Brussels Conference Act of 1890">Brussels Conference Act of 1890</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">West Africa Squadron (U.K.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">African Slave Trade Patrol (U.S.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Squadron" title="Africa Squadron">Africa Squadron (U.S.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_Squadron" title="Brazil Squadron">Brazil Squadron (U.S.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Naval_Division" title="Eastern Naval Division">Eastern Naval Division (Brazil)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Black_Joke_(1827)#Black_Joke_–_slaver_catcher" title="HMS Black Joke (1827)">Capture of the Providentia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Black_Joke_(1827)#Black_Joke_–_slaver_catcher" title="HMS Black Joke (1827)">Capture of the Presidente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Black_Joke_(1827)#Black_Joke_–_slaver_catcher" title="HMS Black Joke (1827)">Capture of the El Almirante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Black_Joke_(1827)#Black_Joke_–_slaver_catcher" title="HMS Black Joke (1827)">Capture of the Marinerito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Veloz_Passagera" title="Capture of the Veloz Passagera">Capture of the Veloz Passagera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_brig_Brillante" title="Capture of the brig Brillante">Capture of the Brillante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_1919" title="Convention of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919">Convention of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Creole case">Creole case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Amistad" title="La Amistad">La Amistad Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunny_South_(clipper)#Capture_of_Emanuela" title="Sunny South (clipper)">Capture of the Emanuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johanna_Expedition" title="Johanna Expedition">Bombardment of Johanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Carver_Affair" title="Mary Carver Affair">Mary Carver Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Barley_Incident&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward Barley Incident (page does not exist)">Edward Barley Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast_expedition" title="Ivory Coast expedition">Battle of Little Bereby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamerton_Treaty" title="Hamerton Treaty">Hamerton Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frere_Treaty" title="Frere Treaty">Frere Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Jeddah_(1927)" title="Treaty of Jeddah (1927)">Treaty of Jeddah (1927)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moresby_Treaty" title="Moresby Treaty">Moresby Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> The final major transformation of slave relationships came with the inconsistent <a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">emancipation</a> efforts starting in the mid-19th century. As European authorities <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">began to take over</a> large parts of inland Africa starting in the 1870s, the colonial policies were often confusing on the issue. For example, even when slavery was deemed illegal, colonial authorities would return escaped slaves to their masters.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> Slavery persisted in some countries under colonial rule, and in some instances it was not until independence that slavery practices were significantly transformed.<a href="#cite_note-Hahonou-125">[125]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-colonial</a> struggles in Africa often brought slaves and former slaves together with masters and former masters to fight for independence; however, this cooperation was short-lived and following independence political parties would often form based upon the stratifications of slaves and masters.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1990-81">[81]</a> In some parts of Africa, slavery and slavery-like practices continue to this day, particularly the illegal trafficking of women and children.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> The problem has proven to be difficult for governments and civil society to eliminate.<a href="#cite_note-Dottridge-127">[127]</a> Efforts by Europeans against slavery and the slave trade began in the late 18th century and had a large impact on slavery in Africa. Portugal was the first country in the continent to abolish slavery in metropolitan Portugal and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a> by a bill issued on 12 February 1761, but this did not affect their colonies in <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Brazil</a> and Africa. France abolished slavery in 1794. However, slavery was again allowed by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> in 1802 and not abolished for good until 1848. In 1803, <a href="/wiki/Denmark-Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Denmark-Norway">Denmark-Norway</a> became the first country from Europe to implement a ban on the slave trade. Slavery itself was not banned until 1848.<a href="#cite_note-Rodriguez-128">[128]</a> Britain followed in 1807 with the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Slave_Trade_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolition of the Slave Trade Act">Abolition of the Slave Trade Act</a> by <a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliament</a>. This law allowed stiff fines, increasing with the number of slaves transported, for captains of slave ships. Britain followed this with the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">Slavery Abolition Act 1833</a> which freed all slaves in the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. British pressure on other countries resulted in them agreeing to end the slave trade from Africa. For example, the <a href="/wiki/1820_U.S._Law_on_Slave_Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade">1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade</a> made slave trading <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a>, punishable by <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">death</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> abolished slave trade from Africa in 1847 under British pressure.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> By 1850, the year that the last major Atlantic slave trade participant (Brazil) passed the <a href="/wiki/Eus%C3%A9bio_de_Queir%C3%B3s_Law" title="Eusébio de Queirós Law">Eusébio de Queirós Law</a> banning the slave trade,<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> the slave trades had been significantly slowed and in general only illegal trade went on. Brazil continued the practice of slavery and was a major source for illegal trade until about 1870 and the abolition of slavery became permanent in 1888 when Princess <a href="/wiki/Isabel_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabel of Brazil">Isabel of Brazil</a> and Minister <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodrigo_Silva_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rodrigo Silva (politician) (page does not exist)">Rodrigo Silva</a> (son-in-law of senator Eusebio de Queiroz) banned the practice.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1990-81">[81]</a> The British took an active approach to stopping the illegal Atlantic slave trade during this period. The <a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">West Africa Squadron</a> was credited with capturing 1,600 slave ships between 1808 and 1860, and freeing 150,000 Africans who were aboard these ships.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping <a href="/wiki/Oba_of_Lagos" title="Oba of Lagos">King of Lagos</a>", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg/220px-HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg/330px-HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg/440px-HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1506" data-file-height="1113" /></a><figcaption>Capture of slave ship <a href="/wiki/Sunny_South_(clipper)" title="Sunny South (clipper)">Emanuela</a> by <a href="/wiki/HMS_Brisk_(1851)" title="HMS Brisk (1851)">HMS Brisk</a></figcaption></figure> According to Patrick Manning, internal slavery was most important to Africa in the second half of the 19th century, stating "if there is any time when one can speak of African societies being organized around a slave mode production, [1850–1900] was it". The abolition of the Atlantic slave trade resulted in the economies of African states dependent on the trade being reorganized towards domestic plantation slavery and legitimate commerce worked by slave labour. Slavery before this period was generally domestic.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1990-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Austin-6">[6]</a> The continuing <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">anti-slavery movement</a> in Europe became an excuse and a <a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a> for the European conquest and colonization of much of the African continent.<a href="#cite_note-Klein-1978-94">[94]</a> It was the central theme of the <a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889-90" class="mw-redirect" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889-90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889-90</a>. In the late 19th century, the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> saw the continent rapidly divided between imperialistic European powers, and an early but secondary focus of all <a href="/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">colonial</a> <a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">regimes</a> was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Drescher" title="Seymour Drescher">Seymour Drescher</a> argues that European interests in abolition were primarily motivated by economic and imperial goals.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Despite slavery often being a justification behind conquest, colonial regimes often ignored slavery or allowed slavery practices to continue. This was because the colonial state depended on the cooperation of indigenous political and economic structures which were heavily involved in slavery. As a result, early colonial policies usually sought to end slave trading while regulating existing slave practices and weakening the power of slave masters.<a href="#cite_note-:5-75">[75]</a> Furthermore, the early colonial states had weak effective control over their territories, which precluded efforts to widespread abolition. Abolition attempts became more concrete later during the colonial period.<a href="#cite_note-:5-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="20th_century_up_to_World_War_II">20th century up to World War II</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: 20th century up to World War II">edit</a>]</div> There were many causes for the decline and abolition of slavery in Africa during the colonial period including colonial abolition policies, various economic changes, and slave resistance. The economic changes during the colonial period, including the rise of wage labour and cash crops, hastened the decline of slavery by offering new economic opportunities to slaves. The abolition of slave raiding and the end of wars between African states drastically reduced the supply of slaves. Slaves would take advantage of early colonial laws that nominally abolished slavery and would migrate away from their masters although these laws often were intended to regulate slavery more than actually abolish it. This migration led to more concrete abolition efforts by colonial governments.<a href="#cite_note-:5-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> Following conquest and abolition by the French, over a million slaves in <a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a> fled from their masters to earlier homes between 1906 and 1911.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> over 500,000 slaves were freed following French abolition in 1896.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> In response to this pressure, Ethiopia officially abolished slavery in 1932, the <a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a> abolished slavery in 1900, and the rest of the Sahel in 1911. After the end of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, other slave trade routes transporting enslaved people from Africa continued in to the 20th-century. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a>, was combatted by the British in a number of anti-slaveery treaties pressued by the British upon the Sultanate of Zanzibar between 1822 and 1909, each one limiting the slave trade between the Swaihili coast of east Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. In an 1867 agreement with the British, Zanzibar was pressured to ban the export of slaves to Arabia, and to limit the slave trade within the borders of the Sultanate to only between Latitude 9 degrees South of Kilwa, and Latitude 4 degrees South of Lamu.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> After 1867, the British campaign against the slave trade in the Indian Ocean was undermined by Omani slave dhows using French colours trafficking slaves to Arabia and the Persian Gulf from East Africa as far South as Mozambique, which the French tolerated until 1905, when the Hague International Tribunal mandated France to curtail French flags to Omani dhows; nevertheless, small scale smuggling of slaves from East Africa to Arabia continued until the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> During the 20th century the issue of slavery was addressed by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, which founded commissions to investigate and eradicate the institution of slavery and slave trade worldwide. The <a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a> (TSC) conducted a global investigation in 1924–1926 and filed a report, and a convention, <a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a>, was drawn up to hasten the total abolition of slavery and the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> In 1932, the League formed the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> (CES) to review the result and enforcement of the 1926 Slavery Convention, which resulted in a new international investigation under the first permanent slavery committee, the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> (ACE).<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Both of these investigations noted that African slaves were transported from Africa to the Muslim Arab world, where chattel slavery were still legal. The <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a> was combatted by the colonial authorities, who nominally controlled the territories of the Sahara desert from the late 19th-century onward. Both the French, Spanish, Italian and British colonial authorities officially stated that they combatted the ancient slave trade transporting enslaved Africans across the Sahara to Arab North Africa and the Middle East. In reality however, the colonial authorities of the West had little actual control over the Sahara territories and were not able to actually combat the slave trade in practice, though it did gradually limit the trade. The colonial authorities stated that the slave trade were still active in the 1930s, though it was actively combatted. The Italians reported to the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> in the 1930s that the Trans-Saharan slave trade had been erased in parallel with Italian conquest, during which 900 slaves had been freed in the Kufra slave market,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-142">[142]</a> and in the 1936 report to the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a>, the French, British and Italian stated that they all surveyed the water sources along the caravan routes in the Sahara to combat the Trans-Saharan slave trade from Nigeria to North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-sm-143">[143]</a> The 1937 report to the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a>, both France and Spain assured that they actively fought the slave raids from the Trans-Saharan slave traders, and in 1938, the French claimed that they had secured control over the border areas alongside Morocco and Algeria and effectively prevented the trans-Saharan slave trade in that area.<a href="#cite_note-sm-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="After_World_War_II">After World War II</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: After World War II">edit</a>]</div> The ancient <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>, which transported enslaved Africans to the Arabian Peninsula across the Red Sea, continued until the 1960s. The annual pilgrimage to Mecca, the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a>, was a big vehicle for enslavement. Muslim African Hajj pilgrims across the Sahara were duped or given low-cost travel expenses by tribal leaders; when they arrived at the East Coast, they were trafficked over the Red Sea in the dhows of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a> or on small passenger planes, and discovered upon arrival in Saudi Arabia that they were to be sold on the slave market rather than to perform the Hajj.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The English traveller Charles M. Doughty, who visited Central Arabia in the 1880s, noted that African slaves were brought up to Arabia every year during the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">hajj</a>, and that "there are bondsmen and bondwomen and free negro families in every tribe and town".<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Slavery in Islamic societies has been described as a benevolent institution, and King <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Aziz_ibn_Saud" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud">Abd al Aziz Ibn Saud</a> remarked to the British legation officer Munshi Ihsanullah that West Africans<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><blockquote>lived like beasts, that they were much better off as slaves, and that if he had his way he would take all (West African) pilgrims as his slaves, raising them thus out of their depraved state and turning them into happy, prosperous and civilised beings.</blockquote> The Red Sea slave trade was combatted by particular the British who tried to control the pilgrim travellers through Africa and patrolled the Red Sea and controll the traffic, but these controls were not effective, since the slave traders would inform the European Colonial authorities that the slaves were their wives, children, servants or fellow Hajj pilgrims, and the victims themselves were convinced of the same, unaware that they were being shipped as slaves.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Article 4 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, adopted in 1948 by the <a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a>, explicitly banned slavery. After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel slavery</a> was formally abolished by law in almost the entire world, with the exception of the Arabian Peninsula and some parts of Africa. Chattel slavery was still legal <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">in Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">in Yemen</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Trucial_States" title="Slavery in the Trucial States">the Trucial States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">in Oman</a>, and slaves were supplied to the Arabian Peninsula via the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>. When the League of Nations was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN) after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wilton_Wood_Greenidge" title="Charles Wilton Wood Greenidge">Charles Wilton Wood Greenidge</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a> worked for the UN to continue the investigation of global slavery conducted by the ACE of the League, and in February 1950 the <a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a> of the United Nations was inaugurated,<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> which ultimately resulted in the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Slavery in Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> did not end until the 1960s and 1970s. In the 21st century, activists contend that many immigrants who travel to those countries for work are held in virtual slavery under the <a href="/wiki/Kafala_system" title="Kafala system">kafala system</a>. Colonial nations were mostly successful in their aim to abolish slavery, though slavery is still very active in Africa even though it has gradually moved to a <a href="/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">wage</a> economy. Independent nations attempting to westernize or impress Europe sometimes cultivated an image of slavery suppression, even as they, in the case of Egypt, hired European soldiers like <a href="/wiki/Samuel_White_Baker" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel White Baker">Samuel White Baker</a>'s expedition up the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>. Slavery has never been eradicated in Africa, and it commonly appears in African states, such as <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, in places where law and order have collapsed.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Although outlawed in all countries today, slavery is practised in secret in many parts of the world.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> There are an estimated 30 million victims of slavery worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> alone, up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are enslaved, many of them used as <a href="/wiki/Bonded_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonded labour">bonded labour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Slavery in Mauritania</a> was finally criminalized in August 2007.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sudanese_Civil_War" title="Second Sudanese Civil War">Second Sudanese Civil War</a> people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, where the practice of slavery was outlawed in 2003, a study found that almost 8% of the population are still slaves.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Effects">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demographics">Demographics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Demographics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zanzslgwch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zanzslgwch.jpg/250px-Zanzslgwch.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zanzslgwch.jpg/375px-Zanzslgwch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zanzslgwch.jpg/500px-Zanzslgwch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Zanj" title="Zanj">Zanj</a> slave gang in Zanzibar (1889)</figcaption></figure> Slavery and the slave trades had a significant impact on the size of the population and the gender distribution throughout much of Africa. The precise impact of these demographic shifts has been an issue of significant debate.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> The Atlantic slave trade took 70,000 people per year, primarily from the west coast of Africa, at its peak in the mid-1700s.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1990-81">[81]</a> The trans-Saharan slave trade involved the capture of peoples from the continental interior, who were then shipped overseas through ports on the Red Sea and elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-Gcam-160">[160]</a> It peaked at 10,000 people bartered per year in the 1600s.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1990-81">[81]</a> According to Patrick Manning, there was a consistent population decrease in large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa as a result of these slave trades. This population decline throughout West Africa from 1650 to 1850 was exacerbated by the preference of slave traders for male slaves. This preference only existed in the transatlantic slave trade. More female slaves than male were traded across the continent of Africa.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Manning-1990-81">[81]</a> In eastern Africa, the slave trade was multi-directional and changed over time. To meet the demand for menial labour, <a href="/wiki/Zanj" title="Zanj">Zanj</a> slaves captured from the southern interior were sold through ports on the northern seaboard in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile Valley">Nile Valley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a> and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean islands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gcam-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Extent">Extent</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Extent">edit</a>]</div> The extent of slavery within Africa and the trade in slaves to other regions is not known precisely. Although the Atlantic slave trade has been best studied, estimates range from 8 million people to 20 million.<a href="#cite_note-Curtin1972-161">[161]</a> The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database estimates that the Atlantic slave trade took around 12.8 million people between 1450 and 1900.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-TAST_Database-162">[162]</a> The slave trade across the Sahara and Red Sea from the Sahara, the Horn of Africa, and East Africa, has been estimated at 6.2 million people between 600 and 1600.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> Although the rate decreased from East Africa in the 1700s, it increased in the 1800s and is estimated at 1.65 million for that century.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">[2]</a> Estimates by Patrick Manning are that about 12 million slaves entered the Atlantic trade between the 16th and 19th century, but about 1.5 million died on board ship.<a href="#cite_note-:0-163">[163]</a> About 10.5 million slaves arrived in the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-:0-163">[163]</a> Besides the slaves who died on the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a>, more Africans likely died during the wars and <a href="/wiki/Slave_raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raid">slave raids</a> within Africa and <a href="/wiki/Forced_march_(displacement)" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced march (displacement)">forced marches</a> to ports. Manning estimates that 4 million died inside Africa after capture, and many more died young.<a href="#cite_note-:0-163">[163]</a> Manning's estimate covers the 12 million who were originally destined for the Atlantic, as well as the 6 million destined for Asian slave markets and the 8 million destined for African markets.<a href="#cite_note-:0-163">[163]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/David_Stannard" title="David Stannard">David Stannard</a>, 50% of deaths in Africa occurred as a result of wars between native kingdoms, which produced the majority of slaves.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> This includes those who died in battles and those who died as a result of forced marches to slave ports on the coast.<a href="#cite_note-Gomez-165">[165]</a> The practice of enslaving enemy combatants and their villages was widespread throughout Western and West Central Africa, although wars were rarely started to procure slaves. The slave trade was largely a by-product of tribal and state <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">warfare</a> as a way of removing potential dissidents after victory or financing future wars.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Debate_about_demographic_effect">Debate about demographic effect</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Debate about demographic effect">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slavezanzibar2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Slavezanzibar2.JPG/190px-Slavezanzibar2.JPG" decoding="async" width="190" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Slavezanzibar2.JPG/285px-Slavezanzibar2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Slavezanzibar2.JPG/380px-Slavezanzibar2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Photograph of a slave boy in <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a>: "An Arab master's punishment for a slight offence" (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1890)</figcaption></figure> The demographic effects of the slave trade are some of the most controversial and debated issues. <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a> argued that the export of so many people had been a demographic disaster and had left Africa permanently disadvantaged when compared to other parts of the world, and that this largely explains that continent's continued poverty.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> He presents numbers that show that Africa's population stagnated during this period, while that of Europe and Asia grew dramatically. According to Rodney all other areas of the economy were disrupted by the slave trade as the top merchants abandoned traditional industries to pursue slaving and the lower levels of the population were disrupted by the slaving itself. Others have challenged this view. <a href="/wiki/J._D._Fage" class="mw-redirect" title="J. D. Fage">J. D. Fage</a> compared the number effect on the continent as a whole. David Eltis has compared the numbers to the rate of <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigration</a> from <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> during this period. In the 19th century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas, a far higher rate than were ever taken from Africa.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Others in turn challenged that view. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_E._Inikori&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph E. Inikori (page does not exist)">Joseph E. Inikori</a> argues the history of the region shows that the effects were still quite deleterious. He argues that the African economic model of the period was very different from the European, and could not sustain such population losses. Population reductions in certain areas also led to widespread problems. Inikori also notes that after the suppression of the slave trade Africa's population almost immediately began to rapidly increase, even prior to the introduction of modern medicines.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_the_economy_of_Africa">Effect on the economy of Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Effect on the economy of Africa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Different_cowries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Different_cowries.jpg/250px-Different_cowries.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Different_cowries.jpg/375px-Different_cowries.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Different_cowries.jpg/500px-Different_cowries.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1665" data-file-height="1326" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cowrie" title="Cowrie">Cowrie</a> shells were used as money in the slave trade.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ManillaOkhapos.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/ManillaOkhapos.JPG/190px-ManillaOkhapos.JPG" decoding="async" width="190" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/ManillaOkhapos.JPG/285px-ManillaOkhapos.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/ManillaOkhapos.JPG/380px-ManillaOkhapos.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="2288" /></a><figcaption>Two slightly differing Okpoho <a href="/wiki/Manillas" class="mw-redirect" title="Manillas">Manillas</a> as used to purchase slaves for approximately 8–50 manilla per slave<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a></figcaption></figure> There is a longstanding debate among analysts and scholars about the destructive impacts of the slave trades.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1983-23">[23]</a> It is often claimed that the slave trade undermined local economies and political stability as villages' vital labour forces were shipped overseas as slave raids and <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil wars</a> became commonplace. With the rise of a large commercial slave trade, driven by European needs, enslaving your enemy became less a consequence of war, and more and more a reason to go to war.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> The slave trade was claimed to have impeded the formation of larger ethnic groups, causing ethnic factionalism and weakening the formation for stable political structures in many places. It also is claimed to have reduced the mental health and social development of African people.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> In contrast to these arguments, J. D. Fage asserts that slavery did not have a wholly disastrous effect on the societies of Africa.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Slaves were an expensive commodity, and traders received a great deal in exchange for each enslaved person. At the peak of the slave trade hundreds of thousands of <a href="/wiki/Musket" title="Musket">muskets</a>, vast quantities of cloth, <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>, and metals were being shipped to Guinea. Most of this money was spent on European-made firearms (of very poor quality) and industrial-grade alcohol. African trade with Europe at the peak of the Atlantic slave trade—which also included significant exports of gold and <a href="/wiki/Ivory_trade" title="Ivory trade">ivory</a>—was some 3.5 million pounds Sterling per year. By contrast, the total trade of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a>, an economic superpower of the time, was about 14 million pounds per year over this same period of the late 18th century. As <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Manning_(Professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrick Manning (Professor)">Patrick Manning</a> has pointed out, the vast majority of items traded for slaves were common rather than luxury goods. Textiles, <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a>, currency, and salt were some of the most important commodities imported as a result of the slave trade, and these goods were spread within the entire society raising the general standard of living.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1983-23">[23]</a> Although debated, it is argued that the Atlantic slave trade devastated the African economy. In 19th century <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Land" class="mw-redirect" title="Yoruba Land">Yoruba Land</a>, economic activity was described to be at its lowest ever while life and property were being taken daily, and normal living was in jeopardy because of the fear of being kidnapped.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> (Onwumah, Imhonopi, Adetunde, 2019) Slave trade in Africa has also caused disruption of political systems. To elaborate on the disruption of political systems caused by slavery in Africa, the capture and sale of millions of Africans to the Americas and elsewhere resulted in the loss of many skilled and talented individuals who played important roles in African societies.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Without these people, African societies were destabilized, and their political systems became weaker. This led to instability and civil conflicts, with some societies collapsing altogether. Additionally, the slave trade encouraged warfare and raiding, as people were captured and sold by rival African tribes.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> The impact of the slave trade on African political systems was far-reaching and enduring. Today, many African countries continue to face political instability and weak governance, with some scholars pointing to the legacy of slavery as a contributing factor.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> A study of the relationship between the number of slaves exported and current wealth found that the areas most affected by the slave trade are among the poorest today, indicating the slave trade's long-lasting detrimental effects especially on the affected regions.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_Europe's_economy">Effects on Europe's economy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Effects on Europe's economy">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> in his economic history of capitalism, <a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a>, claimed that "the turning of Africa into a warren for the commercial hunting of black-skins [that is, the slave trade], signalled the rosy dawn of the era of capitalist production." He argued that the slave trade was part of what he termed the "primitive accumulation" of European capital, the non-capitalist accumulation of wealth that preceded and created the financial conditions for <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>'s industrialization and the advent of the capitalist mode of production.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eric_Williams" title="Eric Williams">Eric Williams</a> has written about the contribution of Africans on the basis of profits from the slave trade and slavery, arguing that the employment of those profits were used to help finance Britain's industrialization. He argues that the enslavement of Africans was an essential element to the Industrial Revolution, and that European wealth was, in part, a result of slavery, but that by the time of its abolition it had lost its profitability and it was in the economic interest of various European governments to ban it.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Joseph Inikori has written that slavery in the British West Indies was more profitable than the critics of Williams believe. Other researchers and historians have strongly contested what has come to be referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Slavery" title="Capitalism and Slavery">Williams thesis</a>" in academia: David Richardson has concluded that the profits from the British slave trade and slavery amounted to less than 1% of domestic investment in Britain,<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> and economic historian <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Engerman" title="Stanley Engerman">Stanley Engerman</a> notes that even without subtracting the associated costs of the slave trade (e.g., shipping costs, slave mortality, mortality of Europeans in Africa, defence costs) or reinvestment of profits back into the slave trade, the total profits from the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the British economy during any year of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Slave_Trade_and_British_Capital_Formation_in_the_Eighteenth_Century-182">[182]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pares" title="Richard Pares">Richard Pares</a>, in an article written before Williams' book, dismisses the influence of wealth generated from the West Indian plantations upon the financing of the Industrial Revolution, stating that whatever substantial flow of investment from West Indian profits into industry there was occurred after emancipation, not before.<a href="#cite_note-The_Economic_Factors_in_the_History_of_the_Empire-183">[183]</a> Findlay and O'Rourke noted that the figures presented by O'Brien (1982) to back his claim that "the periphery was peripheral" suggest the opposite, with profits from the periphery 1784–1786 being £5.66 million when there was £10.30 million total gross investment in the British economy and similar proportions for 1824–1826. They note that dismissing the profits of the enslavement of human beings from significance because it was a "small share of national income", could be used to argue that there was no industrial revolution, since modern industry provided only a small share of national income and that it is a mistake to assume that small size is the same as small significance. Findlay and O'Rourke also note that the share of American export commodities produced by enslaved human beings rose from 54% between 1501 and 1550 to 82.5% between 1761 and 1780.<a href="#cite_note-Findlay&O'Rourke-184">[184]</a> Seymour Drescher and Robert Anstey argue the slave trade remained profitable until abolition, because of innovations in agriculture, and that moralistic reform, not economic incentive, was primarily responsible for abolition.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> A similar debate has taken place about other European nations. The French slave trade, it is argued, was more profitable than alternative domestic investments, and probably encouraged <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> before the Industrial Revolution and <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legacy_of_racism">Legacy of racism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Legacy of racism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Maulana Karenga</a> states the effects of the Atlantic slave trade in African captives: "[T]he morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among people of today". He says that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.<a href="#cite_note-Ethics_on_Reparations-187">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Slavery in contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cudjoe_Lewis" title="Cudjoe Lewis">Cudjoe Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_modern_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in modern Africa">Slavery in modern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_operations_of_the_United_States_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Slavery operations of the United States Navy">Anti-Slavery operations of the United States Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity and slavery">Christianity and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islamic views on slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Slavery in Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Slavery in Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfree_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labour">Unfree labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maafa" title="Maafa">Maafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tippu_Tip" title="Tippu Tip">Tippu Tip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">History of slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in the United States">History of slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Riley_(Captain)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Riley (Captain)">James Riley (Captain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="African Diaspora">African Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiento_de_Negros" title="Asiento de Negros">Asiento de Negros</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStilwell2013" class="citation cs2">Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", Slavery and Slaving in African History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 38, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781139034999.003">10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9"><bdi>978-1-139-03499-9</bdi></a>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavery+and+Slaving+in+African+History&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+African+History&rft.pages=38&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781139034999.003&rft.isbn=978-1-139-03499-9&rft.aulast=Stilwell&rft.aufirst=Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lovejoy-2012-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy-2012_2-19">t</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovejoy2012" class="citation book cs1">Lovejoy, Paul E. (2012). Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. London: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transformations+of+Slavery%3A+A+History+of+Slavery+in+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Lovejoy&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sparks_process-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sparks_process_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sparks_process_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSparks2014" class="citation book cs1">Sparks, Randy J. (2014). "4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe". Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade. Harvard University Press. pp. 122–161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674724877" title="Special:BookSources/9780674724877"><bdi>9780674724877</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4.+The+Process+of+Enslavement+at+Annamaboe&rft.btitle=Where+the+Negroes+are+Masters+%3A+An+African+Port+in+the+Era+of+the+Slave+Trade&rft.pages=122-161&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780674724877&rft.aulast=Sparks&rft.aufirst=Randy+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf">Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2012" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric (2012). 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American Historical Review. 88 (4): 835–857. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1874022">10.2307/1874022</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1874022">1874022</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155847068">155847068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Contours+of+Slavery+and+Social+Change+in+Africa&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=835-857&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155847068%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1874022%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1874022&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nwokeji-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Nwokeji_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwokeji2011" class="citation book cs1">Kwokeji, G. Ugo (2011). "Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820". In David Eltis and Stanley Engerman (ed.). The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II. pp. 81–110.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+Non-Islamic+West+Africa%2C+1420%E2%80%931820&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Slavery%2C+Volume+II&rft.pages=81-110&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Kwokeji&rft.aufirst=G.+Ugo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnell2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Snell, Daniel C. (2011). "Slavery in the ancient Near East". In K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge (ed.). The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 16–17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+the+ancient+Near+East&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Slavery&rft.pages=16-17&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Snell&rft.aufirst=Daniel+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Thompson, Dorothy J. (2011). "Slavery in the Hellenistic world". In K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge (ed.). The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 207. <q>For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+the+Hellenistic+world&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Slavery&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Dorothy+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Offering1859-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Offering1859_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog">"Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants"</a>. Wesleyan Juvenile Offering. XVI: 12. February 1859. Retrieved 10 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wesleyan+Juvenile+Offering&rft.atitle=Burning+of+a+Village+in+Africa%2C+and+Capture+of+its+Inhabitants&rft.volume=XVI&rft.pages=12&rft.date=1859-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwesleyanjuvenil07socigoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2018" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, David M. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994">"13. Punic Carthage"</a>. Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c. 800-146 BC. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198769941.003.0014">10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13.+Punic+Carthage&rft.btitle=Greek+Slave+Systems+in+their+Eastern+Mediterranean+Context%2C+c.%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E+%3C%2Fspan%3E800-146+BC&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198769941.003.0014&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F25688%2Fchapter%2F193166994&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bradley, Keith (2011). "Slavery in the Roman Republic". In K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge (ed.). The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 246.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+the+Roman+Republic&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Slavery&rft.pages=246&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheidel2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Scheidel, Walter (2011). "The Roman slave supply". In Bradley, K.; Cartledge, P. (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 297–8. <q>While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Roman+slave+supply&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Slavery&rft.pages=297-8&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Scheidel&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1980" class="citation journal cs1">Fisher, Alan (1980). "Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire". 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The Guardian. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. Retrieved 11 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=New+book+reopens+old+arguments+about+slave+raids+on+Europe&rft.date=2004-03-11&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=Rory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fuk%2F2004%2Fmar%2F11%2Fhighereducation.books&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wright-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Wright_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2007" class="citation news cs1">Wright, John (2007). "Trans-Saharan Slave Trade". 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"Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century". Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa. Oxford, England: James Currey Ltd. pp. 38–74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Violence%2C+Marginality%2C+Scorn+%26+Honor%3A+Language+Evidence+of+Slavery+in+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+Great+Lakes+Region+of+East+Africa&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=38-74&rft.pub=James+Currey+Ltd.&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Schoenbrun&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Campbell_&_Alpers-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_&_Alpers_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellAlpers2004" class="citation journal cs1">Campbell, Gwyn; Alpers, Edward A. (2004). "Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia". Slavery & Abolition. 25 (2): ix–xxvii. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0144039042000292992">10.1080/0144039042000292992</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144847867">144847867</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavery+%26+Abolition&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Slavery%2C+forced+labour+and+resistance+in+Indian+Ocean+Africa+and+Asia&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=ix-xxvii&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0144039042000292992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144847867%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Gwyn&rft.au=Alpers%2C+Edward+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kusimba-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kusimba_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kusimba_90-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKusimba2004" class="citation journal cs1">Kusimba, Chapurukha M. (2004). "The African Archaeological Review". Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa. 21 (2): 59–88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2Fb%3Aaarr.0000030785.72144.4a">10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130793">25130793</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161103875">161103875</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology+of+Slavery+in+East+Africa&rft.atitle=The+African+Archaeological+Review&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=59-88&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161103875%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25130793%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2Fb%3Aaarr.0000030785.72144.4a&rft.aulast=Kusimba&rft.aufirst=Chapurukha+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm">"Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds"</a>. 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"Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade". Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays. p. 177.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Apuleius+and+the+sub-Saharan+slave+trade&rft.btitle=Apuleius+and+Antonine+Rome%3A+Historical+Essays&rft.pages=177&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Keith+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-exports22-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-exports22_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-exports22_96-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-exports22_96-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Andrew. "Saharan Exports to the Roman World". Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 192–193.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Saharan+Exports+to+the+Roman+World&rft.btitle=Trade+in+the+Ancient+Sahara+and+Beyond&rft.pages=192-193&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes">"Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation"</a>. The Guardian. 5 November 2011. Retrieved 9 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Fall+of+Gaddafi+opens+a+new+era+for+the+Sahara%27s+lost+civilisation&rft.date=2011-11-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2011%2Fnov%2F05%2Fgaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattingly" class="citation book cs1">Mattingly, David. "The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade". Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 27–28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Garamantes+and+the+Origins+of+Saharan+Trade&rft.btitle=Trade+in+the+Ancient+Sahara+and+Beyond&rft.pages=27-28&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.aulast=Mattingly&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-indianocean-99"><a href="#cite_ref-indianocean_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreamon" class="citation book cs1">Freamon, Bernard K. Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. p. 78. <q>The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Possessed+by+the+Right+Hand%3A+The+Problem+of+Slavery+in+Islamic+Law+and+Muslim+Cultures&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Brill&rft.aulast=Freamon&rft.aufirst=Bernard+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-indianocean2-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean2_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean2_100-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean2_100-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean2_100-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean2_100-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean2_100-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean2_100-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreamon" class="citation book cs1">Freamon, Bernard K. Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 79–80.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Possessed+by+the+Right+Hand%3A+The+Problem+of+Slavery+in+Islamic+Law+and+Muslim+Cultures&rft.pages=79-80&rft.pub=Brill&rft.aulast=Freamon&rft.aufirst=Bernard+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-indianocean4-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean4_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean4_101-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean4_101-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreamon" class="citation book cs1">Freamon, Bernard K. Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 82–83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Possessed+by+the+Right+Hand%3A+The+Problem+of+Slavery+in+Islamic+Law+and+Muslim+Cultures&rft.pages=82-83&rft.pub=Brill&rft.aulast=Freamon&rft.aufirst=Bernard+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-indianocean3-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean3_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean3_102-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreamon" class="citation book cs1">Freamon, Bernard K. Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 81–82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Possessed+by+the+Right+Hand%3A+The+Problem+of+Slavery+in+Islamic+Law+and+Muslim+Cultures&rft.pages=81-82&rft.pub=Brill&rft.aulast=Freamon&rft.aufirst=Bernard+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oriental12-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oriental12_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oriental12_103-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManning" class="citation book cs1">Manning, Patrick. Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+African+Life%3A+Occidental%2C+Oriental%2C+and+African+Slave+Trades&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonnelly_FageTordoff2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Donnelly_Fage" class="mw-redirect" title="John Donnelly Fage">Donnelly Fage, John</a>; Tordoff, William (December 2001). A History of Africa (4 ed.). Budapest: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415252485" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415252485"><bdi>978-0415252485</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Africa&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=258&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001-12&rft.isbn=978-0415252485&rft.aulast=Donnelly+Fage&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Tordoff%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lodhi-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lodhi_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lodhi_105-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLodhi2000" class="citation book cs1">Lodhi, Abdulaziz (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ">Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts</a>. 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Business History Review. 46 (4): 430–443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3113341">10.2307/3113341</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3113341">3113341</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154620412">154620412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+Slave+Trade+and+British+Capital+Formation+in+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=430-443&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154620412%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3113341%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3113341&rft.aulast=Engerman&rft.aufirst=Stanley+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Economic_Factors_in_the_History_of_the_Empire-183"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Economic_Factors_in_the_History_of_the_Empire_183-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPares1937" class="citation journal cs1">Pares, Richard (1937). "The Economic Factors in the History of the Empire". The Economic History Review. 7 (2): 119–144. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2590147">10.2307/2590147</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2590147">2590147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+Economic+Factors+in+the+History+of+the+Empire&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=119-144&rft.date=1937&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2590147&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2590147%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pares&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Findlay&O'Rourke-184"><a href="#cite_ref-Findlay&O'Rourke_184-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFindlayO'Rourke2009" class="citation book cs1">Findlay, Ronald; O'Rourke, Kevin H. (2009). Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 334–343. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691143279" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691143279"><bdi>978-0-691143279</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+and+Plenty%3A+Trade%2C+War%2C+and+the+World+Economy+in+the+Second+Millennium&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=334-343&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-691143279&rft.aulast=Findlay&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft.au=O%27Rourke%2C+Kevin+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ward, J. R. (1998). "The British West Indies in the Age of Abolition". In Marshall, P. J. (ed.). The Oxford History of the British Empire. Vol. II: The Eighteenth Century. pp. 415–439.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+British+West+Indies+in+the+Age+of+Abolition&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pages=415-439&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaudin2004" class="citation journal cs1">Daudin, Guillaume (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal-sciencespo.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03587748/file/cfi-art-gd-jeh2004draft.pdf">"Profitability of slave and long distance trading in context: the case of eighteenth century France"</a> (PDF). Journal of Economic History. 64 (1): 144–171. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050704002633">10.1017/S0022050704002633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Profitability+of+slave+and+long+distance+trading+in+context%3A+the+case+of+eighteenth+century+France&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=144-171&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050704002633&rft.aulast=Daudin&rft.aufirst=Guillaume&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal-sciencespo.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-03587748%2Ffile%2Fcfi-art-gd-jeh2004draft.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ethics_on_Reparations-187"><a href="#cite_ref-Ethics_on_Reparations_187-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130116024437/http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/ethics%20of%20the%20holocaust.html">"Engaging the Holocaust of Enslavement"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ron_Karenga" class="mw-redirect" title="Ron Karenga">Ron Karenga</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/ethics%20of%20the%20holocaust.html">the original</a> on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Engaging+the+Holocaust+of+Enslavement&rft.pub=Ron+Karenga&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.africanholocaust.net%2Fnews_ah%2Fethics%2520of%2520the%2520holocaust.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2017" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, R. B. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf">"Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean"</a> (PDF). Tempo. 23 (2): 294–313. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2Ftem-1980-542x2017v230206">10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206</a>. Retrieved 30 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tempo&rft.atitle=Ending+the+history+of+silence%3A+reconstructing+European+slave+trading+in+the+Indian+Ocean&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=294-313&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2Ftem-1980-542x2017v230206&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=R.+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scielo.br%2Fpdf%2Ftem%2Fv23n2%2F1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaragherBuhleCzitromArmitage2004" class="citation book cs1">Faragher, John Mack; Buhle, Mari Jo; Czitrom, Daniel; Armitage, Susan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54">Out of Many</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Prentice_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson Prentice Hall">Pearson Prentice Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-182431-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-182431-7"><bdi>978-0-13-182431-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+Many&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-13-182431-7&rft.aulast=Faragher&rft.aufirst=John+Mack&rft.au=Buhle%2C+Mari+Jo&rft.au=Czitrom%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Armitage%2C+Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foutofmanybriefvo00john%2Fpage%2F54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Hurston, Zora Neale</a> (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715">Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver</a>. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books.</li> <li>Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, Journal of African History. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, The International Journal of African History Studies. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton1788" class="citation book cs1">Newton, John (1788). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Thoughts_upon_the_African_Slave_Trade" class="extiw" title="s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade">Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade</a>. London: J. Buckland and J. Johnson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thoughts+Upon+the+African+Slave+Trade&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J.+Buckland+and+J.+Johnson&rft.date=1788&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds1985" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, Edward (1985). Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade. London: <a href="/wiki/Allison_and_Busby" class="mw-redirect" title="Allison and Busby">Allison and Busby</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stand+the+Storm%3A+A+History+of+the+Atlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allison+and+Busby&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavage,_Elizabeth1992" class="citation book cs1">Savage, Elizabeth, ed. (1992). The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade. London: F. Cass.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Human+Commodity%3A+Perspectives+on+the+Trans-Saharan+Slave+Trade&rft.place=London&rft.pub=F.+Cass&rft.date=1992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Slave_Trade_of_East_Africa">The Slave Trade of East Africa </a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Church_Missionary_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Missionary Society">Church Missionary Society</a>. 1869.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slave+Trade+of+East+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Church+Missionary+Society&rft.date=1869&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSparks2014" class="citation book cs1">Sparks, Randy J. (2014). Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72487-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72487-7"><bdi>978-0-674-72487-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Where+the+Negroes+are+Masters%3A+An+African+Port+in+the+Era+of+the+Slave+Trade&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-674-72487-7&rft.aulast=Sparks&rft.aufirst=Randy+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Wright, Donald R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html">"History of Slavery and Africa"</a>. Online Encyclopedia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html">the original</a> on 2 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=History+of+Slavery+and+Africa&rft.btitle=Online+Encyclopedia&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Donald+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fautocww.colorado.edu%2F~blackmon%2FE64ContentFiles%2FAfricanHistory%2FSlaveryInAfrica.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+Africa" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Africa&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf">Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml">The story of Africa: Slavery</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa">"The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf">"Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slavery_in_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Africa_topic" title="Template:Africa topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topic" title="Template talk:Africa topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Africa_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Africa topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavery_in_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery in Africa </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Benin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Benin (page does not exist)">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Botswana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Botswana (page does not exist)">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Burkina_Faso&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Burkina Faso (page does not exist)">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Burundi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Burundi (page does not exist)">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Cameroon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Cameroon (page does not exist)">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Cape_Verde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Cape Verde (page does not exist)">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_the_Central_African_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in the Central African Republic (page does not exist)">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Chad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (page does not exist)">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Djibouti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Djibouti (page does not exist)">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Equatorial_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Equatorial Guinea (page does not exist)">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Eritrea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Eritrea (page does not exist)">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Eswatini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Eswatini (page does not exist)">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_the_Gambia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in the Gambia (page does not exist)">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Ghana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Ghana (page does not exist)">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Guinea (page does not exist)">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Guinea-Bissau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Guinea-Bissau (page does not exist)">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Ivory_Coast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Ivory Coast (page does not exist)">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Kenya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Kenya (page does not exist)">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Lesotho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Lesotho (page does not exist)">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Liberia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Liberia (page does not exist)">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Malawi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Malawi (page does not exist)">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Mauritius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Mauritius (page does not exist)">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Mozambique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Mozambique (page does not exist)">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Namibia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Namibia (page does not exist)">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Rwanda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Rwanda (page does not exist)">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in São Tomé and Príncipe (page does not exist)">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Senegal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Senegal (page does not exist)">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Sierra_Leone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Sierra Leone (page does not exist)">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_South_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in South Sudan (page does not exist)">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Tanzania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Tanzania (page does not exist)">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Togo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Togo (page does not exist)">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Uganda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Uganda (page does not exist)">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Zambia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Zambia (page does not exist)">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Zimbabwe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Zimbabwe (page does not exist)">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somaliland" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_the_Canary_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in the Canary Islands (page does not exist)">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Ceuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Ceuta (page does not exist)">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Melilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Melilla (page does not exist)">Melilla</a>  (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Madeira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Madeira (page does not exist)">Madeira</a> (Portugal)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Mayotte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Mayotte (page does not exist)">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_R%C3%A9union" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Réunion">Réunion</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Saint_Helena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Saint Helena (page does not exist)">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Ascension_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Ascension Island (page does not exist)">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Tristan_da_Cunha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Tristan da Cunha (page does not exist)">Tristan da Cunha</a> (United Kingdom)</li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Africa_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Africa_topics" title="Template:Africa topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topics" title="Template talk:Africa topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Africa_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Africa topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Africa_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Africa-related_articles" title="Index of Africa-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient history of Africa">Antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_classical_antiquity" title="North Africa during classical antiquity">North Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_archaeology" title="African archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa">Pre-colonial kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">Empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahelian_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahelian kingdoms">Sahelian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_exploration_of_Africa" title="European exploration of Africa">European exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">European colonisation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Africa" title="Economic history of Africa">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">Empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Africa#Historiography_of_Africa" title="Talk:History of Africa">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Africa" title="Military history of Africa">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Africa" title="History of Central Africa">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Africa" title="History of East Africa">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Africa" title="History of North Africa">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southern_Africa" title="History of Southern Africa">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Africa" title="History of West Africa">West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Africa" title="Geography of Africa">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Africa" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa">Countries and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_points_of_African_countries" title="List of highest points of African countries">Highest points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_craters_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of impact craters in Africa">Impact craters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Africa" title="List of islands of Africa">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history_of_Africa" title="Natural history of Africa">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Africa" title="List of regions of Africa">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Africa" title="List of rivers of Africa">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Africa#Politics" title="Africa">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Africa" title="Elections in Africa">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Africa" title="Democracy in Africa">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Heads_of_government_in_Africa" title="Category:Heads of government in Africa">Heads of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Heads_of_state_in_Africa" title="Category:Heads of state in Africa">Heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Africa" title="Human rights in Africa">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Africa_by_country" title="Freedom of religion in Africa by country">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Africa">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_linguistic_rights_in_African_constitutions" title="List of linguistic rights in African constitutions">Linguistic rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Africa#More_Women_Rights" title="Women in Africa">Women's rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_feminism" title="African feminism">feminism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_organisations_in_Africa" title="International organisations in Africa">International organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Parliament" title="Pan-African Parliament">Pan-African Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Africa">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_parties_in_Africa" title="Category:Political parties in Africa">parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Africa" title="Economy of Africa">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_central_banks_of_Africa" title="List of central banks of Africa">Central banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of African countries by GDP (nominal)">Countries by GDP (nominal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of African countries by GDP (PPP)">Countries by GDP (PPP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of African countries by Human Development Index">Countries by HDI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Africans_by_net_worth" title="List of Africans by net worth">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_in_Africa" title="Infrastructure in Africa">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Africa" title="Internet in Africa">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resources_of_Africa" title="Natural resources of Africa">Natural resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Africa" title="Poverty in Africa">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Africa" title="Renewable energy in Africa">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_stock_exchanges" title="List of African stock exchanges">Stock exchanges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Africa" title="Abortion in Africa">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_Africa" title="Birth control in Africa">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Caste systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette_in_Africa" title="Etiquette in Africa">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Health_in_Africa" title="Category:Health in Africa">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Africa" title="Culture of Africa">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Africa" title="Architecture of Africa">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_art" title="African art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Africa" title="Cinema of Africa">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_cuisine" title="African cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_literature" title="African literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africanfuturism" title="Africanfuturism">Africanfuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Africa">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Africa" title="Music of Africa">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Africa" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Africa">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Africa" title="Sport in Africa">Sport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Cricket_Association" title="Africa Cricket Association">Africa Cricket Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Games" title="African Games">African Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Asian_Games" title="Afro-Asian Games">Afro-Asian Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_rules_football_in_Africa" title="Australian rules football in Africa">Australian-rules football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_African_Football" title="Confederation of African Football">Confederation of African Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FIBA_Africa" title="FIBA Africa">FIBA Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_Africa" title="Rugby Africa">Rugby Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_stadiums_by_capacity" title="List of African stadiums by capacity">Stadiums by capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_d%27Afrique" title="Tour d'Afrique">Tour d'Afrique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Africa" title="Demographics of Africa">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_population" title="List of African countries by population">Countries by population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_population_density" title="List of African countries by population density">density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_Africa" title="Emigration from Africa">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS in Africa">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of African countries by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_Africa" title="Urbanization in Africa">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cities_in_Africa" title="Lists of cities in Africa">cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_areas_in_Africa_by_population" title="List of urban areas in Africa by population">urban areas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_in_Africa" title="Youth in Africa">Youth in Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Years_in_Africa" title="Category:Years in Africa">By year</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2005_in_Africa" title="2005 in Africa">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_in_Africa" title="2006 in Africa">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_in_Africa" title="2007 in Africa">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2008_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2008 in Africa (page does not exist)">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2009_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2009 in Africa (page does not exist)">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2010_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2010 in Africa (page does not exist)">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2011_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2011 in Africa (page does not exist)">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2012_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2012 in Africa (page does not exist)">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2013_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2013 in Africa (page does not exist)">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2014_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2014 in Africa (page does not exist)">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2015_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2015 in Africa (page does not exist)">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_in_Africa" title="2016 in Africa">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2017_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2017 in Africa (page does not exist)">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2018_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2018 in Africa (page does not exist)">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2019_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2019 in Africa (page does not exist)">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2020_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2020 in Africa (page does not exist)">2020</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Africa" title="Outline of Africa">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Africa-related_articles" title="Index of Africa-related articles">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Africa" title="Category:Africa">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Piracy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pirates" title="Template:Pirates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pirates" title="Template talk:Pirates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pirates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pirates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy_by_period" title="Category:Piracy by period">Periods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Ancient Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Piracy" title="Golden Age of Piracy">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_21st_century" title="Piracy in the 21st century">21st century</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_piracy" title="2022 in piracy">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_piracy" title="2023 in piracy">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_piracy" title="2024 in piracy">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Types of pirate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_piracy" title="Albanian piracy">Albanian piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Turkish_piracy" title="Anglo-Turkish piracy">Anglo-Turkish piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Slavic_piracy" title="Baltic Slavic piracy">Baltic Slavic pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates (corsairs)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corsairs_of_Algiers" title="Corsairs of Algiers">Algiers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_the_Coast" title="Brethren of the Coast">Brethren of the Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buccaneer" title="Buccaneer">Buccaneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_pirate" title="Child pirate">Child pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossack pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filibuster_(military)" title="Filibuster (military)">Filibusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_corsairs" title="French corsairs">French corsairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Sulu_and_Celebes_Seas" title="Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas">Moro pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narentines" title="Narentines">Narentines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">Privateers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_privateer" title="Confederate privateer">Confederate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_pirate" title="River pirate">River pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geuzen" title="Geuzen">Sea Beggars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Sea_Dogs" title="Elizabethan Sea Dogs">Sea Dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawarij" title="Bawarij">Sindhi corsairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_pirate" title="Timber pirate">Timber pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ushkuyniks" title="Ushkuyniks">Ushkuyniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uskoks" title="Uskoks">Uskoks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victual_Brothers" title="Victual Brothers">Victual Brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">Wokou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy" title="Women in piracy">Women in piracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Atlantic_World" title="Piracy in the Atlantic World">Atlantic World</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Piracy in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Main" title="Spanish Main">Spanish Main</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_on_Lake_Nicaragua" title="Piracy on Lake Nicaragua">Lake Nicaragua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Piracy off the coast of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_around_the_Horn_of_Africa" title="Piracy around the Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Somalia" title="Piracy off the coast of Somalia">Somali Coast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_Indonesia" title="Piracy in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Piracy in the Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Strait_of_Malacca" title="Piracy in the Strait of Malacca">Strait of Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nosy_Boraha" title="Nosy Boraha">Nosy Boraha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other waters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Slavic_piracy" title="Baltic Slavic piracy">Baltic Slavic piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_Coast" title="Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_on_Falcon_Lake" title="Piracy on Falcon Lake">Falcon Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirates_of_the_South_China_Coast" title="Pirates of the South China Coast">South China Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Sulu_and_Celebes_Seas" title="Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas">Sulu Sea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pirate_haven" title="Pirate haven">Pirate havens</a> and bases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barataria_Bay" title="Barataria Bay">Barataria Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Sainte-Marie" class="mw-redirect" title="Île Sainte-Marie">Île Sainte-Marie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertatia" title="Libertatia">Libertatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lundy" title="Lundy">Lundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehdya,_Morocco" title="Mehdya, Morocco">Mamora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Royal" title="Port Royal">Port Royal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pirates" title="Republic of Pirates">Republic of Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Sal%C3%A9" title="Republic of Salé">Republic of Salé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Augustin,_Madagascar" title="Saint Augustin, Madagascar">Saint Augustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Malo" title="Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tortuga_(Haiti)" title="Tortuga (Haiti)">Tortuga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Major figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pirates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abduwali_Muse" title="Abduwali Muse">Abduwali Muse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abshir_Boyah" title="Abshir Boyah">Abshir Boyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Baldridge" title="Adam Baldridge">Adam Baldridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Samuel" title="Abraham Samuel">Abraham Samuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_and_Alfhild" title="Alf and Alfhild">Alfhild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_W._Hicks" title="Albert W. Hicks">Albert W. Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bonny" title="Anne Bonny">Anne Bonny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Dieu-le-Veut" title="Anne Dieu-le-Veut">Anne Dieu-le-Veut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Faria" title="António de Faria">António de Faria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Exquemelin" title="Alexandre Exquemelin">Alexandre Exquemelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemisia_I_of_Caria" title="Artemisia I of Caria">Artemisia I of Caria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awilda" title="Awilda">Awilda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Portugu%C3%AAs" title="Bartolomeu Português">Bartolomeu Português</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Roberts" title="Bartholomew Roberts">Bartholomew Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_de_Soto" title="Benito de Soto">Benito de Soto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hornigold" title="Benjamin Hornigold">Benjamin Hornigold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Caesar_(pirate)" title="Black Caesar (pirate)">Black Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbeard" title="Blackbeard">Blackbeard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bully_Hayes" title="Bully Hayes">Bully Hayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai_Qian" title="Cai Qian">Cai Qian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calico_Jack" title="Calico Jack">Calico Jack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gibbs" title="Charles Gibbs">Charles Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_de_Berry" title="Charlotte de Berry">Charlotte de Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheung_Po_Tsai" title="Cheung Po Tsai">Cheung Po Tsai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christina_Anna_Skytte" title="Christina Anna Skytte">Christina Anna Skytte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chui_A-poo" title="Chui A-poo">Chui A-poo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Seavey" title="Dan Seavey">Dan Seavey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabolito" title="Diabolito">Diabolito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dido" title="Dido">Dido</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirk_Chivers" title="Dirk Chivers">Dirk Chivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique_You" title="Dominique You">Dominique You</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_England" title="Edward England">Edward England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Low" title="Edward Low">Edward Low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Boggs" title="Eli Boggs">Eli Boggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elise_Eskilsdotter" title="Elise Eskilsdotter">Elise Eskilsdotter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustace_the_Monk" title="Eustace the Monk">Eustace the Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_Burn" title="Flora Burn">Flora Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Gang" title="Flying Gang">Flying Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C5%ABma_Kotar%C5%8D" title="Fūma Kotarō">Fūma Kotarō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Le_Clerc" title="François Le Clerc">François Le Clerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_l%27Olonnais" title="François l'Olonnais">François l'Olonnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Ning" title="Gan Ning">Gan Ning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_O%27Malley" title="Grace O'Malley">Grace O'Malley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa" title="Hayreddin Barbarossa">Hayreddin Barbarossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrick_Lucifer" title="Hendrick Lucifer">Hendrick Lucifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Caesar" title="Henri Caesar">Henri Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Every" title="Henry Every">Henry Every</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan" title="Henry Morgan">Henry Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Strangways_(pirate)" title="Henry Strangways (pirate)">Henry Strangways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Bouchard" title="Hippolyte Bouchard">Hippolyte Bouchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Bamei" title="Huang Bamei">Huang Bamei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Hands" title="Israel Hands">Israel Hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacquotte_Delahaye" title="Jacquotte Delahaye">Jacquotte Delahaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Janszoon" title="Jan Janszoon">Jan Janszoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lafitte" title="Jean Lafitte">Jean Lafitte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_de_Clisson" title="Jeanne de Clisson">Jeanne de Clisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johanna_H%C3%A5rd" title="Johanna Hård">Johanna Hård</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hawkins_(naval_commander)" title="John Hawkins (naval commander)">John Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hoar" title="John Hoar">John Hoar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Newland_Maffitt_(privateer)" title="John Newland Maffitt (privateer)">John Newland Maffitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pro" title="John Pro">John Pro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rgen_J%C3%B8rgensen" title="Jørgen Jørgensen">Jørgen Jørgensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Joaquim_Almeida" title="José Joaquim Almeida">José Joaquim Almeida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Baker_(pirate)" title="Joseph Baker (pirate)">Joseph Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Barss" title="Joseph Barss">Joseph Barss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_St%C3%B6rtebeker" title="Klaus Störtebeker">Klaus Störtebeker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Choi_San" title="Lai Choi San">Lai Choi San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurens_de_Graaf" title="Laurens de Graaf">Laurens de Graaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Prince" title="Lawrence Prince">Lawrence Prince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Daoming" title="Liang Daoming">Liang Daoming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limahong" title="Limahong">Limahong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo_Hon-cho" title="Lo Hon-cho">Lo Hon-cho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Michel_Aury" title="Louis-Michel Aury">Louis-Michel Aury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansel_Alcantra" title="Mansel Alcantra">Mansel Alcantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Ribeiro_Pardal" title="Manuel Ribeiro Pardal">Manuel Ribeiro Pardal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Frobisher" title="Martin Frobisher">Martin Frobisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Cobham_and_Maria_Lindsey" title="Eric Cobham and Maria Lindsey">Mary Lindsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Read" title="Mary Read">Mary Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wolverston" title="Mary Wolverston">Mary Wolverston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Grammont" title="Michel de Grammont">Michel de Grammont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Cohen_Henriques" title="Moses Cohen Henriques">Moses Cohen Henriques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gordon" title="Nathaniel Gordon">Nathaniel Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_van_Hoorn" title="Nicholas van Hoorn">Nicholas van Hoorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ng_Akew" title="Ng Akew">Ng Akew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivier_Levasseur" title="Olivier Levasseur">Olivier Levasseur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Gilbert" title="Pedro Gilbert">Pedro Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Easton" title="Peter Easton">Peter Easton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Lafitte" title="Pierre Lafitte">Pierre Lafitte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piet_Pieterszoon_Hein" title="Piet Pieterszoon Hein">Piet Pieterszoon Hein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Sela" title="Princess Sela">Princess Sela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahmah_ibn_Jabir_al-Jalhami" title="Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalhami">Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalhami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Wall" title="Rachel Wall">Rachel Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oru%C3%A7_Reis" class="mw-redirect" title="Oruç Reis">Redbeard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Glover_(pirate)" title="Richard Glover (pirate)">Richard Glover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Culliford" title="Robert Culliford">Robert Culliford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Surcouf" title="Robert Surcouf">Robert Surcouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Cofres%C3%AD" title="Roberto Cofresí">Roberto Cofresí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roche_Braziliano" title="Roche Braziliano">Roche Braziliano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusla" title="Rusla">Rusla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadie_Farrell" title="Sadie Farrell">Sadie Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Bellamy" title="Samuel Bellamy">Samuel Bellamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hall_Lord" title="Samuel Hall Lord">Samuel Hall Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Mason" title="Samuel Mason">Samuel Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pallache" title="Samuel Pallache">Samuel Pallache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyida_al_Hurra" title="Sayyida al Hurra">Sayyida al Hurra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_Ping" title="Sister Ping">Sister Ping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shap-ng-tsai" title="Shap-ng-tsai">Shap-ng-tsai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirahama_Kenki" title="Shirahama Kenki">Shirahama Kenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Mascarino" title="Simon Mascarino">Simon Mascarino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stede_Bonnet" title="Stede Bonnet">Stede Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuta" title="Teuta">Teuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cavendish" title="Thomas Cavendish">Thomas Cavendish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Tew" title="Thomas Tew">Thomas Tew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veborg" title="Veborg">Veborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victual_Brothers" title="Victual Brothers">Victual Brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gambi" title="Vincenzo Gambi">Vincenzo Gambi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhi_(pirate)" title="Wang Zhi (pirate)">Wang Zhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Dampier" title="William Dampier">William Dampier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kidd" title="William Kidd">William Kidd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Jing" title="Zheng Jing">Zheng Jing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Qi_(pirate)" title="Zheng Qi (pirate)">Zheng Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Yi_(pirate)" title="Zheng Yi (pirate)">Zheng Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Zhilong" title="Zheng Zhilong">Zheng Zhilong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Yi_Sao" title="Zheng Yi Sao">Zheng Yi Sao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pirate hunters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angelo_Emo" title="Angelo Emo">Angelo Emo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaloner_Ogle" title="Chaloner Ogle">Chaloner Ogle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Porter_(naval_officer)" title="David Porter (naval officer)">David Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duarte_Pacheco_Pereira" title="Duarte Pacheco Pereira">Duarte Pacheco Pereira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Brooke" title="James Brooke">James Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campuzano_Polanco_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Campuzano Polanco family">Jose Campuzano-Polanco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_(Spanish_Navy_officer)" title="Luis Fajardo (Spanish Navy officer)">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Enr%C3%ADquez_(privateer)" title="Miguel Enríquez (privateer)">Miguel Enríquez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avery_Hornsby" title="Richard Avery Hornsby">Richard Avery Hornsby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Maynard" title="Robert Maynard">Robert Maynard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Warren_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="Thomas Warren (Royal Navy officer)">Thomas Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodes_Rogers" title="Woodes Rogers">Woodes Rogers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Pirate ships</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventure_Galley" title="Adventure Galley">Adventure Galley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Light_(ship)" title="Ambrose Light (ship)">Ambrose Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fancy_(ship)" title="Fancy (ship)">Fancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Dutchman" title="Flying Dutchman">Flying Dutchman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganj-i-Sawai" title="Ganj-i-Sawai">Ganj-i-Sawai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_Revenge" title="Queen Anne's Revenge">Queen Anne's Revenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quedagh_Merchant" title="Quedagh Merchant">Quedagh Merchant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CSS_McRae" title="CSS McRae">Marquis of Havana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_de_Clisson" title="Jeanne de Clisson">My Revenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Roberts" title="Bartholomew Roberts">Royal Fortune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin_(barque)" title="Saladin (barque)">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whydah_Gally" title="Whydah Gally">Whydah Gally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MV_York" title="MV York">York</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Pirate battles and incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-right noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pirate_Flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pirate_Flag.svg/100px-Pirate_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pirate_Flag.svg/150px-Pirate_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pirate_Flag.svg/200px-Pirate_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1582_Cagayan_battles" title="1582 Cagayan battles">1582 Cagayan battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_Lahad_Datu_ambush" title="1985 Lahad Datu ambush">1985 Lahad Datu ambush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_9_November_1822" title="Action of 9 November 1822">Action of 9 November 1822</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_28_October_2007" title="Action of 28 October 2007">Action of 28 October 2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_11_November_2008" title="Action of 11 November 2008">Action of 11 November 2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2009_raid_off_Somalia" title="April 2009 raid off Somalia">Action of 9 April 2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_23_March_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Action of 23 March 2010">Action of 23 March 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_1_April_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Action of 1 April 2010">Action of 1 April 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_5_April_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Action of 5 April 2010">Action of 5 April 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea_anti-piracy_operations_of_the_United_States" title="Aegean Sea anti-piracy operations of the United States">Anti-piracy in the Aegean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antelope_of_Boston" title="Antelope of Boston">Antelope incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_anti-piracy_operations_of_the_United_States" title="West Indies anti-piracy operations of the United States">Anti-piracy in the West Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Veracruz" title="Attack on Veracruz">Attack on Veracruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Balanguingui" title="Spanish expedition to Balanguingui">Balanguingui Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boca_Teacapan" title="Battle of Boca Teacapan">Battle of Boca Teacapan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Fear_River_(1718)" title="Battle of Cape Fear River (1718)">Battle of Cape Fear River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Lopez" title="Battle of Cape Lopez">Battle of Cape Lopez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Doro_Passage" title="Battle of Doro Passage">Battle of Doro Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganj-i-Sawai" title="Ganj-i-Sawai">Battle of Mandab Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1574)" title="Battle of Manila (1574)">Battle of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_off_Minicoy_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle off Minicoy Island">Battle off Minicoy Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_off_Mukah" title="Battle off Mukah">Battle off Mukah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nam_Quan" title="Battle of Nam Quan">Battle of Nam Quan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">Battle of New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbeard" title="Blackbeard">Battle of Ocracoke Inlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pianosa" title="Battle of Pianosa">Battle of Pianosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Leotung" title="Battle of the Leotung">Battle of the Leotung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tiger%27s_Mouth" title="Battle of the Tiger's Mouth">Battle of the Tiger's Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tonkin_River" title="Battle of Tonkin River">Battle of Tonkin River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ty-ho_Bay" title="Battle of Ty-ho Bay">Battle of Ty-ho Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tysami" title="Battle of Tysami">Battle of Tysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MV_Beluga_Nomination_incident" title="MV Beluga Nomination incident">Beluga Nomination incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Vane" title="Charles Vane">Blockade of Charleston (Vane)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chepo_expedition" title="Chepo expedition">Chepo Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Light_(ship)" title="Ambrose Light (ship)">Capture of the Ambrose Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_John_%22Calico_Jack%22_Rackham" title="Capture of John "Calico Jack" Rackham">Capture of John "Calico Jack" Rackham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_schooner_Bravo" title="Capture of the schooner Bravo">Capture of the schooner Bravo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_schooner_Fancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of the schooner Fancy">Capture of the schooner Fancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_sloop_Anne" title="Capture of the sloop Anne">Capture of the sloop Anne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carr%C3%A9_d%27As_IV_incident" title="Carré d'As IV incident">Carré d'As IV incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Hong_Dan_incident" title="Dai Hong Dan incident">Dai Hong Dan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_Expedition" title="Falklands Expedition">Falklands Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Patrol" title="Great Lakes Patrol">Great Lakes Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_incident" title="Irene incident">Irene incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiajing_wokou_raids" title="Jiajing wokou raids">Jiajing wokou raids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maersk_Alabama_hijacking" title="Maersk Alabama hijacking">Maersk Alabama hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MT_Zafirah_hijacking" title="MT Zafirah hijacking">MT Zafirah hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MT_Orkim_Harmony_hijacking" title="MT Orkim Harmony hijacking">MT Orkim Harmony hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MV_Moscow_University_hijacking" title="MV Moscow University hijacking">MV Moscow University hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Star_affair" title="North Star affair">North Star affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom_%E2%80%93_Horn_of_Africa" title="Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa">Operation Enduring Freedom – HOA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Atalanta" title="Operation Atalanta">Operation Atalanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dawn_of_Gulf_of_Aden" title="Operation Dawn of Gulf of Aden">Operation Dawn of Gulf of Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dawn_8:_Gulf_of_Aden" title="Operation Dawn 8: Gulf of Aden">Operation Dawn 8: Gulf of Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ocean_Shield" title="Operation Ocean Shield">Operation Ocean Shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf_campaign_of_1809" title="Persian Gulf campaign of 1809">Persian Gulf Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_border_attacks_in_Sabah" title="Cross border attacks in Sabah">Pirate attacks in Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SY_Quest_incident" title="SY Quest incident">Quest incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Cartagena_(1683)" title="Raid on Cartagena (1683)">Raid on Cartagena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Campeche_(1663)" title="Sack of Campeche (1663)">Sack of Campeche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Pirates" title="Salvador Pirates">Salvador Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Piracy law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_grace_(piracy)" title="Acts of grace (piracy)">Acts of grace</a> (<a href="/wiki/1717%E2%80%931718_Acts_of_Grace" title="1717–1718 Acts of Grace">1717–1718 Acts of Grace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_piracy_law" title="International piracy law">International piracy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">Letter of marque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Declaration_Respecting_Maritime_Law" title="Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law">Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act" title="Piracy Act">Piracy Act</a> (<a href="/wiki/Offences_at_Sea_Act_1536" title="Offences at Sea Act 1536">1536</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1698" title="Piracy Act 1698">1698</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transportation_Act_1717" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation Act 1717">1717</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1721" title="Piracy Act 1721">1721</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1837" title="Piracy Act 1837">1837</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1850" title="Piracy Act 1850">1850</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_Law_of_1820" class="mw-redirect" title="Piracy Law of 1820">Piracy Law of 1820</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Slave trade</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">African slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">African Slave Trade Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Amistad" title="La Amistad">Amistad Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Veloz_Passagera" title="Capture of the Veloz Passagera">Capture of the Veloz Passagera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_brig_Brillante" title="Capture of the brig Brillante">Capture of the brig Brillante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pirates_in_the_arts_and_popular_culture" title="Pirates in the arts and popular culture">Pirates in popular culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_pirates" title="List of fictional pirates">Fictional pirates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Askeladd" title="Askeladd">Askeladd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Ayrton" title="Tom Ayrton">Tom Ayrton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbeard_(comics)" title="Redbeard (comics)">Barbe Rouge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Birdseye" title="Captain Birdseye">Captain Birdseye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Blood_(novel)" title="Captain Blood (novel)">Captain Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDonaldland" title="McDonaldland">Captain Crook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Flint" title="Captain Flint">Captain Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Hook" title="Captain Hook">Captain Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Nemo" title="Captain Nemo">Captain Nemo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Pugwash" title="Captain Pugwash">Captain Pugwash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Sabertooth" title="Captain Sabertooth">Captain Sabertooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Stingaree" title="Captain Stingaree">Captain Stingaree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_de_Berry" title="Charlotte de Berry">Charlotte de Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davy_Jones_(Pirates_of_the_Caribbean)" title="Davy Jones (Pirates of the Caribbean)">Davy Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Kenway" title="Edward Kenway">Edward Kenway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Marley" title="Elaine Marley">Elaine Marley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Swann" title="Elizabeth Swann">Elizabeth Swann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franky_(One_Piece)" title="Franky (One Piece)">Franky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guybrush_Threepwood" title="Guybrush Threepwood">Guybrush Threepwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hector_Barbossa" title="Hector Barbossa">Hector Barbossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Sparrow" title="Jack Sparrow">Jack Sparrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacquotte_Delahaye" title="Jacquotte Delahaye">Jacquotte Delahaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gaspar" title="José Gaspar">José Gaspar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshamee_Gibbs" title="Joshamee Gibbs">Joshamee Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_John_Silver" title="Long John Silver">Long John Silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_D._Luffy" title="Monkey D. Luffy">Monkey D. Luffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaas_Montenegro" title="Vaas Montenegro">Vaas Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mr._Smee" title="Mr. Smee">Mr. Smee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nami_(One_Piece)" title="Nami (One Piece)">Nami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nico_Robin" title="Nico Robin">Nico Robin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roronoa_Zoro" title="Roronoa Zoro">Roronoa Zoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandokan" title="Sandokan">Sandokan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanji_(One_Piece)" title="Sanji (One Piece)">Sanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Tony_Chopper" title="Tony Tony Chopper">Tony Tony Chopper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usopp" title="Usopp">Usopp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Turner" title="Will Turner">Will Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_(G.I._Joe)" title="Zanzibar (G.I. Joe)">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Novels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_(novel)" title="The Pirate (novel)">The Pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pilot:_A_Tale_of_the_Sea" title="The Pilot: A Tale of the Sea">The Pilot: A Tale of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treasure_Island" title="Treasure Island">Treasure Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facing_the_Flag" title="Facing the Flag">Facing the Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Stranger_Tides" title="On Stranger Tides">On Stranger Tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Hawkins_and_the_Curse_of_Treasure_Island" title="Jim Hawkins and the Curse of Treasure Island">Jim Hawkins and the Curse of Treasure Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castaways_of_the_Flying_Dutchman" title="Castaways of the Flying Dutchman">Castaways of the Flying Dutchman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Angel%27s_Command" title="The Angel's Command">The Angel's Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyage_of_Slaves" title="Voyage of Slaves">Voyage of Slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_John_Silver_(comics)" title="Long John Silver (comics)">Long John Silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Latitudes" title="Pirate Latitudes">Pirate Latitudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mistress_of_the_Seas" title="Mistress of the Seas">Mistress of the Seas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_(Motion_novel)" title="Silver (Motion novel)">Silver: Return to Treasure Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tropes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buried_treasure" title="Buried treasure">Buried treasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davy_Jones%27s_locker" title="Davy Jones's locker">Davy Jones's locker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyepatch" title="Eyepatch">Eyepatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jolly_Roger" title="Jolly Roger">Jolly Roger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skull_and_crossbones_(symbol)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skull and crossbones (symbol)">skull and crossbones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keelhauling" title="Keelhauling">Keelhauling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marooning" title="Marooning">Marooning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_purchase,_no_pay" title="No purchase, no pay">No purchase, no pay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegleg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pegleg">Pegleg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companion_parrot" title="Companion parrot">Pet parrot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_code" title="Pirate code">Pirate code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_utopia" title="Pirate utopia">Pirate utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treasure_map" title="Treasure map">Treasure map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking_the_plank" title="Walking the plank">Walking the plank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pirate" title="Air pirate">Air pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_space_pirates" title="List of space pirates">Space pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Talk_Like_a_Pirate_Day" title="International Talk Like a Pirate Day">International Talk Like a Pirate Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirates_versus_Ninjas" title="Pirates versus Ninjas">Pirates versus Ninjas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_General_History_of_the_Pyrates" title="A General History of the Pyrates">A General History of the Pyrates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Charles_Johnson" title="Captain Charles Johnson">Captain Charles Johnson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Ratisbon" title="Truce of Ratisbon">Truce of Ratisbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Round" title="Pirate Round">Pirate Round</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matelotage" title="Matelotage">Matelotage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_kidnappings" title="Piracy kidnappings">Piracy kidnappings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Meta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pirates" title="List of pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pirate_films_and_television_series" title="List of pirate films and television series">Pirate films and TV series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_privateers" title="List of privateers">Privateers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_attacked_by_Somali_pirates" title="List of ships attacked by Somali pirates">List of ships attacked by Somali pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_piracy" title="Timeline of piracy">Timeline of piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy" title="Women in piracy">Women in piracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Barbary_pirates" class="mw-disambig" title="Category:Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pirates_by_nationality" title="Category:Pirates by nationality">By nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Female_pirates" title="Category:Female pirates">Female pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fictional_pirates" title="Category:Fictional pirates">Fictional pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy" title="Category:Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy_by_year" title="Category:Piracy by year">Piracy by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pirates" title="Category:Pirates">Pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/29px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/44px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/58px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Piracy" title="Portal:Piracy">Piracy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy" title="Category:Piracy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6df7948d6c-f7pn5","wgBackendResponseTime":185,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.423","walltime":"2.792","ppvisitednodes":{"value":13900,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":465686,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":26851,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":50,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":604509,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2242.883 1 -total"," 44.17% 990.763 1 Template:Reflist"," 17.61% 394.891 67 Template:Cite_book"," 8.68% 194.717 32 Template:Cite_journal"," 5.89% 132.194 1 Template:Lang"," 5.36% 120.185 1 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