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History of slavery - Wikipedia
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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Africa-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Africa subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-Saharan_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Sub-Saharan Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-African_participation_in_the_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_participation_in_the_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>African participation in the slave trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_participation_in_the_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africans_on_ships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africans_on_ships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Africans on ships</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africans_on_ships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>North Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Modern times</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Libyan_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Libyan_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Libyan slave trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Libyan_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Americas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Americas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Americas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Among_indigenous_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Among_indigenous_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Among indigenous peoples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Among_indigenous_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Brazil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brazil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Resistance_and_abolition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance_and_abolition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Resistance and abolition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resistance_and_abolition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_and_French_Caribbean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_and_French_Caribbean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>British and French Caribbean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_and_French_Caribbean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Latin America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.1</span> <span>Early events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_American_colonial_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_American_colonial_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.2</span> <span>Slavery in American colonial law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_American_colonial_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.3</span> <span>Development of slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_United_States_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_United_States_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.4</span> <span>Early United States law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_United_States_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.5</span> <span>American Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Asia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Asia subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Byzantine_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Byzantine Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Ottoman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Ancient history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Ancient India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Ancient China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postclassical_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postclassical_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Postclassical history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postclassical_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indian_subcontinent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_subcontinent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Indian subcontinent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_subcontinent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Modern history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Iran</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.2</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.3</span> <span>Korea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.4</span> <span>Southeast Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_State_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_State_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Islamic State slave trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_State_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Europe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Europe subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_history_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_history_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Ancient history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_history_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Ancient Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_European_tribes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_European_tribes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Other European tribes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_European_tribes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-classical_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-classical_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Post-classical history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-classical_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Empire_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Empire_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Ottoman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Empire_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Eastern Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Isles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Isles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.3</span> <span>British Isles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Isles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.4</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barbary_pirates_and_Maltese_corsairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barbary_pirates_and_Maltese_corsairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.5</span> <span>Barbary pirates and Maltese corsairs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barbary_pirates_and_Maltese_corsairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genoa_and_Venice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genoa_and_Venice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.6</span> <span>Genoa and Venice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genoa_and_Venice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.7</span> <span>Mongols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Vikings_and_Scandinavia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Vikings_and_Scandinavia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.8</span> <span>The Vikings and Scandinavia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Vikings_and_Scandinavia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Modern_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Modern_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Early Modern history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Modern_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Portugal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3</span> <span>Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barbary_corsairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barbary_corsairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.4</span> <span>Barbary corsairs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barbary_corsairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crimean_Khanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimean_Khanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.5</span> <span>Crimean Khanate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crimean_Khanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.6</span> <span>British slave trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Modern_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Modern_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Late Modern history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Modern_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allied_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allied_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.2</span> <span>Allied powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allied_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.3</span> <span>Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Oceania</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Oceania subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hawaii" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hawaii"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Hawaii</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hawaii-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chatham_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chatham_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Chatham Islands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chatham_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rapa_Nui_/_Easter_Island" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rapa_Nui_/_Easter_Island"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Rapa Nui / Easter Island</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rapa_Nui_/_Easter_Island-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abolitionist_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolitionist_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Abolitionist movements</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Abolitionist_movements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Abolitionist movements subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Abolitionist_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abolition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Abolition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Napoleon_restores_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Napoleon_restores_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Napoleon restores slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Napoleon_restores_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Napoleon_and_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Napoleon_and_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.3</span> <span>Napoleon and slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Napoleon_and_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victor_Schœlcher_and_the_1848_abolition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victor_Schœlcher_and_the_1848_abolition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.4</span> <span>Victor Schœlcher and the 1848 abolition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victor_Schœlcher_and_the_1848_abolition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congress_of_Vienna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congress_of_Vienna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Congress of Vienna</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congress_of_Vienna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twentieth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twentieth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Twentieth century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twentieth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Contemporary slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historiography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historiography_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Historiography in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics_of_slavery_in_the_West_Indies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics_of_slavery_in_the_West_Indies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Economics of slavery in the West Indies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics_of_slavery_in_the_West_Indies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greece_and_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece_and_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Greece and Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece_and_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe:_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe:_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Europe: Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe:_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa_and_Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa_and_Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Africa and Middle East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa_and_Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atlantic_trade,_Latin_America_and_British_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atlantic_trade,_Latin_America_and_British_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>Atlantic trade, Latin America and British Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atlantic_trade,_Latin_America_and_British_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.5</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of slavery</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ العبودية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ العبودية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="দাসত্বের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দাসত্বের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Sklaverei" title="Geschichte der Sklaverei – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Sklaverei" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CF%80%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Δουλεμπόριο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δουλεμπόριο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_esclavitud" title="Historia de la esclavitud – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la esclavitud" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="تاریخ بردهداری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ بردهداری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27esclavage" title="Histoire de l'esclavage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'esclavage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_escravitude" title="Historia da escravitude – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da escravitude" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_perbudakan" title="Sejarah perbudakan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah perbudakan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_della_schiavit%C3%B9" title="Storia della schiavitù – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia della schiavitù" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajarah_Batur_Tukon" title="Sajarah Batur Tukon – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sajarah Batur Tukon" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8D_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="د غلامۍ تاريخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د غلامۍ تاريخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_niewolnictwa" title="Historia niewolnictwa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia niewolnictwa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_escravid%C3%A3o" title="História da escravidão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da escravidão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="История рабства – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История рабства" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of slavery" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_ropstva" title="Historija ropstva – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija ropstva" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orjuuden_historia" title="Orjuuden historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Orjuuden historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="அடிமைத்தனத்தின் வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அடிமைத்தனத்தின் வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="غلامی کی تاریخ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="غلامی کی تاریخ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_ch%E1%BA%BF_%C4%91%E1%BB%99_n%C3%B4_l%E1%BB%87" title="Lịch sử chế độ nô lệ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử chế độ nô lệ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12981973#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of slavery</b> spans many <a href="/wiki/Cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultures">cultures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalities">nationalities</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">religions</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_times" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient times">ancient times</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Present_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Present day">present day</a>. Likewise, its victims have come from many different ethnicities and religious groups. The social, <a href="/wiki/Economic" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic">economic</a>, and legal positions of slaves have differed vastly in different systems of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> in different times and places.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery has been found in some <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> populations, particularly as hereditary slavery,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the conditions of agriculture with increasing social and economic complexity offer greater opportunity for mass <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hunt_Slavery_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hunt_Slavery-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutionalized</a> by the time the <a href="/wiki/First_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="First civilization">first civilizations</a> emerged (such as <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which dates back as far as 3500 BC). Slavery features in the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian">Mesopotamian</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a></i> (c. 1750 BC), which refers to it as an established institution.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was widespread in the ancient world in Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Stilwell_africa_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stilwell_africa-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perbi_Ghana_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perbi_Ghana-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hunt_Slavery_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hunt_Slavery-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery became less common throughout Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> but continued to be practiced in some areas. Both <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> captured and enslaved each other during centuries of warfare in the Mediterranean and Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Islamic slavery</a> encompassed mainly Western and Central Asia, Northern and Eastern Africa, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> from the 7th to the 20th century. Islamic law approved of enslavement of non-Muslims, and slaves were trafficked from non-Muslim lands: from the North via the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a>; from the East via the <a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a>; from the West via <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Al-Andalus">Andalusian slave trade</a>; and from the South via the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a>. </p><p>Beginning in the <a href="/wiki/16th_century" title="16th century">16th century</a>, European <a href="/wiki/Merchant" title="Merchant">merchants</a>, starting mainly with merchants from <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, initiated the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">transatlantic slave trade</a>. Few traders ventured far inland, attempting to avoid <a href="/wiki/Tropical_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical diseases">tropical diseases</a> and violence. They mostly purchased imprisoned Africans (and exported commodities including <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>) from <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West African</a> kingdoms, transporting them to <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">Europe's colonies in the Americas</a>. The merchants were sources of desired goods including guns, gunpowder, copper <a href="/wiki/Manilla_(money)" title="Manilla (money)">manillas</a>, and cloth, and this demand for imported goods drove local wars and other means to the enslavement of Africans in ever greater numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In India and throughout the New World, people were forced into slavery to create the local workforce. The transatlantic slave trade was eventually curtailed after European and American governments passed legislation <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolishing</a> their nations' involvement in it. Practical efforts to enforce the abolition of slavery included the British <a href="/wiki/Preventative_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventative Squadron">Preventative Squadron</a> and the American <a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">African Slave Trade Patrol</a>, the abolition of slavery in the Americas, and the widespread imposition of <a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">European political control</a> in Africa. </p><p>In modern times, <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a> remains an international problem. <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Slavery in the 21st century</a> continues and generates an estimated $150 billion in annual profits.<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Populations in regions with <a href="/wiki/Armed_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed conflict">armed conflict</a> are especially vulnerable, and modern transportation has made human trafficking easier.<sup id="cite_ref-globalslaveryindex.org_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-globalslaveryindex.org-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019, there were an estimated 40.3 million people worldwide subject to some form of slavery, and 25% were children.<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 24.9 million are used for <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor">forced labor</a>, mostly in the <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private sector</a>; 15.4 million live in forced marriages.<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forms of slavery include domestic labour, forced labour in manufacturing, fishing, mining and construction, and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">sexual slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistoric_and_ancient_slavery">Prehistoric and ancient slavery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistoric and ancient slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Slavery in antiquity</a></div> <p>Evidence of slavery predates written records; the practice has existed in many cultures<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perbi_Ghana_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perbi_Ghana-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and can be traced back 11,000 years ago due to the conditions created by the invention of agriculture during the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perbi_Ghana_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perbi_Ghana-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stilwell_africa_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stilwell_africa-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economic surpluses and high population densities were conditions that made mass slavery viable.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery occurred in civilizations including <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">ancient Israel</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roberts_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roberts-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> Islamic <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate">Sultanates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">pre-colonial empires</a> of Sub-Saharan Africa, and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures" title="List of pre-Columbian cultures">pre-Columbian civilizations</a> of the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-Slavery_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slavery-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient slavery consists of a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">debt-slavery</a>, punishment for crime, <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoners of war</a>, <a href="/wiki/Child_abandonment" title="Child abandonment">child abandonment</a>, and children born to slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 142px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 140px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_treaty_tablet.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="C. 1480 BC, fugitive-slave treaty between Idrimi of Alakakh (now Tell Atchana) and Pillia of Kizzuwatna (now Cilicia)."><img alt="C. 1480 BC, fugitive-slave treaty between Idrimi of Alakakh (now Tell Atchana) and Pillia of Kizzuwatna (now Cilicia)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Slave_treaty_tablet.jpg/210px-Slave_treaty_tablet.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Slave_treaty_tablet.jpg/315px-Slave_treaty_tablet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Slave_treaty_tablet.jpg/419px-Slave_treaty_tablet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1164" data-file-height="1914" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">C. 1480 BC, fugitive-slave treaty between Idrimi of Alakakh (now <a href="/wiki/Tell_Atchana" class="mw-redirect" title="Tell Atchana">Tell Atchana</a>) and Pillia of <a href="/wiki/Kizzuwatna" title="Kizzuwatna">Kizzuwatna</a> (now Cilicia).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 146px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 144px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mummy_soles_with_the_images_of_two_foreign_captives_(332_BCE%E2%80%93395)_-_Museo_Egizio_-_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ancient Egyptian mummy soles depicting two captive foreigners, a Syrian (left) and a Nubian (right),[22] between 332 BC and 395 c.e. (Ptolemaic or Roman period)."><img alt="Ancient Egyptian mummy soles depicting two captive foreigners, a Syrian (left) and a Nubian (right),[22] between 332 BC and 395 c.e. (Ptolemaic or Roman period)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Mummy_soles_with_the_images_of_two_foreign_captives_%28332_BCE%E2%80%93395%29_-_Museo_Egizio_-_%28cropped%29.jpg/216px-Mummy_soles_with_the_images_of_two_foreign_captives_%28332_BCE%E2%80%93395%29_-_Museo_Egizio_-_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Mummy_soles_with_the_images_of_two_foreign_captives_%28332_BCE%E2%80%93395%29_-_Museo_Egizio_-_%28cropped%29.jpg/324px-Mummy_soles_with_the_images_of_two_foreign_captives_%28332_BCE%E2%80%93395%29_-_Museo_Egizio_-_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Mummy_soles_with_the_images_of_two_foreign_captives_%28332_BCE%E2%80%93395%29_-_Museo_Egizio_-_%28cropped%29.jpg/432px-Mummy_soles_with_the_images_of_two_foreign_captives_%28332_BCE%E2%80%93395%29_-_Museo_Egizio_-_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3113" data-file-height="4973" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ancient Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummy</a> soles depicting two captive foreigners, a <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syrian</a> (left) and a <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubian</a> (right),<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> between 332 BC and 395 c.e. (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Ptolemaic or Roman period</a>).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 347.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 345.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_collared_slaves_-_Ashmolean_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Slaves in chains during the period of Roman rule at Smyrna (present-day İzmir), 200 AD."><img alt="Slaves in chains during the period of Roman rule at Smyrna (present-day İzmir), 200 AD." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Roman_collared_slaves_-_Ashmolean_Museum.jpg/518px-Roman_collared_slaves_-_Ashmolean_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="346" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Roman_collared_slaves_-_Ashmolean_Museum.jpg/777px-Roman_collared_slaves_-_Ashmolean_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Roman_collared_slaves_-_Ashmolean_Museum.jpg/1035px-Roman_collared_slaves_-_Ashmolean_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1752" data-file-height="1168" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Slaves in chains during the period of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman rule</a> at Smyrna (present-day <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmir" title="İzmir">İzmir</a>), 200 AD.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Africa">Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Slavery in Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast of West Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swahili_coast" title="Swahili coast">Swahili coast</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Barbary_coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary coast">Barbary coast</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:African_slave_trade.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/African_slave_trade.png/250px-African_slave_trade.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/African_slave_trade.png/375px-African_slave_trade.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/African_slave_trade.png/500px-African_slave_trade.png 2x" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>13th-century Africa – Map of the main trade routes and <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">states</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">kingdoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">empires</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Writing in 1984, French historian <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Fernand Braudel</a> noted that slavery had been endemic in Africa and part of the structure of everyday life throughout the 15th to the 18th century. "Slavery came in different guises in different societies: there were court slaves, slaves incorporated into princely armies, domestic and household slaves, slaves working on the land, in industry, as couriers and intermediaries, even as traders".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 16th century, Europe began to outpace the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> in the export traffic, with its trafficking of slaves from Africa to the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Dutch imported slaves from Asia into their <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">colony at the Cape of Good Hope</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>) in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1807 Britain (which already held a small coastal territory, intended for the resettlement of former slaves, in <a href="/wiki/Freetown" title="Freetown">Freetown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>) made the slave trade within its empire illegal with the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">Slave Trade Act 1807</a>, and worked to extend the prohibition to other territory,<sup id="cite_ref-Grindal_2016_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grindal_2016-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 42">: 42 </span></sup> as did the United States in 1808.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Senegambia_(geography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Senegambia (geography)">Senegambia</a>, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early Islamic states of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Sudan">Western Sudan</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana</a> (750–1076), <a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a> (1235–1645), <a href="/wiki/Bamana_Empire" title="Bamana Empire">Segou</a> (1712–1861), and <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a> (1275–1591), about a third of the population was enslaved. The earliest <a href="/wiki/Akan_people" title="Akan people">Akan</a> state of <a href="/wiki/Bono_state" title="Bono state">Bonoman</a> which had third of its population being enslaved in the 17th century. In <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of slaves. In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the <a href="/wiki/Duala_people" title="Duala people">Duala</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a> and other peoples of the lower <a href="/wiki/Niger_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Niger river">Niger</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kongo</a>, and the Kasanje kingdom and <a href="/wiki/Chokwe_people" title="Chokwe people">Chokwe</a> of <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>. Among the <a href="/wiki/Ashanti_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti people">Ashanti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a> a third of the population consisted of slaves as well as <a href="/wiki/Bono_people" title="Bono people">Bono</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The population of the <a href="/wiki/Kanem_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanem Empire">Kanem</a> was about one third enslaved. It was perhaps 40% in <a href="/wiki/Bornu_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bornu Empire">Bornu</a> (1396–1893). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the <a href="/wiki/Fulani_jihad" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulani jihad">Fulani jihad</a> states consisted of slaves. The population of the <a href="/wiki/Sokoto" title="Sokoto">Sokoto</a> caliphate formed by <a href="/wiki/Hausa_people" title="Hausa people">Hausas</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> and Cameroon was half-slave in the 19th century. It is estimated that up to 90% of the population of <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a>-<a href="/wiki/Swahili_people" title="Swahili people">Swahili</a> <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> was enslaved. Roughly half the population of <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> was enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LovejoyHogendorn1993_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LovejoyHogendorn1993-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Slavery in Ethiopia</a> persisted until 1942. The <a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery Society</a> estimated that there were 2,000,000 slaves in the early 1930s, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was finally abolished by order of emperor <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a> on 26 August 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When British rule was first imposed on the <a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a> and the surrounding areas in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Nigeria">northern Nigeria</a> at the turn of the 20th century, approximately 2 million to 2.5 million people living there were enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery in northern Nigeria was finally outlawed in 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Writing in 1998 about the extent of trade coming through and from Africa, the Congolese journalist Elikia M'bokolo wrote "The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim countries</a> (from the ninth to the nineteenth)." He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, another four million through the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_coast" title="Swahili coast">Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean</a>, perhaps as many as nine million along the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">trans-Saharan</a> caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 211.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 209.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="13th century slave market in Yemen.[39]"><img alt="13th century slave market in Yemen.[39]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg/314px-Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg/472px-Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg/629px-Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="829" data-file-height="910" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">13th century <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">slave market in Yemen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sub-Saharan Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Slavery in Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/250px-Arabslavers.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/375px-Arabslavers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/500px-Arabslavers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="378" /></a><figcaption>Arab slave-trading caravan transporting African slaves across the Sahara, 19th-century engraving</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, during the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> and under <a href="/wiki/Omanis" title="Omanis">Omani Arabs</a> in the 19th century, with as many as 50,000 slaves passing through the city each year.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to the 16th century, the bulk of slaves exported from Africa were shipped from East Africa to the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a>. <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> became a leading port in this trade.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arab traders of slaves differed from European ones in that they would often conduct raiding expeditions themselves, sometimes penetrating deep into the continent. They also differed in that their market greatly preferred the purchase of enslaved females over male.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The increased presence of European rivals along the East coast led Arab traders to concentrate on the overland slave caravan routes across the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> to North Africa. The German explorer <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Nachtigal" title="Gustav Nachtigal">Gustav Nachtigal</a> reported seeing slave caravans departing from <a href="/wiki/Kukawa" title="Kukawa">Kukawa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bornu_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bornu Empire">Bornu</a> bound for <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in 1870. The trade of slaves represented the major source of revenue for the state of Bornu as late as 1898. The eastern regions of the <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a> have never recovered demographically from the impact of 19th-century raids from the <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and still have a population density of less than 1 person/km<sup>2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1870s, European initiatives against the trade of slaves caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of <a href="/wiki/Mahdist_War" title="Mahdist War">Mahdist</a> forces. <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ahmad" title="Muhammad Ahmad">Mahdi</a>'s victory created an <a href="/wiki/Mahdist_State" title="Mahdist State">Islamic state</a>, one that quickly reinstituted slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">European involvement in the East African trade of enslaved people began when Portugal established <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Estado da Índia</a> in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, <abbr>c.</abbr> 200 enslaved people were exported from <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Mozambique" title="Portuguese Mozambique">Portuguese Mozambique</a> annually and similar figures has been estimated for enslaved people brought from Asia to the Philippines during the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> (1580–1640).<sup id="cite_ref-Allen-2017-overview_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen-2017-overview-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a>, the crossing of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> to <a href="/wiki/The_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="The Americas">the Americas</a>, endured by slaves laid out in rows in the holds of ships, was only one element of the well-known <a href="/wiki/Triangular_trade" title="Triangular trade">triangular trade</a> engaged in by Portuguese, American, Dutch, Danish-Norwegians,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French, British and others. Ships having landed with slaves in <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> ports would take on sugar, indigo, raw cotton, and later coffee, and make for <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nantes" title="Nantes">Nantes</a>, Lisbon or <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>. Ships leaving European ports for West Africa would carry printed cotton textiles, some originally from India, copper utensils and bangles, pewter plates and pots, iron bars more valued than gold, hats, trinkets, gunpowder and firearms and alcohol. Tropical <a href="/wiki/Shipworm" title="Shipworm">shipworms</a> were eliminated in the cold Atlantic waters, and at each unloading, a profit was made.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> peaked in the late 18th century when the largest number of people were captured and enslaved on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African states, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bono_state" title="Bono state">Bono State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oyo_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Oyo empire">Oyo empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a>), <a href="/wiki/Kong_Empire" title="Kong Empire">Kong Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Kingdom of Benin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imamate_of_Futa_Jallon" title="Imamate of Futa Jallon">Imamate of Futa Jallon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imamate_of_Futa_Toro" title="Imamate of Futa Toro">Imamate of Futa Toro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Koya" title="Kingdom of Koya">Kingdom of Koya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khasso" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Khasso">Kingdom of Khasso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaabu" title="Kaabu">Kingdom of Kaabu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fante_Confederacy" title="Fante Confederacy">Fante Confederacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Confederacy">Ashanti Confederacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aro_Confederacy" title="Aro Confederacy">Aro Confederacy</a> and the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fear of <a href="/wiki/Tropical_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical diseases">disease</a> and moreover fierce African resistance. The slaves were brought to coastal outposts where they were traded for goods. The people captured on these expeditions were shipped by European traders to the colonies of the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>. It is estimated that over the centuries, twelve to twenty million slaves were shipped from Africa by European traders, of whom some 15 percent died during the terrible voyage, many during the arduous journey through the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a>. The great majority were shipped to the Americas, but some also went to Europe and Southern Africa. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_ruvuma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/250px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/375px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/500px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>Arab slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique), 19th-century drawing by <a href="/wiki/David_Livingstone" title="David Livingstone">David Livingstone</a>.</figcaption></figure><p> While talking about the trade of slaves in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> in his journals, <a href="/wiki/David_Livingstone" title="David Livingstone">David Livingstone</a> said <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To overdraw its evil is a simple impossibility.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>While travelling in the <a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">African Great Lakes</a> Region in 1866, Livingstone described a trail of slaves: </p> <blockquote><p>19th June 1866 – We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead, the people of the country explained that she had been unable to keep up with the other slaves in a gang, and her master had determined that she should not become anyone's property if she recovered.<br />26th June. – ...We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path: a group of men stood about a hundred yards off on one side, and another of the women on the other side, looking on; they said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer.<br /> 27th June 1866 – To-day we came upon a man dead from starvation, as he was very thin. One of our men wandered and found many slaves with slave-sticks on, abandoned by their masters from want of food; they were too weak to be able to speak or say where they had come from; some were quite young.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems really to be broken-heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves... Twenty one were unchained, as now safe; however all ran away at once; but eight with many others still in chains, died in three days after the crossing. They described their only pain in the heart, and placed the hand correctly on the spot, though many think the organ stands high up in the breast-bone.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="African_participation_in_the_slave_trade">African participation in the slave trade</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: African participation in the slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sara_Forbes_Bonetta" title="Sara Forbes Bonetta">Sara Forbes Bonetta</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gezo_King_of_Dahomey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Gezo_King_of_Dahomey.jpg/170px-Gezo_King_of_Dahomey.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Gezo_King_of_Dahomey.jpg/255px-Gezo_King_of_Dahomey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Gezo_King_of_Dahomey.jpg/340px-Gezo_King_of_Dahomey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="492" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>Gezo, King of Dahomey</figcaption></figure> <p>African states played a key role in the trade of slaves, and slavery was a common practice among <a href="/wiki/Sub_Saharan_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub Saharan Africa">Sub Saharan Africans</a> even before the involvement of the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Europeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Europeans">Europeans</a>. There were three types: those who were enslaved through conquest, instead of unpaid debts, or those whose parents gave them as property to tribal chiefs. Chieftains would barter their slaves to Arab, Berber, Ottoman or European buyers for rum, spices, cloth or other goods.<sup id="cite_ref-afbis_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afbis-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Selling captives or prisoners was a common practice among Africans, Turks, Berbers and Arabs during that era. However, as the Atlantic trade of slaves increased its demand, local systems which primarily serviced indentured servitude expanded. European trading of slaves, as a result, was the most pivotal change in the social, economic, cultural, spiritual, religious, political dynamics of the concept of trading in slaves. It ultimately undermined local economies and political stability as villages' vital labour forces were shipped overseas as <a href="/wiki/Slave_raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raid">slave raids</a> and civil wars became commonplace. Crimes which were previously punishable by some other means became punishable by enslavement.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg/250px-The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg/375px-The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg/500px-The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>The inspection and sale of a slave.</figcaption></figure> <p>Slavery already existed in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a> prior to the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_people" title="Portuguese people">Portuguese</a>. Because it had been established within his kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Afonso I of Kongo</a> believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally slaves to sell, he wrote letters to the King <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_III" class="mw-redirect" title="João III">João III</a> of Portugal in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The kings of <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a> sold their <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">war captives</a> into transatlantic slavery, who otherwise may have been killed in a ceremony known as the <a href="/wiki/The_annual_customs_of_Dahomey" class="mw-redirect" title="The annual customs of Dahomey">Annual Customs</a>. As one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the <a href="/wiki/Bambara_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bambara Empire">Bambara Empire</a> to the east, the <a href="/wiki/Khasso" title="Khasso">Khasso</a> kingdoms depended heavily on the <a href="/wiki/African_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="African slave trade">slave trade</a> for their economy. A family's status was indicated by the number of slaves it owned, leading to wars for the sole purpose of taking more captives. This trade led the Khasso into increasing contact with the European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Benin_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Benin Empire">Benin</a> grew increasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the trade of slaves with Europe; slaves from enemy states of the interior were sold, and carried to the Americas in <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> ships. The <a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Benin" title="Bight of Benin">Bight of Benin</a>'s shore soon came to be known as the "Slave Coast".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1840s, King Gezo of <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a> said:<sup id="cite_ref-theAustralian-20867_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theAustralian-20867-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>"The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth...the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery."</p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2007%C2%A32.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/2007%C2%A32.jpg/150px-2007%C2%A32.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/2007%C2%A32.jpg/225px-2007%C2%A32.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/2007%C2%A32.jpg/300px-2007%C2%A32.jpg 2x" data-file-width="316" data-file-height="316" /></a><figcaption>200th anniversary of the British act of parliament abolishing slave trading, commemorated on a <a href="/wiki/British_two_pound_coin" class="mw-redirect" title="British two pound coin">British two pound coin</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1807 the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> made the international trade of slaves illegal with the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">Slave Trade Act</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> was deployed to prevent slavers from the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>. The King of Bonny (now in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>) allegedly became dissatisfied of the British intervention in stopping the trade of slaves:<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>"We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself."</p></blockquote> <p>Joseph Miller states that African buyers would prefer males, but in reality, women and children would be more easily captured as men fled. Those captured would be sold for various reasons such as food, debts, or servitude. Once captured, the journey to the coast killed many and weakened others. Disease engulfed many, and insufficient food damaged those who made it to the coasts. <a href="/wiki/Scurvy" title="Scurvy">Scurvy</a> was common, and was often referred to as <i>mal de Luanda</i> ("Luanda sickness," after the port in Angola).<sup id="cite_ref-Miller,_Joseph_1988._p_380-387_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller,_Joseph_1988._p_380-387-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The assumption for those who died on the journey died from <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a>. As food was limited, water may have been just as bad. <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">Dysentery</a> was widespread and poor sanitary conditions at ports did not help. Since supplies were poor, slaves were not equipped with the best clothing, meaning they were even more exposed to diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller,_Joseph_1988._p_380-387_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller,_Joseph_1988._p_380-387-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On top of the fear of disease, people were afraid of why they were being captured. The popular assumption was that Europeans were <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibals</a>. Stories and rumours spread that whites captured Africans to eat them.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller,_Joseph_1988._p_380-387_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller,_Joseph_1988._p_380-387-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Olaudah_Equiano" title="Olaudah Equiano">Olaudah Equiano</a> accounts his experience about the sorrow slaves encountered at the ports. He talks about his first moment on a <a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">slave ship</a> and asked if he was going to be eaten.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, the worst for slaves has only begun, and the journey on the water proved to be more harrowing. For every 100 Africans captured, only 64 would reach the coast, and only about 50 would reach the New World.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller,_Joseph_1988._p_380-387_65-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller,_Joseph_1988._p_380-387-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Others believe that slavers had a vested interest in capturing rather than killing, and in keeping their captives alive; and that this coupled with the disproportionate removal of males and the introduction of new crops from the Americas (<a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a>, maize) would have limited general <a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">population decline</a> to particular regions of western Africa around 1760–1810, and in <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> and neighbouring areas half a century later. There has also been speculation that within Africa, females were most often <a href="/wiki/Bride_kidnapping" title="Bride kidnapping">captured as brides</a>, with their male protectors being a "bycatch" who would have been killed if there had not been an export market for them. </p><p>British explorer <a href="/wiki/Mungo_Park_(explorer)" title="Mungo Park (explorer)">Mungo Park</a> encountered a group of slaves when traveling through <a href="/wiki/Mandinka_people" title="Mandinka people">Mandinka</a> country: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They were all very inquisitive, but they viewed me at first with looks of horror, and repeatedly asked if my countrymen were cannibals. They were very desirous to know what became of the slaves after they had crossed the salt water. I told them that they were employed in cultivation the land; but they would not believe me ... A deeply-rooted idea that the whites purchase negroes for the purpose of devouring them, or of selling them to others that they may be devoured hereafter, naturally makes the slaves contemplate a journey towards the coast with great terror, insomuch that the slatees are forced to keep them constantly in irons, and watch them very closely, to prevent their escape.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>During the period from the late 19th century and early 20th century, demand for the labour-intensive harvesting of rubber drove frontier expansion and <a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">forced labour</a>. The personal monarchy of Belgian <a href="/wiki/King_Leopold_II" class="mw-redirect" title="King Leopold II">King Leopold II</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> saw mass killings and slavery to extract rubber.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africans_on_ships">Africans on ships</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Africans on ships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barconegrero.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Barconegrero.jpg/220px-Barconegrero.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Barconegrero.jpg/330px-Barconegrero.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Barconegrero.jpg/440px-Barconegrero.jpg 2x" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="1039" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of <a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">slave ship</a> used to transport <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a> to Europe and the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Americas</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Surviving the voyage was the main struggle. Close quarters meant everyone was infected by any diseases that spread, including the crew. Death was so common that ships were called <i>tumbeiros,</i> or floating tombs.<sup id="cite_ref-Smallwood,_Stephanie_E_2008_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smallwood,_Stephanie_E_2008-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What shocked Africans the most was how death was handled in the ships. Smallwood says the traditions for an African death were delicate and community-based. On ships, bodies would be thrown into the sea. Because the sea represented bad omens, bodies in the sea represented a form of purgatory and the ship a form of hell. Any Africans who made the journey would have survived extreme disease and malnutrition, as well as trauma from being on the open ocean and the death of their friends.<sup id="cite_ref-Smallwood,_Stephanie_E_2008_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smallwood,_Stephanie_E_2008-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Africa">North Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: North Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Slavery in Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Slavery in Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Slavery in Tunisia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Slavery in Libya</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Debarquement_et_maltraitement_de_prisonniers_a_alger.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Debarquement_et_maltraitement_de_prisonniers_a_alger.JPG/250px-Debarquement_et_maltraitement_de_prisonniers_a_alger.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Debarquement_et_maltraitement_de_prisonniers_a_alger.JPG/375px-Debarquement_et_maltraitement_de_prisonniers_a_alger.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Debarquement_et_maltraitement_de_prisonniers_a_alger.JPG/500px-Debarquement_et_maltraitement_de_prisonniers_a_alger.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1121" data-file-height="839" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Christian slaves</a> in Algiers, 1706</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> during the time of the <a href="/wiki/Regency_of_Algiers" title="Regency of Algiers">Regency of Algiers</a> in North Africa in the 19th century, up to 1.5 million <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europeans</a> were captured and forced into slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This eventually led to the <a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1816)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1816)">Bombardment of Algiers</a> in 1816 by the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a>, forcing the <a href="/wiki/Dey_of_Algiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Dey of Algiers">Dey of Algiers</a> to free many slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_times">Modern times</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Slavery in the 21st century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Slavery in contemporary Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">Slavery in 21st-century jihadism</a></div> <p>The trading of children has been reported in modern <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>. In parts of <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, a family may be punished for an offense by having to turn over a virgin female to serve as a <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">sex slave</a> within the offended family. In this instance, the woman does not gain the title or status of "wife". In parts of Ghana, <a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>, shrine slavery persists, despite being illegal in Ghana since 1998. In this system of <a href="/wiki/Ritual_servitude" title="Ritual servitude">ritual servitude</a>, sometimes called <i>trokosi</i> (in Ghana) or <i>voodoosi</i> in Togo and Benin, young virgin girls are given as slaves to traditional shrines and are used sexually by the priests in addition to providing free labor for the shrine.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="whole graf is salacious, but unsupported (July 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>An article in the <i><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle East Quarterly">Middle East Quarterly</a></i> in 1999 reported that slavery is endemic in <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of abductions during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sudanese_Civil_War" title="Second Sudanese Civil War">Second Sudanese Civil War</a> range from 14,000 to 200,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sudanese_Civil_War" title="Second Sudanese Civil War">Second Sudanese Civil War</a> people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000. Abduction of <a href="/wiki/Dinka_people" title="Dinka people">Dinka</a> women and children was common.<sup id="cite_ref-US_Department_of_State_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US_Department_of_State-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> it is estimated that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are currently enslaved, many of them used as <a href="/wiki/Bonded_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonded labor">bonded labor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc.co.uk_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc.co.uk-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_modern_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in modern Africa">Slavery in Mauritania</a> was criminalized in August 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-Mauritanian_MPs_pass_slavery_law_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mauritanian_MPs_pass_slavery_law-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Darfur_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Darfur conflict">Darfur conflict</a> that began in 2003, many people were kidnapped by <a href="/wiki/Janjaweed" title="Janjaweed">Janjaweed</a> and sold into slavery as agricultural labor, domestic servants and sex slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a>, slavery is also a current phenomenon. A Nigerien study has found that more than 800,000 people are enslaved, almost 8% of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Niger installed an anti-slavery provision in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a landmark ruling in 2008, the <a href="/wiki/ECOWAS_Court" title="ECOWAS Court">ECOWAS Community Court of Justice</a> declared that the Republic of Niger failed to protect Hadijatou Mani Koraou from slavery, and awarded Mani <a href="/wiki/West_African_CFA_franc" title="West African CFA franc">CFA</a> 10,000,000 (approximately <span style="white-space: nowrap">US$20,000</span>) in reparations.<sup id="cite_ref-Duffy_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duffy-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sexual slavery and <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor">forced labor</a> are common in the Democratic Republic of Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many <a href="/wiki/Pygmies" class="mw-redirect" title="Pygmies">pygmies</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Congo">Republic of Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a> belong from birth to <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantus</a> in a system of slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evidence emerged in the late 1990s of systematic slavery in <a href="/wiki/Cacao_plantation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cacao plantation">cacao plantations</a> in West Africa; see the <a href="/wiki/Chocolate_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chocolate and slavery">chocolate and slavery</a> article.<sup id="cite_ref-theAustralian-20867_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theAustralian-20867-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">U.S. State Department</a>, more than 109,000 children were working on <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a> farms alone in <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a> in "the worst forms of <a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">child labour</a>" in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the night of 14–15 April 2014, a <a href="/wiki/Chibok_schoolgirls_kidnapping" title="Chibok schoolgirls kidnapping">group of militants attacked the Government Girls Secondary School</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chibok" title="Chibok">Chibok</a>, Nigeria. They broke into the school, pretending to be guards,<sup id="cite_ref-GuardApr19_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GuardApr19-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> telling the girls to get out and come with them.<sup id="cite_ref-TheTimes_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheTimes-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large number of students were taken away in trucks, possibly into the <a href="/wiki/Konduga" title="Konduga">Konduga</a> area of the <a href="/wiki/Sambisa_Forest" title="Sambisa Forest">Sambisa Forest</a> where <a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram" title="Boko Haram">Boko Haram</a> were known to have fortified camps.<sup id="cite_ref-TheTimes_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheTimes-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Houses in Chibok were also burned down in the incident.<sup id="cite_ref-GuardApr23_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GuardApr23-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to police, approximately 276 children were taken in the attack, of whom 53 had escaped as of 2 May.<sup id="cite_ref-AA52_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AA52-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other reports said that 329 girls were kidnapped, 53 had escaped and 276 were still missing.<sup id="cite_ref-VOA52_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VOA52-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The students have been forced to <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Islam" title="Conversion to Islam">convert to Islam</a><sup id="cite_ref-csmonitor1_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csmonitor1-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and into marriage with members of Boko Haram, with a reputed "<a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">bride price</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_naira" title="Nigerian naira">₦</a>2,000 each (<a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">$</a>12.50/<a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">£</a>7.50).<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TelegApr30_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TelegApr30-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the students were taken to the neighbouring countries of <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, with sightings reported of the students crossing borders with the militants, and sightings of the students by villagers living in the <a href="/wiki/Sambisa_Forest" title="Sambisa Forest">Sambisa Forest</a>, which is considered a refuge for Boko Haram.<sup id="cite_ref-TelegApr30_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TelegApr30-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 5 May 2014 a video in which <a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram" title="Boko Haram">Boko Haram</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Abubakar_Shekau" title="Abubakar Shekau">Abubakar Shekau</a> claimed responsibility for the kidnappings emerged. Shekau claimed that "Allah instructed me to sell them...I will carry out his instructions"<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "<a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">[s]lavery is allowed in my religion</a>, and I shall capture people and make them <a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">slaves</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-CNNEssenceTerror_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNNEssenceTerror-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He said the girls should not have been in school and instead should have been married since girls as young as nine are suitable for marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNNEssenceTerror_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNNEssenceTerror-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Libyan_slave_trade">Libyan slave trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Libyan slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Slavery in Libya</a></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Libyan_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Libyan Civil War">Second Libyan Civil War</a> Libyans started <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">capturing</a><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some of the <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub-Saharan">Sub-Saharan</a> African migrants trying to get to Europe through Libya and selling them on slave markets.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slaves are often ransomed to their families and in the meantime until <a href="/wiki/Ransom" title="Ransom">ransom</a> can be paid, they may be tortured, forced to work, sometimes worked to death, and eventually they may be executed or left to starve if the payment has not been made after a period of time. Women are often raped and used as <a href="/wiki/Sex_slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex slave">sex slaves</a> and sold to <a href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">brothels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many child migrants also suffer from abuse and <a href="/wiki/Child_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Child rape">child rape</a> in Libya.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Americas">Americas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jo%C3%A3o_Ferreira_Villela_com_a_Ama-de-Leite_M%C3%B4nica,_1860.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Jo%C3%A3o_Ferreira_Villela_com_a_Ama-de-Leite_M%C3%B4nica%2C_1860.jpg/170px-Jo%C3%A3o_Ferreira_Villela_com_a_Ama-de-Leite_M%C3%B4nica%2C_1860.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Jo%C3%A3o_Ferreira_Villela_com_a_Ama-de-Leite_M%C3%B4nica%2C_1860.jpg/255px-Jo%C3%A3o_Ferreira_Villela_com_a_Ama-de-Leite_M%C3%B4nica%2C_1860.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Jo%C3%A3o_Ferreira_Villela_com_a_Ama-de-Leite_M%C3%B4nica%2C_1860.jpg/340px-Jo%C3%A3o_Ferreira_Villela_com_a_Ama-de-Leite_M%C3%B4nica%2C_1860.jpg 2x" data-file-width="418" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>A young boy with an enslaved woman, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, 1860.</figcaption></figure> <p>To participate in the slave trade in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_America" title="Spanish America">Spanish America</a>, bankers and trading companies had to pay the Spanish king for the license, called the <a href="/wiki/Asiento_de_Negros" title="Asiento de Negros">Asiento de Negros</a>, but an unknown amount of the trade was illegal. After 1670 when the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> declined substantially they outsourced part of the slave trade to the Dutch (1685–1687), the Portuguese, the French (1698–1713) and the English (1713–1750), also providing organized depots in the Caribbean islands to the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch America">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_America" title="French America">French America</a>. As a result of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1701–1714), the British government obtained the monopoly (<i><a href="/wiki/Asiento_de_negros" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiento de negros">asiento de negros</a></i>) of selling African slaves in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_America" title="Spanish America">Spanish America</a>, which was granted to the <a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Company" title="South Sea Company">South Sea Company</a>. Meanwhile, slave trading became a core business for <a href="/wiki/Private_enterprise" class="mw-redirect" title="Private enterprise">privately owned enterprises</a> in the Americas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Among_indigenous_peoples">Among indigenous peoples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Among indigenous peoples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Slavery in the Aztec Empire">Slavery in the Aztec Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Slavery in Pre-Columbian America</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Mexico" title="Pre-Columbian Mexico">Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica</a> the most common forms of slavery were those of <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a> and debtors. People unable to pay back debts could be sentenced to work as slaves to the people owed until the debts were worked off, as a form of <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servitude</a>. Warfare was important to <a href="/wiki/Maya_society" title="Maya society">Maya society</a>, because raids on surrounding areas provided the victims required for human <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">sacrifice</a>, as well as slaves for the construction of temples.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most victims of <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice#Pre-Columbian_Americas" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifice</a> were prisoners of war or slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was not usually hereditary; children of slaves were born free. In the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a>, workers were subject to a <i><a href="/wiki/Mita_(Inca)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mita (Inca)">mita</a></i> instead of taxes which they paid by working for the government. Each <i><a href="/wiki/Ayllu" title="Ayllu">ayllu</a></i>, or extended family, would decide which family member to send to do the work. It is unclear if this labor draft or <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvée</a> counts as slavery. The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> adopted this system, particularly for their silver mines in Bolivia.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other slave-owning societies and tribes of the New World were, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Tehuelche_people" title="Tehuelche people">Tehuelche</a> of Patagonia, the <a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a> of Texas, the <a href="/wiki/Island_Caribs" class="mw-redirect" title="Island Caribs">Caribs</a> of Dominica, the <a href="/wiki/Tupinamb%C3%A1_people" title="Tupinambá people">Tupinambá</a> of Brazil, the fishing societies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Yurok_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yurok people">Yurok</a>, that lived along the <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="West Coast of North America">west coast of North America</a> from what is now Alaska to California, the <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Klamath_people" title="Klamath people">Klamath</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Haida_people" title="Haida people">Haida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tlingit_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlingit people">Tlingit</a>, were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves being <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="This is a self-contradictory sentence. Probably this means that slaves were EITHER prisoners of war OR DESCENDANTS of prisoners of war. (November 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Among some <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a> tribes, about a quarter of the population was enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One <a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">slave narrative</a> was composed by an Englishman, <a href="/wiki/John_R._Jewitt" title="John R. Jewitt">John R. Jewitt</a>, who had been taken alive when his ship was captured in 1802; his memoir provides a detailed look at life as a slave, and asserts that a large number were held. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brazil">Brazil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Brazil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Slavery in Brazil</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bandeirantes" title="Bandeirantes">Bandeirantes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_in_Brazil_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_in_Brazil_2.jpg/220px-Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_in_Brazil_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_in_Brazil_2.jpg/330px-Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_in_Brazil_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_in_Brazil_2.jpg/440px-Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_in_Brazil_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5236" data-file-height="3840" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Brazil">Slavery in Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Moritz_Rugendas" title="Johann Moritz Rugendas">Johann Moritz Rugendas</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_Soldiers_from_the_Coritiba_Province_Escorting_Native_Prisoners.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Indian_Soldiers_from_the_Coritiba_Province_Escorting_Native_Prisoners.jpg/220px-Indian_Soldiers_from_the_Coritiba_Province_Escorting_Native_Prisoners.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Indian_Soldiers_from_the_Coritiba_Province_Escorting_Native_Prisoners.jpg/330px-Indian_Soldiers_from_the_Coritiba_Province_Escorting_Native_Prisoners.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Indian_Soldiers_from_the_Coritiba_Province_Escorting_Native_Prisoners.jpg/440px-Indian_Soldiers_from_the_Coritiba_Province_Escorting_Native_Prisoners.jpg 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Guarani_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Guarani people">Guaraní</a> family captured by <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples of Brazil">Indian</a> slave hunters. By <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Debret" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Baptiste Debret">Jean Baptiste Debret</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Slavery was a mainstay of the <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Brazil" title="Economic history of Brazil">Brazilian colonial economy</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Brazil" title="Mining in Brazil">mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> production.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 35.3% of all slaves from the Atlantic Slave trade went to <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Colonial Brazil</a>. 4 million slaves were obtained by Brazil, 1.5 million more than any other country.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting around 1550, the Portuguese began to trade enslaved Africans to work the sugar plantations, once the native <a href="/wiki/Tupi_people" title="Tupi people">Tupi people</a> deteriorated. Although <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marqu%C3%AAs_de_Pombal" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquês de Pombal">1st Marquis of Pombal</a> prohibited the importation of slaves into <a href="/wiki/Continental_Portugal" title="Continental Portugal">Continental Portugal</a> on 12 February 1761, slavery continued in her overseas colonies. Slavery was practiced among all classes. slaves were owned by upper and middle classes, by the poor, and even by other slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bandeirantes" title="Bandeirantes">Bandeirantes</a>, adventurers mostly of mixed <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_people" title="Portuguese people">Portuguese</a> and native ancestry, penetrated steadily westward in their search for Indians to enslave. Along the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a> and its major tributaries, repeated slaving raids and punitive attacks left their mark. One French traveler in the 1740s described <i>hundreds of miles of river banks with no sign of human life and once-thriving villages that were devastated and empty.</i> In some areas of the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon Basin</a>, and particularly among the <a href="/wiki/Guarani_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Guarani people">Guarani</a> of <a href="/wiki/South_Region,_Brazil" title="South Region, Brazil">southern Brazil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a> had organized their <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_Reductions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit Reductions">Jesuit Reductions</a> along military lines to fight the slavers. In the mid-to-late 19th century, many <a href="/wiki/Amerindian" class="mw-redirect" title="Amerindian">Amerindians</a> were enslaved to work on rubber plantations.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Resistance_and_abolition">Resistance and abolition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Resistance and abolition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Slaves that escaped formed <a href="/wiki/Maroon_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maroon (people)">Maroon</a> communities which played an important role in the histories of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Brazil" title="History of Brazil">Brazil</a> and other countries such as <a href="/wiki/History_of_Suriname" title="History of Suriname">Suriname</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cuba" title="History of Cuba">Cuba</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamaica" title="History of Jamaica">Jamaica</a>. In Brazil, the Maroon villages were called <a href="/wiki/Palenque_(village)" class="mw-redirect" title="Palenque (village)">palenques</a> or <a href="/wiki/Quilombo" title="Quilombo">quilombos</a>. Maroons survived by growing vegetables and hunting. They also raided <a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean" title="Sugar plantations in the Caribbean">plantations</a>. At these attacks, the maroons would burn crops, steal livestock and tools, kill slavemasters, and invite other slaves to join their communities.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Debret" title="Jean-Baptiste Debret">Jean-Baptiste Debret</a>, a French painter who was active in Brazil in the first decades of the 19th century, started out with painting portraits of members of the Brazilian Imperial family, but soon became concerned with the slavery of both blacks and indigenous inhabitants. His paintings on the subject (two appear on this page) helped bring attention to the subject in both Europe and Brazil itself. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Clapham_Sect" title="Clapham Sect">Clapham Sect</a>, a group of <a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">evangelical</a> reformers, campaigned during much of the 19th century for Britain to use its influence and power to stop the traffic of slaves to Brazil. Besides moral qualms, the low cost of slave-produced Brazilian sugar meant that the <a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a> were unable to match the market prices of Brazilian sugar, and each Briton was consuming 16 pounds (7 kg) of sugar a year by the 19th century. This combination led to intensive pressure from the British government for Brazil to end this practice, which it did by steps over several decades.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>First, foreign trade of slaves was banned in 1850. Then, in 1871, the sons of the slaves were freed. In 1885, slaves aged over 60 years were freed. The <a href="/wiki/Paraguayan_War" title="Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a> contributed to ending slavery as many slaves enlisted in exchange for freedom. In Colonial Brazil, slavery was more a social than a racial condition<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Some of the greatest figures of the time, like the writer <a href="/wiki/Machado_de_Assis" title="Machado de Assis">Machado de Assis</a> and the engineer <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Rebou%C3%A7as" title="André Rebouças">André Rebouças</a> had black ancestry. </p><p>Brazil's 1877–78 <a href="/wiki/Grande_Seca" title="Grande Seca">Grande Seca</a> (Great Drought) in the cotton-growing northeast led to major turmoil, starvation, poverty and internal migration. As wealthy plantation holders rushed to sell their slaves south, popular resistance and resentment grew, inspiring numerous emancipation societies. They succeeded in banning slavery altogether in the province of Ceará by 1884.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was legally ended nationwide on 13 May by the <i><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></i> ("Golden Law") of 1888. It was an institution in decadence at these times, as since the 1880s the country had begun to use European immigrant labor instead. Brazil was the last nation in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_and_French_Caribbean">British and French Caribbean</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: British and French Caribbean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Slavery in the British and French Caribbean</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_cutting_the_sugar_cane_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_(1823),_plate_IV_-_BL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Slaves_cutting_the_sugar_cane_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_IV_-_BL.jpg/250px-Slaves_cutting_the_sugar_cane_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_IV_-_BL.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Slaves_cutting_the_sugar_cane_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_IV_-_BL.jpg/375px-Slaves_cutting_the_sugar_cane_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_IV_-_BL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Slaves_cutting_the_sugar_cane_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_IV_-_BL.jpg/500px-Slaves_cutting_the_sugar_cane_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_IV_-_BL.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1854" data-file-height="1290" /></a><figcaption>Slaves cutting the <a href="/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">sugar cane</a>, British colony of <a href="/wiki/Antigua" title="Antigua">Antigua</a>, 1823</figcaption></figure> <p>Slavery was commonly used in the parts of the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> controlled by France and the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles</a> islands of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Barbados" title="History of Barbados">Barbados</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="History of Saint Kitts and Nevis">St. Kitts</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="History of Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Martinique" title="History of Martinique">Martinique</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Guadeloupe" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>, which were the first important societies of slaves in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, began the widespread use of enslaved Africans by the end of the 17th century, as their economies converted from sugar production.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>England had multiple <a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">sugar colonies</a> in the Caribbean, especially Jamaica, Barbados, Nevis, and Antigua, which provided a steady flow of sugar sales; forced labor of slaves produced the sugar.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1700s, there were more slaves in Barbados than in all the English colonies on the mainland combined. Since Barbados did not have many mountains, English planters were able to clear land for sugarcane. Indentured servants were initially sent to Barbados to work in the sugar fields. These indentured servants were treated so poorly that future indentured servants stopped going to Barbados, and there were not enough people to work the fields. This is when the British started bringing in enslaved Africans. For the English planters in Barbados, reliance on enslaved labor was necessary for them to be able to profit from production of cane-origin sugar for the growing market for sugar in Europe and other markets.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Utrecht" title="Peace of Utrecht">Treaty of Utrecht</a>, which ended the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1702–1714), the various European powers negotiating the terms of the treaty also discussed colonial issues as well.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of special importance in the negotiations at Utrecht was the successful negotiation between the British and French delegations for Britain to obtain a thirty-year monopoly on the right to sell slaves in Spanish America, called the <i><a href="/wiki/Asiento_de_Negros" title="Asiento de Negros">Asiento de Negros</a>.</i> <a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Queen Anne</a> also allowed her <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">North American colonies</a> like Virginia to make laws that promoted the importation of slaves. Anne had secretly negotiated with France to get its approval regarding the <i>Asiento.</i><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1712, she delivered a speech which included a public announcement of her success in taking the <i>Asiento</i> away from France; many London merchants celebrated her economic coup.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the trade of slaves involved sales to Spanish colonies in the Caribbean, and to Mexico, as well as sales to European colonies in the Caribbean and in North America.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Vinita Ricks says the agreement allotted Queen Anne "22.5% (and <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain" title="Philip V of Spain">King Philip V, of Spain</a> 28%) of all profits collected for the <i>Asiento</i> monopoly. Ricks concludes that the Queen's "connection to slave trade revenue meant that she was no longer a neutral observer. She had a vested interest in what happened on slave ships."<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1778, the French were importing approximately 13,000 Africans for enslavement yearly to the French West Indies.<sup id="cite_ref-Kitchin1_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitchin1-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To regularise slavery, in 1685 <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a> had enacted the <i><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Slave_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave code">slave code</a> accorded certain <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> to slaves and responsibilities to the master, who was obliged to feed, clothe and provide for the general well-being of his human property. <a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a> owned one-third of the <a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean" title="Sugar plantations in the Caribbean">plantation property</a> and one-quarter of the slaves in Saint Domingue (later <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery in the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="First French Republic">First Republic</a> was abolished on 4 February 1794. When it became clear that <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a> intended to re-establish <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">slavery in Saint-Domingue</a> (Haiti), <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Dessalines" title="Jean-Jacques Dessalines">Jean-Jacques Dessalines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_P%C3%A9tion" title="Alexandre Pétion">Alexandre Pétion</a> switched sides, in October 1802. On 1 January 1804, Dessalines, the new leader under the dictatorial 1801 constitution, declared <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> a free republic.<sup id="cite_ref-Haiti_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haiti-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus Haiti became the second independent nation in the Western Hemisphere, after the United States, as a result of the only successful <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">slave rebellion</a> in world history.<sup id="cite_ref-Revolution_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Revolution-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KMS376_Dirk_Valkenburg_-_Ritual_Slave_Party_on_a_Sugar_Plantation_in_Surinam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/KMS376_Dirk_Valkenburg_-_Ritual_Slave_Party_on_a_Sugar_Plantation_in_Surinam.jpg/220px-KMS376_Dirk_Valkenburg_-_Ritual_Slave_Party_on_a_Sugar_Plantation_in_Surinam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/KMS376_Dirk_Valkenburg_-_Ritual_Slave_Party_on_a_Sugar_Plantation_in_Surinam.jpg/330px-KMS376_Dirk_Valkenburg_-_Ritual_Slave_Party_on_a_Sugar_Plantation_in_Surinam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/KMS376_Dirk_Valkenburg_-_Ritual_Slave_Party_on_a_Sugar_Plantation_in_Surinam.jpg/440px-KMS376_Dirk_Valkenburg_-_Ritual_Slave_Party_on_a_Sugar_Plantation_in_Surinam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2366" data-file-height="2953" /></a><figcaption>18th-century painting of <a href="/wiki/Dirk_Valkenburg" title="Dirk Valkenburg">Dirk Valkenburg</a> showing plantation slaves during a Ceremonial dance.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Whitehall" title="Whitehall">Whitehall</a> in England announced in 1833 that slaves in British colonies would be completely freed by 1838. In the meantime, the government told slaves they had to remain on their plantations and would have the status of "apprentices" for the next six years. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Port-of-Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Port-of-Spain">Port-of-Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a>, on 1 August 1834, an unarmed group of mainly elderly Negroes being addressed by the Governor at Government House about the new laws, began chanting: "Pas de six ans. Point de six ans" ("Not six years. No six years"), drowning out the voice of the Governor. Peaceful protests continued until a resolution to abolish <a href="/wiki/Apprenticeship" title="Apprenticeship">apprenticeship</a> was passed and <i>de facto</i> freedom was achieved. Full <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">emancipation</a> for all was legally granted ahead of schedule on 1 August 1838, making Trinidad the first British colony with slaves to completely abolish slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Great Britain abolished slavery, it began to <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">pressure other nations</a> to do the same. France, too, abolished slavery. By then Saint-Domingue had already won its independence and formed the independent <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Haiti_(1820%E2%80%931849)" title="Republic of Haiti (1820–1849)">Republic of Haiti</a>, though France still controlled <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> and a few smaller islands. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Slavery in Canada</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">Slavery in New France</a></div> <p>Slavery in Canada was practised by <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a> and continued during the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a> of Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-LawsonLawson2019_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LawsonLawson2019-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated that there were 4,200 slaves in the <a href="/wiki/Canada_(New_France)" title="Canada (New France)">French colony of Canada</a> and later <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a> between 1671 and 1831.<sup id="cite_ref-Marcel_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marcel-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two-thirds of these were of indigenous ancestry (typically called <i><a href="/wiki/Panis_(slaves_of_First_Nation_descent)" class="mw-redirect" title="Panis (slaves of First Nation descent)">panis</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas the other third were of African descent.<sup id="cite_ref-Marcel_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marcel-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were house servants and farm workers.<sup id="cite_ref-AppiahGates2005_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AppiahGates2005-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of slaves of color increased during <a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada_(1763%E2%80%931867)" title="History of Canada (1763–1867)">British rule</a>, especially with the arrival of <a href="/wiki/United_Empire_Loyalists" class="mw-redirect" title="United Empire Loyalists">United Empire Loyalists</a> after 1783.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small portion of <a href="/wiki/Black_Canadians" title="Black Canadians">Black Canadians</a> today are descended from these slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-Marsh1999_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marsh1999-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The practice of slavery in <a href="/wiki/The_Canadas" title="The Canadas">the Canadas</a> ended through case law; having died out in the early 19th century through judicial actions litigated on behalf of slaves seeking <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shadd2016_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shadd2016-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The courts, to varying degrees, rendered slavery unenforceable in both <a href="/wiki/Lower_Canada" title="Lower Canada">Lower Canada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>. In Lower Canada, for example, after court decisions in the late 1790s, the "slave could not be compelled to serve longer than he would, and ... might leave his master at will."<sup id="cite_ref-archive.org_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-archive.org-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada" title="Upper Canada">Upper Canada</a> passed the <i><a href="/wiki/Act_Against_Slavery" title="Act Against Slavery">Act Against Slavery</a></i> in 1793, one of the earliest anti-slavery acts in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-OnufGould2005_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OnufGould2005-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The institution was formally banned throughout most of the British Empire, including the Canadas in 1834, after the passage of the <i><a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">Slavery Abolition Act 1833</a></i> in the British parliament. These measures resulted in a number of Black people (free and slaves) from the United States moving to Canada after the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Black_Loyalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Loyalists">Black Loyalists</a>; and again after the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, with a number of <a href="/wiki/Black_Refugees_(War_of_1812)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Refugees (War of 1812)">Black Refugees</a> settling in Canada. During the mid-19th century, British North America served as a terminus for the <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>, a network of routes used by <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">enslaved African-Americans</a> to escape a <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">slave state</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Latin America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Repartimiento" title="Repartimiento">Repartimiento</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3444-7_Begrafenis_bij_plantageslaven2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3444-7_Begrafenis_bij_plantageslaven2.jpg/220px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3444-7_Begrafenis_bij_plantageslaven2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3444-7_Begrafenis_bij_plantageslaven2.jpg/330px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3444-7_Begrafenis_bij_plantageslaven2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3444-7_Begrafenis_bij_plantageslaven2.jpg/440px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3444-7_Begrafenis_bij_plantageslaven2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3467" data-file-height="2620" /></a><figcaption>Funeral at slave plantation during Dutch colonial rule, <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a>. Colored lithograph printed circa 1840–1850, digitally restored.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the period from the late 19th century and early 20th century, demand for the labor-intensive harvesting of rubber drove frontier expansion and slavery in Latin America and elsewhere. Indigenous peoples were enslaved as part of the <a href="/wiki/Rubber_boom" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber boom">rubber boom</a> in Ecuador, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>, Colombia, and <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Central America, rubber tappers participated in the enslavement of the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Maleku_people" title="Maleku people">Guatuso-Maleku people</a> for domestic service.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Slave trade in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Freedmen_Controversy#Slavery_among_the_Cherokee" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherokee Freedmen Controversy">Slavery among the Cherokee</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_events">Early events</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Early events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In late August 1619, the frigate <i><a href="/wiki/White_Lion_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="White Lion (ship)">White Lion</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateer</a> ship owned by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rich,_2nd_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick">Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick</a>, but flying a Dutch flag arrived at Point Comfort, Virginia (several miles downstream from the colony of <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia" title="Jamestown, Virginia">Jamestown, Virginia</a>) with the first recorded slaves from Africa to Virginia. The approximately 20 Africans were from the present-day <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>. They had been removed by the <i>White Lion</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s crew from a Portuguese cargo ship, the <i>São João Bautista</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians are undecided if the legal practice of slavery began in the colony because at least some of them had the status of <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">indentured servant</a>. Alden T. Vaughn says most agree that both black slaves and indentured servants existed by 1640.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only a small fraction of the enslaved Africans brought to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> came to <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a>, perhaps as little as 5% of the total. The vast majority of slaves were sent to the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> sugar colonies, Brazil, or <a href="/wiki/Spanish_America" title="Spanish America">Spanish America</a>. </p><p>By the 1680s, with the consolidation of England's <a href="/wiki/Royal_African_Company" title="Royal African Company">Royal African Company</a>, enslaved Africans were arriving in English colonies in larger numbers, and the institution continued to be protected by the British government. Colonists now began purchasing slaves in larger numbers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Slavery_in_American_colonial_law">Slavery in American colonial law</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Slavery in American colonial law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Virginia_one_hundred_years_ago.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Virginia_one_hundred_years_ago.jpg/220px-Virginia_one_hundred_years_ago.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Virginia_one_hundred_years_ago.jpg/330px-Virginia_one_hundred_years_ago.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Virginia_one_hundred_years_ago.jpg/440px-Virginia_one_hundred_years_ago.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1412" data-file-height="944" /></a><figcaption>Well-dressed plantation owner and family visiting the slave quarters.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1640: <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Virginia</a> courts sentence <a href="/wiki/John_Punch_(slave)" title="John Punch (slave)">John Punch</a> to lifetime slavery, marking the earliest legal sanctioning of slavery in English colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-Donoghue_2010_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donoghue_2010-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1641: <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts</a> legalizes <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Massachusetts" title="Slavery in Massachusetts">slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1650: <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Colony" title="Connecticut Colony">Connecticut</a> legalizes <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Connecticut" title="History of slavery in Connecticut">slavery</a>.</li> <li>1652: <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Rhode_Island_and_Providence_Plantations" title="Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations">Rhode Island</a> bans the enslavement or forced servitude of any white or negro for more than ten years or beyond the age of 24.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1654: Virginia sanctions "the right of Negros to own slaves of their own race" after African <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Johnson_(colonist)" title="Anthony Johnson (colonist)">Anthony Johnson</a>, former indentured servant, sued to have fellow African <a href="/wiki/John_Casor" title="John Casor">John Casor</a> declared not an indentured servant but "slave for life."<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1661: Virginia officially recognizes <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia" title="History of slavery in Virginia">slavery</a> by statute.</li> <li>1662: A Virginia statute declares that children born would have the same status as their mother.</li> <li>1663: <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Maryland" title="Province of Maryland">Maryland</a> legalizes <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Maryland" title="History of slavery in Maryland">slavery</a>.</li> <li>1664: Slavery is legalized in <a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_York" title="Province of New York">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Jersey" title="Province of New Jersey">New Jersey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1670: <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Carolina" title="Province of Carolina">Carolina</a> (later, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">South Carolina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Province_of_North_Carolina" title="Province of North Carolina">North Carolina</a>) is founded mainly by planters from the overpopulated British sugar island colony of <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>, who brought relatively large numbers of African slaves from that island.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1676: Rhode Island bans the enslavement of Native Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Development_of_slavery">Development of slavery</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Development of slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The shift from indentured servants to enslaved African was prompted by a dwindling class of former servants who had worked through the terms of their indentures and thus became competitors to their former masters. These newly freed servants were rarely able to support themselves comfortably, and the tobacco industry was increasingly dominated by large planters. This caused domestic unrest culminating in <a href="/wiki/Bacon%27s_Rebellion" title="Bacon's Rebellion">Bacon's Rebellion</a>. Eventually, chattel slavery became the norm in regions dominated by <a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">plantations</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Constitutions_of_Carolina" title="Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina">Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina</a> established a model in which a rigid social hierarchy placed slaves under the absolute authority of their master. With the rise of a <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">plantation economy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Carolina_Lowcountry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolina Lowcountry">Carolina Lowcountry</a> based on rice cultivation, a society of slaves was created that later became the model for the <a href="/wiki/King_Cotton" title="King Cotton">King Cotton</a> economy across the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>. The model created by South Carolina was driven by the emergence of a majority enslaved population that required repressive and often brutal force to control. Justification for such an enslaved society developed into a conceptual framework of white supremacy in the American colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several local <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">slave rebellions</a> took place during the 17th and 18th centuries: Gloucester County, Virginia Revolt (1663);<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/New_York_Slave_Revolt_of_1712" title="New York Slave Revolt of 1712">New York Slave Revolt of 1712</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stono_Rebellion" title="Stono Rebellion">Stono Rebellion</a> (1739); and <a href="/wiki/New_York_Slave_Insurrection_of_1741" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Slave Insurrection of 1741">New York Slave Insurrection of 1741</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_United_States_law">Early United States law</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Early United States law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Hopkinsons_Plantation_Slaves_Going_to_Field.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/James_Hopkinsons_Plantation_Slaves_Going_to_Field.jpg/220px-James_Hopkinsons_Plantation_Slaves_Going_to_Field.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/James_Hopkinsons_Plantation_Slaves_Going_to_Field.jpg/330px-James_Hopkinsons_Plantation_Slaves_Going_to_Field.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/James_Hopkinsons_Plantation_Slaves_Going_to_Field.jpg/440px-James_Hopkinsons_Plantation_Slaves_Going_to_Field.jpg 2x" data-file-width="938" data-file-height="684" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cassina_Point" title="Cassina Point">James Hopkinson's plantation</a>, South Carolina ca. 1862.</figcaption></figure> <p>Within the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Massachusetts" title="Judiciary of Massachusetts">Massachusetts courts</a> began to follow England when, in 1772, England became the first country in the world to outlaw the slave trade within its borders (see <i><a href="/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart" title="Somerset v Stewart">Somerset v Stewart</a></i>) followed by the <i><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Knight_(slave)" title="Joseph Knight (slave)">Knight v. Wedderburn</a></i> decision in Scotland in 1778. Between 1764 and 1774, seventeen slaves appeared in Massachusetts courts to sue their owners for freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1766, <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a>' colleague <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Kent" title="Benjamin Kent">Benjamin Kent</a> won the first trial in the present-day United States to free a slave (<i>Slew vs. Whipple</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Vermont" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Vermont">Republic of Vermont</a> allowed the enslavement of children in its <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Vermont_(1777)" title="Constitution of Vermont (1777)">constitution of 1777</a> suggesting that people "ought not" enslave adults, but there was no enforcement of this suggestion. Vermont entered the United States in 1791 with the same constitutional provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> of 1787 under the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a>, slavery was prohibited in the territories north west of the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a>. In 1794, Congress <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1794" title="Slave Trade Act of 1794">banned American vessels from being used</a> in the slave trade, and also banned the export of slaves from America to other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, little effort was made to enforce this legislation. The <a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">slave ship</a> owners of Rhode Island were able to continue in trade, and the USA's slaving fleet in 1806 was estimated to be nearly 75% as large as that of Britain, with dominance of the transportation of slaves into Cuba.<sup id="cite_ref-Grindal_2016_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grindal_2016-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 63">: 63 </span></sup> By 1804, abolitionists succeeded in passing legislation that ended legal slavery in every <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">northern state</a> (with slaves above a certain age legally transformed to indentured servants).<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress passed an <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> as of 1 January 1808; but not the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States#Internal_slave_trade" title="Slavery in the United States">internal slave trade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the actions of abolitionists, free blacks were subject to <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States#Issues_in_the_North" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> in the Northern states.<sup id="cite_ref-AIA4_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AIA4-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the United Kingdom did not ban slavery throughout most of the empire, including <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a> till 1833, free blacks found refuge in <a href="/wiki/The_Canadas" title="The Canadas">the Canadas</a> after the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> and again after the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>. Refugees from slavery fled the South across the Ohio River to the North via the <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>. Midwestern state governments asserted <a href="/wiki/States_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="States Rights">States Rights</a> arguments to refuse federal jurisdiction over fugitives. Some juries exercised their right of <a href="/wiki/Jury_nullification_in_the_United_States" title="Jury nullification in the United States">jury nullification</a> and refused to convict those indicted under the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a>. </p><p>After the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> in 1854, armed conflict broke out in <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Territory" title="Kansas Territory">Kansas Territory</a>, where the question of whether it would be admitted to the Union as a slave state or a free state had been left to the inhabitants. The radical abolitionist <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a> was active in the mayhem and killing in "<a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a>." The true turning point in public opinion is better fixed at the <a href="/wiki/Lecompton_Constitution" title="Lecompton Constitution">Lecompton Constitution</a> fraud. Pro-slavery elements in <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> had arrived first from <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> and quickly organized a territorial government that excluded abolitionists. Through the machinery of the territory and violence, the pro-slavery faction attempted to force the unpopular pro-slavery <a href="/wiki/Lecompton_Constitution" title="Lecompton Constitution">Lecompton Constitution</a> through the state. This infuriated <a href="/wiki/Northern_Democratic_Party" title="Northern Democratic Party">Northern Democrats</a>, who supported <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Popular sovereignty in the United States">popular sovereignty</a>, and was exacerbated by the <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">Buchanan</a> administration reneging on a promise to submit the constitution to a referendum—which would surely fail. Anti-slavery legislators took office under the banner of the newly formed <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford"><i>Dred Scott</i> decision</a> of 1857 asserted that one could take one's property anywhere, even if one's property was <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel</a> and one crossed into a free territory. It also asserted that African Americans could not be <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States" title="Citizenship of the United States">federal citizens</a>. Outraged critics across the North denounced these episodes as the latest of the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a> (the politically organized slave owners) taking more control of the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="American_Civil_War">American Civil War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: American Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolition of slavery in the United States">Abolition of slavery in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></div> <p>The enslaved population in the United States stood at four million.<sup id="cite_ref-itd.nps.gov_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-itd.nps.gov-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ninety-five percent of blacks lived in the South, constituting one third of the population there as opposed to 1% of the population of the North. The central issue in politics in the 1850s involved the extension of slavery into the <a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">western territories</a>, which settlers from the Northern states opposed. The <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a> split and collapsed on the slavery issue, to be replaced in the North by <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Republican_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States Republican Party">the new Republican Party</a>, which was dedicated to stopping the expansion of slavery. Republicans gained a majority in every northern state by <a href="/wiki/Free_Soil_Party" title="Free Soil Party">absorbing a faction of anti-slavery Democrats</a>, and warning that slavery was a backward system that undercut <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> and economic modernization.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous compromise proposals were put forward, but they all collapsed. A majority of Northern voters were committed to stopping the expansion of slavery, which they believed would ultimately end slavery. Southern voters were overwhelmingly angry that they were being treated as second-class citizens. In the <a href="/wiki/U.S._presidential_election,_1860" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. presidential election, 1860">election of 1860</a>, the Republicans swept <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> into the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Presidency</a> and his party took control with legislators into the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a>. The states of the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>, convinced that the economic power of what they called "<a href="/wiki/King_Cotton" title="King Cotton">King Cotton</a>" would overwhelm the North and win support from Europe voted to secede from the U.S. (the Union). They formed the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a>, based on the promise of maintaining slavery. War broke out in April 1861, as both sides sought wave after wave of enthusiasm among young men volunteering to form new regiments and new armies. In the North, the main goal was to preserve the union as an expression of <a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">American nationalism</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Company_I_of_the_36th_Colored_Regiment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Company_I_of_the_36th_Colored_Regiment.jpg/220px-Company_I_of_the_36th_Colored_Regiment.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Company_I_of_the_36th_Colored_Regiment.jpg/330px-Company_I_of_the_36th_Colored_Regiment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Company_I_of_the_36th_Colored_Regiment.jpg/440px-Company_I_of_the_36th_Colored_Regiment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4520" data-file-height="3312" /></a><figcaption>Company I of the 36th Colored Regiment <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">USCT</a></figcaption></figure><p> Rebel leaders <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest" title="Nathan Bedford Forrest">Nathan Bedford Forrest</a> and others were slavers and <a href="/wiki/Slave-traders" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave-traders">slave-traders</a>. </p><p>By 1862 most northern leaders realized that the mainstay of Southern secession, slavery, had to be attacked head-on. All the <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">border states</a> rejected President Lincoln's proposal for <a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">compensated emancipation</a>. However, by 1865 all had begun the abolition of slavery, except <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> was an <a href="/wiki/Executive_order" title="Executive order">executive order</a> issued by Lincoln on 1 January 1863. In a single stroke, it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of 3 million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave" to "free." It had the practical effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a>, the slave became legally and actually free. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their human property as far as possible out of reach of the Union Army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all of the designated slaves. The owners were never compensated.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 186,000 free blacks and newly freed people <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">fought for the Union in the Army and Navy</a>, thereby validating their claims to full citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The severe dislocations of war and Reconstruction had a severe negative impact on the black population, with a large amount of sickness and death.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After liberation, many of the Freedmen remained on the same plantation. Others fled or crowded into refugee camps operated by the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a>. The Bureau provided food, housing, clothing, medical care, church services, some schooling, legal support, and arranged for labor contracts.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fierce debates about the rights of the Freedmen, and of the defeated Confederates, often accompanied by killings of black leaders, marked the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction Era</a>, 1863–77.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery was never reestablished, but after President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> left the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> in 1877, <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white-supremacist</a> "<a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemer</a>" <a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrats" title="Southern Democrats">Southern Democrats</a> took control of all the southern states, and blacks lost nearly all the political power they had achieved during Reconstruction. By 1900, they also <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">lost the right to vote</a> – they had become second class citizens. The great majority lived in the rural South in <a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a> working as laborers, sharecroppers or tenant farmers; a small proportion owned their own land. The <a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">black churches</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Baptist_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist Church">Baptist Church</a>, was the center of community activity and leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asia">Asia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Asia">History of slavery in Asia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Slavery in antiquity</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">History of slavery in the Muslim world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naturales_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Naturales_1.png/170px-Naturales_1.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Naturales_1.png/255px-Naturales_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Naturales_1.png/340px-Naturales_1.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption>A plate in the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Codex" title="Boxer Codex">Boxer Codex</a> possibly depicting <i><a href="/wiki/Alipin" title="Alipin">alipin</a></i> (slaves) in the pre-colonial Philippines.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Slave_trade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Chinese_Slave_trade.jpg/170px-Chinese_Slave_trade.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Chinese_Slave_trade.jpg/255px-Chinese_Slave_trade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Chinese_Slave_trade.jpg/340px-Chinese_Slave_trade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="903" /></a><figcaption>A contract from the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> that records the purchase of a 15-year-old slave for six bolts of plain silk and five <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_coinage" title="Ancient Chinese coinage">Chinese coins</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Slavery has existed all throughout Asia, and forms of slavery still exist today. In the ancient <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> slavery was common practice, dating back to the very earliest recorded civilisations in the world such as <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, as well as amongst the <a href="/wiki/Hattians" title="Hattians">Hattians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luwians" title="Luwians">Luwians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammonites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edomites" class="mw-redirect" title="Edomites">Edomites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moabites" class="mw-redirect" title="Moabites">Moabites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philistines" title="Philistines">Philistines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lydians" title="Lydians">Lydians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urartians" class="mw-redirect" title="Urartians">Urartians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colchians" class="mw-redirect" title="Colchians">Colchians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery in the Middle East first developed out of the <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> practices of the Ancient Near East,<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and these practices were radically different at times, depending on social-political factors such as the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim slave trade">Muslim slave trade</a>. Two rough estimates by scholars of the number of slaves held over twelve centuries in Muslim lands are 11.5 million<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 14 million.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nyt-2015_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt-2015-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> (Islamic law),<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_192-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eois_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eois-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> children of slaves or prisoners of war could become slaves, but only if they are non-Muslim, leading to the Islamic world to import many slaves from other regions, predominantly Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a> of a slave was encouraged as a way of expiating sins.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many early converts to Islam, such as <a href="/wiki/Bilal_ibn_Rabah_al-Habashi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi">Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi</a>, were poor and former slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_Empire">Byzantine Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Byzantine Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Slavery in the Byzantine Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></div> <p>Slavery played a notable role in the economy of the Byzantine Empire. Many slaves were sourced from wars within the Mediterranean and Europe while others were sourced from <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">trading with Vikings</a> visiting the empire. Slavery's role in the economy and the power of slave owners slowly diminished while laws gradually improved the rights of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-books.google.gr_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.gr-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the influence of Christianity, views of slavery shifted leading to slaves gaining more rights and independence, and although slavery became rare and was seen as evil by many citizens it was still legal.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a> many prisoners of war were ransomed into slavery while others took part in <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_prisoner_exchanges" title="Arab–Byzantine prisoner exchanges">Arab–Byzantine prisoner exchanges</a>. Exchanges of prisoners became a regular feature of the relations between the Byzantine Empire and the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToynbee1973382–383,_388–390_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToynbee1973382–383,_388–390-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOikonomides19911722_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOikonomides19911722-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToynbee1973388_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToynbee1973388-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the fall of the Byzantine empire thousands of Byzantine citizens were enslaved, with 30,000–50,000 citizens being enslaved by the Ottoman Empire after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Akbar2002_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akbar2002-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davis_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yasyr_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Yasyr_3.jpg/250px-Yasyr_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Yasyr_3.jpg/375px-Yasyr_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Yasyr_3.jpg/500px-Yasyr_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1326" data-file-height="869" /></a><figcaption>Ottoman Turks with captives from the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_Croatian%E2%80%93Ottoman_War" title="Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War">Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Slavery was a legal and important part of the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of the Ottoman Empire">economy of the Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Social structure of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman society</a><sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until the slavery of <a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Caucasians</a> was banned in the early 19th century, although slaves from other groups were allowed.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>), the administrative and political center of the Empire, about a fifth of the population consisted of slaves in 1609.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely unaffected into the early 20th century. As late as 1908, female slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a> was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution.<sup id="cite_ref-Schierbrand1886_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schierbrand1886-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zilfi2010_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zilfi2010-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A member of the Ottoman slave class, called a <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kul#Turkish" class="extiw" title="wikt:kul">kul</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>, could achieve high status. <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a> guards and <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">janissaries</a> are some of the better-known positions a slave could hold, but slaves were actually often at the forefront of Ottoman politics. The majority of officials in the Ottoman government were bought slaves, raised as slaves of the Sultan, and integral to the success of the Ottoman Empire from the 14th century into the 19th. Many officials themselves owned a large number of slaves, although the <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan of the Ottoman Empire">Sultan</a> himself owned by far the largest amount.<sup id="cite_ref-Dursteler2006_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dursteler2006-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By raising and specially training slaves as officials in <a href="/wiki/Palace_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace school">palace schools</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Enderun" class="mw-redirect" title="Enderun">Enderun</a>, the Ottomans created administrators with intricate knowledge of government and fanatic loyalty. </p><p>Ottomans practiced <i><a href="/wiki/Dev%C5%9Firme" class="mw-redirect" title="Devşirme">devşirme</a></i>, a sort of "blood tax" or "child collection", young Christian boys from the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> were taken from their homes and families, brought up as Muslims, and enlisted into the most famous branch of the <i><a href="/wiki/Kap%C4%B1kulu" title="Kapıkulu">kapıkulu</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissaries</a>, a special soldier class of the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Military of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman army</a> that became a decisive faction in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">Ottoman invasions of Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the various 18th and 19th century <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">persecution campaigns against Christians</a> as well as during the culminating <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian genocide">Assyrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek</a> genocides of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, many indigenous Armenian, Assyrian and Greek Christian women and children were carried off as slaves by the Ottoman Turks and their Kurdish allies. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Morgenthau, Sr.">Henry Morgenthau, Sr.</a>, U.S. Ambassador in Constantinople from 1913 to 1916, reports in his <i><a href="/wiki/Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story" title="Ambassador Morgenthau's Story">Ambassador Morgenthau's Story</a></i> that there were gangs trading white slaves during his term in Constantinople.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also reports that Armenian girls were sold as slaves during the Armenian Genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Segal" title="Ronald Segal">Ronald Segal</a>, the male:female gender ratio in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> was 2:1, whereas in Islamic lands the ratio was 1:2. Another difference between the two was, he argues, that slavery in the west had a racial component, whereas the Qur'an explicitly condemned racism. This, in Segal's view, eased assimilation of freed slaves into society.<sup id="cite_ref-Segal_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Segal-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men would often take their female slaves as <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubines</a>; in fact, most Ottoman sultans were sons of such concubines.<sup id="cite_ref-Segal_223-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Segal-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_history">Ancient history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ancient history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_India">Ancient India</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Ancient India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">Slavery in India</a></div> <p>Scholars differ as to whether or not slaves and the institution of slavery existed in <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">ancient India</a>. These English words have no direct, universally accepted equivalent in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> or other Indian languages, but some scholars translate the word <i><a href="/wiki/Dasa" title="Dasa">dasa</a></i>, mentioned in texts like <i><a href="/wiki/Manu_Smriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Manu Smriti">Manu Smriti</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Stein_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stein-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-as_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-as-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient historians who visited India offer the closest insights into the nature of Indian society and slavery in other ancient civilizations. For example, the Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>, who chronicled India about the time of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, wrote in his <i>Indika</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-jwc_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jwc-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Indians do not even use aliens as slaves, much less a countryman of their own.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>The Indika of Arrian<sup id="cite_ref-jwc_226-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jwc-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_China">Ancient China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Ancient China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in China">History of slavery in China</a></div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> (221–206 BC)</b> Men sentenced to <a href="/wiki/Castration" title="Castration">castration</a> became <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuch</a> slaves of the Qin dynasty state and as a result they were made to do forced labor, on projects like the <a href="/wiki/Terracotta_Army" title="Terracotta Army">Terracotta Army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qin government confiscated the property and enslaved the families of those who received castration as a punishment for rape.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Slaves were deprived of their rights and connections to their families.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Society_and_culture_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Society and culture of the Han dynasty">Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)</a></b> One of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han">Emperor Gao</a>'s first acts was to set free from slavery agricultural workers who were enslaved during the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>, although domestic servants retained their status. <ul><li>Men punished with castration during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> were also used as slave labor.<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Deriving from earlier <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a> laws, the Han dynasty set in place rules that the property of and families of criminals doing three years of hard labor or sentenced to castration were to have their families seized and kept as property by the government.<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <p>During the millennium long <a href="/wiki/Chinese_domination_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese domination of Vietnam">Chinese domination of Vietnam</a>, Vietnam was a great source of slave girls who were used as sex slaves in China.<sup id="cite_ref-Henley_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henley-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The slave girls of Viet were even eroticized in Tang dynasty poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-Henley_232-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henley-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> purchased Western slaves from the Radhanite Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tang Chinese soldiers and pirates enslaved Koreans, Turks, Persians, Indonesians, and people from Inner Mongolia, Central Asia, and northern India.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The greatest source of slaves came from southern tribes, including Thais and aboriginals from the southern provinces of <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>. Malays, Khmers, Indians, and black Africans were also purchased as slaves in the Tang dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was prevalent until the late 19th century and early 20th century China.<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All forms of slavery have been illegal in China since 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postclassical_history">Postclassical history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Postclassical history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Indian subcontinent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_on_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent">Islamic invasions</a>, starting in the 8th century, also resulted in hundreds of thousands of Indians being enslaved by the invading armies, one of the earliest being the armies of the Umayyad commander <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad bin Qasim">Muhammad bin Qasim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Muhammad_Qasim_Firishta_1864_243-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muhammad_Qasim_Firishta_1864-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Andre_Wink_1997_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andre_Wink_1997-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Utbi_1847_245-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Utbi_1847-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Qutb-ud-din_Aybak" class="mw-redirect" title="Qutb-ud-din Aybak">Qutb-ud-din Aybak</a>, a Turkic slave of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ghori" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Ghori">Muhammad Ghori</a> rose to power following his master's death. For almost a century, his descendants ruled North-Central India in form of <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Delhi)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)">Slave Dynasty</a>. Several slaves were also brought to India by the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trades</a>; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Siddi" title="Siddi">Siddi</a> are descendants of <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a> slaves brought to India by Arab and Portuguese merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Andre Wink summarizes the slavery in 8th and 9th century India as follows, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>(During the invasion of Muhammad al-Qasim), invariably numerous women and children were enslaved. The sources insist that now, in dutiful conformity to religious law, 'the one-fifth of the slaves and spoils' were set apart for the caliph's treasury and despatched to Iraq and Syria. The remainder was scattered among the army of Islam. At Rūr, a random 60,000 captives reduced to slavery. At Brahamanabad 30,000 slaves were allegedly taken. At Multan 6,000. Slave raids continued to be made throughout the late Umayyad period in Sindh, but also much further into Hind, as far as <a href="/wiki/Ujjain" title="Ujjain">Ujjain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malwa" title="Malwa">Malwa</a>. The Abbasid governors raided Punjab, where many prisoners and slaves were taken.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Al Hind, André Wink<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In the early 11th century Tarikh al-Yamini, the Arab historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Utbi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Utbi">Al-Utbi</a> recorded that in 1001 the armies of <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazna" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud of Ghazna">Mahmud of Ghazna</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Peshawar" title="Peshawar">Peshawar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waihand" class="mw-redirect" title="Waihand">Waihand</a> (capital of Gandhara) after <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peshawar_(1001)" title="Battle of Peshawar (1001)">Battle of Peshawar</a> (1001), "in the midst of the land of <a href="/wiki/Hindustan" title="Hindustan">Hindustan</a>", and captured some 100,000 youths.<sup id="cite_ref-Muhammad_Qasim_Firishta_1864_243-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muhammad_Qasim_Firishta_1864-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Andre_Wink_1997_244-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andre_Wink_1997-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, following his twelfth expedition into India in 1018–19, Mahmud is reported to have returned with such a large number of slaves that their value was reduced to only two to ten dirhams each. This unusually low price made, according to Al-Utbi, "merchants [come] from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Central Asia, Iraq and Khurasan were swelled with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor, mingled in one common slavery". Elliot and Dowson refer to "five hundred thousand slaves, beautiful men and women.".<sup id="cite_ref-Utbi_1847_245-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Utbi_1847-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, during the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> period (1206–1555), references to the abundant availability of low-priced Indian slaves abound. Levi attributes this primarily to the vast human resources of India, compared to its neighbors to the north and west (India's <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> population being approximately 12 to 20 times that of <a href="/wiki/Turan" title="Turan">Turan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> at the end of the 16th century).<sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Slavery and empire-formation tied in particularly well with <i>iqta</i> and it is within this context of Islamic expansion that elite slavery was later commonly found. It became the predominant system in North India in the thirteenth century and retained considerable importance in the fourteenth century. Slavery was still vigorous in fifteenth-century Bengal, while after that date it shifted to the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> where it persisted until the seventeenth century. It remained present to a minor extent in the Mughal provinces throughout the seventeenth century and had a notable revival under the Afghans in North India again in the eighteenth century.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Al Hind, André Wink<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Delhi_sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Delhi sultanate">Delhi sultanate</a> obtained thousands of slaves and eunuch servants from the villages of Eastern <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> (a widespread practice which Mughal emperor <a href="/wiki/Jahangir" title="Jahangir">Jahangir</a> later tried to stop). Wars, famines, pestilences drove many villagers to sell their children as slaves. The Muslim conquest of <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> in Western India had two main objectives. The conquerors demanded and more often forcibly wrested both land owned by Hindus and Hindu women. Enslavement of women invariably led to their conversion to Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In battles waged by Muslims against Hindus in <a href="/wiki/Malwa" title="Malwa">Malwa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deccan_plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Deccan plateau">Deccan plateau</a>, a large number of captives were taken. Muslim soldiers were permitted to retain and enslave POWs as plunder.<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Bahmani" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmani">Bahmani</a> sultan, <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Bahman_Shah" class="mw-redirect" title="Alauddin Bahman Shah">Alauddin Bahman Shah</a> is noted to have captured 1,000 singing and dancing girls from Hindu temples after he battled the northern <a href="/wiki/Carnatic_region" title="Carnatic region">Carnatic</a> chieftains. The later Bahmanis also enslaved civilian women and children in wars; many of them were converted to Islam in captivity.<sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal empire">Mughal empire</a>, W.H. Moreland observed, "it became a fashion to raid a village or group of villages without any obvious justification, and carry off the inhabitants as slaves."<sup id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the rule of <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a>, many peasants were compelled to sell their women and children into slavery to meet the land revenue demand.<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was officially abolished in British India by the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Slavery_Act,_1843" title="Indian Slavery Act, 1843">Indian Slavery Act, 1843</a>. However, in modern India, Pakistan and Nepal, there are millions of <a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">bonded laborers</a>, who work as slaves to pay off debts.<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_history">Modern history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Modern history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iran">Iran</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Iran"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Slavery in Iran</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Dyer" title="Reginald Dyer">Reginald Dyer</a>, recalling operations against tribes in <a href="/wiki/Sistan_and_Baluchestan_province" title="Sistan and Baluchestan province">Iranian Baluchistan</a> in 1916, stated in a 1921 memoir that the local Balochi tribes would regularly carry out raids against travellers and small towns. During these raids, women and children would often be abducted to become slaves, and would be sold for prices varying based on quality, age and looks. He stated that the average price for a young woman was 300 rupees, and the average price for a small child 25 rupees. The slaves, it was noted, were often half starved.<sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Slavery in Japan</a></div> <p>Slavery in Japan was, for most of its history, indigenous, since the export and import of slaves was restricted by Japan being a group of islands. In late-16th-century Japan, slavery was officially banned; but forms of contract and indentured labor persisted alongside the period penal codes' forced labor. During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armed_Forces" title="Imperial Japanese Armed Forces">Imperial Japanese Armed Forces</a> used millions of civilians and <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a> from several countries as forced laborers.<sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Korea">Korea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Korea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Slavery in Korea</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, slavery was officially abolished with the <a href="/wiki/Gabo_Reform" title="Gabo Reform">Gabo Reform</a> of 1894. During the <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon</a> period, in times of poor harvest and <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>, many peasants voluntarily sold themselves into the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">nobi system</a> in order to survive.<sup id="cite_ref-seoul_268-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seoul-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Southeast Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Southeast Asia">Slavery in Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Slavery in Brunei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Slavery in Indonesia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Slavery in Malaysia</a></div> <p>In Southeast Asia, there was a large slave class in <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer Empire</a> who built the enduring monuments in <a href="/wiki/Angkor_Wat" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a> and did most of the heavy work.<sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between the 17th and the early 20th centuries one-quarter to one-third of the population of some areas of <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a> were slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-270" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a> had developed a slave trade with <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, also enslaving British subjects and Brahmins.<sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-272" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> (ILO), during the early 21st century an estimated 800,000 people are subject to forced labor in <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-273" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(900%E2%80%931521)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (900–1521)">pre-Spanish Philippines</a> was practiced by the tribal <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian peoples</a> who inhabited the <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Philippines" title="Ethnic groups in the Philippines">culturally diverse islands</a>. The neighboring <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> states conducted slave raids from the 1600s into the 1800s in coastal areas of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Thailand" title="Gulf of Thailand">Gulf of Thailand</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippine islands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-274" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-275" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slaves in <a href="/wiki/Toraja" class="mw-redirect" title="Toraja">Toraja</a> society in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> were family property. People would become slaves when they incurred a debt. Slaves could also be taken during wars, and slave trading was common. Torajan slaves were sold and shipped out to <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siam" class="mw-redirect" title="Siam">Siam</a>. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still inherited slave status. Slavery was <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolished</a> in 1863 in all Dutch colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-276" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-277" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_State_slave_trade">Islamic State slave trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Islamic State slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory#Slave_trade" title="Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory">Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory § Slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yazidi_genocide#Sexual_slavery_and_reproductive_violence" title="Yazidi genocide">Yazidi genocide § Sexual slavery and reproductive violence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_jihad" title="Sexual jihad">Sexual jihad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery#Middle_East" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery § Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_violence_in_the_Iraqi_insurgency" title="Sexual violence in the Iraqi insurgency">Sexual violence in the Iraqi insurgency</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_Islamism" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in 21st-century Islamism">Slavery in 21st-century Islamism</a></div> <p>According to media reports from late 2014, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a> (IS) was selling <a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> women as slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-278" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Haleh Esfandiari of the <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars" title="Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars">Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</a>, after IS militants have captured an area "[t]hey usually take the older women to a makeshift slave market and try to sell them."<sup id="cite_ref-279" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>279<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In mid-October 2014, the UN estimated that 5,000 to 7,000 Yazidi women and children were abducted by IS and sold into slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-280" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>280<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the digital magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Dabiq_(magazine)" title="Dabiq (magazine)">Dabiq</a></i>, IS claimed <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">religious justification</a> for enslaving Yazidi women whom they consider to be from a heretical sect. IS claimed that the Yazidi are idol worshipers and their enslavement is part of the old <a href="/wiki/Shariah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shariah">shariah</a> practice of <a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">spoils of war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-281" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>281<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-282" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-282"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-283" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-283"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>283<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-284" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-284"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>284<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-285" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-285"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>285<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i>, IS appeals to <a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">apocalyptic beliefs</a> and claims "justification by a Hadith that they interpret as portraying the revival of slavery as a precursor to the end of the world".<sup id="cite_ref-286" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-286"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>286<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>IS announced the revival of slavery as an institution.<sup id="cite_ref-287" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-287"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>287<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2015 the official slave prices set by IS were following:<sup id="cite_ref-288" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-288"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>288<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-289" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-289"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>289<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>Children aged 1 to 9 were sold for 200,000 dinars ($169).</li> <li>Women and children 10 to 20 years sold for 150,000 dinars ($127).</li> <li>Women 20 to 30 years old for 100,000 dinar ($85).</li> <li>Women 30 to 40 years old are 75,000 dinar ($63).</li> <li>Women 40 to 50 years old for 50,000 dinar ($42).</li></ul> </div> <p>However some slaves have been sold for as little as a pack of <a href="/wiki/Cigarette" title="Cigarette">cigarettes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-290" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-290"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>290<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sex slaves were sold to Saudi Arabia, other <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> states and Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-291" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-291"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>291<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Europe">Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Human trafficking in Europe">Human trafficking in Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Bartlett_-_Captives_in_Rome,_1888.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Charles_Bartlett_-_Captives_in_Rome%2C_1888.jpg/220px-Charles_Bartlett_-_Captives_in_Rome%2C_1888.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Charles_Bartlett_-_Captives_in_Rome%2C_1888.jpg/330px-Charles_Bartlett_-_Captives_in_Rome%2C_1888.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Charles_Bartlett_-_Captives_in_Rome%2C_1888.jpg/440px-Charles_Bartlett_-_Captives_in_Rome%2C_1888.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2364" /></a><figcaption><i>Captives in Rome</i>, a nineteenth-century painting by <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Bartlett" title="Charles W. Bartlett">Charles W. Bartlett</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_history_2">Ancient history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Ancient history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Ancient Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery in ancient Greece</a></div> <p>Records of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Ancient Greece">slavery in Ancient Greece</a> go as far back as <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a>. The origins are not known, but it appears that slavery became an important part of the economy and society only after the establishment of cities.<sup id="cite_ref-292" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-292"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>292<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was common practice and an integral component of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, as it was in other societies of the time. It is estimated that in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, the majority of <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">citizens</a> owned at least one slave. Most ancient writers considered slavery not only natural but necessary, but some isolated debate began to appear, notably in <a href="/wiki/Socratic_dialogues" class="mw-redirect" title="Socratic dialogues">Socratic dialogues</a>. The Stoics produced the first condemnation of slavery recorded in history.<sup id="cite_ref-Roberts_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roberts-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 8th and the 7th centuries BC, in the course of the two <a href="/wiki/Messenian_Wars_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Messenian Wars (disambiguation)">Messenian Wars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Spartans</a> reduced an entire population to a pseudo-slavery called <i><a href="/wiki/Helots" title="Helots">helotry</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-293" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-293"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>293<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> (IX, 28–29), helots were seven times as numerous as Spartans. Following several helot revolts around the year 600 BC, the Spartans restructured their city-state along authoritarian lines, for the leaders decided that only by turning their society into an armed camp could they hope to maintain control over the numerically dominant helot population.<sup id="cite_ref-294" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-294"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>294<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> city-states, about 30% of the population consisted of slaves, but paid and slave labor seem to have been equally important.<sup id="cite_ref-295" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-295"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>295<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rome">Rome</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery in ancient Rome</a></div> <p>Romans inherited the institution of slavery from the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-296" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-296"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> expanded outward, it enslaved entire populations, thus ensuring an ample supply of laborers to work in <a href="/wiki/Farming_in_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Farming in Ancient Rome">Rome's farms</a>, quarries and households. The people subjected to <a href="/wiki/Roman_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman slavery">Roman slavery</a> came from all over Europe and the Mediterranean. Slaves were used for labor, and also for amusement (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sex_slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex slave">sex slaves</a>). In the late Republic, the widespread use of recently enslaved groups on <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ranch" title="Ranch">ranches</a> led to <a href="/wiki/Slave_revolts" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave revolts">slave revolts</a> on a large scale; the <a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Spartacus" title="Spartacus">Spartacus</a> was the most famous and most threatening to Rome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_European_tribes">Other European tribes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Other European tribes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various tribes of Europe are recorded by Roman sources as owning slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-297" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-297"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>297<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> records slaves as an export commodity from <a href="/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia">Britannia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-298" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-298"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>298<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From <a href="/wiki/Llyn_Cerrig_Bach" title="Llyn Cerrig Bach">Llyn Cerrig Bach</a> in Anglesey, an iron gang chain dated to 100 BCE-50 CE was found, over 3 metres long with neck-rings for five captives.<sup id="cite_ref-299" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-299"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>299<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-classical_history">Post-classical history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Post-classical history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery in medieval Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></div> <p>The chaos of invasion and frequent warfare also resulted in victorious parties taking slaves throughout Europe in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early Middle Ages</a>. <a href="/wiki/St._Patrick" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Patrick">St. Patrick</a>, himself captured and sold as a slave, protested against an attack that enslaved newly baptized Christians in his <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Saint_Patrick#Letter_to_the_Soldiers_of_Coroticus_(c._450)" class="extiw" title="q:Saint Patrick">"Letter to the Soldiers of Coroticus"</a>. As a commonly traded commodity, like cattle, slaves could become a form of internal or trans-border currency.<sup id="cite_ref-300" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-300"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> had several distinct sources. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> raided across Europe, where they took slaves. While the Vikings kept some slaves as servants, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Thralls" class="mw-redirect" title="Thralls">thralls</a></i>, they sold most captives in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black sea slave trade</a> or Islamic markets such as the <a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a>. In the West, their target populations were primarily English, Irish, and Scottish, while in the East they were mainly Slavs (<a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">saqaliba</a>). The Viking slave-trade slowly ended in the 11th century, as the Vikings settled in the European territories they had once raided. They converted serfs to Christianity and themselves merged with the local populace.<sup id="cite_ref-vikings_301-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vikings-301"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>301<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In central Europe, specifically the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Frankish/German/Holy Roman Empire</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, raids and wars to the east generated a steady supply of slaves from the Slavic captives of these regions. Because of high demand for slaves in the wealthy <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Muslim empires</a> of Northern Africa, <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Spain</a>, and the Near East, especially for slaves of European descent, a market for these slaves rapidly emerged. So lucrative was this market that it spawned an economic boom in central and western Europe, today known as the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-302" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-302"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>302<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-303" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>303<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-304" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-304"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>304<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This boom period for slaves stretched from the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a> to the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> but declined in the later Middle Ages as the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> waned. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Medieval Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal" title="History of Portugal">Portugal</a> saw almost constant <a href="/wiki/Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Warfare">warfare</a> between Muslims and Christians. <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> sent periodic raiding expeditions to loot the Iberian Christian kingdoms, bringing back <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">booty</a> and slaves. In a raid against <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>, Portugal in 1189, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Almohad" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad">Almohad</a> caliph <a href="/wiki/Yaqub_al-Mansur" title="Yaqub al-Mansur">Yaqub al-Mansur</a> took 3,000 female and child captives. In a subsequent attack upon <a href="/wiki/Silves_Municipality,_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Silves Municipality, Portugal">Silves</a>, Portugal in 1191, his governor of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> took 3,000 Christian slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-305" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-305"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>305<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ottoman_Empire_2">Ottoman Empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg/250px-Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg/375px-Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg/500px-Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1309" data-file-height="1685" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Meccan</a> merchant (right) and his <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a> slave. Entitled, "Vornehmer Kaufmann mit seinem cirkassischen Sklaven" [Distinguished merchant and his circassian slave] by <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Snouck_Hurgronje" title="Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje">Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1888</span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Ottoman_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine-Ottoman wars">Byzantine-Ottoman wars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">Ottoman wars in Europe</a> resulted in the taking of large numbers of Christian slaves and using or selling them in the <a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islamic world</a> too.<sup id="cite_ref-306" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-306"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>306<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_(1571)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Lepanto (1571)">battle of Lepanto</a> the victors freed approximately 12,000 Christian galley slaves from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman fleet">Ottoman fleet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-307" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-307"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>307<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, Christians sold <a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Muslim</a> slaves captured in war. The Order of the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Knights of Malta</a> attacked pirates and Muslim shipping, and their base became a centre for slave trading, selling captured <a href="/wiki/North_Africans" class="mw-redirect" title="North Africans">North Africans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a>. <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> remained a slave market until well into the late 18th century. One thousand slaves were required to man the galleys (ships) of the Order.<sup id="cite_ref-308" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-308"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>308<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-309" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-309"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>309<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eastern_Europe">Eastern Europe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Eastern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Poland banned slavery in the 14th century; in <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, slavery was formally abolished in 1588; the institution was replaced by the second <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">enserfment</a>. Slavery remained a minor institution in Russia until 1723, when <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier, in 1679.<sup id="cite_ref-310" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-310"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>310<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_Isles">British Isles</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: British Isles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Isles" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the British Isles">Slavery in the British Isles</a></div> <p>Capture in war, voluntary servitude and <a href="/wiki/Debt_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Debt slavery">debt slavery</a> became common within the British Isles before 1066. The <a href="/wiki/Bodmin_manumissions" title="Bodmin manumissions">Bodmin manumissions</a> show both that slavery existed in 9th and 10th Century <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> and that many Cornish slave owners did set their slaves free. Slaves were routinely bought and sold. Running away was also common and slavery was never a major economic factor in the British Isles during the Middle Ages. Ireland and Denmark provided markets for captured Anglo-Saxon and Celtic slaves. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a> reputedly made the pun, <i>Non Angli, sed Angeli</i> ("Not Angles, but Angels"), after a response to his query regarding the identity of a group of fair-haired <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>, slave children whom he had observed in the marketplace. After the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a>, the law no longer supported chattel slavery and slaves became part of the larger body of serfs.<sup id="cite_ref-311" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-311"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>311<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-312" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-312"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>312<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France">France</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early Middle Ages, the city of <a href="/wiki/Verdun" title="Verdun">Verdun</a> was the centre of the thriving European slave trade in young boys who were sold to the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Emirate" title="Emirate">emirates</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a> where they were enslaved as <a href="/wiki/Eunuch_(court_official)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuch (court official)">eunuchs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-313" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-313"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>313<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Italian ambassador <a href="/wiki/Liutprand_of_Cremona" title="Liutprand of Cremona">Liutprand of Cremona</a>, as one example in the 10th century, presented a gift of four eunuchs to Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine VII</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-314" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-314"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>314<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Barbary_pirates_and_Maltese_corsairs">Barbary pirates and Maltese corsairs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Barbary pirates and Maltese corsairs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:360Niklas_St%C3%B6r_Entf%C3%BChrung_in_die_Sklaverei.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/360Niklas_St%C3%B6r_Entf%C3%BChrung_in_die_Sklaverei.jpg/220px-360Niklas_St%C3%B6r_Entf%C3%BChrung_in_die_Sklaverei.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/360Niklas_St%C3%B6r_Entf%C3%BChrung_in_die_Sklaverei.jpg/330px-360Niklas_St%C3%B6r_Entf%C3%BChrung_in_die_Sklaverei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/360Niklas_St%C3%B6r_Entf%C3%BChrung_in_die_Sklaverei.jpg/440px-360Niklas_St%C3%B6r_Entf%C3%BChrung_in_die_Sklaverei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="845" data-file-height="1016" /></a><figcaption>Ottoman advances resulted in many captive Christians being carried deep into Muslim territory.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a> and Maltese corsairs both raided for slaves and purchased slaves from European merchants, often the <a href="/wiki/Radhanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Radhanites">Radhanites</a>, one of the few groups who could easily move between the Christian and Islamic worlds.<sup id="cite_ref-radhanites_315-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radhanites-315"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>315<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-316" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-316"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>316<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genoa_and_Venice">Genoa and Venice</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Genoa and Venice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></div> <p>In the late <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, from 1100 to 1500, the European slave-trade continued, though with a shift from being centered among the Western Mediterranean Islamic nations to the Eastern Christian and Muslim states. The city-states of <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a> controlled the Eastern Mediterranean from the 12th century and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> from the 13th century. They sold both <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Baltic</a> slaves, as well as <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a>, and other ethnic groups of the Black Sea and <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a>. The sale of European slaves by Europeans slowly ended as the Slavic and Baltic ethnic groups <a href="/wiki/Christianized" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianized">Christianized</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-muslim_317-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-muslim-317"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 1440s into the 18th century, Europeans from Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, and England were sold into slavery by North Africans. In 1575, the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Tatars</a> captured over 35,000 Ukrainians; a 1676 raid took almost 40,000. About 60,000 Ukrainians were captured in 1688; some were ransomed, but most were sold into slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-318" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-318"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>318<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-319" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-319"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>319<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some 150,000–200,000 of the <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Roma people</a> were enslaved over five centuries in <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> until abolition in 1864 (see <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Slavery in Romania</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-320" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-320"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>320<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mongols">Mongols</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Mongols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giovanni_Maria_Morandi_-_Religieux.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Giovanni_Maria_Morandi_-_Religieux.jpg/220px-Giovanni_Maria_Morandi_-_Religieux.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Giovanni_Maria_Morandi_-_Religieux.jpg/330px-Giovanni_Maria_Morandi_-_Religieux.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Giovanni_Maria_Morandi_-_Religieux.jpg/440px-Giovanni_Maria_Morandi_-_Religieux.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2663" data-file-height="2012" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Maria_Morandi" title="Giovanni Maria Morandi">Giovanni Maria Morandi</a>, <i>The ransoming of Christian slaves held in Turkish hands</i>, 17th century</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Slave trade in the Mongol Empire">Slave trade in the Mongol Empire</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasions">Mongol invasions</a> and conquests in the 13th century also resulted in taking numerous captives into slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-321" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-321"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mongols enslaved skilled individuals, women and children and marched them to <a href="/wiki/Karakorum" title="Karakorum">Karakorum</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sarai_(city)" title="Sarai (city)">Sarai</a>, whence they were sold throughout <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>. Many of these slaves were shipped to the slave market in <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-322" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-322"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>322<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-323" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-323"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>323<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-324" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>324<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slave commerce during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> was mainly in the hands of <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> merchants and cartels, who were involved in the slave trade with the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-325" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-325"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>325<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1382 the Golden Horde under Khan <a href="/wiki/Tokhtamysh" title="Tokhtamysh">Tokhtamysh</a> sacked Moscow, burning the city and carrying off thousands of inhabitants as slaves. Between 1414 and 1423, some 10,000 eastern European slaves were sold in <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-326" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-326"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>326<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genoese merchants organized the slave trade from the <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mamluk#Egypt" title="Mamluk">Mamluk Egypt</a>. For years, the <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Khanates of Kazan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrakhan_Khanate" title="Astrakhan Khanate">Astrakhan</a> routinely made raids on Russian principalities for slaves and to plunder towns. Russian chronicles record about 40 raids by <a href="/wiki/List_of_Kazan_khans" title="List of Kazan khans">Kazan Khans</a> on the Russian territories in the first half of the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Annals_13_327-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Annals_13-327"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>327<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1441 <a href="/wiki/Haci_I_Giray" class="mw-redirect" title="Haci I Giray">Haci I Giray</a> declared independence from the Golden Horde and established the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-328" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-328"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>328<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">an extensive slave-trade</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and the Middle East. In a process called the "harvesting of the <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppe</a>" they enslaved many Slavic peasants. Muscovy recorded about 30 major <a href="/wiki/Tatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tatar">Tatar</a> raids into <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Muscovite</a> territories between 1558 and 1596.<sup id="cite_ref-Inalcik_329-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inalcik-329"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>329<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moscow was repeatedly a target.<sup id="cite_ref-330" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-330"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>330<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1521, the combined forces of Crimean Khan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_I_Giray" title="Mehmed I Giray">Mehmed Giray</a> and his Kazan allies attacked the city and captured thousands of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-331" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-331"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>331<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1571, the Crimean Tatars attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin and taking thousands of captives as slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-332" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-332"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>332<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, about 75% of the population consisted of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica-24157_333-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-24157-333"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>333<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Vikings_and_Scandinavia">The Vikings and Scandinavia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: The Vikings and Scandinavia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> era beginning circa 793, the <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a> raiders often captured and enslaved militarily weaker peoples they encountered. The <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a> called their slaves <i><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">thralls</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>: <i>Þræll</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-vikings_301-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vikings-301"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>301<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The thralls were mostly from Western Europe, among them many <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>, and both <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britonnic Celts</a>. Many Irish slaves travelled in expeditions for the colonization of <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-334" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-334"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>334<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Norse also took German, Baltic, Slavic and Latin slaves. The slave trade was one of the pillars of Norse commerce during the 9th through 11th centuries. The 10th-century Persian traveller <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rustah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Rustah">Ibn Rustah</a> described how Swedish Vikings, the <a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus</a>, terrorized and enslaved the <a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">Slavs</a> taken in their raids along the Volga River and sold them to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Samanid_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanid slave trade">Samanid slave trade</a>. The thrall system was finally abolished in the mid-14th century in Scandinavia.<sup id="cite_ref-335" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-335"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>335<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Modern_history">Early Modern history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Early Modern history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG/170px-Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG/255px-Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG/340px-Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>One of the four chained slaves depicted at the bottom of the 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Monument_of_the_Four_Moors" title="Monument of the Four Moors">Monument of the Four Moors</a> in <a href="/wiki/Livorno" title="Livorno">Livorno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> powers frequently sentenced convicted criminals to row in the war-<a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galleys</a> of the state (initially only in time of war).<sup id="cite_ref-336" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-336"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>336<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Fontainebleau" title="Edict of Fontainebleau">revocation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a> in 1685 and <a href="/wiki/Camisard" class="mw-redirect" title="Camisard">Camisard rebellion</a>, the French Crown filled its galleys with French <a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a>, Protestants condemned for resisting the state.<sup id="cite_ref-337" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-337"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>337<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Galley-slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Galley-slaves">Galley-slaves</a> lived and worked in such harsh conditions that many did not survive their terms of sentence, even if they survived <a href="/wiki/Shipwreck" title="Shipwreck">shipwreck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">slaughter</a> or torture at the hands of enemies or of pirates.<sup id="cite_ref-338" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-338"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>338<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Naval forces</a> often turned 'infidel' <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoners-of-war</a> into galley-slaves. Several well-known historical figures served time as galley slaves after being captured by the enemy—the Ottoman corsair and admiral <a href="/wiki/Turgut_Reis" class="mw-redirect" title="Turgut Reis">Turgut Reis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Knights Hospitaller</a> Grand Master <a href="/wiki/Jean_Parisot_de_la_Valette" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Parisot de la Valette">Jean Parisot de la Valette</a> among them.<sup id="cite_ref-339" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-339"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>339<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Denmark-Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Denmark-Norway">Denmark-Norway</a> was the first European country to ban the slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-340" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-340"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>340<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This happened with a decree issued by King <a href="/wiki/Christian_VII_of_Denmark" title="Christian VII of Denmark">Christian VII of Denmark</a> in 1792, to become fully effective by 1803. Slavery as an institution was not banned until 1848. At this time <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> was a part of <a href="/wiki/Denmark-Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Denmark-Norway">Denmark-Norway</a> but slave trading had been abolished in Iceland in 1117 and had never been reestablished.<sup id="cite_ref-341" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-341"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>341<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery in the <a href="/wiki/French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="French Republic">French Republic</a> was abolished on 4 February 1794, including in its colonies. The lengthy <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a> by its slaves and <a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">free people of color</a> established <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> as a free republic in 1804 ruled by blacks, the first of its kind.<sup id="cite_ref-Haiti_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haiti-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time of the revolution, Haiti was known as <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> and was a colony of France.<sup id="cite_ref-342" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-342"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>342<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> gave up on Haiti in 1803, but reestablished slavery in Guadeloupe and Martinique in 1804, at the request of <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">planters</a> of the Caribbean colonies. Slavery was permanently abolished in the <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French empire</a> during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-343" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-343"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>343<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Portugal">Portugal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Slavery in Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Portugal" title="Economic history of Portugal">Economic history of Portugal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:African_man_portrait_Mostaert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/African_man_portrait_Mostaert.jpg/170px-African_man_portrait_Mostaert.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/African_man_portrait_Mostaert.jpg/255px-African_man_portrait_Mostaert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/African_man_portrait_Mostaert.jpg/340px-African_man_portrait_Mostaert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4792" data-file-height="7084" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_an_African_Man" title="Portrait of an African Man">Portrait of an African Man</a></i>, c. 1525–1530. The insignia on his hat alludes to possible Spanish or Portuguese origins.</figcaption></figure> <p>The 15th-century <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_people" title="Portuguese people">Portuguese</a> exploration of the African coast is commonly regarded as the harbinger of European colonialism. In 1452, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V" title="Pope Nicholas V">Pope Nicholas V</a> issued the <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> <a href="/wiki/Dum_Diversas" title="Dum Diversas">Dum Diversas</a>, granting <a href="/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Portugal" title="Afonso V of Portugal">Afonso V of Portugal</a> the right to reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to hereditary slavery which legitimized slave trade under Catholic beliefs of that time. This approval of slavery was reaffirmed and extended in his <a href="/wiki/Romanus_Pontifex" title="Romanus Pontifex">Romanus Pontifex</a> bull of 1455. These papal bulls came to serve as a justification for the subsequent era of the slave trade and European <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, although for a short period as in 1462 Pius II declared slavery to be "a great crime".<sup id="cite_ref-Catholic_344-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catholic-344"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>344<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike Portugal, <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> nations did not use the papal bull as a justification for their involvement in the slave trade. The position of the church was to condemn the slavery of Christians, but slavery was regarded as an old established and necessary institution which supplied Europe with the necessary workforce. In the 16th century, African slaves had replaced almost all other ethnicities and religious enslaved groups in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_345-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-345"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>345<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the Portuguese territory of Brazil, and even beyond its original borders, the enslavement of Native Americans was carried out by the <a href="/wiki/Bandeirantes" title="Bandeirantes">Bandeirantes</a>. </p><p>Among many other European slave markets, <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> were some well-known markets, their importance and demand growing after the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Plague">great plague</a> of the 14th century which decimated much of the European workforce.<sup id="cite_ref-346" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-346"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>346<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The maritime town of <a href="/wiki/Lagos,_Portugal" title="Lagos, Portugal">Lagos, Portugal</a>, was the first slave market created in Portugal for the sale of imported African slaves, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mercado_de_Escravos" title="Mercado de Escravos">Mercado de Escravos</a></i>, which opened in 1444.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodman_347-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodman-347"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>347<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Oliveira_348-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliveira-348"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>348<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1441, the first slaves were brought to Portugal from northern <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliveira_348-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliveira-348"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>348<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prince <a href="/wiki/Henry_the_Navigator" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry the Navigator">Henry the Navigator</a>, major sponsor of the Portuguese African expeditions, as of any other merchandise, taxed one fifth of the selling price of the slaves imported to Portugal.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliveira_348-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliveira-348"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>348<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the year 1552 African slaves made up 10 percent of the population of <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-349" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-349"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>349<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-350" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-350"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>350<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the second half of the 16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade and the focus of European trade in African slaves shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas—in the case of Portugal, especially <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliveira_348-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliveira-348"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>348<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 15th century, one-third of the slaves were resold to the African market in exchange of gold.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_345-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-345"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>345<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Importation of black slaves was prohibited in mainland Portugal and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a> in 1761, but slavery continued in Portuguese overseas colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_351-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-351"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>351<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, was stimulated the trade of black slaves ("the pieces", in the terms of that time) to Brazil and two companies were founded, with the support and direct involvement of the Marquis of Pombal - the <i>Company of Grão-Pará and Maranhão</i> and the <i>General Company of Pernambuco and Paraíba</i> - whose main activity was precisely the trafficking of slaves, mostly black Africans, to Brazilian lands.<sup id="cite_ref-352" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-352"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>352<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_351-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-351"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>351<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery was finally abolished in all Portuguese colonies in 1869. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spain">Spain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Slavery in Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_ladino" title="Black ladino">Black ladino</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Asiento" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiento">Asiento</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capture_of_Tunis_1535_liberation_of_20000_Christian_captives.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Capture_of_Tunis_1535_liberation_of_20000_Christian_captives.jpg/220px-Capture_of_Tunis_1535_liberation_of_20000_Christian_captives.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Capture_of_Tunis_1535_liberation_of_20000_Christian_captives.jpg/330px-Capture_of_Tunis_1535_liberation_of_20000_Christian_captives.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Capture_of_Tunis_1535_liberation_of_20000_Christian_captives.jpg/440px-Capture_of_Tunis_1535_liberation_of_20000_Christian_captives.jpg 2x" data-file-width="806" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Charles V</a> <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">captured Tunis in 1535</a>, liberating 20,000 Christian slaves</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Spaniards</a> were the first Europeans to use African slaves in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> on islands such as <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>, due to a shortage of labor caused by the spread of diseases, and so the Spanish colonists gradually became involved in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>. The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501;<sup id="cite_ref-353" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-353"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>353<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by 1517, the natives had been "virtually annihilated" mostly to diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-354" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-354"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>354<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem of the justness of Native American's slavery was a key issue for the Spanish Crown. It was <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> who gave a definite answer to this complicated and delicate matter. To that end, on 25 November 1542, the Emperor abolished slavery by decree in his <a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">Leyes Nuevas</a>. This bill was based on the arguments given by the best Spanish theologists and jurists who were unanimous in the condemnation of such slavery as unjust; they declared it illegitimate and outlawed it from America—not just the slavery of Spaniards over Natives—but also the type of slavery practiced among the Natives themselves<sup id="cite_ref-355" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-355"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>355<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, Spain became the first country to officially abolish slavery. </p><p>However, in the <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Spanish colonies of Cuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, where sugarcane production was highly profitable based on slave labor, African slavery persisted until 1873 in Puerto Rico "with provisions for periods of apprenticeship",<sup id="cite_ref-356" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-356"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>356<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1886 in Cuba.<sup id="cite_ref-357" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-357"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>357<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Dutch_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Dutch slavery">History of Dutch slavery</a></div> <p>Although slavery was illegal inside the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a> it flourished throughout the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch Empire</a> in the Americas, Africa, Ceylon and Indonesia.<sup id="cite_ref-358" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-358"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>358<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <b>Dutch Slave Coast</b> (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i>Slavenkust</i>) referred to the trading posts of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a>, which lie in contemporary <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>. Initially the Dutch shipped slaves to <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Brazil" title="Dutch Brazil">Dutch Brazil</a>, and during the second half of the 17th century they had a controlling interest in the trade to the Spanish colonies. Today's Suriname and Guyana became prominent markets in the 18th century. Between 1612 and 1872, the Dutch operated from some 10 fortresses along the Gold Coast (now Ghana), from which slaves were shipped across the Atlantic. Dutch involvement on the Slave Coast increased with the establishment of a trading post in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Offra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Offra (page does not exist)">Offra</a> in 1660. <a href="/wiki/Willem_Bosman" title="Willem Bosman">Willem Bosman</a> writes in his <i>Nauwkeurige beschrijving van de Guinese Goud- Tand- en Slavekust</i> (1703) that <a href="/wiki/Allada" title="Allada">Allada</a> was also called Grand Ardra, being the larger cousin of Little Ardra, also known as Offra. From 1660 onward, Dutch presence in Allada and especially Offra became more permanent.<sup id="cite_ref-AMH-Allada_359-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AMH-Allada-359"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>359<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A report from this year asserts Dutch trading posts, apart from Allada and Offra, in <a href="/wiki/Benin_City" title="Benin City">Benin City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand-Popo" title="Grand-Popo">Grand-Popo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Savi" title="Savi">Savi</a>. </p><p>The Offra trading post soon became the most important Dutch office on the Slave Coast. According to a 1670 report, annually 2,500 to 3,000 slaves were transported from Offra to the Americas. These numbers were only feasible in times of peace, however, and dwindled in time of conflict. From 1688 onward, the struggle between the <a href="/wiki/Aja_people" title="Aja people">Aja</a> king of Allada and the peoples on the coastal regions, impeded the supply of slaves. The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a> chose the side of the Aja king, causing the Offra office to be destroyed by opposing forces in 1692. By 1650 the Dutch had the pre-eminent slave trade in Europe and South East Asia. Later, trade shifted to <a href="/wiki/Ouidah" title="Ouidah">Ouidah</a>. On the instigation of Governor-General of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Gold_Coast" title="Dutch Gold Coast">Dutch Gold Coast</a> Willem de la Palma, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacob_van_den_Broucke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jacob van den Broucke (page does not exist)">Jacob van den Broucke</a> was sent in 1703 as "opperkommies" (head merchant) to the Dutch trading post at <a href="/wiki/Ouidah" title="Ouidah">Ouidah</a>, which according to sources was established around 1670.<sup id="cite_ref-AMH-Ouidah_360-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AMH-Ouidah-360"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>360<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Delepeleire3c2_361-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delepeleire3c2-361"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>361<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political unrest caused the Dutch to abandon their trading post at Ouidah in 1725, and they then moved to <a href="/wiki/Jaquim" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaquim">Jaquim</a>, at which place they built <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fort_Zeelandia_(Benin)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fort Zeelandia (Benin) (page does not exist)">Fort Zeelandia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-362" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-362"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>362<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The head of the post, Hendrik Hertog, had a reputation for being a successful slave trader. In an attempt to extend his trading area, Hertog negotiated with local tribes and mingled in local political struggles. He sided with the wrong party, however, leading to a conflict with Director-General <a href="/wiki/Jan_Pranger" title="Jan Pranger">Jan Pranger</a> and to his exile to the island of Appa in 1732. The Dutch trading post on this island was extended as the new centre of the slave trade. In 1733, Hertog returned to Jaquim, this time extending the trading post into <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fort_Zeelandia_(Benin)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fort Zeelandia (Benin) (page does not exist)">Fort Zeelandia</a>. The revival of the slave trade at Jaquim was only temporary, however, as his superiors at the Dutch West India Company noticed that Hertog's slaves were more expensive than at the Gold Coast. From 1735, Elmina became the preferred spot to trade slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-AMH-Jaquim_363-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AMH-Jaquim-363"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>363<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 1778, it was estimated that the Dutch were shipping approximately 6,000 Africans for enslavement in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch West Indies">Dutch West Indies</a> each year.<sup id="cite_ref-Kitchin1_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitchin1-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery also characterised the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch possessions in Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Ceylon" title="Dutch Ceylon">Ceylon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">South Africa</a>, where Indonesians have made a significant contribution to the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Coloured" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Coloured">Cape Coloured</a> population of that country. The Dutch part in the Atlantic slave trade is estimated at 5–7 percent, as they shipped about 550,000–600,000 African slaves across the Atlantic, about 75,000 of whom died on board before reaching their destinations. From 1596 to 1829, the Dutch traders sold 250,000 slaves in the <a href="/wiki/Surinam_(Dutch_colony)" title="Surinam (Dutch colony)">Dutch Guianas</a>, 142,000 in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Caribbean" title="Dutch Caribbean">Dutch Caribbean</a>, and 28,000 in Dutch Brazil.<sup id="cite_ref-364" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-364"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>364<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, tens of thousands of slaves, mostly from India and some from Africa, were carried to the Dutch East Indies.<sup id="cite_ref-365" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-365"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>365<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Netherlands abolished slavery in 1863. Although the decision was made in 1848, it took many years for the law to be implemented. Furthermore, slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Barbary_corsairs">Barbary corsairs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Barbary corsairs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa,_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_(p.12,_February_1859,_XVI)_-_Copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg/220px-Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg/330px-Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg/440px-Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="913" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p. 12, February 1859, XVI)<sup id="cite_ref-Offering1859_366-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Offering1859-366"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>366<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Barbary_Corsairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary Corsairs">Barbary Corsairs</a> continued to trade in European slaves into the Modern time-period.<sup id="cite_ref-muslim_317-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-muslim-317"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muslim pirates, primarily <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algerians</a> with the support of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, raided European coasts and shipping from the 16th to the 19th centuries, and took thousands of captives, whom they sold or enslaved. Many were held for ransom, and European communities raised funds such as Malta's <a href="/wiki/Monte_della_Redenzione_degli_Schiavi" title="Monte della Redenzione degli Schiavi">Monte della Redenzione degli Schiavi</a> to buy back their citizens. The raids gradually ended with the naval decline of the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th and 17th <a href="/wiki/Centuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuries">centuries</a>, as well as the European conquest of North Africa throughout the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-muslim_317-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-muslim-317"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates. 160 English ships were captured by Algerians between 1677 and 1680.<sup id="cite_ref-British_Slaves_on_the_Barbary_Coast_367-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_Slaves_on_the_Barbary_Coast-367"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>367<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the captured sailors were made into slaves and held for ransom. The corsairs were no strangers to the South West of England where raids were known in a number of coastal communities. In 1627 <a href="/wiki/Barbary_Pirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary Pirates">Barbary Pirates</a> under command of the Dutch renegade <a href="/wiki/Jan_Janszoon" title="Jan Janszoon">Jan Janszoon</a> (Murat Reis), operating from the Moroccan port of <a href="/wiki/Sal%C3%A9" title="Salé">Salé</a>, occupied the island of <a href="/wiki/Lundy" title="Lundy">Lundy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-368" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-368"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>368<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time there were reports of captured slaves being sent to Algiers.<sup id="cite_ref-369" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-369"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>369<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-370" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-370"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>370<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ireland, despite its northern position, was not immune from attacks by the corsairs. In June 1631 <a href="/wiki/Jan_Janszoon" title="Jan Janszoon">Janszoon</a>, with pirates from <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> and armed troops of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, stormed ashore at the little harbor village of <a href="/wiki/Baltimore,_County_Cork" title="Baltimore, County Cork">Baltimore, County Cork</a>. They <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">captured almost all the villagers</a> and took them away to a life of slavery in North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_371-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-371"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>371<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prisoners were destined for a variety of fates—some lived out their days chained to the oars as galley slaves, while others would spend long years in the scented seclusion of the harem or within the walls of the sultan's palace. Only two of them ever saw Ireland again. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> (1814–15), which ended the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, led to increased European consensus on the need to end <a href="/wiki/Barbary_Pirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary Pirates">Barbary</a> raiding.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_371-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-371"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>371<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sacking of <a href="/wiki/Palma,_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Palma, Sardinia">Palma</a> on the island of <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> by a Tunisian squadron, which carried off 158 inhabitants, roused widespread indignation. Britain had by this time banned the slave trade and was seeking to induce other countries to do likewise. States that were more vulnerable to the corsairs complained that Britain cared more for ending the trade in <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">African slaves</a> than stopping the enslavement of Europeans and Americans by the Barbary States. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sm_Bombardment_of_Algiers,_August_1816-Luny.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Sm_Bombardment_of_Algiers%2C_August_1816-Luny.jpg/220px-Sm_Bombardment_of_Algiers%2C_August_1816-Luny.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Sm_Bombardment_of_Algiers%2C_August_1816-Luny.jpg/330px-Sm_Bombardment_of_Algiers%2C_August_1816-Luny.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Sm_Bombardment_of_Algiers%2C_August_1816-Luny.jpg/440px-Sm_Bombardment_of_Algiers%2C_August_1816-Luny.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1320" /></a><figcaption><i>Bombardment of Algiers by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Exmouth" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Exmouth">Lord Exmouth</a> in August 1816</i>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Luny" title="Thomas Luny">Thomas Luny</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In order to neutralise this objection and further the anti-slavery campaign, in 1816 Britain sent <a href="/wiki/Edward_Pellew,_1st_Viscount_Exmouth" title="Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth">Lord Exmouth</a> to secure new concessions from <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Tripolitania" title="Ottoman Tripolitania">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beylik_of_Tunis" title="Beylik of Tunis">Tunis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Algeria">Algiers</a>, including a pledge to treat Christian captives in any future conflict as <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a> rather than slaves. He imposed peace between Algiers and the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Piedmont-Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Piedmont-Sardinia">Sardinia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Sicily</a>. On his first visit, Lord Exmouth negotiated satisfactory treaties and sailed for home. While he was negotiating, a number of Sardinian fishermen who had settled at <a href="/wiki/Annaba" title="Annaba">Bona</a> on the Tunisian coast were brutally treated without his knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_371-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-371"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>371<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Sardinians they were technically under British protection, and the government sent Exmouth back to secure reparation. On 17 August, in combination with a Dutch squadron under Admiral Van de Capellen, Exmouth <a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1816)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1816)">bombarded Algiers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_371-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-371"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>371<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Algiers and Tunis made fresh concessions as a result. </p><p>The Barbary states had difficulty securing uniform compliance with a total prohibition of slave-raiding, as this had been traditionally of central importance to the North African economy. Slavers continued to take captives by preying on less well-protected peoples. Algiers subsequently renewed its slave-raiding, though on a smaller scale.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_371-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-371"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>371<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Europeans at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_(1818)" title="Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)">Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle</a> in 1818 discussed possible retaliation. In 1820 a British fleet under Admiral Sir Harry Neal bombarded Algiers. Corsair activity based in Algiers did not entirely cease until France <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria#French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French Algeria">conquered the state in 1830</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_371-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-371"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>371<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crimean_Khanate">Crimean Khanate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Crimean Khanate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Crimean-Nogai_raids_into_East_Slavic_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands">Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman slave trade">Ottoman slave trade</a></div> <p>The Crimeans frequently mounted raids into the <a href="/wiki/Danubian_principalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Danubian principalities">Danubian principalities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Poland-Lithuania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Muscovy</a> to enslave people whom they could capture; for each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. These campaigns by Crimean forces were either <i>sefers</i> ("sojourns" – officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves), or <i>çapuls</i> ("despoiling" – raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers). </p><p>For a long time, until the early 18th century, the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a> maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland-Lithuania over the period 1500–1700.<sup id="cite_ref-372" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-372"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>372<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Caffa" class="mw-redirect" title="Caffa">Caffa</a> (modern Feodosia) became one of the best-known and significant trading ports and slave markets.<sup id="cite_ref-373" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-373"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>373<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1769 the last major Tatar raid saw the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-slave_trade_374-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-slave_trade-374"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>374<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Author and historian <a href="/wiki/Brian_Glyn_Williams" title="Brian Glyn Williams">Brian Glyn Williams</a> writes: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> Fisher estimates that in the sixteenth century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost around 20,000 individuals a year and that from 1474 to 1694, as many as a million Commonwealth citizens were carried off into Crimean slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-375" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-375"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>375<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Early modern sources are full of descriptions of sufferings of Christian slaves captured by the Crimean Tatars in the course of their raids: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It seems that the position and everyday conditions of a slave depended largely on his/her owner. Some slaves indeed could spend the rest of their days doing exhausting labor: as the Crimean <i>vizir</i> (minister) Sefer Gazi Aga mentions in one of his letters, the slaves were often "a plough and a scythe" of their owners. Most terrible, perhaps, was the fate of those who became <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galley</a>-slaves, whose sufferings were poeticized in many Ukrainian <i>dumas</i> (songs). ... Both female and male slaves were often used for sexual purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-slave_trade_374-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-slave_trade-374"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>374<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_slave_trade">British slave trade</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: British slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petition-slavery-1826.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Petition-slavery-1826.jpg/220px-Petition-slavery-1826.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Petition-slavery-1826.jpg/330px-Petition-slavery-1826.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Petition-slavery-1826.jpg/440px-Petition-slavery-1826.jpg 2x" data-file-width="623" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption>Illustration from the book: <i>The Black Man's Lament, or, how to make sugar</i> by <a href="/wiki/Amelia_Opie" title="Amelia Opie">Amelia Opie</a>. (London, 1826)</figcaption></figure> <p>Britain played a prominent role in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>, especially after 1640, when sugar cane was introduced to the region. At first, most were white Britons, or Irish, enslaved as indentured labour – for a fixed period – in the West Indies. These people may have been criminals, political rebels, the poor with no prospects or others who were simply tricked or kidnapped. Slavery was a legal institution in all of the 13 <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">American colonies</a> and Canada (acquired by Britain in 1763). The profits of the slave trade and of <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indian</a> plantations amounted to under 5% of the <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of Britain">British economy</a> at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-376" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-376"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>376<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A little-known incident in the career of <a href="/wiki/Judge_Jeffreys" class="mw-redirect" title="Judge Jeffreys">Judge Jeffreys</a> refers to an <a href="/wiki/Assize" class="mw-redirect" title="Assize">assize</a> in Bristol in 1685 when he made the mayor of the city, then sitting fully robed beside him on the bench, go into the dock and be fined £1000 for being a "kidnapping knave"; some Bristol traders at the time were known to kidnap their own countrymen and ship them away as slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-377" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-377"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>377<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Somersett%27s_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Somersett's case">Somersett's case</a> in 1772 was generally taken at the time to have decided that the condition of slavery did not exist under <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> in England. In 1785, English poet <a href="/wiki/William_Cowper" title="William Cowper">William Cowper</a> wrote: "We have no slaves at home – Then why abroad? Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free. They touch our country, and their shackles fall. That's noble, and bespeaks a nation proud. And jealous of the blessing. Spread it then, And let it circulate through every vein."<sup id="cite_ref-378" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-378"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>378<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decision proved to be a milestone in the British abolitionist movement, though slavery was not abolished in the British Empire until the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">1833 Slavery Abolition Act</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-379" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-379"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>379<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1807, following many years of lobbying by the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">abolitionist movement</a>, led primarily by <a href="/wiki/William_Wilberforce" title="William Wilberforce">William Wilberforce</a>, the <a href="/wiki/British_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="British Parliament">British Parliament</a> voted to make the slave trade illegal anywhere in the Empire with the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">Slave Trade Act 1807</a>. Thereafter Britain took a prominent role in combating the trade, and slavery itself was abolished in the British Empire (except for India) with the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">Slavery Abolition Act 1833</a>. Between 1808 and 1860, the <a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">West Africa Squadron</a> seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.<sup id="cite_ref-380" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-380"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>380<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade. <a href="/wiki/Akitoye" title="Akitoye">Akitoye</a>, the 11th <a href="/wiki/Oba_of_Lagos" title="Oba of Lagos">Oba of Lagos</a>, is famous for having used British involvement to regain his rule in return for suppressing slavery among the Yoruba people of Lagos in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-381" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-381"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>381<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1839, the world's oldest international human rights organization, <a href="/wiki/British_and_Foreign_Anti-Slavery_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society">British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society</a> (now Anti-Slavery International), was formed in Britain as by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Sturge" title="Joseph Sturge">Joseph Sturge</a>, which worked to outlaw slavery in other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-382" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-382"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>382<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After 1833, the freed African slaves declined employment in the cane fields. This led to the importation of indentured labour again – mainly from India, and also China. </p><p>In 1811, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_William_Hodge" title="Arthur William Hodge">Arthur William Hodge</a> was executed for the murder of a slave in the <a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a>. He was not, however, as some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2017)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> have claimed, the first white person to have been <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">lawfully executed</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a> of a slave.<sup id="cite_ref-383" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-383"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>383<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-384" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-384"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>384<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Modern_history">Late Modern history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Late Modern history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Germany">Germany</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Forced labour under German rule during World War II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E10855,_Polen,_Juden_zur_Zwangsarbeit_befohlen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E10855%2C_Polen%2C_Juden_zur_Zwangsarbeit_befohlen.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E10855%2C_Polen%2C_Juden_zur_Zwangsarbeit_befohlen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E10855%2C_Polen%2C_Juden_zur_Zwangsarbeit_befohlen.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E10855%2C_Polen%2C_Juden_zur_Zwangsarbeit_befohlen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E10855%2C_Polen%2C_Juden_zur_Zwangsarbeit_befohlen.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E10855%2C_Polen%2C_Juden_zur_Zwangsarbeit_befohlen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Polish_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Jew">Polish Jews</a> are lined up by German soldiers to do forced labour, September 1939, <a href="/wiki/German-occupied_Poland" title="German-occupied Poland">German-occupied Poland</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-185-0112-12,_Belgrad,_Erfassung_von_Juden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-185-0112-12%2C_Belgrad%2C_Erfassung_von_Juden.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-185-0112-12%2C_Belgrad%2C_Erfassung_von_Juden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-185-0112-12%2C_Belgrad%2C_Erfassung_von_Juden.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-185-0112-12%2C_Belgrad%2C_Erfassung_von_Juden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-185-0112-12%2C_Belgrad%2C_Erfassung_von_Juden.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-185-0112-12%2C_Belgrad%2C_Erfassung_von_Juden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>Registration of <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a> by Nazis for forced labor, 1941</figcaption></figure> <p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> operated several categories of <i><a href="/wiki/Arbeitslager" title="Arbeitslager">Arbeitslager</a></i> (Labor Camps) for different categories of inmates. The largest number of them held <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Polish</a> gentiles and <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> civilians forcibly abducted in occupied countries (see <a href="/wiki/%C5%81apanka" title="Łapanka">Łapanka</a>) to provide labor in the German war industry, repair bombed railroads and bridges or work on farms. By 1944, 20% of all workers were foreigners, either civilians or <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-385" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-385"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>385<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-386" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-386"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>386<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-387" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-387"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>387<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-388" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-388"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>388<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Allied_powers">Allied powers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Allied powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_of_Germans_after_World_War_II" title="Forced labor of Germans after World War II">Forced labor of Germans after World War II</a></div> <p>As agreed by the Allies at the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Yalta conference">Yalta conference</a>, Germans were used as <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor">forced labor</a> as part of the reparations to be extracted. By 1947, it is estimated that 400,000 Germans (both civilians and <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a>) were being used as forced labor by the U.S., France, the UK and the Soviet Union. German prisoners were for example forced to clear minefields in France and the Low Countries. By December 1945, it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or injured each month in accidents.<sup id="cite_ref-389" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-389"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>389<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Norway the last available casualty record, from 29 August 1945, shows that by that time a total of 275 German soldiers died while clearing mines, while 392 had been injured.<sup id="cite_ref-390" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-390"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>390<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> and <a href="/wiki/POW_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="POW labor in the Soviet Union">POW labor in the Soviet Union</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> took over the already extensive <a href="/wiki/Katorga" title="Katorga">katorga</a> system and expanded it immensely, eventually organizing the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> to run the camps. In 1954, a year after Stalin's death, the new Soviet government of <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> began to release political prisoners and close down the camps. By the end of the 1950s, virtually all "corrective labor camps" were reorganized, mostly into the system of <a href="/wiki/Corrective_labor_colony" title="Corrective labor colony">corrective labor colonies</a>. Officially, the Gulag was terminated by the <a href="/wiki/MVD" class="mw-redirect" title="MVD">MVD</a> order 20 25 January 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-memo_391-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-memo-391"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>391<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (October 2015)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the period of <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> labor camps in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> were officially called "Corrective labor camps." The term "labor colony"; more exactly, "Corrective labor colony", (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">исправительно-трудовая колония</span>, abbr. <i>ИТК</i>), was also in use, most notably the ones for underaged (16 years or younger) convicts and captured <i><a href="/wiki/Besprizorniki" class="mw-redirect" title="Besprizorniki">besprizorniki</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Street_children" title="Street children">street children</a>, literally, "children without family care"). After the reformation of the camps into the Gulag, the term "corrective labor colony" essentially encompassed labor camps<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>A total of around 14 million prisoners passed through the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> labor camps.<sup id="cite_ref-392" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-392"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>392<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oceania">Oceania</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Oceania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></div> <p>In the first half of the 19th century, small-scale slave raids took place across <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a> to supply labor and <a href="/wiki/Sex_workers" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex workers">sex workers</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">whaling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seal_hunting" title="Seal hunting">sealing</a> trades, with examples from both the westerly and easterly extremes of the <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Polynesian triangle">Polynesian triangle</a>. By the 1860s this had grown to a larger scale operation with <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peruvian</a> slave raids in the <a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="South Sea Islands">South Sea Islands</a> to collect labor for the <a href="/wiki/Guano" title="Guano">guano</a> industry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hawaii">Hawaii</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Hawaii"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hawaii" title="Ancient Hawaii">Ancient Hawaii</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste society</a>. People were born into specific social classes. <b>Kauwa</b> were those of the outcast or slave class. They are believed to have been war captives or their descendants. Marriage between higher castes and the kauwa was strictly forbidden. The kauwa worked for the chiefs and were often used as <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifices</a> at the <i><a href="/wiki/Luakini" title="Luakini">luakini</a> heiau</i>. (They were not the only sacrifices; law-breakers of all castes or defeated political opponents were also acceptable as victims.)<sup id="cite_ref-393" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-393"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>393<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Kapu_(Hawaiian_culture)" title="Kapu (Hawaiian culture)">kapu</a> system was abolished during the <a href="/wiki/%CA%BBAi_Noa" title="ʻAi Noa">ʻAi Noa</a> in 1819, and with it the distinction between the kauwā slave class and the makaʻāinana (commoners).<sup id="cite_ref-394" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-394"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>394<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/1852_Constitution_of_the_Kingdom_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="1852 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii">1852 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii</a> officially made slavery illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-WongRayson1987_395-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WongRayson1987-395"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>395<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the arrival of <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81keh%C4%81_settlers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pākehā settlers">European settlers</a>, New Zealand comprised many individual <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polities</a>, with each <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> tribe (<i><a href="/wiki/Iwi" title="Iwi">iwi</a></i>) a separate entity equivalent to a nation. In the traditional Māori society of <a href="/wiki/Aotearoa" title="Aotearoa">Aotearoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a> became <i>taurekareka</i>, slaves – unless released, ransomed or eaten.<sup id="cite_ref-396" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-396"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>396<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With some exceptions, the child of a slave remained a slave. </p><p>As far as it is possible to tell, slavery seems to have increased in the early-19th century with increased numbers of prisoners being taken by Māori military leaders (such as <a href="/wiki/Hongi_Hika" title="Hongi Hika">Hongi Hika</a> and <a href="/wiki/Te_Rauparaha" title="Te Rauparaha">Te Rauparaha</a>) to satisfy the need for labor in the <a href="/wiki/Musket_Wars" title="Musket Wars">Musket Wars</a>, to supply whalers and traders with food, flax and timber in return for western goods. The intertribal Musket Wars lasted from 1807 to 1843; northern tribes who had acquired muskets captured large numbers of slaves. About 20,000 Māori died in the wars. An unknown number of slaves were captured. Northern tribes used slaves (called <i>mokai</i>) to grow large areas of potatoes for trade with visiting ships. Chiefs started an extensive <a href="/wiki/Sex_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex trade">sex trade</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Islands" title="Bay of Islands">Bay of Islands</a> in the 1830s, using mainly slave girls. By 1835 about 70 to 80 ships per year called into the port. One French captain described the impossibility of getting rid of the girls who swarmed over his ship, outnumbering his crew of 70 by 3 to 1. All payments to the girls were stolen by the chief.<sup id="cite_ref-397" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-397"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>397<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1833 Christianity had become established in the north of New Zealand, and large numbers of slaves were freed. </p><p>Slavery was outlawed in 1840 via the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Treaty of Waitangi">Treaty of Waitangi</a>, although it did not end completely until government was effectively extended over the whole of the country with the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_King_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Māori King Movement">King movement</a> in the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Wars" title="New Zealand Wars">Wars of the mid-1860s</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chatham_Islands">Chatham Islands</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Chatham Islands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One group of <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesians</a> who migrated to the <a href="/wiki/Chatham_Islands" title="Chatham Islands">Chatham Islands</a> became the <a href="/wiki/Moriori_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Moriori people">Moriori</a> who developed a largely pacifist culture. It was originally speculated that they settled the Chathams direct from Polynesia, but it is now widely believed they were disaffected Māori who emigrated from the <a href="/wiki/South_Island" title="South Island">South Island of New Zealand</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-398" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-398"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>398<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-399" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-399"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>399<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-400" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-400"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>400<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-401" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-401"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>401<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a> left the Moriori unable to defend themselves when the islands were invaded by mainland Māori in the 1830s. </p><p>Two Taranaki tribes, Ngati Tama and Ngati Mutunga, displaced by the Musket Wars, carried out a carefully planned invasion of the Chatham Islands, 800 km east of <a href="/wiki/Christchurch" title="Christchurch">Christchurch</a>, in 1835. About 15% of the Polynesian Moriori natives who had migrated to the islands at about 1500 CE were killed, with many women being tortured to death. The remaining population was enslaved for the purpose of growing food, especially potatoes. The Moriori were treated in an inhumane and degrading manner for many years. Their culture was banned and they were forbidden to marry.<sup id="cite_ref-Moriori._M._King._Penguin._2003_402-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moriori._M._King._Penguin._2003-402"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>402<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some 300 Moriori men, women and children were massacred and the remaining 1,200 to 1,300 survivors were enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-403" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-403"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>403<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-404" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-404"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>404<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Māori took Moriori partners. The state of enslavement of Moriori lasted until the 1860s although it had been discouraged by <a href="/wiki/CMS_missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="CMS missionaries">CMS missionaries</a> in northern New Zealand from the late 1820s. In 1870 Ngati Mutunga, one of the invading tribes, argued before the <a href="/wiki/Native_Land_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Native Land Court">Native Land Court</a> in New Zealand that their gross mistreatment of the Moriori was standard Māori practice or <a href="/wiki/Tikanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikanga">tikanga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-405" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-405"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>405<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rapa_Nui_/_Easter_Island"><span id="Rapa_Nui_.2F_Easter_Island"></span>Rapa Nui / Easter Island</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Rapa Nui / Easter Island"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The isolated island of <a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui" class="mw-redirect" title="Rapa Nui">Rapa Nui</a>/<a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a> was inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Rapanui" class="mw-redirect" title="Rapanui">Rapanui</a>, who suffered a series of slave raids from 1805 or earlier, culminating in a near <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocidal</a> experience in the 1860s. The 1805 raid was by American sealers and was one of a series that changed the attitude of the islanders to outside visitors, with reports in the 1820s and 1830s that all visitors received a hostile reception. In December 1862, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peruvian</a> slave raiders took between 1,400 and 2,000 islanders back to Peru to work in the <a href="/wiki/Guano" title="Guano">guano</a> industry; this was about a third of the island's population and included much of the island's leadership, the last <i>ariki-mau</i> and possibly the last who could read <a href="/wiki/Rongorongo" title="Rongorongo">Rongorongo</a>. After intervention by the French ambassador in <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a>, the last 15 survivors were returned to the island, but brought with them <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, which further devastated the island. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abolitionist_movements">Abolitionist movements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Abolitionist movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slavery_abolition.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Slavery_abolition.svg/220px-Slavery_abolition.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Slavery_abolition.svg/330px-Slavery_abolition.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Slavery_abolition.svg/440px-Slavery_abolition.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption>Abolition of Slavery by country and year</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proclamation_esclavage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Proclamation_esclavage.jpg/220px-Proclamation_esclavage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Proclamation_esclavage.jpg/330px-Proclamation_esclavage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Proclamation_esclavage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Proclamation of the abolition of slavery by <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugues" title="Victor Hugues">Victor Hugues</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>, 1 November 1794</figcaption></figure> <p>Slavery has existed, in one form or another, throughout the whole of human history. So, too, have movements to free large or distinct groups of slaves. However, abolitionism should be distinguished from efforts to help a particular group of slaves, or to restrict one practice, such as the slave trade. </p><p>Drescher (2009) provides a model for the history of the abolition of slavery, emphasizing its origins in Western Europe. Around the year 1500, slavery had virtually died out in Western Europe, but was a normal phenomenon practically everywhere else. The imperial powers – the British, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch empires, and a few others – built worldwide empires based primarily on plantation agriculture using slaves imported from Africa. However, the powers took care to minimize the presence of slavery in their homelands. In 1807 Britain and soon after, the United States also, both criminalized the international slave trade. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> was increasingly effective in <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">intercepting slave ships</a>, freeing the captives and taking the crew for trial in courts. </p><p>Although there were numerous slave revolts in the Caribbean, the only successful uprising came in the French colony of Haiti in the 1790s, where the slaves rose up, killed the <a href="/wiki/Mulattoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulattoes">mulattoes</a> and whites, and established the independent Republic of Haiti. </p><p>The continuing profitability of slave-based plantations and the threats of race war slowed the development of abolition movements during the first half of the 19th century. These movements were strongest in Britain, and after 1840 in the United States. The Northern states of the United States abolished slavery, partly in response to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a>, between 1777 and 1804. Britain ended slavery in its empire in the 1830s. However, the plantation economies of the southern United States, based on cotton, and those in Brazil and Cuba, based on sugar, expanded and grew even more profitable. The bloody <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> ended slavery in the United States in 1865. The system ended in Cuba and Brazil in the 1880s because it was no longer profitable for the owners. Slavery continued to exist in Africa, where Arab slave traders raided black areas for new captives to be sold in the system. European colonial rule and diplomatic pressure slowly put an end to the trade, and eventually to the practice of slavery itself.<sup id="cite_ref-406" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-406"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>406<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain">Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">Abolitionism in the United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart" title="Somerset v Stewart">Somerset v Stewart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolition of slavery in the British Empire">Abolition of slavery in the British Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_of_the_British_West_Indies" title="Emancipation of the British West Indies">Emancipation of the British West Indies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">Slave Trade Act 1807</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Anti-Slavery_Society_Convention,_1840_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/The_Anti-Slavery_Society_Convention%2C_1840_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg/220px-The_Anti-Slavery_Society_Convention%2C_1840_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/The_Anti-Slavery_Society_Convention%2C_1840_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg/330px-The_Anti-Slavery_Society_Convention%2C_1840_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/The_Anti-Slavery_Society_Convention%2C_1840_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg/440px-The_Anti-Slavery_Society_Convention%2C_1840_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2798" /></a><figcaption>A painting of the <a href="/wiki/British_and_Foreign_Anti-Slavery_Society#History" class="mw-redirect" title="British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society">1840 Anti-Slavery Conference</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Protector_of_Slaves_Office_(Trinidad)_by_Richard_Bridgens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Protector_of_Slaves_Office_%28Trinidad%29_by_Richard_Bridgens.jpg/220px-Protector_of_Slaves_Office_%28Trinidad%29_by_Richard_Bridgens.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Protector_of_Slaves_Office_%28Trinidad%29_by_Richard_Bridgens.jpg/330px-Protector_of_Slaves_Office_%28Trinidad%29_by_Richard_Bridgens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Protector_of_Slaves_Office_%28Trinidad%29_by_Richard_Bridgens.jpg/440px-Protector_of_Slaves_Office_%28Trinidad%29_by_Richard_Bridgens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1183" /></a><figcaption><i>Protector of Slaves Office (Trinidad)</i>, Richard Bridgens, 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-407" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-407"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>407<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slave_trade_suppression" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Suppression_of_the_Slave_Trade" title="Template:Campaignbox Suppression of the Slave Trade"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Suppression_of_the_Slave_Trade" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Suppression of the Slave Trade"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Suppression_of_the_Slave_Trade" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Suppression of the Slave Trade"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slave_trade_suppression" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Slave trade suppression</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firman_of_1830" title="Firman of 1830">Firman of 1830</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_slave_trade_in_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Suppression of the slave trade in the Persian Gulf">Suppression of the slave trade in the Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firman_of_1854" class="mw-redirect" title="Firman of 1854">Firman of 1854</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firman_of_1857" class="mw-redirect" title="Firman of 1857">Firman of 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Ottoman_Convention_of_1880" title="Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1880">Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1880</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanunname_of_1889" title="Kanunname of 1889">Kanunname of 1889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Conference_Act_of_1890" title="Brussels Conference Act of 1890">Brussels Conference Act of 1890</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">West Africa Squadron (U.K.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">African Slave Trade Patrol (U.S.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Squadron" title="Africa Squadron">Africa Squadron (U.S.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_Squadron" title="Brazil Squadron">Brazil Squadron (U.S.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Naval_Division" title="Eastern Naval Division">Eastern Naval Division (Brazil)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Black_Joke_(1827)#Black_Joke_–_slaver_catcher" title="HMS Black Joke (1827)">Capture of the <i>Providentia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Black_Joke_(1827)#Black_Joke_–_slaver_catcher" title="HMS Black Joke (1827)">Capture of the <i>Presidente</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Black_Joke_(1827)#Black_Joke_–_slaver_catcher" title="HMS Black Joke (1827)">Capture of the <i>El Almirante</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Black_Joke_(1827)#Black_Joke_–_slaver_catcher" title="HMS Black Joke (1827)">Capture of the <i>Marinerito</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Veloz_Passagera" title="Capture of the Veloz Passagera">Capture of the <i>Veloz Passagera</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_brig_Brillante" title="Capture of the brig Brillante">Capture of the <i>Brillante</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_1919" title="Convention of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919">Convention of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Creole case"><i>Creole</i> case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Amistad" title="La Amistad"><i>La Amistad</i> Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunny_South_(clipper)#Capture_of_Emanuela" title="Sunny South (clipper)">Capture of the <i>Emanuela</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johanna_Expedition" title="Johanna Expedition">Bombardment of Johanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Carver_Affair" title="Mary Carver Affair"><i>Mary Carver</i> Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Barley_Incident&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward Barley Incident (page does not exist)"><i>Edward Barley</i> Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast_expedition" title="Ivory Coast expedition">Battle of Little Bereby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamerton_Treaty" title="Hamerton Treaty">Hamerton Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frere_Treaty" title="Frere Treaty">Frere Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Jeddah_(1927)" title="Treaty of Jeddah (1927)">Treaty of Jeddah (1927)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moresby_Treaty" title="Moresby Treaty">Moresby Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>In 1772, the <b><a href="/wiki/Somersett%27s_Case" class="mw-redirect" title="Somersett's Case">Somersett Case</a></b> (<i>R. v. Knowles, ex parte Somersett</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-408" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-408"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>408<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the English <a href="/wiki/Court_of_King%27s_Bench_(England)" title="Court of King's Bench (England)">Court of King's Bench</a> ruled that it was unlawful for a slave to be forcibly taken abroad. The case has since been misrepresented as finding that <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> was unlawful in England (although not elsewhere in the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>). A similar case, that of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Knight_(slave)" title="Joseph Knight (slave)">Joseph Knight</a>, took place in Scotland five years later and ruled slavery to be contrary to the law of Scotland. </p><p>Following the work of campaigners in the United Kingdom, such as <a href="/wiki/William_Wilberforce" title="William Wilberforce">William Wilberforce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Dundas,_1st_Viscount_Melville" title="Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville">Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Clarkson" title="Thomas Clarkson">Thomas Clarkson</a>, who founded the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Effecting_the_Abolition_of_the_Slave_Trade" title="Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade">Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade</a> (Abolition Society) in May 1787, the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade</a> was passed by <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> on 25 March 1807, coming into effect the following year. The act imposed a fine of £100 for every slave found aboard a British ship. The intention was to outlaw entirely the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> within the whole British Empire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The significance of the abolition of the British slave trade lay in the number of people hitherto sold and carried by British slave vessels. Britain shipped 2,532,300 Africans across the Atlantic, equalling 41% of the total transport of 6,132,900 individuals. This made the British empire the biggest slave-trade contributor in the world due to the magnitude of the empire, which made the abolition act all the more damaging to the global trade of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-409" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-409"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>409<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain used its diplomatic influence to press other nations into treaties to ban their slave trade and to give the Royal Navy the right to <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">interdict slave ships</a> sailing under their national flag.<sup id="cite_ref-410" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-410"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>410<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery Abolition Act">Slavery Abolition Act</a>, passed on 1 August 1833, outlawed slavery itself throughout the British Empire, with the exception of India. On 1 August 1834 slaves became indentured to their former owners in an apprenticeship system for six years. Full emancipation was granted ahead of schedule on 1 August 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-411" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-411"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>411<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain abolished slavery in both <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_India" title="Islam in India">Muslim</a> India with the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Slavery_Act,_1843" title="Indian Slavery Act, 1843">Indian Slavery Act, 1843</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-412" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-412"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>412<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Society_for_the_Mitigation_and_Gradual_Abolition_of_Slavery_Throughout_the_British_Dominions" class="mw-redirect" title="Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions">Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions</a> (later London Anti-slavery Society ), was founded in 1823, and existed until 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-dnb_413-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dnb-413"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>413<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Domestic slavery practised by the educated African coastal elites (as well as interior traditional rulers) in <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> was abolished in 1928. A study found practices of domestic slavery still widespread in rural areas in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-414" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-414"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>414<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-415" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-415"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>415<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/British_and_Foreign_Anti-Slavery_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society">British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society</a>, founded in 1839 and having gone several name changes since, still exists as Anti-Slavery International.<sup id="cite_ref-416" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-416"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>416<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France_2">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolitionism in France">Abolitionism in France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Role_of_Nantes_in_the_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Role of Nantes in the slave trade">Role of Nantes in the slave trade</a></div> <p>There were slaves in <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">Metropolitan France</a> (especially in trade ports such as <a href="/wiki/Nantes" title="Nantes">Nantes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a>).,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but the institution was never officially authorized there. The legal case of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Boucaux" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Boucaux">Jean Boucaux</a> in 1739 clarified the unclear legal position of possible slaves in France, and was followed by laws that established registers for slaves in mainland France, who were limited to a three-year stay, for visits or learning a trade. Unregistered "slaves" in France were regarded as free. However, slavery was of vital importance to the economy of France's <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> possessions, especially <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abolition">Abolition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Abolition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1793, influenced by the French <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a> of August 1789 and alarmed as the massive slave revolt of August 1791 that had become the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a> threatened to ally itself with the British, the <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">Revolutionary French</a> commissioners <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9ger-F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_Sonthonax" title="Léger-Félicité Sonthonax">Léger-Félicité Sonthonax</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Polverel" title="Étienne Polverel">Étienne Polverel</a> declared general emancipation to reconcile them with France. In Paris, on 4 February 1794, <a href="/wiki/Abb%C3%A9_Gr%C3%A9goire" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbé Grégoire">Abbé Grégoire</a> and the Convention ratified this action by officially abolishing slavery in all French territories outside mainland France, freeing all the slaves both for moral and security reasons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Napoleon_restores_slavery">Napoleon restores slavery</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Napoleon restores slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> came to power in 1799 and soon had grandiose plans for the French sugar colonies; to achieve them he reintroduced slavery. Napoleon's major adventure into the Caribbean—sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue (Haiti) from ex-slaves under <a href="/wiki/Toussaint_L%27Ouverture" class="mw-redirect" title="Toussaint L'Ouverture">Toussaint L'Ouverture</a> who had revolted. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore re-established slavery in Haiti and Guadeloupe, where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> for it was the slaves and their allies who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General <a href="/wiki/Charles_Leclerc_(general,_born_1772)" title="Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)">Charles Leclerc</a> fought to restore the order of the <i>ancien régime</i>. The goal of re-establishing slavery explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution. The French soldiers were unable to cope with tropical diseases, and most died of <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>. Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic.<sup id="cite_ref-417" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-417"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>417<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean Louisiana and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">sold off the huge Louisiana territory</a> to the US in 1803.<sup id="cite_ref-418" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-418"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>418<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Napoleon_and_slavery">Napoleon and slavery</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Napoleon and slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1794 slavery was abolished in the French Empire. After seizing <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> in 1798, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> issued a proclamation in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, declaring all men to be free and equal. However, the French bought males as soldiers and females as concubines. Napoleon personally opposed the abolition and restored colonial slavery in 1802, a year after the capitulation of his troops in Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-419" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-419"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>419<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Napoleon decreed the abolition of the slave trade upon his returning from <a href="/wiki/Elba" title="Elba">Elba</a> in an attempt to appease Britain. His decision was confirmed by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1815)" title="Treaty of Paris (1815)">Treaty of Paris</a> on 20 November 1815 and by order of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVIII of France">Louis XVIII</a> on 8 January 1817. However, trafficking continued despite sanctions.<sup id="cite_ref-420" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-420"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>420<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plaque_rue_Schoelcher.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Plaque_rue_Schoelcher.JPG/220px-Plaque_rue_Schoelcher.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Plaque_rue_Schoelcher.JPG/330px-Plaque_rue_Schoelcher.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Plaque_rue_Schoelcher.JPG/440px-Plaque_rue_Schoelcher.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>"Avenue Schœlcher 1804-1893", <a href="/wiki/Houilles" title="Houilles">Houilles</a> (France)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Victor_Schœlcher_and_the_1848_abolition"><span id="Victor_Sch.C5.93lcher_and_the_1848_abolition"></span>Victor Schœlcher and the 1848 abolition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Victor Schœlcher and the 1848 abolition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_France" title="End of slavery in France">End of slavery in France</a></div> <p>Slavery in the French colonies was finally abolished in 1848, three months after the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">revolution</a> against the <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a>. It was in large part the result of the tireless 18-year campaign of <a href="/wiki/Victor_Sch%C5%93lcher" title="Victor Schœlcher">Victor Schœlcher</a>. On 3 March 1848, he had been appointed under-secretary of the navy, and caused a decree to be issued by the provisional government which acknowledged the principle of the enfranchisement of the slaves through the French possessions. He also wrote the decree of 27 April 1848 in which the French government announced that slavery was abolished in all of its colonies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_2">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="End of slavery in the United States of America">End of slavery in the United States of America</a></div> <p>In 1688, four German Quakers in <a href="/wiki/Germantown,_Philadelphia,_PA" class="mw-redirect" title="Germantown, Philadelphia, PA">Germantown</a> presented a <a href="/wiki/The_1688_Germantown_Quaker_Petition_Against_Slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="The 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery">protest against the institution of slavery</a> to their local Quaker Meeting. It was ignored for 150 years but in 1844 it was rediscovered and was popularized by the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionist movement</a>. The 1688 Petition was the first American public document of its kind to protest slavery, and in addition was one of the first public documents to define universal human rights. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a>, the primary vehicle for returning black Americans to greater freedom in Africa, established the colony of <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> in 1821–23, on the premise that former American slaves would have greater freedom and equality there.<sup id="cite_ref-421" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-421"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>421<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various state colonization societies also had African colonies which were later merged with Liberia, including the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Maryland" title="Republic of Maryland">Republic of Maryland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi-in-Africa" title="Mississippi-in-Africa">Mississippi-in-Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kentucky_in_Africa" title="Kentucky in Africa">Kentucky in Africa</a>. These societies assisted in the movement of thousands of African Americans to Liberia, with ACS founder <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> stating; "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off". <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, an enthusiastic supporter of Clay, adopted his position on returning the blacks to their own land.<sup id="cite_ref-422" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-422"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>422<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slaves in the United States who escaped ownership would often make their way to the Northern United States and Canada via the "<a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>". The more famous of the African American <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionists</a> include former slaves <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>. Many more people who opposed slavery and worked for abolition were northern whites, such as <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a>. Slavery was legally abolished in 1865 by the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>. </p><p>While abolitionists agreed on the evils of slavery, there were differing opinions on what should happen after African Americans were freed. By the time of Emancipation, African-Americans were now native to the United States and did not want to leave. Most believed that their labor had made the land theirs as well as that of the whites.<sup id="cite_ref-423" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-423"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>423<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congress_of_Vienna">Congress of Vienna</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Congress of Vienna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Declaration of the Powers, on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, of 8 February 1815</i> (Which also formed <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Final_Act_of_the_Congress_of_Vienna/Act_XV" class="extiw" title="s:Final Act of the Congress of Vienna/Act XV">ACT, No. XV.</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Final_Act_of_the_Congress_of_Vienna" class="mw-redirect" title="Final Act of the Congress of Vienna">Final Act</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> of the same year) included in its first sentence the concept of the "principles of humanity and universal morality" as justification for ending a trade that was "odious in its continuance".<sup id="cite_ref-424" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-424"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>424<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twentieth_century">Twentieth century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Twentieth century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Slavery in Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Slavery in Bahrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Slavery in Kuwait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Slavery in Qatar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Slavery in Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Slavery in Yemen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Slavery in Oman</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU3097.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU3097.jpg/220px-The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU3097.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU3097.jpg/330px-The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU3097.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU3097.jpg/440px-The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU3097.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption>Liberated Russian slave workers, <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, April 1945</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 20th century the issue of slavery was addressed by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, who founded commissions to investigate and eradicate the institution of slavery and slave trade worldwide. Their efforts continued the work of the first international attempt to address the issue made by the <a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a>, which had concluded with the <a href="/wiki/Brussels_Conference_Act_of_1890" title="Brussels Conference Act of 1890">Brussels Conference Act of 1890</a>. The 1890 Act was revised by the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_1919" title="Convention of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919">Convention of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919</a>, and when the League of Nations was founded in 1920, a need was felt to revise and continue the struggle against slavery. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a> (TSC) was founded by the League in 1924, which conducted a global investigation and filed a report, and a convention was drawn up in view of hastening the total abolition of slavery and the slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-425" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-425"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>425<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a>, which was founded upon the investigation of the TSC of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, was a turning point in banning global slavery. </p><p>In 1932, the League formed the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> (CES) to review the result and enforcement of the 1926 Slavery Convention, which resulted in a new international investigation under the first permanent slavery committee, the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> (ACE).<sup id="cite_ref-426" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-426"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>426<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACE conducted a major international investigation on slavery and slave trade, inspecting all the colonial empires and the territories under their control between 1934 and 1939. </p><p>Article 4 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, adopted in 1948 by the <a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a>, explicitly banned slavery. After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, legal <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel slavery</a> was formally abolished by law in almost the entire world, with the exception of the Arabian Peninsula and some parts of Africa. Chattel slavery was still legal <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">in Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">in Yemen</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Trucial_States" title="Slavery in the Trucial States">the Trucial States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">in Oman</a>, and slaves were supplied to the Arabian Peninsula via the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>. </p><p>When the League of Nations was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN) after the end of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wilton_Wood_Greenidge" title="Charles Wilton Wood Greenidge">Charles Wilton Wood Greenidge</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a> worked for the UN to continue the investigation of global slavery conducted by the ACE of the League, and in February 1950 the Ad hoc <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee on Slavery">Committee on Slavery</a> of the United Nations was inaugurated,<sup id="cite_ref-427" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-427"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>427<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which ultimately resulted in the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-428" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-428"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>428<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_1956_Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a> was convened to outlaw and ban slavery worldwide, including <a href="/wiki/Child_slavery" title="Child slavery">child slavery</a>. In November 1962, <a href="/wiki/Faisal_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Faisal of Saudi Arabia">Faisal of Saudi Arabia</a> finally prohibited the owning of slaves in Saudi Arabia, followed by the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">slavery in Yemen</a> in 1962, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Dubai" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Dubai">slavery in Dubai</a> 1963 and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">slavery in Oman</a> in 1970. </p><p>In December 1966, the UN General Assembly adopted the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a>, which was developed from the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>. Article 4 of this international treaty bans slavery. The treaty came into force in March 1976 after it had been ratified by 35 nations. </p><p>As of November 2003, 104 nations had ratified the treaty. However, illegal forced labour involves millions of people in the 21st century, 43% for sexual exploitation and 32% for economic exploitation.<sup id="cite_ref-429" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-429"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>429<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 2004, the 22 members of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> adopted the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Charter_on_Human_Rights" title="Arab Charter on Human Rights">Arab Charter on Human Rights</a>, which incorporated the 1990 <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Declaration_on_Human_Rights_in_Islam" title="Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam">Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-430" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-430"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>430<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Human beings are born free, and no one has the right to enslave, humiliate, oppress or exploit them, and there can be no subjugation but to God the Most-High.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Article 11, Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, 1990</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Currently, the Anti-trafficking Coordination Team Initiative (ACT Team Initiative), a coordinated effort between the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">U.S. Departments of Justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Department of Homeland Security">Homeland Security</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">Labor</a>, addresses human trafficking.<sup id="cite_ref-431" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-431"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>431<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> estimates that there are 20.9 million victims of human trafficking globally, including 5.5 million children, of which 55% are women and girls.<sup id="cite_ref-432" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-432"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>432<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_slavery">Contemporary slavery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Contemporary slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Slavery in the 21st century</a></div> <p>According to the Global Slavery Index, slavery continues into the 21st century. It claims that as of 2018, the countries with the most slaves were: India (8 million), China (3.86 million), Pakistan (3.19 million) and North Korea (2.64 million).<sup id="cite_ref-433" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-433"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>433<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The countries with highest prevalence of slavery were North Korea (10.5%) and Eritrea (9.3%).<sup id="cite_ref-globalslaveryindex.org_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-globalslaveryindex.org-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_in_the_United_States">Historiography in the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Historiography in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wes_Brady,_ex-slave,_Marshall_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Wes_Brady%2C_ex-slave%2C_Marshall_edited.jpg/220px-Wes_Brady%2C_ex-slave%2C_Marshall_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Wes_Brady%2C_ex-slave%2C_Marshall_edited.jpg/330px-Wes_Brady%2C_ex-slave%2C_Marshall_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Wes_Brady%2C_ex-slave%2C_Marshall_edited.jpg/440px-Wes_Brady%2C_ex-slave%2C_Marshall_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2418" data-file-height="4059" /></a><figcaption>Wes Brady, ex-slave, Marshall, Texas, 1937. This photograph was taken as part of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Writers%27_Project" title="Federal Writers' Project">Federal Writers' Project</a> <a href="/wiki/Slave_Narrative_Collection" title="Slave Narrative Collection">Slave Narrative Collection</a>, which has often been used as a primary source by historians. </figcaption></figure> <p>The history of slavery originally was the history of the government's laws and policies toward slavery, and the political debates about it. Black history was promoted very largely at black colleges. The situation changed dramatically with the coming of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> of the 1950s. Attention shifted to the enslaved humans, the free blacks, and the struggles of the black community against adversity.<sup id="cite_ref-434" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-434"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>434<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kolchin" title="Peter Kolchin">Peter Kolchin</a> described the state of historiography in the early 20th century as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>During the first half of the twentieth century, a major component of this approach was often simply racism, manifest in the belief that blacks were, at best, imitative of whites. Thus <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_B._Phillips" title="Ulrich B. Phillips">Ulrich B. Phillips</a>, the era's most celebrated and influential expert on slavery, combined a sophisticated portrait of the white planters' life and behavior with crude passing generalizations about the life and behavior of their black slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-435" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-435"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>435<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Historians <a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Oliver_Horton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Oliver Horton (page does not exist)">James Oliver Horton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lois_E._Horton" class="mw-redirect" title="Lois E. Horton">Lois E. Horton</a> described Phillips' mindset, methodology and influence: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>His portrayal of blacks as passive, inferior people, whose African origins made them uncivilized, seemed to provide historical evidence for the theories of racial inferiority that supported <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a>. Drawing evidence exclusively from plantation records, letters, southern newspapers, and other sources reflecting the slaveholder's point of view, Phillips depicted slavemasters who provided for the welfare of their slaves and contended that true affection existed between master and slave.<sup id="cite_ref-436" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-436"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>436<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The racist attitude concerning slaves carried over into the historiography of the <a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a> of <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> history, which dominated in the early 20th century. Writing in 2005, the historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Their account of the era rested, as one member of the Dunning school put it, on the assumption of "negro incapacity." Finding it impossible to believe that blacks could ever be independent actors on the stage of history, with their own aspirations and motivations, Dunning et al. portrayed African Americans either as "children", ignorant dupes manipulated by unscrupulous whites, or as savages, their primal passions unleashed by the end of slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-437" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-437"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>437<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Beginning in the 1950s, historiography moved away from the tone of the Phillips era. Historians still emphasized the slave as an object. Whereas Phillips presented the slave as the object of benign attention by the owners, historians such as <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Stampp" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Stampp">Kenneth Stampp</a> emphasized the mistreatment and abuse of the slave.<sup id="cite_ref-438" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-438"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>438<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the portrayal of the slave as a victim, the historian <a href="/wiki/Stanley_M._Elkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley M. Elkins">Stanley M. Elkins</a> in his 1959 work <i>Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life</i> compared the effects of United States slavery to that resulting from the brutality of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a>. He stated the institution destroyed the will of the slave, creating an "emasculated, docile <a href="/wiki/Sambo_(racial_term)" title="Sambo (racial term)">Sambo</a>" who identified totally with the owner. Elkins' thesis was challenged by historians. Gradually historians recognized that in addition to the effects of the owner-slave relationship, slaves did not live in a "totally closed environment but rather in one that permitted the emergence of enormous variety and allowed slaves to pursue important relationships with people other than their master, including those to be found in their families, churches and communities."<sup id="cite_ref-439" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-439"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>439<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economic historians <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Fogel" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert W. Fogel">Robert W. Fogel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_L._Engerman" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley L. Engerman">Stanley L. Engerman</a> in the 1970s, through their work <i>Time on the Cross</i>, portrayed slaves as having internalized the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a> of their owners.<sup id="cite_ref-440" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-440"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>440<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In portraying the more benign version of slavery, they also argue in their 1974 book that the material conditions under which the slaves lived and worked compared favorably to those of free workers in the agriculture and industry of the time. (This was also an argument of Southerners during the 19th century.) </p><p>In the 1970s and 1980s, historians made use of sources such as black music and statistical census data to create a more detailed and nuanced picture of slave life. Relying also on 19th-century autobiographies of ex-slaves (known as <a href="/wiki/Slave_narratives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave narratives">slave narratives</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">WPA</a> <a href="/wiki/Slave_Narrative_Collection" title="Slave Narrative Collection">Slave Narrative Collection</a>, a set of interviews conducted with former slaves in the 1930s by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Writers%27_Project" title="Federal Writers' Project">Federal Writers' Project</a>, historians described slavery as the slaves remembered it. Far from slaves' being strictly victims or content, historians showed slaves as both resilient and autonomous in many of their activities. Despite their exercise of autonomy and their efforts to make a life within slavery, current historians recognize the precariousness of the slave's situation. Slave children quickly learned that they were subject to the direction of both their parents and their owners. They saw their parents disciplined just as they came to realize that they also could be physically or verbally abused by their owners. Historians writing during this era include <a href="/wiki/John_Blassingame" class="mw-redirect" title="John Blassingame">John Blassingame</a> (<i>Slave Community</i>), <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Genovese" title="Eugene Genovese">Eugene Genovese</a> (<i>Roll, Jordan, Roll</i>), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leslie_Howard_Owens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leslie Howard Owens (page does not exist)">Leslie Howard Owens</a> (<i>This Species of Property</i>), and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Gutman" title="Herbert Gutman">Herbert Gutman</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Family_in_Slavery_and_Freedom" title="The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom">The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-441" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-441"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>441<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Important work on slavery has continued; for instance, in 2003 <a href="/wiki/Steven_Hahn" title="Steven Hahn">Steven Hahn</a> published the <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a>-winning account, <i>A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration</i>, which examined how slaves built community and political understanding while enslaved, so they quickly began to form new associations and institutions when emancipated, including black churches separate from white control. In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Wright" title="Robert E. Wright">Robert E. Wright</a> published a <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_model" title="Conceptual model">model</a> that explains why <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> was more prevalent in some areas than others (e.g. southern than northern <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>) and why some <a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">firms</a> (individuals, <a href="/wiki/Corporations" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporations">corporations</a>, plantation owners) chose <a href="/wiki/Slave_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave labor">slave labor</a> while others used wage, indentured, or family labor instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_E._Wright_2010_442-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_E._Wright_2010-442"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>442<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A national <a href="/wiki/Marist_Poll" title="Marist Poll">Marist Poll</a> of Americans in 2015 asked, "Was slavery the main reason for the Civil War, or not?" 53% said yes and 41% said not. There were sharp cleavages along lines of region and party. In the South, 49% answered not. Nationwide 55 percent said students should be taught slavery was the reason for the Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-443" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-443"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>443<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2018, a conference at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a> studied the history of slavery and recent views on it.<sup id="cite_ref-444" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-444"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>444<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Orlando_Patterson" title="Orlando Patterson">Orlando Patterson</a>, in the United States, the profession of sociology has neglected the study of slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-445" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-445"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>445<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics_of_slavery_in_the_West_Indies">Economics of slavery in the West Indies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Economics of slavery in the West Indies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most controversial aspects of the British Empire is its role in first promoting and then ending slavery. In the 18th-century British merchant ships were the largest element in the "Middle Passage" which transported millions of slaves to the Western Hemisphere. Most of those who survived the journey wound up in the Caribbean, where the Empire had highly profitable sugar colonies, and the living conditions were bad (the plantation owners lived in Britain). Parliament ended the international transportation of slaves in 1807 and used the Royal Navy to enforce that ban. In 1833 it bought out the plantation owners and banned slavery. Historians before the 1940s argued that moralistic reformers such as <a href="/wiki/William_Wilberforce" title="William Wilberforce">William Wilberforce</a> were primarily responsible.<sup id="cite_ref-446" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-446"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>446<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Historical revisionism</a> arrived when West Indian historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Williams" title="Eric Williams">Eric Williams</a>, a Marxist, in <i><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Slavery" title="Capitalism and Slavery">Capitalism and Slavery</a></i> (1944), rejected this moral explanation and argued that abolition was now more profitable, for a century of sugarcane raising had exhausted the soil of the islands, and the plantations had become unprofitable. It was more profitable to sell the slaves to the government than to keep up operations. The 1807 prohibition of the international trade, Williams argued, prevented French expansion on other islands. Meanwhile, British investors turned to Asia, where labor was so plentiful that slavery was unnecessary. Williams went on to argue that slavery played a major role in making Britain prosperous. The high profits from the slave trade, he said, helped finance the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Britain enjoyed prosperity because of the capital gained from the unpaid work of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-447" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-447"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>447<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 1970s numerous historians have challenged Williams from various angles and Gad Heuman has concluded, "More recent research has rejected this conclusion; it is now clear that the colonies of the British Caribbean profited considerably during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-448" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-448"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>448<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-449" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-449"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>449<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his major attack on the Williams's thesis, <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Drescher" title="Seymour Drescher">Seymour Drescher</a> argues that Britain's abolition of the slave trade in 1807 resulted not from the diminishing value of slavery for Britain but instead from the moral outrage of the British voting public.<sup id="cite_ref-450" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-450"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>450<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics have also argued that slavery remained profitable in the 1830s because of innovations in agriculture so the <a href="/wiki/Profit_motive" title="Profit motive">profit motive</a> was not central to abolition.<sup id="cite_ref-451" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-451"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>451<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richardson (1998) finds Williams's claims regarding the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> are exaggerated, for profits from the slave trade amounted to less than 1% of domestic investment in Britain. Richardson further challenges claims (by African scholars) that the slave trade caused widespread depopulation and economic distress in Africa—indeed that it caused the "underdevelopment" of Africa. Admitting the horrible suffering of slaves, he notes that many Africans benefited directly because the first stage of the trade was always firmly in the hands of Africans. European slave ships waited at ports to purchase cargoes of people who were captured in the hinterland by African dealers and tribal leaders. Richardson finds that the "terms of trade" (how much the ship owners paid for the slave cargo) moved heavily in favor of the Africans after about 1750. That is, indigenous elites inside West and Central Africa made large and growing profits from slavery, thus increasing their wealth and power.<sup id="cite_ref-452" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-452"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>452<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economic historian <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Engerman" title="Stanley Engerman">Stanley Engerman</a> finds that even without subtracting the associated costs of the slave trade (e.g., shipping costs, slave mortality, mortality of British people in Africa, defense costs) or reinvestment of profits back into the slave trade, the total profits from the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">British economy</a> during any year of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-453" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-453"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>453<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engerman's 5% figure gives as much as possible in terms of benefit of the doubt to the Williams argument, not solely because it does not take into account the associated costs of the slave trade to Britain, but also because it carries the full-employment assumption from economics and holds the gross value of slave trade profits as a direct contribution to Britain's national income.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Slave_Trade_and_British_Capital_Formation_in_the_Eighteenth_Century_454-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Slave_Trade_and_British_Capital_Formation_in_the_Eighteenth_Century-454"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>454<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pares" title="Richard Pares">Richard Pares</a>, in an article written before Williams's book, dismisses the influence of wealth generated from the West Indian plantations upon the financing of the Industrial Revolution, stating that whatever substantial flow of investment from West Indian profits into industry there was occurred after emancipation, not before.<sup id="cite_ref-455" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-455"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>455<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <dl><dt>General</dt></dl> <ul><li>Types of slavery: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a>/<a href="/wiki/Verdingkinder" title="Verdingkinder">Verdingkinder</a>/<a href="/wiki/Swiss_children_coercion_reparation_initiative" title="Swiss children coercion reparation initiative">Swiss children coercion reparation initiative</a><sup id="cite_ref-NYT_456-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-456"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>456<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BBC-Verdingkinder_457-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-Verdingkinder-457"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>457<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_slavery" title="Child slavery">Child slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li>Types of slave trade: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastwise_slave_trade" title="Coastwise slave trade">Coastwise slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Slavery in Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiento_de_Negros" title="Asiento de Negros">Asiento de Negros</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Swedish slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li>Present-day slavery: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Slavery in contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Slavery in the 21st century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">Slavery in 21st-century jihadism</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>People</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of famous slaves</a></li> <li>Types of slave soldiers: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>Ideals and organizations</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Year_to_Commemorate_the_Struggle_Against_Slavery_and_Its_Abolition" title="International Year to Commemorate the Struggle Against Slavery and Its Abolition">International Year to Commemorate the Struggle Against Slavery and Its Abolition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a>, founded as the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in 1839</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_Society_(1823%E2%80%931838)" title="Anti-Slavery Society (1823–1838)">Anti-Slavery Society (1823–1838)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalition_to_Abolish_Slavery_and_Trafficking" title="Coalition to Abolish Slavery and Trafficking">Coalition to Abolish Slavery and Trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> – Religious Society of Friends</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Effecting_the_Abolition_of_the_Slave_Trade" title="Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade">Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade</a> (1787–1807?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Slavery_Museum" title="United States National Slavery Museum">United States National Slavery Museum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Poems_on_Slavery" title="Poems on Slavery">Poems on Slavery</a></i> by Longfellow</li></ul> <dl><dt>Other</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fazenda" title="Fazenda">Fazenda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liverpool#Slave_trade,_privateering" title="History of Liverpool">History of Liverpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">History of slavery in the Muslim world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave-owning_slaves" title="Slave-owning slaves">Slave-owning slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a>: <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_v._Mann" title="North Carolina v. Mann">North Carolina v. Mann</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery among Native Americans in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influx_of_disease_in_the_Caribbean" title="Influx of disease in the Caribbean">Influx of disease in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">List of court cases in the United States involving slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Blanco_(slave_trader)" title="Pedro Blanco (slave trader)">Pedro Blanco (slave trader)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambo%27s_Grave" title="Sambo's Grave">Sambo's Grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sante_Kimes" title="Sante Kimes">Sante Kimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Slavery and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Slavery at common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lynch_speech" title="William Lynch speech">William Lynch speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">List of films featuring slavery</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKleinIII,_Ben_Vinson2007" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Herbert S.; III, Ben Vinson (2007). <i>African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean</i> (2nd ed.). New York [etc.]: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195189421" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195189421"><bdi>978-0195189421</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Slavery+in+Latin+America+and+the+Caribbean&rft.place=New+York+%5Betc.%5D&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0195189421&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Herbert+S.&rft.au=III%2C+Ben+Vinson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hunt, Peter (2015). "Slavery". <i>The Cambridge World History: Volume 4: A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE–900 CE</i>. <b>4</b>: 76–100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139059251.006">10.1017/CBO9781139059251.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139059251" title="Special:BookSources/9781139059251"><bdi>9781139059251</bdi></a>. <q>Somewhat more convincing are statistical surveys of large numbers of societies that show that slavery is rare among hunter-gatherers, is sometimes present in incipient agricultural societies, and then becomes common among societies with more advanced agriculture. Up to this point slavery seems to increase with increasing social and economic complexity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+World+History%3A+Volume+4%3A+A+World+with+States%2C+Empires+and+Networks+1200+BCE%E2%80%93900+CE&rft.atitle=Slavery&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=76-100&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139059251.006&rft.isbn=9781139059251&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithHillMarloweNolin2010" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Eric Alden; Hill, Kim; Marlowe, Frank; Nolin, David; Wiessner, Polly; Gurven, Michael; Bowles, Samuel; Mulder, Monique Borgerhoff; Hertz, Tom; Bell, Adrian (February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2999363">"Wealth Transmission and Inequality Among Hunter-Gatherers"</a>. <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>51</b> (1): 19–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F648530">10.1086/648530</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-3204">0011-3204</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2999363">2999363</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21151711">21151711</a>. <q>Summary characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (SCSS). [...] Social stratification [: ...] Hereditary slavery 24% [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Wealth+Transmission+and+Inequality+Among+Hunter-Gatherers&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-34&rft.date=2010-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2999363%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0011-3204&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21151711&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F648530&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Eric+Alden&rft.au=Hill%2C+Kim&rft.au=Marlowe%2C+Frank&rft.au=Nolin%2C+David&rft.au=Wiessner%2C+Polly&rft.au=Gurven%2C+Michael&rft.au=Bowles%2C+Samuel&rft.au=Mulder%2C+Monique+Borgerhoff&rft.au=Hertz%2C+Tom&rft.au=Bell%2C+Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2999363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hunt_Slavery-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hunt_Slavery_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hunt_Slavery_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hunt, Peter (2015). "Slavery". <i>The Cambridge World History: Volume 4: A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE–900 CE</i>. <b>4</b>: 76–100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139059251.006">10.1017/CBO9781139059251.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139059251" title="Special:BookSources/9781139059251"><bdi>9781139059251</bdi></a>. <q>Slavery was a widespread institution in the ancient world (1200 BCE – 900 CE). Slaves could be found in simpler societies, but more important and better known was the existence of slavery in most advanced states. Indeed, it is hard to find any ancient civilizations in which some slavery did not exist. Slave use was sometimes extensive.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+World+History%3A+Volume+4%3A+A+World+with+States%2C+Empires+and+Networks+1200+BCE%E2%80%93900+CE&rft.atitle=Slavery&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=76-100&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139059251.006&rft.isbn=9781139059251&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTetlow2004" class="citation book cs1">Tetlow, Elisabeth Meier (2004). "Sumer". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1SS8C"><i>Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: Volume 1: The Ancient Near East</i></a>. Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society. Vol. 1. New York: A&C Black. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826416285" title="Special:BookSources/9780826416285"><bdi>9780826416285</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2019</span>. <q>In Sumer, as in most ancient societies, the institution of slavery existed as an integral part of the social and economic structure. Sumer was not, however, a slavery based economy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sumer&rft.btitle=Women%2C+Crime+and+Punishment+in+Ancient+Law+and+Society%3A+Volume+1%3A+The+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Women%2C+Crime%2C+and+Punishment+in+Ancient+Law+and+Society&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780826416285&rft.aulast=Tetlow&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth+Meier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DONkJ_Rj1SS8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514033802/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/CODE.HTM">"Mesopotamia: The Code of Hammurabi"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/CODE.HTM">the original</a> on 14 May 2011. <q>e.g. Prologue, "the shepherd of the oppressed and of the slaves" Code of Laws No. 307, "If any one buy from the son or the slave of another man".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mesopotamia%3A+The+Code+of+Hammurabi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsu.edu%2F~dee%2FMESO%2FCODE.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stilwell_africa-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stilwell_africa_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stilwell_africa_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStilwell2013" class="citation cs2">Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", <i>Slavery and Slaving in African History</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 38, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781139034999.003">10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9"><bdi>978-1-139-03499-9</bdi></a>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavery+and+Slaving+in+African+History&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+African+History&rft.pages=38&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781139034999.003&rft.isbn=978-1-139-03499-9&rft.aulast=Stilwell&rft.aufirst=Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perbi_Ghana-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Perbi_Ghana_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perbi_Ghana_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perbi_Ghana_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerbi2004" class="citation book cs1">Perbi, Akosua Adoma (2004). <i>A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century</i>. Legon, Accra, Ghana: Sub-Saharan Publishers. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789988550325" title="Special:BookSources/9789988550325"><bdi>9789988550325</bdi></a>. <q>It is to the Neolithic period of Ghana's history that one must look for the earliest evidence of slavery. Technological advancement and dependence on agriculture created a need for labor. The available evidence indicates that around the 1st century AD farming was done by individual households consisting of blood relations, pawns, and slaves. The earliest evidence of slavery is, therefore, likely to be found in the field of agriculture." and "The retention of captives taken in battle was a recognized practice among every people before the beginning of written history. The ancient records of the Assyrians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Persians, Indians and Chinese are all full of references to slaves and types of labor for which they were usually employed. With the Greeks and the Romans, the institution of slavery reached new heights.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Indigenous+Slavery+in+Ghana+%3A+from+the+15th+to+the+19th+century&rft.place=Legon%2C+Accra%2C+Ghana&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Sub-Saharan+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9789988550325&rft.aulast=Perbi&rft.aufirst=Akosua+Adoma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalzmann2013" class="citation journal cs1">Salzmann, Ariel (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel4030391">"Migrants in Chains: On the Enslavement of Muslims in Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe"</a>. <i>Religions</i>. <b>4</b> (3): 391–411. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel4030391">10.3390/rel4030391</a></span>. <q>Between the Renaissance and the French Revolution, hundreds of thousands of Muslim men and women from the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean were forcibly transported to Western Europe.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religions&rft.atitle=Migrants+in+Chains%3A+On+the+Enslavement+of+Muslims+in+Renaissance+and+Enlightenment+Europe&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=391-411&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Frel4030391&rft.aulast=Salzmann&rft.aufirst=Ariel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Frel4030391&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2006" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Hugh (2006). <i>The slave trade : the history of the Atlantic slave trade, 1440-1870</i> (New ed.). London: Phoenix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0753820568" title="Special:BookSources/978-0753820568"><bdi>978-0753820568</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+slave+trade+%3A+the+history+of+the+Atlantic+slave+trade%2C+1440-1870&rft.place=London&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0753820568&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guardian-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodal2016" class="citation web cs1">Hodal, Kate (31 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/feb/25/modern-slavery-trafficking-persons-one-in-200">"One in 200 people is a slave. Why?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=One+in+200+people+is+a+slave.+Why%3F&rft.date=2016-05-31&rft.aulast=Hodal&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fnews%2F2019%2Ffeb%2F25%2Fmodern-slavery-trafficking-persons-one-in-200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-globalslaveryindex.org-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-globalslaveryindex.org_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-globalslaveryindex.org_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/2018/findings/global-findings/">"10 countries with the highest prevalence of modern slavery"</a>. <i>Global Slavery Index</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Global+Slavery+Index&rft.atitle=10+countries+with+the+highest+prevalence+of+modern+slavery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalslaveryindex.org%2F2018%2Ffindings%2Fglobal-findings%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070223090720/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156">"Historical survey: Slave-owning societies"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156">the original</a> on 23 February 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historical+survey%3A+Slave-owning+societies&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology">"Slavery"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 12 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-04-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fslavery-sociology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEricson2000" class="citation book cs1">Ericson, David F. (2000). "Dew, Fitzhugh, and Proslavery Liberalism". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zuzKxZ9xXLoC"><i>The Debate Over Slavery: Antislavery and Proslavery Liberalism in Antebellum America</i></a>. New York: New York University Press. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814722121" title="Special:BookSources/9780814722121"><bdi>9780814722121</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2020</span>. <q>[...] Fitzhugh compares wives [...], children [...], wards [...], apprentices [...], prisoners [...], soldiers [...], sailors [...], the poor under the English poor laws [...], imported Chinese laborers in the British colonies [...], as well as the remaining serfs of eastern Europe and central Asia [...] with slaves. Thus broadly understood, the status of slaves is very widespread indeed, and every society seems to be a slave society.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dew%2C+Fitzhugh%2C+and+Proslavery+Liberalism&rft.btitle=The+Debate+Over+Slavery%3A+Antislavery+and+Proslavery+Liberalism+in+Antebellum+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780814722121&rft.aulast=Ericson&rft.aufirst=David+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzuzKxZ9xXLoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology">"Slavery"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 12 April 2024. <q>[...] for slavery to flourish, social differentiation or stratification was essential. Also essential was an economic surplus, for slaves were often consumption goods who themselves had to be maintained rather than productive assets who generated income for their owner. Surplus was also essential in slave systems where the owners expected economic gain from slave ownership. <br /> Ordinarily there had to be a perceived labour shortage, for otherwise it is unlikely that most people would bother to acquire or to keep slaves. Free land, and more generally, open resources, were often a prerequisite for slavery; in most cases where there were no open resources, non-slaves could be found who would fulfill the same social functions at lower cost. Last, some centralized governmental institutions willing to enforce slave laws had to exist, or else the property aspects of slavery were likely to be chimerical.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-04-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fslavery-sociology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Byron, <i>Slavery Metaphors in Early Judaism and Pauline Christianity: A Traditio-historical and Exegetical Examination</i>, Mohr Siebeck, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3161480791" title="Special:BookSources/3161480791">3161480791</a>, p. 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roland De Vaux, John McHugh, <i>Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions</i>, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/080284278X" title="Special:BookSources/080284278X">080284278X</a>, p. 80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roberts-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J.M. Roberts, <i>The New Penguin History of the World</i>, pp. 176–77, 223</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Slavery-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Slavery_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156">Historical survey > Slave-owning societies</a>". <i>Encyclopædia Britannica.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> "Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves," by W.V. Harris: <i>The Journal of Roman Studies</i>, 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nilescribes.org/2018/06/02/egyptian-footwear-bata-shoe-museum/">"Ancient Egyptian Footwear at the Bata Shoe Museum"</a>. <i>Nile Scribes</i>. 2 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nile+Scribes&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Footwear+at+the+Bata+Shoe+Museum&rft.date=2018-06-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnilescribes.org%2F2018%2F06%2F02%2Fegyptian-footwear-bata-shoe-museum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraudel1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Braudel, Fernand</a> (26 September 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n8yMAAAAIAAJ"><i>Civilization and Capitalism, 15th-18th Century: The perspective of the world</i></a>. Vol. 3. <a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Row" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper & Row">Harper & Row</a>. p. 435. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0060153175" title="Special:BookSources/978-0060153175"><bdi>978-0060153175</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civilization+and+Capitalism%2C+15th-18th+Century%3A+The+perspective+of+the+world&rft.pages=435&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1984-09-26&rft.isbn=978-0060153175&rft.aulast=Braudel&rft.aufirst=Fernand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn8yMAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsd.htm">"NPS Ethnography: African American Heritage & Ethnography"</a>. <i>www.nps.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nps.gov&rft.atitle=NPS+Ethnography%3A+African+American+Heritage+%26+Ethnography&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fethnography%2Faah%2Faaheritage%2Fhistcontextsd.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/early-cape-slave-trade">"The Early Cape Slave Trade | South African History Online"</a>. <i>www.sahistory.org.za</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.sahistory.org.za&rft.atitle=The+Early+Cape+Slave+Trade+%7C+South+African+History+Online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sahistory.org.za%2Farticle%2Fearly-cape-slave-trade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grindal_2016-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grindal_2016_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grindal_2016_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrindal2016" class="citation book cs1">Grindal, Peter (2016). <i>Opposing the Slavers. The Royal Navy's Campaign against the Atlantic Slave Trade</i> (Kindle ed.). London: I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85773-938-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85773-938-4"><bdi>978-0-85773-938-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opposing+the+Slavers.+The+Royal+Navy%27s+Campaign+against+the+Atlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Kindle&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris+%26+Co.+Ltd&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-85773-938-4&rft.aulast=Grindal&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=002/llsl002.db&recNum=0463">"A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875 Statutes at Large, 9th Congress, 2nd Session"</a>, <i>The Library of Congress</i><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2017</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=A+Century+of+Lawmaking+for+a+New+Nation%3A+U.S.+Congressional+Documents+and+Debates%2C+1774%E2%80%931875+Statutes+at+Large%2C+9th+Congress%2C+2nd+Session&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmemory.loc.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fampage%3FcollId%3Dllsl%26fileName%3D002%2Fllsl002.db%26recNum%3D0463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersonGavuaRassool2015" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Derek R.; Gavua, Kodzo; Rassool, Ciraj (2 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113"><i>The Politics of Heritage in Africa</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09485-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09485-7"><bdi>978-1-107-09485-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Heritage+in+Africa&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015-03-02&rft.isbn=978-1-107-09485-7&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Derek+R.&rft.au=Gavua%2C+Kodzo&rft.au=Rassool%2C+Ciraj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOm12BgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157">"Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History"</a>. <i>Britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Welcome+to+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%27s+Guide+to+Black+History&rft.btitle=Britannica.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LovejoyHogendorn1993-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LovejoyHogendorn1993_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovejoyHogendorn1993" class="citation book cs1">Lovejoy, Paul E.; Hogendorn, Jan S. (1 July 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AWrgygRWERsC"><i>Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria 1897–1936</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521447027" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521447027"><bdi>978-0521447027</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slow+Death+for+Slavery%3A+The+Course+of+Abolition+in+Northern+Nigeria+1897%E2%80%931936&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993-07-01&rft.isbn=978-0521447027&rft.aulast=Lovejoy&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rft.au=Hogendorn%2C+Jan+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAWrgygRWERsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDigital_History,_Steven_Mintz" class="citation web cs1">Digital History, Steven Mintz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140209215003/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slav_fact.cfm">"Digital History Slavery Fact Sheets"</a>. Digitalhistory.uh.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slav_fact.cfm">the original</a> on 9 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Digital+History+Slavery+Fact+Sheets&rft.pub=Digitalhistory.uh.edu&rft.au=Digital+History%2C+Steven+Mintz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalhistory.uh.edu%2Fhistoryonline%2Fslav_fact.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080202190709/http://bartelby.com/67/871.html">"18th and Early 19th centuries. The Encyclopedia of World History"</a>. Bartelby.com. 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BookBaby. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1483513645" title="Special:BookSources/978-1483513645"><bdi>978-1483513645</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Through+the+Lens+of+the+Transatlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=BookBaby&rft.date=2013-08-01&rft.isbn=978-1483513645&rft.au=Vinita+Moch+Ricks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHKtZDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kitchin1-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kitchin1_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kitchin1_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitchin1778" class="citation book cs1">Kitchin, Thomas (1778). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4397/view/1/21/"><i>The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe</i></a>. London: R. Baldwin. p. 21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Present+State+of+the+West-Indies%3A+Containing+an+Accurate+Description+of+What+Parts+Are+Possessed+by+the+Several+Powers+in+Europe&rft.place=London&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=R.+Baldwin&rft.date=1778&rft.aulast=Kitchin&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F4397%2Fview%2F1%2F21%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111105214459/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap8a.html">"Slavery and the Haitian Revolution"</a>. Chnm.gmu.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap8a.html">the original</a> on 5 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+the+Haitian+Revolution&rft.pub=Chnm.gmu.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchnm.gmu.edu%2Frevolution%2Fchap8a.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haiti-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haiti_139-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haiti_139-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130901072137/http://www2.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/dessalines.htm">"A Brief History of Dessalines"</a>. <i>Missionary Journal</i>. Webster.edu. 1825. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/dessalines.htm">the original</a> on 1 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Missionary+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Dessalines&rft.date=1825&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.webster.edu%2F~corbetre%2Fhaiti%2Fhistory%2Fearlyhaiti%2Fdessalines.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Revolution-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Revolution_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h34-np2.html">"Haiti, 1789 to 1806"</a>. <i>www.fsmitha.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fsmitha.com&rft.atitle=Haiti%2C+1789+to+1806&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fsmitha.com%2Fh3%2Fh34-np2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dryden, John. 1992 "Pas de Six Ans!" In: <i>Seven Slaves & Slavery: Trinidad 1777–1838</i>, by Anthony de Verteuil, Port of Spain, pp. 371–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LawsonLawson2019-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LawsonLawson2019_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell_M._LawsonBenjamin_A._Lawson2019" class="citation book cs1">Russell M. Lawson; Benjamin A. Lawson (11 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ou6yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16"><i>Race and Ethnicity in America: From Pre-contact to the Present [4 volumes]</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 16–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-5097-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-5097-4"><bdi>978-1-4408-5097-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+Ethnicity+in+America%3A+From+Pre-contact+to+the+Present+%26%2391%3B4+volumes%26%2393%3B&rft.pages=16-&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2019-10-11&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-5097-4&rft.au=Russell+M.+Lawson&rft.au=Benjamin+A.+Lawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dou6yDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marcel-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marcel_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marcel_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcel_TrudelMicheline_d'_Allaire2013" class="citation book cs1">Marcel Trudel; Micheline d' Allaire (2013). <i>Canada's Forgotten Slaves: Two Centuries of Bondage</i>. Independent Publishing Group. p. Intro. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55065-327-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55065-327-4"><bdi>978-1-55065-327-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canada%27s+Forgotten+Slaves%3A+Two+Centuries+of+Bondage&rft.pages=Intro&rft.pub=Independent+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-55065-327-4&rft.au=Marcel+Trudel&rft.au=Micheline+d%27+Allaire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historymuseum.ca/virtual-museum-of-new-france/population/slavery/">"Slavery"</a>. <i>Virtual Museum of New France</i>. Canadian Museum of History<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Virtual+Museum+of+New+France&rft.atitle=Slavery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historymuseum.ca%2Fvirtual-museum-of-new-france%2Fpopulation%2Fslavery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AppiahGates2005-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AppiahGates2005_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_AppiahHenry_Louis_Gates2005" class="citation book cs1">Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA722"><i>Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 722. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517055-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517055-9"><bdi>978-0-19-517055-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africana%3A+The+Encyclopedia+of+the+African+and+African+American+Experience&rft.pages=722&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517055-9&rft.au=Anthony+Appiah&rft.au=Henry+Louis+Gates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTMZMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/black-enslavement">"Black Enslavement in Canada | The Canadian Encyclopedia"</a>. <i>www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca&rft.atitle=Black+Enslavement+in+Canada+%26%23124%3B+The+Canadian+Encyclopedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fblack-enslavement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marsh1999-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Marsh1999_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_H._Marsh1999" class="citation book cs1">James H. Marsh (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wR_-aSFyvuYC&pg=PA259"><i>The Canadian Encyclopedia</i></a>. The Canadian Encyclopedia. p. 259. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7710-2099-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7710-2099-5"><bdi>978-0-7710-2099-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Canadian+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=259&rft.pub=The+Canadian+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7710-2099-5&rft.au=James+H.+Marsh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwR_-aSFyvuYC%26pg%3DPA259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shadd2016-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shadd2016_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary_Ann_Shadd2016" class="citation book cs1">Mary Ann Shadd (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ob1aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11"><i>A Plea for Emigration; or Notes of Canada West: A Broadview Anthology of British Literature Edition</i></a>. Broadview Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55481-321-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55481-321-6"><bdi>978-1-55481-321-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Plea+for+Emigration%3B+or+Notes+of+Canada+West%3A+A+Broadview+Anthology+of+British+Literature+Edition&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-55481-321-6&rft.au=Mary+Ann+Shadd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOb1aDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-archive.org-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-archive.org_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/slaveincanada00ridd/slaveincanada00ridd_djvu.txt">"Full text of "The slave in Canada"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>archive.org</i>. 1920.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.org&rft.atitle=Full+text+of+%22The+slave+in+Canada%22&rft.date=1920&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fslaveincanada00ridd%2Fslaveincanada00ridd_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OnufGould2005-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OnufGould2005_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_S._OnufEliga_H._Gould2005" class="citation book cs1">Peter S. Onuf; Eliga H. Gould (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YZw-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA298"><i>Empire and Nation: The American Revolution in the Atlantic World</i></a>. JHU Press. p. 298. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1842-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1842-1"><bdi>978-1-4214-1842-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+and+Nation%3A+The+American+Revolution+in+the+Atlantic+World&rft.pages=298&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-1842-1&rft.au=Peter+S.+Onuf&rft.au=Eliga+H.+Gould&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYZw-CwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Edward Stanfield, <i>Red Rubber, Bleeding Trees: Violence, Slavery, and Empire in Northwest Amazonia, 1850–1933</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Edelman, "A Central American Genocide: Rubber, Slavery, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Guatusos-Malekus," Comparative Studies in Society and History (1998), 40: 356–390.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190813174448/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2019/07-08/virginia-first-africans-transatlantic-slave-trade/">[1]</a> 400 years ago, enslaved Africans first arrived in Virginia</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/5653369/august-1619-jamestown-history/">"Where the Landing of the First Africans in English North America Really Fits in the History of Slavery"</a>. <i>Time</i>. 20 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Where+the+Landing+of+the+First+Africans+in+English+North+America+Really+Fits+in+the+History+of+Slavery&rft.date=2019-08-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F5653369%2Faugust-1619-jamestown-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaughan1989" class="citation journal cs1">Vaughan, Alden T. (1989). "The Origins Debate: Slavery and Racism in Seventeenth-Century Virginia". <i>The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography</i>. <b>97</b> (3): 311–54. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4249092">4249092</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Virginia+Magazine+of+History+and+Biography&rft.atitle=The+Origins+Debate%3A+Slavery+and+Racism+in+Seventeenth-Century+Virginia&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=311-54&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4249092%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Vaughan&rft.aufirst=Alden+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Donoghue_2010-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Donoghue_2010_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonoghue2010" class="citation book cs1">Donoghue, John (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904020937/http://ahr.oxfordjournals.org/content/115/4/943.full.pdf+html?sid=dc069c4e-7758-487c-a4d7-4d23f203e0df"><i>Out of the Land of Bondage": The English Revolution and the Atlantic Origins of Abolition</i></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ahr.oxfordjournals.org/content/115/4/943.full.pdf+html?sid=dc069c4e-7758-487c-a4d7-4d23f203e0df">the original</a> on 4 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+the+Land+of+Bondage%22%3A+The+English+Revolution+and+the+Atlantic+Origins+of+Abolition&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Donoghue&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fahr.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcontent%2F115%2F4%2F943.full.pdf%2Bhtml%3Fsid%3Ddc069c4e-7758-487c-a4d7-4d23f203e0df&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJunius_P._Rodriguez2007" class="citation book cs1">Junius P. Rodriguez (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4X44KbDBl9gC&pg=PA3"><i>Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851095445" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851095445"><bdi>978-1851095445</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+United+States%3A+A+Social%2C+Political%2C+and+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1851095445&rft.au=Junius+P.+Rodriguez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4X44KbDBl9gC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/exhibitions/jcbexhibit/Pages/exhibSlavery.html#anchor">"Rhode Island bans slavery: 18 May 1652"</a>. 18 May 1652.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rhode+Island+bans+slavery%3A+18+May+1652&rft.date=1652-05-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brown.edu%2FFacilities%2FJohn_Carter_Brown_Library%2Fexhibitions%2Fjcbexhibit%2FPages%2FexhibSlavery.html%23anchor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1882" class="citation book cs1">Williams, George Washington (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U2YFAAAAQAAJ&q=Whereas%2C+it+is+a+common+course+practiced+amongst+English+men+to+buy+negers%2C+to+that+end+they+have+them+for+service+or+slave+forever%3A+let+it+be+ordered%2C+no+blacke&pg=PA262"><i>History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880, Vol. 1</i></a>. G.P. Putnam's Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780722297803" title="Special:BookSources/9780722297803"><bdi>9780722297803</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Negro+Race+in+America+from+1619+to+1880%2C+Vol.+1&rft.pub=G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1882&rft.isbn=9780722297803&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=George+Washington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU2YFAAAAQAAJ%26q%3DWhereas%252C%2Bit%2Bis%2Ba%2Bcommon%2Bcourse%2Bpracticed%2Bamongst%2BEnglish%2Bmen%2Bto%2Bbuy%2Bnegers%252C%2Bto%2Bthat%2Bend%2Bthey%2Bhave%2Bthem%2Bfor%2Bservice%2Bor%2Bslave%2Bforever%253A%2Blet%2Bit%2Bbe%2Bordered%252C%2Bno%2Bblacke%26pg%3DPA262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/jstor-3035621/3035621#page/n3/mode/2up/search/Johnson">"Records of the County Court of Northampton, Virginia, Orders Deeds and Wills, 1651–1654"</a>. The Journal of Negro History. June 1916. p. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Records+of+the+County+Court+of+Northampton%2C+Virginia%2C+Orders+Deeds+and+Wills%2C+1651%E2%80%931654&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=The+Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.date=1916-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fjstor-3035621%2F3035621%23page%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up%2Fsearch%2FJohnson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McElrath, Jessica, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afroamhistory.about.com/od/slavery/a/timeline_slave.htm"><i>Timeline of Slavery in America-African American History</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060813193544/http://afroamhistory.about.com/od/slavery/a/timeline_slave.htm">Archived</a> 13 August 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>About.com</i>. Retrieved 6 December 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, <i>Origins of American Slavery</i> (1997), pp. 64–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/4782885/rhode-island-antislavery/">"America's First Anti-Slavery Statute Was Passed in 1652. Here's Why It Was Ignored"</a>. 18 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=America%27s+First+Anti-Slavery+Statute+Was+Passed+in+1652.+Here%27s+Why+It+Was+Ignored&rft.date=2017-05-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F4782885%2Frhode-island-antislavery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, Thomas D. <i>The Ashley Cooper Plan: The Founding of Carolina and the Origins of Southern Political Culture</i>. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2016. Chapter 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph Cephas Carroll, <i>Slave Insurrections in the United States, 1800–1865</i>, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTang1997" class="citation journal cs1">Tang, Joyce (1997). "Enslaved African Rebellions in Virginia". <i>Journal of Black Studies</i>. <b>27</b> (5): 598–614. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002193479702700502">10.1177/002193479702700502</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784871">2784871</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:140979420">140979420</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Black+Studies&rft.atitle=Enslaved+African+Rebellions+in+Virginia&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=598-614&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A140979420%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2784871%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002193479702700502&rft.aulast=Tang&rft.aufirst=Joyce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlanck2014" class="citation book cs1">Blanck, Emily (6 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8e-wBAAAQBAJ"><i>Tyrannicide: Forging an American Law of Slavery in Revolutionary South Carolina and Massachusetts</i></a>. University of Georgia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820338644" title="Special:BookSources/9780820338644"><bdi>9780820338644</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tyrannicide%3A+Forging+an+American+Law+of+Slavery+in+Revolutionary+South+Carolina+and+Massachusetts&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2014-03-06&rft.isbn=9780820338644&rft.aulast=Blanck&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8e-wBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/05-02-02-0004-0002-0002">"Founders Online: Adams' Minutes of the Argument: Essex Superior Court, Salem, N …"</a>. <i>founders.archives.gov</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=founders.archives.gov&rft.atitle=Founders+Online%3A+Adams%27+Minutes+of+the+Argument%3A+Essex+Superior+Court%2C+Salem%2C+N+%E2%80%A6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffounders.archives.gov%2Fdocuments%2FAdams%2F05-02-02-0004-0002-0002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeserette2016" class="citation web cs1">Meserette (29 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kentakepage.com/jenny-slew-the-first-enslaved-person-to-win-her-freedom-via-jury-trial/">"Jenny Slew: The first enslaved person to win her freedom via jury trial"</a>. Kentake Page<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jenny+Slew%3A+The+first+enslaved+person+to+win+her+freedom+via+jury+trial&rft.pub=Kentake+Page&rft.date=2016-01-29&rft.au=Meserette&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkentakepage.com%2Fjenny-slew-the-first-enslaved-person-to-win-her-freedom-via-jury-trial%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pragmaticobotsunite2018.com/thursday-open-thread-little-known-slave-court-cases/">Thursday Open Thread: Little Known Slave Court Cases NOVEMBER 9, 2017 BY MIRANDA</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.masshist.org/publications/adams-papers/view?&id=LJA02dg7">Legal Papers of John Adams, volume 2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsPleck2010" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Catherine; Pleck, Elizabeth H. (1 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dlSpAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22benjamin+kent%22+lawyer+boston+woman&pg=PA130"><i>Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974178-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974178-6"><bdi>978-0-19-974178-6</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Love+of+Freedom%3A+Black+Women+in+Colonial+and+Revolutionary+New+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010-02-01&rft.isbn=978-0-19-974178-6&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Pleck%2C+Elizabeth+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdlSpAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522benjamin%2Bkent%2522%2Blawyer%2Bboston%2Bwoman%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cambridgehistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Proceedings-Volume-40-1964-1966.pdf">"The Proceedings of the Cambridge Historical Society, Volume 40, 1964-1966"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Proceedings+of+the+Cambridge+Historical+Society%2C+Volume+40%2C+1964-1966&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcambridgehistory.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F08%2FProceedings-Volume-40-1964-1966.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitefield2014" class="citation web cs1">Whitefield, Harvey Amani (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vermonthistory.org/problem-of-slavery#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThe%20Problem%20of%20Slavery%20in,of%20History%2C%20University%20of%20Kentucky.">"The Problem of Slavery in Early Vermont"</a>. <i>Vermont History</i>. Vermont Historical Society<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vermont+History&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Slavery+in+Early+Vermont&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Whitefield&rft.aufirst=Harvey+Amani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvermonthistory.org%2Fproblem-of-slavery%23%3A~%3Atext%3D%25E2%2580%259CThe%2520Problem%2520of%2520Slavery%2520in%2Cof%2520History%252C%2520University%2520of%2520Kentucky.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abolition.nypl.org/essays/us_constitution/4/">"REGULATING THE TRADE"</a>. New York Public Library<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=REGULATING+THE+TRADE&rft.pub=New+York+Public+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabolition.nypl.org%2Fessays%2Fus_constitution%2F4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=idktzKdgb7YC&q=page+471&pg=PA471">Dictionary of Afro-American slavery</a> By Randall M. Miller, John David Smith. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997. p. 471.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/30/opinion/30foner.html">Foner, Eric. "Forgotten step towards freedom,"</a> <i>New York Times.</i> 30 December 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AIA4-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AIA4_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4narr3.html">"Africans in America"</a> – PBS Series – Part 4 (2007)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leonard L. Richards, <i>The Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780–1860</i> (2000)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-itd.nps.gov-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-itd.nps.gov_180-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070714073725/http://www.itd.nps.gov/cwss/manassas/social/introsoc.htm">"Introduction – Social Aspects of the Civil War"</a>. Itd.nps.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itd.nps.gov/cwss/manassas/social/introsoc.htm">the original</a> on 14 July 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+%E2%80%93+Social+Aspects+of+the+Civil+War&rft.pub=Itd.nps.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itd.nps.gov%2Fcwss%2Fmanassas%2Fsocial%2Fintrosoc.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Foner, <i>Free soil, free labor, free men: The ideology of the Republican party before the Civil War</i> (1971).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Vorenberg, ed. <i>The Emancipation Proclamation: A Brief History with Documents</i> (2010),</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ira Berlin, Joseph Patrick Reidy, and Leslie S. Rowland, eds. <i>Freedom's Soldiers: The Black Military Experience in the Civil War</i> (1998).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jim Downs, <i>Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction</i> (2015)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret Humphreys, <i>Marrow of Tragedy: The Health Crisis of the American Civil War</i> (2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul A. Cimbala, <i>The Freedmen's Bureau: Reconstructing the American South after the Civil War</i> (2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Foner, <i>A short history of Reconstruction, 1863–1877</i> (1990)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Vann Woodward, <i>Origins of the New South, 1877–1913</i> (1951)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">^ "Ancient Slavery". Ditext.com. Retrieved 18 October 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hopkins, Keith (31 January 1981). Conquerors and Slaves. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 101. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521281812" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521281812">978-0521281812</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Cyrus Charter of Human Rights". www.persepolis.nu. MANI. Retrieved 21 July 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis_192-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis_192-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis 1994, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html">Ch.1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[Total of black slave trade in the Muslim world from Sahara, Red Sea and Indian Ocean routes thru the 19th century comes to an estimated 11,500,000, "a figure not far short of the 11,863,000 estimated to have been loaded onto ships during the four centuries of the Atlantic slave trade." (Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformation in Slavery (CUP, 1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raymond Mauvy estimates a total of 14 million black slaves were traded in Islam thru the 20th Century, including 300,000 for part of the 20th century. (p. 57, source: "Les Siecles obsurs de l'Afrique Noire" (Paris: Fayard, 1970)]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt-2015-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nyt-2015_195-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHochschild2001" class="citation news cs1">Hochschild, Ada (4 March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/01/03/04/reviews/010304.04hochsct.html">"Human Cargo"</a>. New York Times<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Human+Cargo&rft.date=2001-03-04&rft.aulast=Hochschild&rft.aufirst=Ada&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2F01%2F03%2F04%2Freviews%2F010304.04hochsct.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eois-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eois_196-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brunschvig. 'Abd; <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Islam">Encyclopedia of Islam</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Du Pasquier, Roger, <i>Unveiling Islam</i>, p. 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated3-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_198-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gordon 1987, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Qur'an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English By Ali Ünal p. 1323 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&dq=Bilal+ibn+Rabah+al-Habashi&pg=PA1323">[2]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of the Qur'an">Encyclopedia of the Qur'an</a>, Slaves and Slavery</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bilal b. Rabah, <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Islam">Encyclopedia of Islam</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Cambridge History of Islam</i> (1977), p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenski2021" class="citation book cs1">Lenski, Noel (6 March 2021). "Slavery in the Byzantine Empire". In Perry, Craig; Eltis, David; Richardson, David; Engerman, Stanley L. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/slavery-in-the-byzantine-empire/6BC93914928532A51E2D9BE5EF40771F"><i>The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2: AD 500–AD 1420</i></a>. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 453–481. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781139024723.019">10.1017/9781139024723.019</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521840675" title="Special:BookSources/9780521840675"><bdi>9780521840675</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240619349">240619349</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+the+Byzantine+Empire&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Slavery%3A+Volume+2%3A+AD+500%E2%80%93AD+1420&rft.pages=453-481&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021-03-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240619349%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781139024723.019&rft.isbn=9780521840675&rft.aulast=Lenski&rft.aufirst=Noel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fcambridge-world-history-of-slavery%2Fslavery-in-the-byzantine-empire%2F6BC93914928532A51E2D9BE5EF40771F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKazhdanEpsteinWharton1985" class="citation book cs1">Kazhdan, Aleksandr Petrovich; Epstein, Ann Wharton; Wharton, Annabel Jane (1 January 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qlU37xo9LeUC&q=slavery"><i>Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520051294" title="Special:BookSources/9780520051294"><bdi>9780520051294</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Change+in+Byzantine+Culture+in+the+Eleventh+and+Twelfth+Centuries&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1985-01-01&rft.isbn=9780520051294&rft.aulast=Kazhdan&rft.aufirst=Aleksandr+Petrovich&rft.au=Epstein%2C+Ann+Wharton&rft.au=Wharton%2C+Annabel+Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqlU37xo9LeUC%26q%3Dslavery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.gr-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.gr_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, W. G. (6 March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZW9DjTAox6EC&q=Orthodox"><i>Islam and the Abolition of Slavery</i></a>. Hurst. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781850657088" title="Special:BookSources/9781850657088"><bdi>9781850657088</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery&rft.pub=Hurst&rft.date=2006-03-06&rft.isbn=9781850657088&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZW9DjTAox6EC%26q%3DOrthodox&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clarence-Smith. W. G. <i>Religions and the abolition of slavery - a comparative approach.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/Economic-History/Assets/Documents/Research/GEHN/GEHNConferences/conf10/Conf10-ClarenceSmith.pdf">https://www.lse.ac.uk/Economic-History/Assets/Documents/Research/GEHN/GEHNConferences/conf10/Conf10-ClarenceSmith.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Youval Rotman, "Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World", transl. by Jane Marie Todd, Cambridge, Massachusetts – London, Harvard University Press 2009. Book presentation in a) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mediterraneanchronicle.org/datafiles/file/MC1_294.pdf">Nikolaos Linardos (University of Athens), <i>Mediterranean Chronicle</i> 1 (2011) pp. 281, 282</a>, b) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/115/5/1513/42872">Alice Rio, <i>American Historical Review</i>, Vol. 115, Issue 5, 2010, pp. 1513–1514</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToynbee1973382–383,_388–390-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToynbee1973382–383,_388–390_208-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToynbee1973">Toynbee 1973</a>, pp. 382–383, 388–390.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOikonomides19911722-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOikonomides19911722_209-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOikonomides1991">Oikonomides 1991</a>, p. 1722.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToynbee1973388-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToynbee1973388_210-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToynbee1973">Toynbee 1973</a>, p. 388.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Akbar2002-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Akbar2002_211-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM.J_Akbar2002" class="citation book cs1">M.J Akbar (3 May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d_iBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86"><i>The Shade of Swords: Jihad and the Conflict Between Islam and Christianity</i></a>. Routledge. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-45259-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-45259-0"><bdi>978-1-134-45259-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201012040247/https://books.google.com/books?id=d_iBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2020</span>. <q>Some 30,000 Christians were either enslaved or sold.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shade+of+Swords%3A+Jihad+and+the+Conflict+Between+Islam+and+Christianity&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002-05-03&rft.isbn=978-1-134-45259-0&rft.au=M.J+Akbar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd_iBAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davis-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davis_212-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2003" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Paul K. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eKhZHVtIX8UC&pg=PA84"><i>Besieged: 100 Great Sieges from Jericho to Sarajevo</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521930-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521930-2"><bdi>978-0-19-521930-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Besieged%3A+100+Great+Sieges+from+Jericho+to+Sarajevo&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-521930-2&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeKhZHVtIX8UC%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html">"Supply of Slaves"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Supply+of+Slaves&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcoursesa.matrix.msu.edu%2F~fisher%2Fhst373%2Freadings%2Finalcik6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TnVgKpqCxzQC&pg=PA28">Ottomans against Italians and Portuguese about (white slavery)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157">Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schierbrand1886-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schierbrand1886_216-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolf_Von_Schierbrand1886" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Curt_von_Schierbrand" title="Wolf Curt von Schierbrand">Wolf Von Schierbrand</a> (28 March 1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1886/03/28/106300694.pdf">"Slaves sold to the Turk; How the vile traffic is still carried on in the East. Sights our correspondent saw for twenty dollars—in the house of a grand old Turk of a dealer. (news was reported on March 4)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Slaves+sold+to+the+Turk%3B+How+the+vile+traffic+is+still+carried+on+in+the+East.+Sights+our+correspondent+saw+for+twenty+dollars%E2%80%94in+the+house+of+a+grand+old+Turk+of+a+dealer.+%28news+was+reported+on+March+4%29&rft.date=1886-03-28&rft.au=Wolf+Von+Schierbrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1886%2F03%2F28%2F106300694.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zilfi2010-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zilfi2010_217-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Madeline C. Zilfi <i>Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire</i> Cambridge University Press, 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dursteler2006-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dursteler2006_218-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEric_Dursteler2006" class="citation book cs1">Eric Dursteler (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LF8uer6PMfAC&pg=PA72"><i>Venetians in Constantinople: Nation, Identity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean</i></a>. JHU Press. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801883248" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801883248"><bdi>978-0801883248</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Venetians+in+Constantinople%3A+Nation%2C+Identity%2C+and+Coexistence+in+the+Early+Modern+Mediterranean&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0801883248&rft.au=Eric+Dursteler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLF8uer6PMfAC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=266205">"Janissary"</a>. <i>www.everything2.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.everything2.com&rft.atitle=Janissary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.everything2.com%2Findex.pl%3Fnode_id%3D266205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgenthau1918" class="citation book cs1">Morgenthau, Henry (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwpda.org/wwi-www/morgenthau/MorgenTC.htm">"8"</a>. <i>Ambassador Morgenthau's Story</i>. Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday, Page & Co<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8&rft.btitle=Ambassador+Morgenthau%27s+Story&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+N.Y&rft.pub=Doubleday%2C+Page+%26+Co.&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Morgenthau&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwpda.org%2Fwwi-www%2Fmorgenthau%2FMorgenTC.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwpda.org/wwi-www/morgenthau/Morgen24.htm">"Ambassador Morgenthau's Story. 1918. Chapter Twenty-Four"</a>. <i>www.gwpda.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gwpda.org&rft.atitle=Ambassador+Morgenthau%27s+Story.+1918.+Chapter+Twenty-Four.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwpda.org%2Fwwi-www%2Fmorgenthau%2FMorgen24.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEltringhamMaclean2014" class="citation book cs1">Eltringham, Nigel; Maclean, Pam (27 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L-fpAwAAQBAJ&q=HENRY+I+MORGENTHAU+slavery+ottoman+empire&pg=PA41"><i>Remembering Genocide</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317754220" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317754220"><bdi>978-1317754220</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Remembering+Genocide&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-06-27&rft.isbn=978-1317754220&rft.aulast=Eltringham&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rft.au=Maclean%2C+Pam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL-fpAwAAQBAJ%26q%3DHENRY%2BI%2BMORGENTHAU%2Bslavery%2Bottoman%2Bempire%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Segal-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Segal_223-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Segal_223-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Interview with Ronald Segal on the subject of his book <i>Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora</i>. Suzy Hansen, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.salon.com/books/int/2001/04/05/segal/index.html">"Islam's black slaves,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070301113533/http://archive.salon.com/books/int/2001/04/05/segal/index.html">Archived</a> 2007-03-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Salon_(website)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salon (website)">Salon</a></i>, 5 April 2001. Quote: "Here we get to a further dimension of the difference between the two trades. Slavery in the West...the concept of race developed and was popularized...The Koran very explicitly attacks [racism]...This is important for the assimilation aspect too, because once you were freed, there was no discrimination in law against you...I don't think that there's any disputing that slavery was a more benevolent institution in Islam than it was in the West."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stein-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stein_224-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B. Stein, D. Arnold. <i>A History of India</i>, p. 212 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3GZfqCabsC&q=slavery">[3]</a>. John Wiley and Sons, 2010, 444 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1405195096" title="Special:BookSources/1405195096">1405195096</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-as-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-as_225-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Sharma (September 2005), Journal American Acad Religion, vol 73, issue 3, pp. 843–70</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jwc-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jwc_226-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jwc_226-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J.W. McCrindle (Translator), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientIndiaAsDescribedByMegasthenesAndArrianByMccrindleJ.W#page/n217/mode/2up/search/slaves">Ancient India</a> Trubner & Co. London</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayerischen_Landesamtes_für_Denkmalpflege2001" class="citation book cs1">Bayerischen Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V6U2AQAAIAAJ"><i>Qin Shihuang</i></a>. Bayerisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege. p. 273. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3874907118" title="Special:BookSources/978-3874907118"><bdi>978-3874907118</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Qin+Shihuang&rft.pages=273&rft.pub=Bayerisches+Landesamt+f%C3%BCr+Denkmalpflege&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-3874907118&rft.au=Bayerischen+Landesamtes+f%C3%BCr+Denkmalpflege&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV6U2AQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Edward_Lewis2007" class="citation book cs1">Mark Edward Lewis (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EHKxM31e408C&pg=PA252"><i>The early Chinese empires: Qin and Han</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674024779" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674024779"><bdi>978-0674024779</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+early+Chinese+empires%3A+Qin+and+Han&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0674024779&rft.au=Mark+Edward+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEHKxM31e408C%26pg%3DPA252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSociety_for_East_Asian_Studies2001" class="citation book cs1">Society for East Asian Studies (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hYNuAAAAMAAJ"><i>Journal of East Asian archaeology, Volume 3</i></a>. Brill. p. 299<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+East+Asian+archaeology%2C+Volume+3&rft.pages=299&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Society+for+East+Asian+Studies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhYNuAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHistory_of_Science_Society1952" class="citation book cs1">History of Science Society (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8IktAAAAIAAJ"><i>Osiris, Volume 10</i></a>. 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Cognoscenti Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781300568070" title="Special:BookSources/9781300568070"><bdi>9781300568070</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam+Past+and+Present%3A+The+North&rft.pub=Cognoscenti+Books&rft.date=2012-12-26&rft.isbn=9781300568070&rft.aulast=Henley&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Forbes%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgKCea9iRga4C%26q%3D%2522slave%2Bgirls%2Bof%2Bviet%2522%26pg%3DPT232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchafer1967" class="citation book cs1">Schafer, Edward Hetzel (1967). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vermilionbirdtan00scha"><i>The Vermilion Bird</i></a></span>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vermilionbirdtan00scha/page/56">56</a>. <q>slave girls of viet.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vermilion+Bird&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Schafer&rft.aufirst=Edward+Hetzel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvermilionbirdtan00scha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirschmanYates2014" class="citation book cs1">Hirschman, Elizabeth Caldwell; Yates, Donald N. (29 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zq9iAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA51"><i>The Early Jews and Muslims of England and Wales: A Genetic and Genealogical History</i></a>. McFarland. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786476848" title="Special:BookSources/978-0786476848"><bdi>978-0786476848</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Jews+and+Muslims+of+England+and+Wales%3A+A+Genetic+and+Genealogical+History&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2014-04-29&rft.isbn=978-0786476848&rft.aulast=Hirschman&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Caldwell&rft.au=Yates%2C+Donald+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzq9iAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF(Japan)" class="citation book cs1">(Japan), Tōyō Bunko. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ_WAAAAMAAJ&q=korean+girls+ming"><i>Memoirs of the Research Department, Issue 2</i></a>. p. 63<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275958237" title="Special:BookSources/978-0275958237"><bdi>978-0275958237</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 July</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korea+and+East+Asia%3A+the+story+of+a+Phoenix&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0275958237&rft.au=Kenneth+B.+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXrZQs-6KswMC%26q%3Dchinese%2Bslaves%2Bkorea%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1966" class="citation book cs1">Davis, David Brion (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IyodFB4SdOIC&pg=PA51"><i>The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195056396" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195056396"><bdi>978-0195056396</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+Slavery+in+Western+Culture&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0195056396&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=David+Brion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIyodFB4SdOIC%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoyce_E._Salisbury2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joyce_E._Salisbury" title="Joyce E. Salisbury">Joyce E. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greenwood+Encyclopedia+of+Daily+Life%3A+The+medieval+world&rft.pages=316&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0313325434&rft.au=Joyce+E.+Salisbury&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT9AZAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchafer1963" class="citation book cs1">Schafer, Edward H. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqAGIL02BWQC&pg=PA45"><i>The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tʻang Exotics</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 45–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520054622" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520054622"><bdi>978-0520054622</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Peaches+of+Samarkand%3A+A+Study+of+T%CA%BBang+Exotics&rft.pages=45-46&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0520054622&rft.aulast=Schafer&rft.aufirst=Edward+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjqAGIL02BWQC%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gray, John Henry. (1878). <i>China: A History of the Laws, Manners and Customs of the People</i>, pp. 241–43. Reprint: Dover Publications, Mineola, New York. (2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">. Commemoration of the Abolition of Slavery Project</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andre Wink, Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 1, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, Seventh to Eleventh Centuries (Leiden, 1990)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muhammad_Qasim_Firishta_1864-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Muhammad_Qasim_Firishta_1864_243-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Muhammad_Qasim_Firishta_1864_243-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Muhammad Qasim Firishta, Tarikh-i-Firishta (Lucknow, 1864).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andre_Wink_1997-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Andre_Wink_1997_244-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andre_Wink_1997_244-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Andre Wink, Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 2, The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest, 11th–13th centuries (Leiden, 1997)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Utbi_1847-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Utbi_1847_245-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Utbi_1847_245-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Utbi, Tarikh al-Yamini (Delhi, 1847), tr. by James Reynolds, The Kitab-i-Yamini (London, 1858),</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg, tr., <i>The Chachnamah, an Ancient History of Sind</i>, 1900, reprint (Delhi, 1979), pp. 154, 163. This thirteenth-century source is a Persian translation of an (apparently lost) eighth-century Arabic manuscript detailing the Islamic conquests of Sind.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShah2011" class="citation journal cs1">Shah, Anish M.; et al. (15 July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3135801">"Indian Siddis: African Descendants with Indian Admixture"</a>. <i>American Journal of Human Genetics</i>. <b>89</b> (1): 154–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2011.05.030">10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.030</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3135801">3135801</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21741027">21741027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Indian+Siddis%3A+African+Descendants+with+Indian+Admixture&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=154-61&rft.date=2011-07-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3135801%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21741027&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2011.05.030&rft.aulast=Shah&rft.aufirst=Anish+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3135801&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andre Wink (1991), Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 1, Brill Academic (Leiden), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004095090" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004095090">978-9004095090</a>, pages 172-173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wink, Al-Hind, II</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry M. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2014</span>. <q>Whatever currency was in use [in Ireland in antiquity], it was not coin—as in other pre-coin economies, there was a system of conventional valuations in which female slaves, for example, were important units.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+I%3A+The+Romans+to+the+Norman+Conquest%2C+500+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+1066&rft.btitle=A+World+by+Itself%3A+A+History+of+the+British+Isles&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0712664967&rft.aulast=Campbelly&rft.aufirst=Jamesetta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUN8CAR5EEmgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vikings-301"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vikings_301-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vikings_301-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJunius_P_Rodriguez,_Ph.D.1997" class="citation book cs1">Junius P Rodriguez, Ph.D. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA674"><i>The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. vol 1. A–K</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 674. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0874368857" title="Special:BookSources/978-0874368857"><bdi>978-0874368857</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Encyclopedia+of+World+Slavery.+vol+1.+A%E2%80%93K&rft.pages=674&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0874368857&rft.au=Junius+P+Rodriguez%2C+Ph.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DATq5_6h2AT0C%26pg%3DPA674&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCormick,_Michael2002" class="citation journal cs1">McCormick, Michael (1 November 2002). "New Light on the 'Dark Ages': How the Slave Trade Fuelled the Carolingian Economy". <i>Past & Present</i> (177): 17–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F177.1.17">10.1093/past/177.1.17</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=New+Light+on+the+%27Dark+Ages%27%3A+How+the+Slave+Trade+Fuelled+the+Carolingian+Economy&rft.issue=177&rft.pages=17-54&rft.date=2002-11-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F177.1.17&rft.au=McCormick%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost,_Peter2013" class="citation web cs1">Frost, Peter (14 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://evoandproud.blogspot.com/2013/09/from-slavs-to-slaves.html">"From Slavs to Slaves"</a>. <i>Evo and Proud</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Evo+and+Proud&rft.atitle=From+Slavs+to+Slaves&rft.date=2013-09-14&rft.au=Frost%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fevoandproud.blogspot.com%2F2013%2F09%2Ffrom-slavs-to-slaves.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoody,_Jack2012" class="citation book cs1">Goody, Jack (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cc0LAQAAQBAJ"><i>The Theft of History</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 87–88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107394704" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107394704"><bdi>978-1107394704</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theft+of+History&rft.pages=87-88&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1107394704&rft.au=Goody%2C+Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCc0LAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_William_Brodman" class="citation web cs1">James William Brodman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/rc/rc1.htm">"Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier"</a>. Libro.uca.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ransoming+Captives+in+Crusader+Spain%3A+The+Order+of+Merced+on+the+Christian-Islamic+Frontier&rft.pub=Libro.uca.edu&rft.au=James+William+Brodman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibro.uca.edu%2Frc%2Frc1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1985" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, William D. Jr. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0B8NAQAAIAAJ&q=Byzantine-Ottoman%20wars%20slavery&pg=PA37"><i>Slavery from Roman times to the Early Transatlantic Trade</i></a>. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0719018251" title="Special:BookSources/978-0719018251"><bdi>978-0719018251</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+from+Roman+times+to+the+Early+Transatlantic+Trade&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0719018251&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=William+D.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0B8NAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DByzantine-Ottoman%2520wars%2520slavery%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trivia-library.com/b/famous-battles-in-history-the-turks-and-christians-at-lepanto.htm">"Famous Battles in History The Turks and Christians at Lepanto"</a>. Trivia-library.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Famous+Battles+in+History+The+Turks+and+Christians+at+Lepanto&rft.pub=Trivia-library.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.trivia-library.com%2Fb%2Ffamous-battles-in-history-the-turks-and-christians-at-lepanto.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassar2015" class="citation journal cs1">Cassar, P (20 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033829">"A medical service for slaves in Malta during the rule of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem"</a>. <i>Med Hist</i>. <b>12</b> (3): 270–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025727300013314">10.1017/s0025727300013314</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033829">1033829</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4875614">4875614</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Med+Hist&rft.atitle=A+medical+service+for+slaves+in+Malta+during+the+rule+of+the+Order+of+St.+John+of+Jerusalem&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=270-77&rft.date=2015-04-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1033829%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4875614&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0025727300013314&rft.aulast=Cassar&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1033829&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110929074357/http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html">"Brief History of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem"</a>. Hmml.org. 23 September 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html">the original</a> on 29 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brief+History+of+the+Knights+of+St.+John+of+Jerusalem&rft.pub=Hmml.org&rft.date=2010-09-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hmml.org%2Fcenters%2Fmalta%2Fhospitallers%2Fhospitallers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160">"Historical survey > Ways of ending slavery"</a>. <i>Britannica.com</i>. 31 January 1910<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historical+survey+%3E+Ways+of+ending+slavery&rft.btitle=Britannica.com&rft.date=1910-01-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen J. Frantzen and Douglas Moffat, eds. <i>The Work of Work: Servitude, Slavery, and Labor in Medieval England</i> (1994)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The complete sentence was <i>Non <b>Angli</b>, sed <b>angeli</b>, si forent Christiani.</i> "They are not Angles, but <a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">angels</a>, if they were Christian", see p. 117 of <a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Zuckermann, Ghil'ad</a> (2003), <a href="/wiki/Language_Contact_and_Lexical_Enrichment_in_Israeli_Hebrew" title="Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew">Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew</a>. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781403917232" title="Special:BookSources/9781403917232">9781403917232</a> / <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781403938695" title="Special:BookSources/9781403938695">9781403938695</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.palgrave.com/br/book/9781403917232">[5]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRousseau1958" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rousseau, Félix (1958). <i>Mélanges Félix Rousseau, Études sur l'histoire du pays mosan au moyen age, 673-686</i> (in French). La Renaissance du Livre. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30141458">30141458</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%A9langes+F%C3%A9lix+Rousseau%2C+%C3%89tudes+sur+l%27histoire+du+pays+mosan+au+moyen+age%2C+673-686&rft.pub=La+Renaissance+du+Livre&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30141458&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=F%C3%A9lix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevenson2002" class="citation book cs1">Stevenson, Walter (2002). "Eunuchs and early Christianity". In Tougher, Shaun (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_yPaAAAAMAAJ"><i>Eunuchs in Antiquity and Beyond</i></a>. Classical Press of Wales and Duckworth. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-3129-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-3129-4"><bdi>978-0-7156-3129-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eunuchs+and+early+Christianity&rft.btitle=Eunuchs+in+Antiquity+and+Beyond&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Classical+Press+of+Wales+and+Duckworth&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7156-3129-4&rft.aulast=Stevenson&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_yPaAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-radhanites-315"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-radhanites_315-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Olivia Remie Constable (1996). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M-CVlhPb21MC&pg=PA203">Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500</a></i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–04. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521565030" title="Special:BookSources/0521565030">0521565030</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=slave">"slave"</a>, <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2009</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=slave&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dslave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-muslim-317"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-muslim_317-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-muslim_317-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-muslim_317-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg=PA45">Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800</a></i>. 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Emmer, Chris Emery, "The Dutch Slave Trade, 1500–1850" (2006) p. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AMH-Jaquim-363"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AMH-Jaquim_363-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtlas_of_Mutual_Heritage" class="citation web cs1">Atlas of Mutual Heritage. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130504144844/http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/detail.aspx?page=dpost&lang=nl&id=822#tab2">"Plaats: Jaquim (Jaquin, Jakri, Godomey, Jakin)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/detail.aspx?page=dpost&lang=nl&id=822#tab2">the original</a> on 4 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plaats%3A+Jaquim+%28Jaquin%2C+Jakri%2C+Godomey%2C+Jakin%29&rft.au=Atlas+of+Mutual+Heritage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atlasofmutualheritage.nl%2Fdetail.aspx%3Fpage%3Ddpost%26lang%3Dnl%26id%3D822%23tab2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rik Van Welie, "Slave Trading and Slavery in the Dutch Colonial Empire: A Global Comparison," <i>NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids</i>, 2008, Vol. 82 Issue 1/2, pp. 47–96 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/index.php/nwig/article/view/3580/4340">tables 2 and 3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-365"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vink Markus, "'The World's Oldest Trade': Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century," <i>Journal of World History</i> June 2003 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jwh/14.2/vink.html">24 December 2010</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090924124618/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jwh/14.2/vink.html">Archived</a> 24 September 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Offering1859-366"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Offering1859_366-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog">"Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants"</a>. <i>Wesleyan Juvenile Offering</i>. <b>XVI</b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog/page/n22">12</a>. February 1859<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Osprey Publishing. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1846032400" title="Special:BookSources/978-1846032400"><bdi>978-1846032400</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Study+of+sails+on+pirate+ships&rft.atitle=Pirates+who+got+away+with+it&rft.date=2007-02-28&rft.aulast=de+Bruxelles&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2Farticle1449736.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1996" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Norman (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&q=barbary+lundy&pg=PA561"><i>Europe: a History</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%3A+a+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0198201717&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjrVW9W9eiYMC%26q%3Dbarbary%2Blundy%26pg%3DPA561&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-371"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_371-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_371-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_371-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_371-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_371-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_371-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannay1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Hannay_(historian)" title="David Hannay (historian)">Hannay, David McDowall</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barbary Pirates"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Barbary_Pirates">"Barbary Pirates" </a></span>. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 383–384.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Barbary+Pirates&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=383-384&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Hannay&rft.aufirst=David+McDowall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-372"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikhail_Kizilov2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kizilov" title="Mikhail Kizilov">Mikhail Kizilov</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3706285">"Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captives in the Crimean Khanate"</a>. <i>The Journal of Jewish Studies</i>. <b>58</b> (2): 189–210. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18647%2F2730%2FJJS-2007">10.18647/2730/JJS-2007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Jewish+Studies&rft.atitle=Slaves%2C+Money+Lenders%2C+and+Prisoner+Guards%3AThe+Jews+and+the+Trade+in+Slaves+and+Captives+in+the+Crimean+Khanate&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=189-210&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18647%2F2730%2FJJS-2007&rft.au=Mikhail+Kizilov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3706285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-373"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157">"Historical survey > Slave societies"</a>. <i>Britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historical+survey+%3E+Slave+societies&rft.btitle=Britannica.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-slave_trade-374"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-slave_trade_374-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-slave_trade_374-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikhail_Kizilov2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kizilov" title="Mikhail Kizilov">Mikhail Kizilov</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2971600">"Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources"</a>. <i>Oxford University</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 1–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+University&rft.atitle=Slave+Trade+in+the+Early+Modern+Crimea+From+the+Perspective+of+Christian%2C+Muslim%2C+and+Jewish+Sources&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-31&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Mikhail+Kizilov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2971600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-375"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_Glyn_Williams2013" class="citation web cs1">Brian Glyn Williams (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131021092115/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf">"The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jamestown_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="The Jamestown Foundation">The Jamestown Foundation</a></i>. p. 27. 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Routledge, 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-379"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simon Schama, <i>Rough Crossings</i> (London: BBC Books, 2005), p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml">Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore</a> BBC</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-381"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pdavis.nl/Background.htm#WAS">"The West African Squadron and slave trade"</a>. Pdavis.nl<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved 15 October 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-383"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vernon Pickering, <i>A Concise History of the British Virgin Islands</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0934139052" title="Special:BookSources/978-0934139052">978-0934139052</a>, p. 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-384"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Records indicate at least two earlier incidents. On 23 November 1739, in <a href="/wiki/Williamsburg,_Virginia" title="Williamsburg, Virginia">Williamsburg</a>, Virginia, two white men, Charles Quin and David White, were hanged for the murder of another white man's black slave; and on 21 April 1775, the <a href="/wiki/Fredericksburg,_Virginia" title="Fredericksburg, Virginia">Fredericksburg</a> newspaper, the <i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Gazette" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Gazette">Virginia Gazette</a></i> reported that a white man William Pitman had been hanged for the murder of his own black slave. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blacksincolonial00reis/page/101">Blacks in Colonial America</a></i>, p. 101, Oscar Reiss, McFarland & Company, 1997; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100624151602/http://departments.umw.edu/hipr/www/fredericksburg/newspapers/vagaz/12may75s_1_3.htm"><i>Virginia Gazette</i>, 21 April 1775</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Mary_Washington" title="University of Mary Washington">University of Mary Washington</a> Department of Historic Preservation archives</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbert2000" class="citation journal cs1">Herbert, Ulrich (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130509054212/http://www.nathaninc.com/sites/default/files/Pub%20PDFs/Forced%20Labor%20Under%20the%20Third%20Reich,%20Part%20One.pdf">"Forced Laborers in the Third Reich: An Overview (Part One)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Labor and Working-Class History</i>. <b>58</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0147547900003677">10.1017/S0147547900003677</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145344942">145344942</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nathaninc.com/sites/default/files/Pub%20PDFs/Forced%20Labor%20Under%20the%20Third%20Reich,%20Part%20One.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Labor+and+Working-Class+History&rft.atitle=Forced+Laborers+in+the+Third+Reich%3A+An+Overview+%28Part+One%29&rft.volume=58&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0147547900003677&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145344942%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Herbert&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nathaninc.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FPub%2520PDFs%2FForced%2520Labor%2520Under%2520the%2520Third%2520Reich%2C%2520Part%2520One.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span> (offprint)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-386"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/chap_10.asp">Yale Law School Avalon Project</a> retrieved 8 January 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-387"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-387">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/germancos.html">"German Firms That Used Slave or Forced Labor During the Nazi Era"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a></i>. 27 January 2000<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=German+Firms+That+Used+Slave+or+Forced+Labor+During+the+Nazi+Era&rft.btitle=Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft.date=2000-01-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2FHolocaust%2Fgermancos.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-388"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-388">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005180">United States Holocaust Museum</a> retrieved 8 January 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-389"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-389">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacKenzie1994" class="citation journal cs1">MacKenzie, S.P. (September 1994). "The Treatment of Prisoners of War in World War II". <i>The Journal of Modern History</i>. <b>66</b> (3): 487–520. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F244883">10.1086/244883</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143467546">143467546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Treatment+of+Prisoners+of+War+in+World+War+II&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=487-520&rft.date=1994-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F244883&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143467546%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=MacKenzie&rft.aufirst=S.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-390"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-390">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTjersland2006" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tjersland, Jonas (8 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vg.no/pub/vgart.hbs?artid=166207">"Tyske soldater brukt som mineryddere"</a> [German soldiers used for mine-clearing] (in Norwegian). VG Nett<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tyske+soldater+brukt+som+mineryddere&rft.pub=VG+Nett&rft.date=2006-04-08&rft.aulast=Tjersland&rft.aufirst=Jonas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vg.no%2Fpub%2Fvgart.hbs%3Fartid%3D166207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-memo-391"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-memo_391-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.memo.ru/history/NKVD/GULAG/r1/r1-4.htm">"Система исправительно-трудовых лагерей в СССР"</a>. Memo.ru<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0+%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9+%D0%B2+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0&rft.pub=Memo.ru&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.memo.ru%2Fhistory%2FNKVD%2FGULAG%2Fr1%2Fr1-4.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-392"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-392">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Conquest in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/CNQ-Victims_Stalinism.pdf">"Victims of Stalinism: A Comment."</a> <i>Europe-Asia Studies</i>, Vol. 49, No. 7 (Nov. 1997), pp. 1317–19 states: "We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals (even if not as complete) with their 14 million intake to Gulag 'camps' alone, to which must be added 4–5 million going to Gulag 'colonies', to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in, or sent to, 'labor settlements'. However taken, these are surely 'high' figures."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-393"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-393">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFmythichawaii.com2006" class="citation web cs1">mythichawaii.com (23 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mythichawaii.com/hawaiian-culture-society.htm">"Kapu System and Caste System of Ancient Hawai'i"</a>. Mythichawaii.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kapu+System+and+Caste+System+of+Ancient+Hawai%27i&rft.pub=Mythichawaii.com&rft.date=2006-10-23&rft.au=mythichawaii.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mythichawaii.com%2Fhawaiian-culture-society.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-394"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-394">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin1968" class="citation journal cs1">Levin, Stephenie Seto (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230419202518/https://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_77_1968/Volume_77,_No._4/The_overthrow_of_the_kapu_system_in_Hawaii,_by_Stephenie_Seto_Levin,_p_402_-_430/p1">"The Overthrow of the Kapu System in Hawaii"</a>. <i>Journal of the Polynesian Society</i>. <b>77</b>: 402–30. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_77_1968/Volume_77,_No._4/The_overthrow_of_the_kapu_system_in_Hawaii,_by_Stephenie_Seto_Levin,_p_402_-_430/p1">the original</a> on 19 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Polynesian+Society&rft.atitle=The+Overthrow+of+the+Kapu+System+in+Hawaii&rft.volume=77&rft.pages=402-30&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Stephenie+Seto&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jps.auckland.ac.nz%2Fdocument%2FVolume_77_1968%2FVolume_77%2C_No._4%2FThe_overthrow_of_the_kapu_system_in_Hawaii%2C_by_Stephenie_Seto_Levin%2C_p_402_-_430%2Fp1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WongRayson1987-395"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WongRayson1987_395-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWongRayson1987" class="citation book cs1">Wong, Helen; Rayson, Ann (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sY8iLDyCltMC"><i>Hawaii's Royal History</i></a>. 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"Maori Prisoners and Slaves in the Nineteenth Century". <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory_(journal)" title="Ethnohistory (journal)">Ethnohistory</a></i>. <b>8</b> (2): 144–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F480764">10.2307/480764</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/480764">480764</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnohistory&rft.atitle=Maori+Prisoners+and+Slaves+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=144-55&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F480764&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F480764%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Vayda&rft.aufirst=Andrew+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-397"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-397">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Malley2013" class="citation book cs1">O'Malley, Vincent (1 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4-haAwAAQBAJ"><i>The Meeting Place: Maori and Pakeha Encounters, 1642-1840</i></a>. 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In Sutton, Douglas G. (Ed.) (1994), </i>The Origins of the First New Zealanders<i><span></span></i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moriori&rft.pub=Te+Ara+%E2%80%93+the+Encyclopedia+of+New+Zealand&rft.date=2006-06-09&rft.aulast=Solomon&rft.aufirst=M%C4%81ui&rft.au=Denise+Davis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.teara.govt.nz%2FNewZealanders%2FMaoriNewZealanders%2FMoriori%2Fen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-400"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-400">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowe2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Howe, Kerry (9 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090416053239/http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/IdeasOfMaoriOrigins/en">"Ideas of Māori origins"</a>. <i>Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand</i>. 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Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140103915" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140103915"><bdi>978-0140103915</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moriori%3A+A+People+Rediscovered&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0140103915&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moriori._M._King._Penguin._2003-402"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moriori._M._King._Penguin._2003_402-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Moriori</i>. <a href="/wiki/Michael_King_(historian)" title="Michael King (historian)">M. King</a>. Penguin. 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-403"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-403">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/Moriori/4/en">"Moriori – The impact of new arrivals – Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand"</a>. Teara.govt.nz. 4 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Penguin. 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-406"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-406">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seymour Drescher, <i>Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-407"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-407">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150414211920/http://databases.tanap.net/ead/html/CapeTown_1.21/index.html?N100A7">Inventory of the Archives of the Registrar and Guardian of Slaves, 1717–1848</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-408"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-408">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(1772) 20 State Tr 1; (1772) Lofft 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-409"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-409">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul E. 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New York: Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/290">290</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521780124" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521780124"><bdi>978-0521780124</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transformations+in+slavery%3A+a+history+of+slavery+in+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=290&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0521780124&rft.aulast=Lovejoy&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftransformationsi0000love%2Fpage%2F290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-411"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-411">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dryden, John. 1992 "Pas de Six Ans!" 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anti-Slavery+Society&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F96359&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddnb.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F9780198614128.001.0001%2Fodnb-9780198614128-e-96359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-414"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-414">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Committee_Office,_House_of_Commons2006" class="citation web cs1">The Committee Office, House of Commons (6 March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmintdev/923/923m21.htm">"House of Commons – International Development – Memoranda"</a>. 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UK. 25 January 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Response+The+1833+Abolition+of+Slavery+Act+didn%27t+end+the+vile+trade&rft.date=2007-01-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2Fstory%2F0%2C%2C1998227%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-416"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-416">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.antislavery.org/about-us/history/">"Our history"</a>. <i>Anti-Slavery International</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Duke University Press, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822319924" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822319924">978-0822319924</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-423"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-423">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robin D.G. Kelley and Earl Lewis, <i>To Make Our World Anew: Volume I</i> (2005) p. 255</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-424"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-424">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Parliamentary Debates from the Year 1803 to the Present Time, Published by s.n., 1816 Volume 32. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I8ETAAAAYAAJ&pg=P74">p. 200</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-425"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-425">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press. 100-121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-426"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-426">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-427"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-427">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 323-324</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-428"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-428">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 326</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-429"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-429">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_P._Forsythe2009" class="citation book cs1">David P. Forsythe, ed. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC&pg=RA1-PA494"><i>Encyclopedia of human rights</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 494–502. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195334029" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195334029"><bdi>978-0195334029</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+human+rights&rft.pages=494-502&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0195334029&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1QbX90fmCVUC%26pg%3DRA1-PA494&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-430"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-430">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml">"Slavery in Islam"</a>. <i>BBC.co.uk</i>. BBC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC.co.uk&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+Islam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2Freligions%2Fislam%2Fhistory%2Fslavery_1.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-431"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-431">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKee2015" class="citation news cs1">McKee, Caroline (7 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2015/07/07/U-S-works-to-fight-modern-day-slavery.html">"U.S. works to fight modern-day slavery"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=U.S.+works+to+fight+modern-day+slavery&rft.date=2015-07-07&rft.aulast=McKee&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenglish.alarabiya.net%2Fen%2Fperspective%2Ffeatures%2F2015%2F07%2F07%2FU-S-works-to-fight-modern-day-slavery.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-432"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-432">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150721184701/http://www.polarisproject.org/human-trafficking/overview">"Human Trafficking"</a>. <i>polarisproject.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polarisproject.org/human-trafficking/overview">the original</a> on 21 July 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=polarisproject.org&rft.atitle=Human+Trafficking&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.polarisproject.org%2Fhuman-trafficking%2Foverview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-433"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-433">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reliefweb.int/report/world/which-countries-have-highest-rates-modern-slavery-and-most-victims">"Which countries have the highest rates of modern slavery and most victims? - World | ReliefWeb"</a>. <i>reliefweb.int</i>. 31 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=reliefweb.int&rft.atitle=Which+countries+have+the+highest+rates+of+modern+slavery+and+most+victims%3F+-+World+%26%23124%3B+ReliefWeb&rft.date=2018-07-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freliefweb.int%2Freport%2Fworld%2Fwhich-countries-have-highest-rates-modern-slavery-and-most-victims&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-434"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-434">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">August Meier, August, and Elliott M. Rudwick, eds. <i>Black history and the historical profession, 1915–80</i> (1986).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-435"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-435">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Kolchin, <i>American Slavery: 1619–1877</i> (1993) p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-436"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-436">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Oliver_HortonLois_E._Horton2006" class="citation book cs1">James Oliver Horton; Lois E. Horton (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uUleEW07AvgC&pg=PA8"><i>Slavery and the Making of America</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195304510" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195304510"><bdi>978-0195304510</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+the+Making+of+America&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0195304510&rft.au=James+Oliver+Horton&rft.au=Lois+E.+Horton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuUleEW07AvgC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-437"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-437">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEric_Foner2013" class="citation book cs1">Eric Foner (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BfC7FbdXgxIC&pg=PR22"><i>Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday. p. xxii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0307834584" title="Special:BookSources/978-0307834584"><bdi>978-0307834584</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forever+Free%3A+The+Story+of+Emancipation+and+Reconstruction&rft.pages=xxii&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0307834584&rft.au=Eric+Foner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBfC7FbdXgxIC%26pg%3DPR22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-438"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-438">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolchin p. 135. David and Temin p. 741. The latter authors wrote, "The vantage point correspondingly shifted from that of the master to that of his slave. The reversal culminated in Kenneth M. Stampp's <i>The Peculiar Institution</i> (1956), which rejected both the characterization of blacks as a biologically and culturally inferior, childlike people, and the depiction of the white planters as paternal <a href="/wiki/Cavaliers" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavaliers">Cavaliers</a> coping with a vexing social problem that was not of their own making."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-439"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-439">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Kolchin2003" class="citation book cs1">Peter Kolchin (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FaffAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA136"><i>American Slavery: 1619–1877</i></a>. Macmillan. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0809016303" title="Special:BookSources/978-0809016303"><bdi>978-0809016303</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Slavery%3A+1619%E2%80%931877&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0809016303&rft.au=Peter+Kolchin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFaffAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-440"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-440">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolchin p. 136</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-441"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-441">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolchin pp. 137–43. Horton and Horton p. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robert_E._Wright_2010-442"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Robert_E._Wright_2010_442-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert E. Wright, Fubarnomics (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 2010), 83–116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-443"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-443">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"A Nation Still Divided: The Confederate Flag," <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://maristpoll.marist.edu/86-a-nation-still-divided-the-confederate-flag/"><i>Marist Poll</i> (2015) </a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-444"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-444">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFServen2018" class="citation news cs1">Serven, Ruth (21 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.richmond.com/news/virginia/slavery-reparations-memorials-discussed-at-uva-conference/article_5eab7874-4e90-5328-9a07-142f539300f4.html">"Slavery reparations, memorials discussed at UVA conference"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Richmond_Times-Dispatch" title="Richmond Times-Dispatch">Richmond Times-Dispatch</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Richmond+Times-Dispatch&rft.atitle=Slavery+reparations%2C+memorials+discussed+at+UVA+conference&rft.date=2018-03-21&rft.aulast=Serven&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.richmond.com%2Fnews%2Fvirginia%2Fslavery-reparations-memorials-discussed-at-uva-conference%2Farticle_5eab7874-4e90-5328-9a07-142f539300f4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-445"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-445">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson2019" class="citation journal cs1">Patterson, Orlando (2019). "The Denial of Slavery in Contemporary American Sociology". <i>Theory and Society</i>. <b>48</b> (6): 903–914. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11186-019-09369-x">10.1007/s11186-019-09369-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214050925">214050925</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theory+and+Society&rft.atitle=The+Denial+of+Slavery+in+Contemporary+American+Sociology&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=903-914&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11186-019-09369-x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A214050925%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=Orlando&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-446"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-446">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank Joseph Klingberg, <i>The anti-slavery movement in England: a study in English humanitarianism</i> (Yale University Press, 1926)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-447"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-447">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barbara Solow and Stanley L. Engerman, eds., <i>British capitalism and Caribbean slavery: The legacy of Eric Williams</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2004)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-448"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-448">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gad Heuman "The British West Indies" in Andrew Porter, ed., <i>The Oxford History of the British Empire – Vol. 3: The 19th Century</i> (1999) 3:470</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-449"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-449">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seymour Drescher, "Eric Williams: British Capitalism and British Slavery." <i>History and Theory</i> (1987): 180–96. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://his693.clevelandhistory.org/files/2015/01/Drescher-WilliamThesis.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170329123920/http://his693.clevelandhistory.org/files/2015/01/Drescher-WilliamThesis.pdf">Archived</a> 29 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-450"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-450">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seymour Drescher, <i>Econocide: British Slavery in the Era of Abolition</i> (1977).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-451"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-451">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.R. Ward, "The British West Indies in the Age of Abolition," in P.J. Marshall, ed. <i>The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century</i> (1998) pp. 415–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-452"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-452">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Richardson, "The British Empire and the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1660–1807," in P.J. Marshall, ed. <i>The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century</i> (1998) pp. 440–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-453"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-453">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngerman1972" class="citation journal cs1">Engerman, Stanley L. (1972). "The Slave Trade and British Capital Formation in the Eighteenth Century: A Comment on the Williams Thesis". <i>The Business History Review</i>. <b>46</b> (4): 430–443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3113341">10.2307/3113341</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3113341">3113341</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154620412">154620412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Business+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+Slave+Trade+and+British+Capital+Formation+in+the+Eighteenth+Century%3A+A+Comment+on+the+Williams+Thesis&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=430-443&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154620412%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3113341%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3113341&rft.aulast=Engerman&rft.aufirst=Stanley+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Slave_Trade_and_British_Capital_Formation_in_the_Eighteenth_Century-454"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Slave_Trade_and_British_Capital_Formation_in_the_Eighteenth_Century_454-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanley_L._Engerman2012" class="citation journal cs1">Stanley L. Engerman (2012). "The Slave Trade and British Capital Formation in the Eighteenth Century". <i>Business History Review</i>. <b>46</b> (4): 430–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3113341">10.2307/3113341</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3113341">3113341</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154620412">154620412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+Slave+Trade+and+British+Capital+Formation+in+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=430-43&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154620412%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3113341%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3113341&rft.au=Stanley+L.+Engerman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-455"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-455">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPares1937" class="citation journal cs1">Pares, Richard (1937). "The Economic Factors in the History of the Empire". <i>The Economic History Review</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 119–144. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2590147">10.2307/2590147</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2590147">2590147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+Economic+Factors+in+the+History+of+the+Empire&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=119-144&rft.date=1937&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2590147&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2590147%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pares&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-456"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT_456-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTony_Wild2014" class="citation news cs1">Tony Wild (10 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/11/opinion/slaverys-shadow-on-switzerland.html?_r=0">"Slavery's Shadow on Switzerland"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Slavery%27s+Shadow+on+Switzerland&rft.date=2014-11-10&rft.au=Tony+Wild&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F11%2F11%2Fopinion%2Fslaverys-shadow-on-switzerland.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC-Verdingkinder-457"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBC-Verdingkinder_457-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKavita_Puri2014" class="citation news cs1">Kavita Puri (29 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29765623">"Switzerland's shame: The children used as cheap farm labour"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Switzerland%27s+shame%3A+The+children+used+as+cheap+farm+labour&rft.date=2014-10-29&rft.au=Kavita+Puri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-29765623&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The Cambridge World History of Slavery</i>, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011–2021 <ul><li>Volume 1: <i>The Ancient Mediterranean World</i>, Edited by Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge, 2011</li> <li>Volume 2: <i>AD 500–AD 1420</i>, Edited by Craig Perry, David Eltis, Stanley L. Engerman, David Richardson, 2021</li> <li>Volume 3: <i>AD 1420–AD 1804</i>, Edited by David Eltis and Stanley L. Engerman, 2011</li> <li>Volume 4: <i>AD 1804–AD 2016</i>, Edited by David Eltis, Stanley L. Engerman, Seymour Drescher and David Richardson, 2017</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2017" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, R. B. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf">"Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Tempo</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 294–313. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2Ftem-1980-542x2017v230206">10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tempo&rft.atitle=Ending+the+history+of+silence%3A+reconstructing+European+slave+trading+in+the+Indian+Ocean&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=294-313&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2Ftem-1980-542x2017v230206&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=R.+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scielo.br%2Fpdf%2Ftem%2Fv23n2%2F1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brion_Davis" title="David Brion Davis">Davis, David Brion</a>. <i>Slavery and Human Progress</i> (1984).</li> <li>Davis, David Brion. <i>The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture</i> (1966)</li> <li>Davis, David Brion. <i><a href="/wiki/Inhuman_Bondage:_The_Rise_and_Fall_of_Slavery_in_the_New_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World">Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World</a></i> (2006)</li> <li>Drescher, Seymour. <i>Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2009)</li> <li>Finkelman, Paul, ed. <i>Slavery and Historiography</i> (New York: Garland, 1989)</li> <li>Finkelman, Paul, and Joseph Miller, eds. <i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery</i> (2 vol 1998)</li> <li>Hinks, Peter, and John McKivigan, eds. <i>Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition</i> (2 vol. 2007) 795 pp; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313331428" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313331428">978-0313331428</a></li> <li>Linden, Marcel van der, ed. <i>Humanitarian Intervention and Changing Labor Relations: The Long-Term Consequences of the Abolition of the Slave Trade</i> (Brill Academic Publishers, 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/rezensionen/id=15833">online review</a></li> <li>McGrath, Elizabeth and Massing, Jean Michel, <i>The Slave in European Art: From Renaissance Trophy to Abolitionist Emblem</i> (London: The Warburg Institute, 2012.)</li> <li>Miller, Joseph C. <i>The problem of slavery as history: a global approach</i> (Yale University Press, 2012.)</li> <li>Parish, Peter J. <i>Slavery: History and Historians</i> (1989)</li> <li>Phillips, William D. <i>Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Atlantic Slave Trade</i> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junius_P._Rodriguez" title="Junius P. Rodriguez">Rodriguez, Junius P.</a> ed. <i>The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery</i> (2 vol. 1997)</li> <li>Rodriguez, Junius P. ed. <i>Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion</i> (2 vol. 2007)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greece_and_Rome">Greece and Rome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Greece and Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bradley, Keith. <i>Slavery and Society at Rome</i> (1994)</li> <li>Cuffel, Victoria. "The Classical Greek Concept of Slavery," <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i> Vol. 27, No. 3 (Jul–Sep 1966), pp. 323–42 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708589">2708589</a></li> <li>Finley, Moses, ed. <i>Slavery in Classical Antiquity</i> (1960)</li> <li>Westermann, William L. <i>The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity</i> (1955) 182 pp</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe:_Middle_Ages">Europe: Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Europe: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelepeleire2004" class="citation book cs1">Delepeleire, Y. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethesis.net/wic/wic_inhoud.htm"><i>Nederlands Elmina: een socio-economische analyse van de Tweede Westindische Compagnie in West-Afrika in 1715</i></a>. Gent: Universiteit Gent.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nederlands+Elmina%3A+een+socio-economische+analyse+van+de+Tweede+Westindische+Compagnie+in+West-Afrika+in+1715&rft.place=Gent&rft.pub=Universiteit+Gent&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Delepeleire&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethesis.net%2Fwic%2Fwic_inhoud.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rio, Alice. <i>Slavery After Rome, 500-1100</i> (Oxford University Press, 2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=54675">online review</a></li> <li>Stark, Rodney. <i>The victory of reason: How Christianity led to freedom, capitalism, and Western success</i> (Random House, 2006).</li> <li>Verhulst, Adriaan. "The decline of slavery and the economic expansion of the Early Middle Ages." <i>Past & Present</i> No. 133 (Nov., 1991), pp. 195–203 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650772">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa_and_Middle_East">Africa and Middle East</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: Africa and Middle East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Brown, Audrey, and Anthony Knapp. “NPS Ethnography: African American Heritage & Ethnography.” <i>National Parks Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.</i> 2003 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsd.htm">online</a></li> <li>Campbell, Gwyn. <i>The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia</i> (Frank Cass, 2004)</li> <li>Davis, Robert C., <i>Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, The Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0333719662" title="Special:BookSources/0333719662">0333719662</a></li> <li>Hershenzon, Daniel. "Towards a connected history of bondage in the Mediterranean: Recent trends in the field." <i>History Compass</i> 15.8 (2017). on Christian captives</li> <li>Lovejoy, Paul. <i>Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa</i> (Cambridge UP, 1983)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOikonomides1991" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nikolaos_Oikonomides" title="Nikolaos Oikonomides">Oikonomides, Nicolas</a> (1991). "Prisoners, Exchanges of". In <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kazhdan" title="Alexander Kazhdan">Kazhdan, Alexander</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_Byzantium" title="Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium">The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium</a></i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1722. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-504652-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-504652-8"><bdi>0-19-504652-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prisoners%2C+Exchanges+of&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Byzantium&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=1722&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-19-504652-8&rft.aulast=Oikonomides&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>“The Early Cape Slave Trade.” <i>South African History Online</i>, 2 Apr. 2015 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/early-cape-slave-trade">online</a></li> <li>Toledano, Ehud R. <i>As If Silent and Absent: Bonds of Enslavement in the Islamic Middle East</i> (Yale University Press, 2007) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300126181" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300126181">978-0300126181</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToynbee1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Toynbee, Arnold</a> (1973). <i>Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World</i>. London and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-215253-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-215253-X"><bdi>0-19-215253-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantine+Porphyrogenitus+and+His+World&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-19-215253-X&rft.aulast=Toynbee&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atlantic_trade,_Latin_America_and_British_Empire"><span id="Atlantic_trade.2C_Latin_America_and_British_Empire"></span>Atlantic trade, Latin America and British Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: Atlantic trade, Latin America and British Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Blackburn, Robin. <i>The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation, and Human Rights</i> (Verso; 2011) 498 pp; on slavery and abolition in the Americas from the 16th to the late 19th centuries.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fradera,_Josep_M." class="mw-redirect" title="Fradera, Josep M.">Fradera, Josep M.</a> and Christopher Schmidt-Nowara, eds. <i>Slavery and Antislavery in Spain's Atlantic Empire</i> (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qd02x">online</a></li> <li>Klein, Herbert S. <i>African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean</i> (Oxford University Press, 1988)</li> <li>Klein, Herbert. <i>The Atlantic Slave Trade</i> (1970)</li> <li>Klein, Herbert S. <i>Slavery in Brazil</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2009)</li> <li>Morgan, Kenneth. <i>Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America</i> (2008)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFResendez2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andres_Resendez" class="mw-redirect" title="Andres Resendez">Resendez</a>, Andres (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&q=Rese%CC%81ndez%2C%20Andre%CC%81s.%202017.%20The%20other%20slavery%3A%20the%20uncovered%20story%20of%20indian%20enslavement%20in%20America.&pg=PP1"><i>The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America</i></a>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 448. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0544602670" title="Special:BookSources/978-0544602670"><bdi>978-0544602670</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+Slavery%3A+The+Uncovered+Story+of+Indian+Enslavement+in+America&rft.pages=448&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0544602670&rft.aulast=Resendez&rft.aufirst=Andres&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2gpCgAAQBAJ%26q%3DRese%25CC%2581ndez%252C%2520Andre%25CC%2581s.%25202017.%2520The%2520other%2520slavery%253A%2520the%2520uncovered%2520story%2520of%2520indian%2520enslavement%2520in%2520America.%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensenSimonsen2016" class="citation journal cs1">Jensen, Niklas Thode; Simonsen, Gunvor (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03468755.2016.1210880">"Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950-2016"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Journal_of_History" title="Scandinavian Journal of History">Scandinavian Journal of History</a></i>. <b>41</b> (4–5): 475–494. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03468755.2016.1210880">10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scandinavian+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+The+historiography+of+slavery+in+the+Danish-Norwegian+West+Indies%2C+c.+1950-2016&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=475-494&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03468755.2016.1210880&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=Niklas+Thode&rft.au=Simonsen%2C+Gunvor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F03468755.2016.1210880&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Stinchcombe" title="Arthur Stinchcombe">Stinchcombe, Arthur L.</a> <i>Sugar Island Slavery in the Age of Enlightenment: The Political Economy of the Caribbean World</i> (Princeton University Press, 1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Thomas,_Baron_Thomas_of_Swynnerton" title="Hugh Thomas, Baron Thomas of Swynnerton">Thomas, Hugh</a>. <i>The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870</i> (Simon & Schuster, 1997)</li> <li>Walvin, James. <i>Black Ivory: Slavery in the British Empire</i> (2nd ed. 2001)</li> <li>Ward, J.R. <i>British West Indian Slavery, 1750–1834</i> (Oxford U.P. 1988)</li> <li>Wright, Gavin. "Slavery and Anglo‐American capitalism revisited." <i>Economic History</i> Review 73.2 (2020): 353–383. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gwern.net/docs/economics/2020-wright.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Wyman‐McCarthy, Matthew. "British abolitionism and global empire in the late 18th century: A historiographic overview." History Compass 16.10 (2018): e12480. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12480">https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12480</a></li> <li>Zeuske, Michael. "Historiography and Research Problems of Slavery and the Slave Trade in a Global-Historical Perspective." <i>International Review of Social History</i> 57#1 (2012): 87–111.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_3">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFogel,_Robert1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Fogel, Robert</a> (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/withoutconsentor00foge"><i>Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery</i></a></span>. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393018875" title="Special:BookSources/9780393018875"><bdi>9780393018875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Without+Consent+or+Contract%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+American+Slavery&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780393018875&rft.au=Fogel%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwithoutconsentor00foge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGenovese,_Eugene1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Genovese" title="Eugene Genovese">Genovese, Eugene</a> (1974). <i>Roll Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roll+Jordan%2C+Roll%3A+The+World+the+Slaves+Made&rft.date=1974&rft.au=Genovese%2C+Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorne,_Gerald2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Horne" title="Gerald Horne">Horne, Gerald</a> (2014). <i>The Counter-Revolution of 1776: Slave Resistance and the Origins of the United States of America</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Counter-Revolution+of+1776%3A+Slave+Resistance+and+the+Origins+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Horne%2C+Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Miller, Randall M., and John David Smith, eds. <i>Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery</i> (1988)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips,_Ulrich_B1918" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Bonnell_Phillips" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulrich Bonnell Phillips">Phillips, Ulrich B</a> (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americannegrosl03philgoog"><i>American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the plantation Regime</i></a>. D. Appleton and company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Negro+Slavery%3A+A+Survey+of+the+Supply%2C+Employment+and+Control+of+Negro+Labor+as+Determined+by+the+plantation+Regime&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+company&rft.date=1918&rft.au=Phillips%2C+Ulrich+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericannegrosl03philgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rael, Patrick. <i>Eighty-eight years: the long death of slavery in the United States, 1777–1865</i> (U of Georgia Press, 2015)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez2007" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Junius P, ed. (2007). <i>Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia vol. 2</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+United+States%3A+A+Social%2C+Political%2C+and+Historical+Encyclopedia+vol.+2&rft.date=2007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sinha, Manisha. <i>The slave's cause: A history of abolition</i> (Yale University Press, 2016).</li> <li>Wilson, Thomas D. <i>The Ashley Cooper Plan: The Founding of Carolina and the Origins of Southern Political Culture</i>. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2016.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Final_Act_of_the_Congress_of_Vienna/Act_XV" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Final Act of the Congress of Vienna/Act XV">Declaration of the Powers [at the Congress of Vienna], on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, of 8 February 1815</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1815)/Definitive_Treaty#Additional_article_on_the_slave_trade" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Treaty of Paris (1815)/Definitive Treaty">Additional article on the slave trade to the Definitive [Peace] Treaty. 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principles">Nuremberg principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">United Nations Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Torture" title="United Nations Convention Against Torture">Convention Against Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">Crimes against<br />international law</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">Crime of aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_intent" title="Genocidal intent">Genocidal intent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide" title="Incitement to genocide">Incitement to genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slave trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation_(crime)" title="Starvation (crime)">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_court" title="International court">International courts</a><br /><span class="nobold">(in order of foundation)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone" title="Special Court for Sierra Leone">Special Court for Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge_Tribunal" title="Khmer Rouge Tribunal">Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Panels_for_Serious_Crimes_(East_Timor)" title="Special Panels for Serious Crimes (East Timor)">Special Panels of the Dili District Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Tribunal_for_Lebanon" title="Special Tribunal for Lebanon">Special Tribunal for Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Residual_Mechanism_for_Criminal_Tribunals" title="International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals">International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">Command responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_orders" title="Superior orders">Superior orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_criminal_enterprise" title="Joint criminal enterprise">Joint criminal enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">International humanitarian law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_speech_crimes" title="International speech crimes">International speech crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction" title="Universal jurisdiction">Universal jurisdiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slave_narratives" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slave_narrative" title="Template:Slave narrative"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slave_narrative" title="Template talk:Slave narrative"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slave_narrative" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slave narrative"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slave_narratives" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narratives</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Narrative_Collection" title="Slave Narrative Collection">Slave Narrative Collection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individuals<br />by continent<br />of enslavement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Adams_(sailor)" title="Robert Adams (sailor)">Robert Adams</a> (c. 1790–?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Berg_(1714-1761)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Berg (1714-1761)">Marcus Berg</a> (1714-1761)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bok" title="Francis Bok">Francis Bok</a> (b. 1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Brassard" title="Isaac Brassard">Isaac Brassard</a> (1620–1702)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felice_Caronni" title="Felice Caronni">Felice Caronni </a> (1747–1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Leander_Cathcart" title="James Leander Cathcart">James Leander Cathcart</a> (1767–1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93lafur_Egilsson" title="Ólafur Egilsson">Ólafur Egilsson</a> (1564–1639)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petro_Kilekwa" title="Petro Kilekwa">Petro Kilekwa</a> (late 19th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Marsh" title="Elizabeth Marsh">Elizabeth Marsh</a> (1735–1785)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_ter_Meetelen" title="Maria ter Meetelen">Maria ter Meetelen</a> (1704–?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_Nazer" title="Mende Nazer">Mende Nazer</a> (b. 1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hark_Olufs" title="Hark Olufs">Hark Olufs</a> (1708–1754)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pellow" title="Thomas Pellow">Thomas Pellow</a> (1705–?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pitts_(author)" title="Joseph Pitts (author)">Joseph Pitts</a> (1663 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1735</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%B0r%C3%AD%C3%B0ur_S%C3%ADmonard%C3%B3ttir" title="Guðríður Símonardóttir">Guðríður Símonardóttir</a> (1598–1682)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Qaurtier" title="Antoine Qaurtier">Antoine Qaurtier</a> (1632–1702)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Matth%C3%A4us_Wolfgang" title="Andreas Matthäus Wolfgang">Andreas Matthäus Wolfgang</a> (1660–1736)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Wolffgang" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Georg Wolffgang">Johann Georg Wolffgang</a> (1644–1744)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brigitta_Scherzenfeldt" title="Brigitta Scherzenfeldt">Brigitta Scherzenfeldt</a> (1684–1736)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=V%C3%A1clav_Vratislav&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Václav Vratislav (page does not exist)">Václav Vratislav</a> (1576–1635)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovisa_von_Burghausen" title="Lovisa von Burghausen">Lovisa von Burghausen</a> (1698–1733)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaudah_Equiano" title="Olaudah Equiano">Olaudah Equiano</a> (c. 1745 Nigeria – 31 March 1797 Eng)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukawsaw_Gronniosaw" title="Ukawsaw Gronniosaw">Ukawsaw Gronniosaw</a> (c. 1705 Bornu – 1775 Eng)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Marteilhe" title="Jean Marteilhe">Jean Marteilhe</a> (1684-1777)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roustam_Raza" title="Roustam Raza">Roustam Raza</a> (1783–1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunzio_Otello_Francesco_Gioacchino" title="Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioacchino">Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioacchino</a> (1792 – fl. 1828)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Ottoman Empire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Schiltberger" title="Johann Schiltberger">Johann Schiltberger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Mihailovi%C4%87" title="Konstantin Mihailović">Konstantin Mihailović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_of_Hungary" title="George of Hungary">George of Hungary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America:<br />Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Joseph_Ang%C3%A9lique" title="Marie-Joseph Angélique">Marie-Joseph Angélique</a> (c. 1710 Portugal – 1734 Montreal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Jewitt" title="John R. Jewitt">John R. Jewitt</a> (1783 England – 1821 United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America:<br />Caribbean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Francisco_Manzano" title="Juan Francisco Manzano">Juan Francisco Manzano</a> (1797–1854, Cuba)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esteban_Montejo" title="Esteban Montejo">Esteban Montejo</a> (1860–1965, Cuba)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Prince" title="Mary Prince">Mary Prince</a> (c. 1788 Bermuda – after 1833)</li> <li>Venerable <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Toussaint" title="Pierre Toussaint">Pierre Toussaint</a> (1766 Saint-Dominque – June 30, 1853 NY)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcos_Xiorro" title="Marcos Xiorro">Marcos Xiorro</a> (c. 1819 – ???, Puerto Rico)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America:<br />United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Aleckson" title="Sam Aleckson">Sam Aleckson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Anderson" title="Jordan Anderson">Jordan Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Anderson" title="William J. Anderson">William J. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Maurice_Arter" title="Jared Maurice Arter">Jared Maurice Arter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Bayley" title="Solomon Bayley">Solomon Bayley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polly_Berry" title="Polly Berry">Polly Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Bibb" title="Henry Bibb">Henry Bibb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Black" title="Leonard Black">Leonard Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a> (1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Box_Brown" title="Henry Box Brown">Henry "Box" Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(fugitive_slave)" title="John Brown (fugitive slave)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wells_Brown" title="William Wells Brown">William Wells Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Bruner" title="Peter Bruner">Peter Bruner</a> (1845 KY – 1938 OH)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_and_William_Craft" title="Ellen and William Craft">Ellen and William Craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Crafts" title="Hannah Crafts">Hannah Crafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucinda_Davis" title="Lucinda Davis">Lucinda Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_Davis_(Baptist_minister)" title="Noah Davis (Baptist minister)">Noah Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Delaney" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucy Delaney">Lucy Delaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo" title="Ayuba Suleiman Diallo">Ayuba Suleiman Diallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Drumgoold" title="Kate Drumgoold">Kate Drumgoold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Winston_Early" title="Jordan Winston Early">Jordan Winston Early</a> (1814 – after 1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Jane_Woodson_Early" title="Sarah Jane Woodson Early">Sarah Jane Woodson Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Fossett" title="Peter Fossett">Peter Fossett</a> (1815 <a href="/wiki/Monticello" title="Monticello">Monticello</a>–1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_George_(Baptist)" title="David George (Baptist)">David George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Grandy" title="Moses Grandy">Moses Grandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lear_Green" title="Lear Green">Lear Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Green_(former_slave)" title="William Green (former slave)">William Green</a> (19th century <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">MD</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Grimes_(ex-slave)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Grimes (ex-slave)">William Grimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Henson" title="Josiah Henson">Josiah Henson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_Hughes" title="Fountain Hughes">Fountain Hughes</a> (1848/1854 VA – 1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_ibn_Said" title="Omar ibn Said">Omar ibn Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Andrew_Jackson" title="John Andrew Jackson">John Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_James_(minister)" title="Thomas James (minister)">Thomas James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jea" title="John Jea">John Jea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Jennings_(slave)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Jennings (slave)">Paul Jennings</a> (1799–1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Keckley" title="Elizabeth Keckley">Elizabeth Keckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_King" title="Boston King">Boston King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunsford_Lane" title="Lunsford Lane">Lunsford Lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Vance_Lewis" title="J. Vance Lewis">J. Vance Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jermain_Wesley_Loguen" title="Jermain Wesley Loguen">Jermain Wesley Loguen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mars" title="James Mars">James Mars</a> (1790–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Northup" title="Solomon Northup">Solomon Northup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensbury_Washington_Offley" title="Greensbury Washington Offley">Greensbury Washington Offley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Parker_(abolitionist)" title="John Parker (abolitionist)">John Parker</a> (1827 VA – 1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Parker_(abolitionist)" title="William Parker (abolitionist)">William Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Robinson_(soldier,_born_1753)" title="James Robinson (soldier, born 1753)">James Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Roper" title="Moses Roper">Moses Roper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Singleton" title="William Henry Singleton">William Henry Singleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lindsay_Smith" title="James Lindsay Smith">James Lindsay Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_Smith" title="Venture Smith">Venture Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austin_Steward" title="Austin Steward">Austin Steward</a> (1793 VA – 1860)</li> <li>Venerable <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Toussaint" title="Pierre Toussaint">Pierre Toussaint</a> (1766 Saint-Dominque – 1853 NY)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Turnage" title="Wallace Turnage">Wallace Turnage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethany_Veney" title="Bethany Veney">Bethany Veney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Willis" title="Wallace Willis">Wallace Willis</a> (19th century Indian Territory)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_E._Wilson" title="Harriet E. Wilson">Harriet E. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamba_Zembola" title="Zamba Zembola">Zamba Zembola</a> (b. c. 1780 Congo)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahommah_Gardo_Baquaqua" title="Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua">Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua</a> (1845–1847, Brazil)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Bur%C3%ADa" title="Miguel de Buría">Miguel de Buría</a> (? Puerto Rico – 1555 Venezuela)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osifekunde" title="Osifekunde">Osifekunde</a> (c. 1795 Nigeria – ? Brazil)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-fiction books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Interesting_Narrative_of_the_Life_of_Olaudah_Equiano" title="The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano">The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano</a></i> (1789)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Narrative_of_Robert_Adams" title="The Narrative of Robert Adams">The Narrative of Robert Adams</a></i> (1816)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Slavery_as_It_Is" class="mw-redirect" title="American Slavery as It Is">American Slavery as It Is</a></i> (1839)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Narrative_of_the_Life_of_Frederick_Douglass,_an_American_Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave">Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave</a></i> (1845)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_Josiah_Henson,_Formerly_a_Slave,_Now_an_Inhabitant_of_Canada,_as_Narrated_by_Himself" title="The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself">The Life of Josiah Henson</a></i> (1849)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Years_a_Slave" title="Twelve Years a Slave">Twelve Years a Slave</a></i> (1853)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/My_Bondage_and_My_Freedom" title="My Bondage and My Freedom">My Bondage and My Freedom</a></i> (1855)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Incidents_in_the_Life_of_a_Slave_Girl" title="Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl">Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl</a></i> (1861)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(Still)" title="The Underground Railroad (Still)">The Underground Railroad Records</a></i> (1872)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Life_and_Times_of_Frederick_Douglass" title="Life and Times of Frederick Douglass">Life and Times of Frederick Douglass</a></i> (1881)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a></i> (1901)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slave_Narrative_Collection" title="Slave Narrative Collection">Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States</a></i> (1936–38)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Peculiar_Institution" title="The Peculiar Institution">The Peculiar Institution</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Community" title="The Slave Community">The Slave Community</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Barracoon:_The_Story_of_the_Last_%22Black_Cargo%22" title="Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo"">Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo"</a></i> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Novels_about_slavery" title="Category:Novels about slavery">Fiction/novels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oroonoko" title="Oroonoko">Oroonoko</a></i> (1688)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sab_(novel)" title="Sab (novel)">Sab</a></i> (1841)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (1852)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Heroic_Slave" title="The Heroic Slave">The Heroic Slave</a></i> (1852)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clotel" title="Clotel">Clotel</a></i> (1853)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bondwoman%27s_Narrative" title="The Bondwoman's Narrative">The Bondwoman's Narrative</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1853</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1861</span>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred:_A_Tale_of_the_Great_Dismal_Swamp" title="Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp">Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp</a></i> (1856)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Nig" title="Our Nig">Our Nig</a></i> (1859)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jubilee_(novel)" title="Jubilee (novel)">Jubilee</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Confessions_of_Nat_Turner" title="The Confessions of Nat Turner">The Confessions of Nat Turner</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roots:_The_Saga_of_an_American_Family" title="Roots: The Saga of an American Family">Roots: The Saga of an American Family</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Underground_to_Canada" title="Underground to Canada">Underground to Canada</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kindred_(novel)" title="Kindred (novel)">Kindred</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dessa_Rose" title="Dessa Rose">Dessa Rose</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Beloved_(novel)" title="Beloved (novel)">Beloved</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage_(novel)" title="Middle Passage (novel)">Middle Passage</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Queen:_The_Story_of_an_American_Family" title="Queen: The Story of an American Family">Queen: The Story of an American Family</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hang_a_Thousand_Trees_with_Ribbons" title="Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons">Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ama:_A_Story_of_the_Atlantic_Slave_Trade" title="Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade">Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walk_Through_Darkness" title="Walk Through Darkness">Walk Through Darkness</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Known_World" title="The Known World">The Known World</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unburnable" title="Unburnable">Unburnable</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Negroes_(novel)" title="The Book of Negroes (novel)">The Book of Negroes</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(novel)" title="The Underground Railroad (novel)">The Underground Railroad</a></i> (2016)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Young adult books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amos_Fortune,_Free_Man" title="Amos Fortune, Free Man">Amos Fortune, Free Man</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/I,_Juan_de_Pareja" title="I, Juan de Pareja">I, Juan de Pareja</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Copper_Sun" title="Copper Sun">Copper Sun</a></i> (2006)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Essays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/To_a_Southern_Slaveholder" title="To a Southern Slaveholder">To a Southern Slaveholder</a>" (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Key_to_Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin">A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (1853)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Escape;_or,_A_Leap_for_Freedom" title="The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom">The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom</a></i> (1858)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Octoroon" title="The Octoroon">The Octoroon</a></i> (1859)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Omar_(opera)" title="Omar (opera)">Omar</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Unchained_Memories" title="Unchained Memories">Unchained Memories</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass_and_the_White_Negro" title="Frederick Douglass and the White Negro">Frederick Douglass and the White Negro</a></i> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">African-American literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Tom_novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Tom novels">Anti-Tom novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captivity_narrative" title="Captivity narrative">Captivity narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_literature" title="Caribbean literature">Caribbean literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">Films featuring slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">Songs of the Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_surviving_American_enslaved_people" class="mw-redirect" title="List of last surviving American enslaved people">List of last surviving American enslaved people</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Negroes" title="Book of Negroes">Book of Negroes</a></i> (1783)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Plantation_Record_and_Account_Book" title="Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book">Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book</a></i> (1847)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slave-Trading_in_the_Old_South" title="Slave-Trading in the Old South">Slave-Trading in the Old South</a></i> (1931)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Johnson_(Mount_Vernon)" title="Sarah Johnson (Mount Vernon)">Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">Slave Songs of the United States</a></i> (1867)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Amazing_Grace:_An_Anthology_of_Poems_about_Slavery" title="Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery">Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hemingses_of_Monticello" title="The Hemingses of Monticello">The Hemingses of Monticello</a></i> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.codfw.main‐5c59558b9d‐fr82q Cached time: 20241130013919 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time 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[\"CITEREFCassar2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarence-Smith2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFClark1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_P._Forsythe2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelepeleire2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDigital_History,_Steven_Mintz\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDonoghue2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuffy2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyer1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEltringhamMaclean2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngerman1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEric_Dursteler2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEric_Foner2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEricson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisher1987\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFogel,_Robert1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrost,_Peter2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGenovese,_Eugene1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGirard2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoitom2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoody,_Jack2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham-Harrison2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrindal2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHannay1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHassanSuleMutum2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeaton2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenley2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerbert2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirschmanYates2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHistory_of_Science_Society1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHochschild2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodal2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorne,_Gerald2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward_LaFranchi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowe2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHugh_Thomas1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFInalcik1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_H._Marsh1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_Oliver_HortonLois_E._Horton2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_William_Brodman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJensenSimonsen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoyce_E._Salisbury2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJu_Zhifen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJunius_P._Rodriguez2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJunius_P_Rodriguez,_Ph.D.1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKOŁODZIEJCZYK2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKavita_Puri2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazhdanEpsteinWharton1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenneth_B._Lee1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhanKhan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitchin1778\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleinIII,_Ben_Vinson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKonstam2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLenski2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevin1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLister2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovejoy2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovejoyHogendorn1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM.J_Akbar2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMATSUKI2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacKenzie1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarcel_TrudelMicheline_d\u0026#039;_Allaire2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_Edward_Lewis2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMary_Ann_Shadd2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCormick,_Michael2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKee2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKenna1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeserette2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMikhail_Kizilov2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMilton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore-Harell1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgenthau1918\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Malley2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPares1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatterson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerbi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerkins2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Kolchin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_S._OnufEliga_H._Gould2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersonGavuaRassool2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPflanz2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips,_Ulrich_B1918\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamos1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawlins\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFResendez2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRheeYang\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_B._Sheridan1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodriguez1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodriguez2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRousseau1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRummel1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell_M._LawsonBenjamin_A._Lawson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalzmann2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchafer1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchafer1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFServen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShah2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheridan1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkyum-Nielsen1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithHillMarloweNolin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSociety_for_East_Asian_Studies2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolomonDenise_Davis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSras.Org2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanley_L._Engerman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevenson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStilwell2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTRT_World2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTang1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTetlow2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Committee_Office,_House_of_Commons2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTjersland2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTony_Wild2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToynbee1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTunde_Obadina\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaughan1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVayda1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVernet2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVinita_Moch_Ricks2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaddel1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarren2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitefield2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1882\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolf_Von_Schierbrand1886\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWongRayson1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Bruxelles2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFmythichawaii.com2006\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"As written\"] = 2,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 12,\n [\"Campaignbox Suppression of the Slave Trade\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 4,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 10,\n [\"Citation needed span\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite ODNB\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 90,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 18,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 30,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 34,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 117,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Col div\"] = 1,\n [\"Col div end\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:History Of Slavery\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 5,\n [\"Google books\"] = 6,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 20,\n [\"International Criminal Law\"] = 1,\n [\"JSTOR\"] = 2,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 31,\n [\"ODB\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"R\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 20,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Slave narrative\"] = 1,\n [\"Slavery\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"US$\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Usurped\"] = 1,\n [\"Verify source\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisource\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","360","18.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","10.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","160","8.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","160","8.2"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","120","6.1"],["recursiveClone 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