CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Max Planck - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"430f8814-b779-460f-9604-d45ff6aebdc5","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Max_Planck","wgTitle":"Max Planck","wgCurRevisionId":1270000142,"wgRevisionId":1270000142,"wgArticleId":19848,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using the Phonos extension","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 German-language sources (de)","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use dmy dates from February 2021","Use American English from May 2017","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","Biography with signature","Articles with hCards","Pages with German IPA","Pages including recorded pronunciations","Commons link is on Wikidata","Articles with Project Gutenberg links", "Articles with Internet Archive links","Articles with LibriVox links","Nobelprize template using Wikidata property P8024","Max Planck","1858 births","1947 deaths","19th-century German physicists","20th-century German physicists","Scientists from Kiel","People from the Duchy of Holstein","German deists","Former Lutherans","German Nobel laureates","Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences","Foreign members of the Royal Society","Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences","Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences","Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences","Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences","Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)","Honorary members of the USSR Academy of Sciences","Nobel laureates in Physics","Recipients of the Copley Medal","German quantum physicists","Optical physicists","Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)","Lorentz Medal winners", "Creators of temperature scales","German People's Party politicians","Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni","Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich","Humboldt University of Berlin alumni","Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin","Academic staff of the University of Kiel","German theoretical physicists","Max Planck Society people","Winners of the Max Planck Medal","Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences","Members of the American Philosophical Society","Recipients of Franklin Medal"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Max_Planck","wgRelevantArticleId":19848,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true, "wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q9021","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready", "ext.phonos.styles":"ready","ext.phonos.icons":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.phonos.init","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface", "ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.phonos.icons%2Cstyles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.15"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg/1200px-Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1517"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg/800px-Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1011"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg/640px-Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="809"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Max Planck - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Max_Planck rootpage-Max_Planck skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Max+Planck" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Max+Planck" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Max+Planck" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Max+Planck" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Early_life_and_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_life_and_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Early life and education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_life_and_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Career</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Career-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Career subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Professor_at_Berlin_University" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professor_at_Berlin_University"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Professor at Berlin University</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professor_at_Berlin_University-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Entropy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Entropy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Entropy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Entropy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black-body_radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black-body_radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Black-body radiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black-body_radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Einstein_and_the_theory_of_relativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Einstein_and_the_theory_of_relativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Einstein and the theory of relativity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Einstein_and_the_theory_of_relativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>First World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war_and_the_Weimar_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_and_the_Weimar_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Post-war and the Weimar Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war_and_the_Weimar_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantum_mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantum_mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Quantum mechanics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantum_mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nazi_dictatorship_and_the_Second_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nazi_dictatorship_and_the_Second_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Nazi dictatorship and the Second World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nazi_dictatorship_and_the_Second_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Personal life and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Religious views</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Publications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Max Planck</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 146 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-146" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">146 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9B%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%B5_%E1%8D%95%E1%88%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%8A%AD" title="ማክስ ፕላንክ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ማክስ ፕላንክ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83" title="ماكس بلانك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ماكس بلانك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95" title="মেক্স প্লেংক – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মেক্স প্লেংক" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maks_Plank" title="Maks Plank – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Maks Plank" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="ماکس پلانک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ماکس پلانک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95" title="ম্যাক্স প্লাংক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ম্যাক্স প্লাংক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Плянк – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Макс Плянк" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95" title="मैक्स प्लैंक – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="मैक्स प्लैंक" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Планк Макс – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Планк Макс" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%BE_%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BA" title="Μαξ Πλανκ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαξ Πλανκ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="ماکس پلانک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماکس پلانک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%89%EC%8A%A4_%ED%94%8C%EB%9E%91%ED%81%AC" title="막스 플랑크 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="막스 플랑크" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%BD_%D5%8A%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF" title="Մաքս Պլանկ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մաքս Պլանկ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95" title="मैक्स प्लांक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मैक्स प्लांक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A1_%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A7" title="מקס פלאנק – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מקס פלאנק" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D" title="ಮ್ಯಾಕ್ಸ್ ಪ್ಲಾಂಕ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮ್ಯಾಕ್ಸ್ ಪ್ಲಾಂಕ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%99%E1%83%98" title="მაქს პლანკი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მაქს პლანკი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilianus_Planck" title="Maximilianus Planck – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Maximilianus Planck" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makss_Planks" title="Makss Planks – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Makss Planks" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Plank" title="Max Plank – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Max Plank" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/maks.plank" title="maks.plank – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="maks.plank" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D" title="മാക്സ് പ്ലാങ്ക് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മാക്സ് പ്ലാങ്ക്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95" title="माक्स प्लांक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="माक्स प्लांक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%99%E1%83%98" title="მაქს პლანკი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მაქს პლანკი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83" title="ماكس بلانك – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ماكس بلانك" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="پلانک – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="پلانک" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%95%E1%80%9C%E1%80%94%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BA" title="မက်စ် ပလန့်ခ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မက်စ် ပလန့်ခ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="म्याक्स प्लान्क – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="म्याक्स प्लान्क" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%97%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AF" title="マックス・プランク – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マックス・プランク" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA,_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Планк, Макс – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Планк, Макс" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maaksi_Pilaanki" title="Maaksi Pilaanki – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Maaksi Pilaanki" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B8_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%95" title="ਮੈਕਸ ਪਲਾਂਕ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੈਕਸ ਪਲਾਂਕ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="میکس پلانک – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="میکس پلانک" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="ماکس پلانک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ماکس پلانک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Karl_Ernst_Ludwig_Planck" title="Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA,_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Планк, Макс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Планк, Макс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Планк Макс – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Планк Макс" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma-ke-s.Pu-lang-ke" title="Ma-ke-s.Pu-lang-ke – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Ma-ke-s.Pu-lang-ke" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D" title="माक्स् प्लाङ्क् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="माक्स् प्लाङ्क्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%A5_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B8%E1%B1%A0" title="ᱢᱟᱠᱥ ᱯᱞᱟᱸᱠ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱟᱠᱥ ᱯᱞᱟᱸᱠ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%DA%AA%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AA" title="ميڪس پلانڪ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ميڪس پلانڪ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="ماکس پلانک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ماکس پلانک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D" title="மேக்ஸ் பிளாங்க் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மேக்ஸ் பிளாங்க்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maks_Plank" title="Maks Plank – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Maks Plank" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D" title="మాక్స్ ప్లాంక్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మాక్స్ ప్లాంక్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%8C" title="มัคส์ พลังค์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มัคส์ พลังค์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Макс Планк – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Макс Планк" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="میکس پلانک – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="میکس پلانک" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plank_Maks" title="Plank Maks – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Plank Maks" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B" title="马克斯·普朗克 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="马克斯·普朗克" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%A1_%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A7" title="מאקס פלאנק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מאקס פלאנק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B" title="馬克斯·普朗克 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="馬克斯·普朗克" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B" title="马克斯·普朗克 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="马克斯·普朗克" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-knc mw-list-item"><a href="https://knc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck – Central Kanuri" lang="knc" hreflang="knc" data-title="Max Planck" data-language-autonym="Yerwa Kanuri" data-language-local-name="Central Kanuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yerwa Kanuri</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9021#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Max_Planck" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Max_Planck" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Max_Planck" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&oldid=1270000142" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Max_Planck&id=1270000142&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMax_Planck"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMax_Planck"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Max_Planck&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Max_Planck" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikisource mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Max_Planck" hreflang="en"><span>Wikisource</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9021" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">German theoretical physicist (1858–1947)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span>"Planck" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Planck_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Planck (disambiguation)">Planck (disambiguation)</a>.</span> <span>Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Max_Blanck" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Blanck">Max Blanck</a>.</span></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Max Planck</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Member_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Member of the Royal Society">ForMemRS</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg/220px-Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg/330px-Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg/440px-Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2544" data-file-height="3216" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Planck in 1938</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1858-04-23</span>)</span>23 April 1858<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Kiel" title="Kiel">Kiel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Holstein" title="Duchy of Holstein">Duchy of Holstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">4 October 1947<span style="display:none">(1947-10-04)</span> (aged 89)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Allied-occupied Germany</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Munich" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Munich">University of Munich</a> (<a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>, 1879)<br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum theory</a> and <br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Max_Planck" title="List of things named after Max Planck">See full List</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Marie Merck</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1887; died 1909)<wbr /></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Marga von Hösslin</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1911)<wbr /></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">5</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> for his <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quantum_theory" class="extiw" title="wikt:quantum theory">quantum theory</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society#Foreign_member" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">ForMemRS</a><sup id="cite_ref-frs_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frs-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1926)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Associate_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences">Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1926)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorentz_Medal" title="Lorentz Medal">Lorentz Medal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Medal" title="Max Planck Medal">Max Planck Medal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goethe_Prize" title="Goethe Prize">Goethe Prize</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Kiel" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Kiel">University of Kiel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Society" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Society">Kaiser Wilhelm Society</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/handle/18452/734">Über den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie (On the Second Principles of Mechanical Heat Theory)</a></i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1879)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Brill" title="Alexander von Brill">Alexander von Brill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Gustav Kirchhoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Erich_Kretschmann" title="Erich Kretschmann">Erich Kretschmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz" title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz">Gustav Ludwig Hertz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld" title="Julius Edgar Lilienfeld">Julius Edgar Lilienfeld</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Max_Abraham" title="Max Abraham">Max Abraham</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Walter_H._Schottky" title="Walter H. Schottky">Walter Schottky</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Walther Bothe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Walther_Meissner" title="Walther Meissner">Walther Meissner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Becker_(physicist)" title="Richard Becker (physicist)">Richard Becker</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler" title="Wolfgang Köhler">Wolfgang Köhler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Planck_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Max_Planck_signature.svg/150px-Max_Planck_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Max_Planck_signature.svg/225px-Max_Planck_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Max_Planck_signature.svg/300px-Max_Planck_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="125" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="/ŋ/: 'ng' in 'sing'">ŋ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[maks<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈplaŋk]</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/3\/3a\/De-Max_Planck.ogg\/De-Max_Planck.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Max Planck.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3a/De-Max_Planck.ogg/De-Max_Planck.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-Max_Planck.ogg" title="File:De-Max Planck.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a German <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical physicist">theoretical physicist</a> whose discovery of energy <a href="/wiki/Quantum" title="Quantum">quanta</a> won him the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Planck made many substantial contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests primarily on his role as the originator of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum theory</a> and one of the founders of <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">modern physics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which revolutionized understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. He is known for the <a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a>, which is of foundational importance for quantum physics, and which he used to derive a set of <a href="/wiki/Unit_of_measurement" title="Unit of measurement">units</a>, today called <a href="/wiki/Planck_units" title="Planck units">Planck units</a>, expressed only in terms of fundamental <a href="/wiki/Physical_constant" title="Physical constant">physical constants</a>. </p><p>Planck was twice president of the German scientific institution <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Society" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Society">Kaiser Wilhelm Society</a>. In 1948, it was renamed the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a> (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft) and nowadays includes 83 institutions representing a wide range of scientific directions. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Planck came from a traditional, intellectual family. His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were both theology professors in <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">Göttingen</a>; his father was a law professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kiel" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Kiel">University of Kiel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich" title="Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich">Munich</a>. One of his uncles was also a judge.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Planck was born in 1858 in <a href="/wiki/Kiel" title="Kiel">Kiel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holstein" title="Holstein">Holstein</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein" title="Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a>), to Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck and his second wife, Emma Patzig. He was baptized with the name of <i>Karl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck</i>; of his given names, <i><a href="/wiki/Marx_(given_name)" title="Marx (given name)">Marx</a></i> was indicated as the <a href="/wiki/Vorname" class="mw-redirect" title="Vorname">"appellation name"</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by the age of ten he signed with the name <i>Max</i> and used this for the rest of his life.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was the sixth child in the family, though two of his siblings were from his father's first marriage. War was common during Planck's early years and among his earliest memories was the marching of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a> troops into Kiel during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Schleswig_War" title="Second Schleswig War">Second Schleswig War</a> in 1864.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1867 the family moved to <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>, and Planck enrolled in the Maximilians <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)" title="Gymnasium (school)">gymnasium</a> school. There, his mathematical talents emerged early<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he later came under the tutelage of Hermann Müller, a mathematician who took an interest in the youth, and taught him <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>. It was from Müller that Planck first learned the principle of conservation of energy. Planck graduated early, at age 17.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is how Planck first came in contact with the field of physics. </p><p>Planck was gifted when it came to music. He took singing lessons and played piano, organ and cello, and composed songs and operas. However, instead of music he chose to study <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. </p><p>Planck enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Munich" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Munich">University of Munich</a> in 1874. Under professor <a href="/wiki/Philipp_von_Jolly" title="Philipp von Jolly">Philipp von Jolly</a>'s supervision, Planck performed the only experiments of his scientific career, studying the <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> through heated <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a>, but transferred to <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical physics</a>. Jolly advised Planck against going into theoretical physics. Planck recalls that in 1878, Jolly argued that physics was almost complete, being a "highly developed, nearly fully matured science, that through the crowning achievement of the discovery of the principle of conservation of energy will arguably soon take its final stable form".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1877, he went to the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich Wilhelms University</a> in Berlin for a year of study with physicists <a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Gustav Kirchhoff</a> and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Karl_Weierstrass" title="Karl Weierstrass">Karl Weierstrass</a>. He wrote that Helmholtz was never quite prepared, spoke slowly, miscalculated endlessly, and bored his listeners, while Kirchhoff spoke in carefully prepared lectures which were dry and monotonous. He soon became close friends with Helmholtz. While there he undertook a program of mostly self-study of <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Clausius" title="Rudolf Clausius">Rudolf Clausius's</a> writings, which led him to choose <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> as his field. </p><p>In October 1878, Planck passed his qualifying exams and in February 1879 defended his dissertation <i>Über den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie</i> (<i>On the Second Law of Mechanical Heat Theory</i>). He briefly taught mathematics and physics at his former school in Munich. </p><p>By the year 1880, Planck had obtained the two highest academic degrees offered in Europe. The first was a doctorate degree after he completed his paper detailing his research and theory of thermodynamics.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then presented his thesis called <i>Gleichgewichtszustände isotroper Körper in verschiedenen Temperaturen</i> (<i>Equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures</i>), which earned him a <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">habilitation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Planck_1878.GIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Max_Planck_1878.GIF/220px-Max_Planck_1878.GIF" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Max_Planck_1878.GIF/330px-Max_Planck_1878.GIF 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Max_Planck_1878.GIF 2x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>Planck in 1878</figcaption></figure> <p>With the completion of his habilitation thesis, Planck became an unpaid <a href="/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent">Privatdozent</a> (German academic rank comparable to lecturer/assistant professor) in Munich, waiting until he was offered an academic position. Although he was initially ignored by the academic community, he furthered his work on the field of <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of heat">heat theory</a> and discovered one after another the same <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamical</a> formalism as <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Gibbs</a> without realizing it. Clausius's ideas on <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> occupied a central role in his work. </p><p>In April 1885, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kiel" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Kiel">University of Kiel</a> appointed Planck as associate professor of <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical physics</a>. Further work on entropy and its treatment, especially as applied in <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a>, followed. He published his <i>Treatise on Thermodynamics</i> in 1897.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He proposed a thermodynamic basis for <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytic</a> <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(chemistry)" title="Dissociation (chemistry)">dissociation</a>. </p><p>In 1889, he was named the successor to Kirchhoff's position at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – presumably thanks to Helmholtz's intercession – and by 1892 became a full professor. In 1907 Planck was offered <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann" title="Ludwig Boltzmann">Ludwig Boltzmann</a>'s position in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, but turned it down to stay in Berlin. During 1909, as a University of Berlin professor, he was invited to become the <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Kempton_Adams_Lectures" title="Ernest Kempton Adams Lectures">Ernest Kempton Adams Lecturer in Theoretical Physics</a> at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. A series of his lectures were translated and co-published by Columbia University professor <a href="/wiki/Albert_Potter_Wills" title="Albert Potter Wills">A. P. Wills</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He retired from Berlin on 10 January 1926,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was elected to the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> in 1926 and the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> in 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Professor_at_Berlin_University">Professor at Berlin University</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Professor at Berlin University"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a professor at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin</a>, Planck joined the local Physical Society. He later wrote about this time: "In those days I was essentially the only theoretical physicist there, whence things were not so easy for me, because I started mentioning entropy, but this was not quite fashionable, since it was regarded as a mathematical spook".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thanks to his initiative, the various local Physical Societies of Germany merged in 1898 to form the German Physical Society (<a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Physikalische_Gesellschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft">Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft</a>, DPG); from 1905 to 1909 Planck was the president. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Planck_Wirkungsquantums_20050815.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Max_Planck_Wirkungsquantums_20050815.jpg/220px-Max_Planck_Wirkungsquantums_20050815.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Max_Planck_Wirkungsquantums_20050815.jpg/330px-Max_Planck_Wirkungsquantums_20050815.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Max_Planck_Wirkungsquantums_20050815.jpg/440px-Max_Planck_Wirkungsquantums_20050815.jpg 2x" data-file-width="730" data-file-height="976" /></a><figcaption>Plaque at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Humboldt University of Berlin</a>: "Max Planck, discoverer of the elementary quantum of action <i>h</i>, taught in this building from 1889 to 1928."</figcaption></figure> <p>Planck started a six-semester course of lectures on theoretical physics, "dry, somewhat impersonal" according to <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a>, "using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard" according to an English participant, <a href="/wiki/J._R._Partington" title="J. R. Partington">James R. Partington</a>, who continues: "There were always many standing around the room. As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture." Planck did not establish an actual "school"; the number of his graduate students was only about 20, among them: </p> <ul><li>1897 <a href="/wiki/Max_Abraham" title="Max Abraham">Max Abraham</a> (1875–1922)</li> <li>1903 <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a> (1879–1960)</li> <li>1904 <a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a> (1882–1936)</li> <li>1906 <a href="/wiki/Walther_Meissner" title="Walther Meissner">Walther Meissner</a> (1882–1974)</li> <li>1907 <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Reiche" title="Fritz Reiche">Fritz Reiche</a> (1883–1960)</li> <li>1912 <a href="/wiki/Walter_Schottky" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Schottky">Walter Schottky</a> (1886–1976)</li> <li>1914 <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Walther Bothe</a> (1891–1957)<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Entropy">Entropy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Entropy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a>, also known as the "mechanical theory of heat" at the end of the 19th century, had emerged at the beginning of this century from an attempt to understand the functioning of steam engines and to improve their efficiency. In the 1840s, several researchers independently discovered and formulated the law of conservation of energy, which is now also known as the <a href="/wiki/First_law_of_thermodynamics" title="First law of thermodynamics">first law of thermodynamics</a>. In 1850, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Clausius" title="Rudolf Clausius">Rudolf Clausius</a> formulated the so-called <a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics" title="Second law of thermodynamics">second law of thermodynamics</a>, which states that a voluntary (or spontaneous) transfer of energy is only possible from a warmer to a colder body, but not vice versa. In England at this time <a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">William Thomson</a> came to the same conclusion. </p><p>Clausius generalized his formulation further and further and came up with a new formulation in 1865. To this end, he introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">Entropy</a>, which he defined as a measure of the reversible supply of heat in relation to the absolute temperature. </p><p>The new formulation of the second law, which is still valid today, was: "Entropy can be created, but never destroyed". Clausius, whose work Planck read as a young student during his stay in Berlin, successfully applied this new law of nature to mechanical, thermoelectric and chemical processes. </p><p>In his dissertation in 1879, Planck summarized Clausius' writings, pointing out contradictions and inaccuracies in their formulation and then clarifying them. In addition, he generalized the validity of the second law to all processes in nature, Clausius had limited its application to reversible processes and thermal processes. Furthermore, Planck dealt intensively with the new concept of entropy and emphasized, that entropy is not only a property of a physical system, but at the same time a measure of the irreversibility of a process: If entropy is generated in a process, it is irreversible, since entropy cannot be destroyed according to the second law. In reversible processes, the entropy remains constant. He presented this fact in detail in 1887 in a series of treatises entitled "On the Princip of the Increase of Entropy".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his study of the concept of entropy, Planck did not follow the molecular, probabilistic interpretation that prevailed at the time, as these do not provide absolute proof of universality. Instead, he pursued a phenomenological approach and was also skeptical of atomism. Even though he later abandoned this attitude in the course of his work on the law of radiation, his early work impressively shows the possibilites of thermodynamics in solving concrete physicochemical problems.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoffmann29f_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoffmann29f-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hartmann156f_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartmann156f-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Planck's understanding of entropy included the realization that the maximum of entropy corresponds to the equilibrium state. The accompanying conclusion that knowledge of the Entropy allows all laws of thermodynamic equilibrium states to be derived corresponds to the modern understanding of such states. Planck therefore chose equilibrium processes as his research focus and, based on his habilitation thesis, researched the coexistence of aggregate states and the equilibrium of gas reactions, for example. This work on the frontier of chemical thermodynamics also received great attention due to the rapidly expanding chemical work at that time. </p><p>Independently of Planck, <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah Willard Gibbs</a> had also discovered almost all the knowledge Planck gained about the properties of physicochemical equilibria and published them from 1876 onwards. Planck was unaware of these essays, and they did not appear in German until 1892. However, both scientists approached the topic in different ways, while Planck dealt with irreversible processes, Gibbs looked at equilibria. This approach was finally able to prevail because of its simplicity, but Planck's approach is attributed the greater universality.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black-body_radiation">Black-body radiation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Black-body radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Planck_1901.GIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Max_Planck_1901.GIF/220px-Max_Planck_1901.GIF" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Max_Planck_1901.GIF 1.5x" data-file-width="301" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption>Planck in 1901</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1894, Planck turned his attention to the problem of <a href="/wiki/Black-body_radiation" title="Black-body radiation">black-body radiation</a>. The problem had been stated by Kirchhoff in 1859: "how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a> (a perfect absorber, also known as a cavity radiator) depend on the <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequency</a> of the radiation (i.e., the color of the light) and the temperature of the body?". The question had been explored experimentally, but no theoretical treatment had agreed with the experimentally observed evidence. <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wilhelm Wien</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Wien_approximation" title="Wien approximation">Wien's law</a>, which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies, but failed at low frequencies. The <a href="/wiki/Rayleigh%E2%80%93Jeans_law" title="Rayleigh–Jeans law">Rayleigh–Jeans law</a>, another approach to the problem, agreed with experimental results at low frequencies, but created what was later known as the "<a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_catastrophe" title="Ultraviolet catastrophe">ultraviolet catastrophe</a>" at high frequencies, as predicted by <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a>. However, contrary to many textbooks, this was not a motivation for Planck.<sup id="cite_ref-Kragh_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what he called the "principle of elementary disorder", which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about the <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> of an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred to as the Wien–Planck law. Soon, however, it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration. He revised his approach and now derived the first version of the famous <a href="/wiki/Planck%27s_law_of_black-body_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck's law of black-body radiation">Planck black-body radiation law</a>, which described clearly the experimentally observed black-body spectrum. It was first proposed in a meeting of the DPG on 19 October 1900 and published in 1901. (This first derivation did not include energy quantisation, and did not use <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>, to which he held an aversion.) In November 1900 Planck revised this first version, now relying on <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann" title="Ludwig Boltzmann">Boltzmann</a>'s statistical interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics" title="Second law of thermodynamics">second law of thermodynamics</a> as a way of gaining a more fundamental understanding of the principles behind his radiation law. Planck was deeply suspicious of the philosophical and physical implications of such an interpretation of Boltzmann's approach; thus his recourse to them was, as he later put it, "an act of despair ... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics".<sup id="cite_ref-Kragh_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The central assumption behind his new derivation, presented to the DPG on 14 December 1900, was the supposition, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Planck_postulate" title="Planck postulate">Planck postulate</a>, that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in <a href="/wiki/Quantization_(physics)" title="Quantization (physics)">quantized</a> form, in other words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=h\nu }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=h\nu }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c6c0386dc6d9530519404f95570fcc8548ed2326" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.445ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=h\nu }"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="texhtml"><i>h</i></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a>, also known as Planck's action quantum (introduced already in 1899), and <span class="texhtml"><i>ν</i></span> is the frequency of the radiation. Note that the elementary units of energy discussed here are represented by <span class="texhtml"><i>hν</i></span> and not simply by <span class="texhtml"><i>ν</i></span>. Physicists now call these quanta photons, and a photon of frequency <span class="texhtml"><i>ν</i></span> will have its own specific and unique energy. The total energy at that frequency is then equal to <span class="texhtml"><i>hν</i></span> multiplied by the number of photons at that frequency. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg/220px-Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg/330px-Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg/440px-Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1656" data-file-height="2348" /></a><figcaption>Planck in 1918, the year he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> for his work on <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum theory</a></figcaption></figure> <p>At first Planck considered that quantisation was only "a purely formal assumption ... actually I did not think much about it ..."; nowadays this assumption, incompatible with <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a>, is regarded as the birth of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a> and the greatest intellectual accomplishment of Planck's career. (<a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann" title="Ludwig Boltzmann">Boltzmann</a> had been discussing in a theoretical paper in 1877 the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete). The discovery of the Planck constant enabled him to define a new universal set of <a href="/wiki/Planck_units" title="Planck units">physical units</a> (such as the Planck length and the Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants, upon which much of quantum theory is based. In a discussion with his son in December 1918 Planck described his discovery as 'a discovery of the first rank, comparable perhaps only to the discoveries of Newton'.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recognition of Planck's fundamental contribution to a new branch of physics, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918; (he received the award in 1919).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subsequently, Planck tried to grasp the meaning of energy quanta, but to no avail. "My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble." Even several years later, other physicists such as <a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Rayleigh</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Jeans" title="James Jeans">Jeans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a> set the Planck constant to zero in order to align with classical physics, but Planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value. "I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness – he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same as <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a> was for philosophy. So much the worse for the facts if they don't fit."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a> wrote about Planck: "He was, by nature, a conservative mind; he had nothing of the revolutionary and was thoroughly skeptical about speculations. Yet his belief in the compelling force of logical reasoning from facts was so strong that he did not flinch from announcing the most revolutionary idea which ever has shaken physics."<sup id="cite_ref-frs_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frs-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Einstein_and_the_theory_of_relativity">Einstein and the theory of relativity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Einstein and the theory of relativity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special relativity</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:World_line.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The world line: a diagrammatic representation of spacetime"><img alt="The world line: a diagrammatic representation of spacetime" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/World_line.svg/200px-World_line.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/World_line.svg/300px-World_line.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/World_line.svg/400px-World_line.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="481" data-file-height="491" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_relativity" title="Principle of relativity">Principle of relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">Theory of relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formulations_of_special_relativity" title="Formulations of special relativity">Formulations</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:120%">Foundations</span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postulates_of_special_relativity" title="Postulates of special relativity">Einstein's postulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference" title="Inertial frame of reference">Inertial frame of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">Speed of light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">Lorentz transformation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:120%">Consequences</span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Time_dilation" title="Time dilation">Time dilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_contraction" title="Length contraction">Length contraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_in_special_relativity" title="Mass in special relativity">Relativistic mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">Mass–energy equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity" title="Relativity of simultaneity">Relativity of simultaneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Doppler_effect" title="Relativistic Doppler effect">Relativistic Doppler effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_precession" title="Thomas precession">Thomas precession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_disk" title="Relativistic disk">Relativistic disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell%27s_spaceship_paradox" title="Bell's spaceship paradox">Bell's spaceship paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ehrenfest_paradox" title="Ehrenfest paradox">Ehrenfest paradox</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">Spacetime</a></span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minkowski_space" title="Minkowski space">Minkowski spacetime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minkowski_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Minkowski diagram">Spacetime diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_line" title="World line">World line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_cone" title="Light cone">Light cone</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamics (mechanics)">Dynamics</a></span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proper_time" title="Proper time">Proper time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">Proper mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-momentum" title="Four-momentum">Four-momentum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><div class="hlist" style="font-size:110%;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_special_relativity" title="History of special relativity">History</a></li><li>Precursors</li></ul></div></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_invariance" title="Galilean invariance">Galilean relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_transformation" title="Galilean transformation">Galilean transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aether_theories" title="Aether theories">Aether theories</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:120%">People</span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Sommerfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Michelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_W._Morley" title="Edward W. Morley">Morley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Francis_FitzGerald" title="George Francis FitzGerald">FitzGerald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Herglotz" title="Gustav Herglotz">Herglotz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski" title="Hermann Minkowski">Minkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Fizeau" title="Hippolyte Fizeau">Fizeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Abraham" title="Max Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">von Laue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest" title="Paul Ehrenfest">Ehrenfest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Tolman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/14px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/21px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/28px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Special_relativity" title="Category:Special relativity">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Special_relativity_sidebar" title="Template:Special relativity sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Special_relativity_sidebar" title="Template talk:Special relativity sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Special_relativity_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Special relativity sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 1905, the three epochal papers by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> were published in the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik" title="Annalen der Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i>. Planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of the <a href="/wiki/Special_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Special theory of relativity">special theory of relativity</a>. Thanks to his influence, this theory was soon widely accepted in Germany. Planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity. For example, he recast the theory in terms of classical <a href="/wiki/Action_(physics)" title="Action (physics)">action</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Einstein's hypothesis of light <i>quanta</i> (<a href="/wiki/Photons" class="mw-redirect" title="Photons">photons</a>), based on <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz#Electromagnetic_research" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz's</a> 1887 discovery (and further investigation by <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Lenard#Photoelectric_investigations" title="Philipp Lenard">Philipp Lenard</a>) of the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a>, was initially rejected by Planck. He was unwilling to discard completely <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">Maxwell</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Electrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrodynamics">electrodynamics</a>. "The theory of light would be thrown back not by decades, but by centuries, into the age when <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> dared to fight against the mighty emission theory of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> ..."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1910, Einstein pointed out the anomalous behavior of <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific heat">specific heat</a> at low temperatures as another example of a phenomenon which defies explanation by classical physics. Planck and <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst" title="Walther Nernst">Walther Nernst</a>, seeking to clarify the increasing number of contradictions, organized the First <a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference" title="Solvay Conference">Solvay Conference</a> (Brussels 1911). At this meeting Einstein was able to convince Planck. </p><p>Meanwhile, Planck had been appointed dean of Berlin University, whereby it was possible for him to call Einstein to Berlin and establish a new professorship for him (1914). Soon the two scientists became close friends and met frequently to play music together. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_World_War">First World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: First World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the onset of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> Planck endorsed the general excitement of the public, writing that, "Besides much that is horrible, there is also much that is unexpectedly great and beautiful: the smooth solution of the most difficult domestic political problems by the unification of all parties (and) ... the extolling of everything good and noble."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Planck also signed the infamous "<a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_Ninety-Three" title="Manifesto of the Ninety-Three">Manifesto of the 93 intellectuals</a>", a pamphlet of polemic war propaganda (while Einstein retained a strictly pacifistic attitude which almost led to his imprisonment, only being spared thanks to his <a href="/wiki/Swiss_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss (people)">Swiss</a> citizenship). </p><p>In 1915, when Italy was still a neutral power, Planck voted successfully for a scientific paper from Italy, which received a prize from the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Prussian Academy of Sciences">Prussian Academy of Sciences</a>, where Planck was one of four permanent presidents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-war_and_the_Weimar_Republic">Post-war and the Weimar Republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Post-war and the Weimar Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the turbulent post-war years, Planck, now the highest authority of German physics, issued the slogan "persevere and continue working" to his colleagues. </p><p>In October 1920, he and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a> established the <i><a href="/wiki/Notgemeinschaft_der_Deutschen_Wissenschaft" title="Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft">Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft</a></i> (Emergency Organization of German Science), aimed at providing financial support for scientific research. A considerable portion of the money the organization would distribute was raised abroad. </p><p>Planck held leading positions at Berlin University, the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the German Physical Society, and the <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Society" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Society">Kaiser Wilhelm Society</a> (which became the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a> in 1948). During this time economic conditions in Germany were such that he was hardly able to conduct research. In 1926, Planck became a foreign member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences">Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the interwar period, Planck became a member of the Deutsche Volks-Partei (<a href="/wiki/German_People%27s_Party" title="German People's Party">German People's Party</a>), the party of Nobel Peace Prize laureate <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Stresemann" title="Gustav Stresemann">Gustav Stresemann</a>, which aspired to liberal aims for domestic policy and rather revisionistic aims for politics around the world. </p><p>Planck disagreed with the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a> and later expressed the view that the Nazi dictatorship resulted from "the ascent of the rule of the crowds".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_mechanics">Quantum mechanics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Quantum mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nernst,_Einstein,_Planck,_Millikan,_Laue_in_1931.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Nernst%2C_Einstein%2C_Planck%2C_Millikan%2C_Laue_in_1931.jpg/330px-Nernst%2C_Einstein%2C_Planck%2C_Millikan%2C_Laue_in_1931.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Nernst%2C_Einstein%2C_Planck%2C_Millikan%2C_Laue_in_1931.jpg/495px-Nernst%2C_Einstein%2C_Planck%2C_Millikan%2C_Laue_in_1931.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Nernst%2C_Einstein%2C_Planck%2C_Millikan%2C_Laue_in_1931.jpg/660px-Nernst%2C_Einstein%2C_Planck%2C_Millikan%2C_Laue_in_1931.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3449" data-file-height="2481" /></a><figcaption>From left to right: <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst" title="Walther Nernst">W. Nernst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">A. Einstein</a>, Planck, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">R. A. Millikan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">von Laue</a> at a dinner given by von Laue in Berlin on 11 November 1931</figcaption></figure> <p>At the end of the 1920s, <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> had worked out the <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_interpretation" title="Copenhagen interpretation">Copenhagen interpretation</a> of quantum mechanics, but it was rejected by Planck, and by Schrödinger, Laue, and Einstein as well. Planck expected that <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation#Particles_as_waves" title="Schrödinger equation">wave mechanics</a> would soon render quantum theory  – his own child –  unnecessary. This was not to be the case, however. Further work only served to underscore the enduring central importance of quantum theory, even against his and Einstein's philosophical revulsions. Here Planck experienced the truth of his own earlier observation from his struggle with the older views during his younger years: "A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nazi_dictatorship_and_the_Second_World_War">Nazi dictatorship and the Second World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Nazi dictatorship and the Second World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Planck was 74 years old. He witnessed many Jewish friends and colleagues expelled from their positions and humiliated, and hundreds of scientists emigrate from <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. Again he tried to "persevere and continue working" and asked scientists who were considering emigration to remain in Germany. Nevertheless, he did help his nephew, the economist <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Kranold" title="Hermann Kranold">Hermann Kranold</a>, to emigrate to <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> after his arrest.<sup id="cite_ref-IJ_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IJ-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He hoped the crisis would abate soon and the political situation would improve. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> asked Planck to gather well-known German professors in order to issue a public proclamation against the treatment of Jewish professors, but Planck replied, "If you are able to gather today 30 such gentlemen, then tomorrow 150 others will come and speak against it, because they are eager to take over the positions of the others."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Planck's leadership, the <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Society" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Society">Kaiser Wilhelm Society</a> (KWG) avoided open conflict with the Nazi regime, except concerning the Jewish Fritz Haber. In May of 1933 Planck requested and received an interview with the recently appointed Chancellor of Germany <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> to discuss the issue, telling him that the "forced immigration of Jews would kill German science and Jews could be good Germans", to which the chancellor replied "but we don't have anything against the Jews, only against communists". Planck was therefore unsuccessful, since this reply "took from him every basis for further negotiation",<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as to Hitler "the Jews are all Communists, and these are my enemies." In the following year, 1934, Haber died in exile.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One year later, Planck, having been the president of the KWG since 1930, organized in a somewhat provocative style an official commemorative meeting for Haber. He also succeeded in secretly enabling a number of Jewish scientists to continue working in institutes of the KWG for several years. In 1936, his term as president of the KWG ended, and the Nazi government pressured him to refrain from seeking another term. </p><p>As the political climate in Germany gradually became more hostile, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Stark" title="Johannes Stark">Johannes Stark</a>, prominent exponent of the <i><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Physik" title="Deutsche Physik">Deutsche Physik</a></i> ("German Physics", also called "Aryan Physics") attacked Planck, <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a>, and Heisenberg for continuing to teach the theories of Einstein, calling them "white Jews". The "Hauptamt Wissenschaft" (Nazi government office for science) started an investigation of Planck's ancestry, claiming that he was "1/16 Jewish", but Planck denied it.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1938, Planck celebrated his 80th birthday. The DPG held a celebration, during which the Max-Planck medal (founded as the highest medal by the DPG in 1928) was awarded to French physicist <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a>. At the end of 1938, the Prussian Academy lost its remaining independence and was taken over by Nazis (<i><a href="/wiki/Gleichschaltung" title="Gleichschaltung">Gleichschaltung</a></i>). Planck protested by resigning his presidency. He continued to travel frequently, giving numerous public talks, such as his talk on Religion and Science, and five years later he was sufficiently fit to climb 3,000-metre peaks in the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> the increasing number of Allied bombing missions against Berlin forced Planck and his wife to temporarily leave the city and live in the countryside. In 1942, he wrote: "In me an ardent desire has grown to persevere this crisis and live long enough to be able to witness the turning point, the beginning of a new rise." In February 1944, his home in Berlin was completely destroyed by an air raid, annihilating all his scientific records and correspondence. His rural retreat was threatened by the rapid advance of the Allied armies from both sides. </p><p>In 1944, Planck's son <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Planck" title="Erwin Planck">Erwin</a> was arrested by the <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> following the attempted assassination of Hitler in the <span class="avoidwrap" style="display:inline-block;"><a href="/wiki/20_July_plot" title="20 July plot">20 July plot</a></span>. He was tried and sentenced to death by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Court_(Germany)" title="People's Court (Germany)">People's Court</a> in October 1944. Erwin was hanged at Berlin's <a href="/wiki/Pl%C3%B6tzensee_Prison" title="Plötzensee Prison">Plötzensee Prison</a> in January 1945. The death of his son destroyed much of Planck's will to live.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life_and_death">Personal life and death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Personal life and death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_Max_Planck_Familie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_Max_Planck_Familie.jpg/220px-Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_Max_Planck_Familie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_Max_Planck_Familie.jpg/330px-Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_Max_Planck_Familie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_Max_Planck_Familie.jpg/440px-Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_Max_Planck_Familie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="972" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption>Planck's grave in Göttingen</figcaption></figure><p>In March 1887, Planck married Marie Merck (1861–1909), sister of a school fellow, and moved with her into a sublet apartment in Kiel. They had four children: Karl (1888–1916), the twins Emma (1889–1919) and Grete (1889–1917), and <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Planck" title="Erwin Planck">Erwin</a> (1893–1945). </p><p>After living in the apartment in Berlin, the Planck family lived in a villa in Berlin-Grunewald, Wangenheimstrasse 21. Several other professors from <a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a> lived nearby, among them theologian <a href="/wiki/Adolf_von_Harnack" title="Adolf von Harnack">Adolf von Harnack</a>, who became a close friend of Planck. Soon the Planck home became a social and cultural center. Numerous well-known scientists, such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> were frequent visitors. The tradition of jointly performing music had already been established in the home of <a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Helmholtz</a>. </p><p>After several happy years, in July 1909 Marie Planck died, possibly from <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>. </p><p>In March 1911 Planck married his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin (1882–1948); in December his fifth child Hermann was born. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> Planck's second son Erwin was taken prisoner by the French in 1914, while his oldest son Karl was killed in action at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Verdun</a>. Grete died in 1917 while giving birth to her first child. Her sister died the same way two years later, after having married Grete's widower. Both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers. Planck endured these losses stoically. </p><p>In January 1945, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Planck" title="Erwin Planck">Erwin Planck</a>, to whom he had been particularly close, was sentenced to death by the <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Court_(German)" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Court (German)">Volksgerichtshof</a> because of his participation in the <a href="/wiki/July_20_plot" class="mw-redirect" title="July 20 plot">failed attempt to assassinate Hitler</a> in July 1944. Erwin was executed on 23 January 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After World War II ended, Planck, his second wife, and their son were brought to a relative in <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a>, where Planck died on October 4, 1947. He was buried in the old Stadtfriedhof (City Cemetery) in Göttingen.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_views">Religious views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Religious views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DBPB_1952_99_Max_Planck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/DBPB_1952_99_Max_Planck.jpg/220px-DBPB_1952_99_Max_Planck.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/DBPB_1952_99_Max_Planck.jpg/330px-DBPB_1952_99_Max_Planck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/DBPB_1952_99_Max_Planck.jpg/440px-DBPB_1952_99_Max_Planck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption>Planck on a West German stamp (1952)</figcaption></figure> <p>Planck was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran Church</a> in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was very tolerant toward alternative views and <a href="/wiki/Religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Religions">religions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-adherents.com_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adherents.com-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a lecture in 1937 entitled "Religion und Naturwissenschaft" ("Religion and Natural Science") he suggested the importance of these symbols and rituals related directly with a believer's ability to worship God, but that one must be mindful that the symbols provide an imperfect illustration of divinity. He criticized atheism for being focused on the derision of such symbols, while at the same time warned of the over-estimation of the importance of such symbols by believers.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In "Religion und Naturwissenschaft", Planck expressed the view that God is present everywhere, and he held that "the holiness of the unintelligible Godhead is conveyed by the holiness of symbols." Atheists, he thought, attach too much importance to what are merely symbols. He was a churchwarden from 1920 until his death, and believed in an almighty, all-knowing, beneficent God (although not necessarily a personal one). Both science and religion wage a "tireless battle against skepticism and dogmatism, against unbelief and superstition" with the goal "toward God!"<sup id="cite_ref-adherents.com_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adherents.com-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Planck said in 1944, "As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about atoms this much: There is no matter as such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together. We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent spirit [orig. <i>geist</i>]. This spirit is the matrix of all matter."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Planck argued that the concept of God is important to both religion and science, but in different ways: "Both religion and science require a belief in God. For believers, God is in the beginning, and for physicists He is at the end of all considerations … To the former He is the foundation, to the latter, the crown of the edifice of every generalized world view".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Furthermore, Planck wrote, </p><blockquote><p>..."to believe" means "to recognize as a truth", and the knowledge of nature, continually advancing on incontestably safe tracks, has made it utterly impossible for a person possessing some training in natural science to recognize as founded on truth the many reports of extraordinary occurrences contradicting the laws of nature, of miracles which are still commonly regarded as essential supports and confirmations of religious doctrines, and which formerly used to be accepted as facts pure and simple, without doubt or criticism. The belief in miracles must retreat step by step before relentlessly and reliably progressing science and we cannot doubt that sooner or later it must vanish completely.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Noted historian of science <a href="/wiki/John_L._Heilbron" title="John L. Heilbron">John L. Heilbron</a> characterized Planck's views on God as <a href="/wiki/Deist" class="mw-redirect" title="Deist">deistic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heilbron further relates that when asked about his religious affiliation, Planck replied that although he had always been deeply religious, he did not believe "in a personal God, let alone a Christian God".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Planck,_Max_%E2%80%93_Vorlesungen_%C3%BCber_die_Theorie_der_W%C3%A4rmestrahlung,_1906_%E2%80%93_BEIC_6567602.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Planck%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Vorlesungen_%C3%BCber_die_Theorie_der_W%C3%A4rmestrahlung%2C_1906_%E2%80%93_BEIC_6567602.jpg/220px-Planck%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Vorlesungen_%C3%BCber_die_Theorie_der_W%C3%A4rmestrahlung%2C_1906_%E2%80%93_BEIC_6567602.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Planck%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Vorlesungen_%C3%BCber_die_Theorie_der_W%C3%A4rmestrahlung%2C_1906_%E2%80%93_BEIC_6567602.jpg/330px-Planck%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Vorlesungen_%C3%BCber_die_Theorie_der_W%C3%A4rmestrahlung%2C_1906_%E2%80%93_BEIC_6567602.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Planck%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Vorlesungen_%C3%BCber_die_Theorie_der_W%C3%A4rmestrahlung%2C_1906_%E2%80%93_BEIC_6567602.jpg/440px-Planck%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Vorlesungen_%C3%BCber_die_Theorie_der_W%C3%A4rmestrahlung%2C_1906_%E2%80%93_BEIC_6567602.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1268" data-file-height="1940" /></a><figcaption><i>Vorlesungen über die Theorie der Wärmestrahlung</i>, 1906</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1900a" class="citation journal cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck, M.</a> (1900a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/verhandlungende01goog#page/n212/mode/2up">"Über eine Verbesserung der Wienschen Spektralgleichung"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Verhandlungen_der_Deutschen_Physikalischen_Gesellschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft">Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft</a></i>. <b>2</b>: <span class="nowrap">202–</span>204.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Verhandlungen+der+Deutschen+Physikalischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+eine+Verbesserung+der+Wienschen+Spektralgleichung&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E202-%3C%2Fspan%3E204&rft.date=1900&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fverhandlungende01goog%23page%2Fn212%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span> Translated in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFter_Haar1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dirk_ter_Haar" title="Dirk ter Haar">ter Haar, D.</a> (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ffn.ub.es/luisnavarro/nuevo_maletin/Planck%20%281900%29,%20Improvement%20of%20Wien%27s.pdf">"On an Improvement of Wien's Equation for the Spectrum"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Old Quantum Theory</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Press" title="Pergamon Press">Pergamon Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">79–</span>81. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/66029628">66029628</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+an+Improvement+of+Wien%27s+Equation+for+the+Spectrum&rft.btitle=The+Old+Quantum+Theory&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E79-%3C%2Fspan%3E81&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F66029628&rft.aulast=ter+Haar&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ffn.ub.es%2Fluisnavarro%2Fnuevo_maletin%2FPlanck%2520%25281900%2529%2C%2520Improvement%2520of%2520Wien%2527s.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1900b" class="citation journal cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck, M.</a> (1900b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/verhandlungende01goog#page/n246/mode/2up">"Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Verhandlungen_der_Deutschen_Physikalischen_Gesellschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft">Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft</a></i>. <b>2</b>: 237.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Verhandlungen+der+Deutschen+Physikalischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=Zur+Theorie+des+Gesetzes+der+Energieverteilung+im+Normalspectrum&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=237&rft.date=1900&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fverhandlungende01goog%23page%2Fn246%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span> Translated in</li></ul> <p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFter_Haar1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dirk_ter_Haar" title="Dirk ter Haar">ter Haar, D.</a> (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160920053757/http://www.ffn.ub.es/luisnavarro/nuevo_maletin/Planck%20%281900%29,%20Distribution%20Law.pdf">"On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Old Quantum Theory</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Press" title="Pergamon Press">Pergamon Press</a>. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/66029628">66029628</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ffn.ub.es/luisnavarro/nuevo_maletin/Planck%20%281900%29,%20Distribution%20Law.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 20 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Theory+of+the+Energy+Distribution+Law+of+the+Normal+Spectrum&rft.btitle=The+Old+Quantum+Theory&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F66029628&rft.aulast=ter+Haar&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ffn.ub.es%2Fluisnavarro%2Fnuevo_maletin%2FPlanck%2520%25281900%2529%2C%2520Distribution%2520Law.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1900c" class="citation journal cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck, M.</a> (1900c). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1423979">"Entropie und Temperatur strahlender Wärme"</a> [Entropy and Temperature of Radiant Heat]. <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik" title="Annalen der Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i>. <b>306</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">719–</span>737. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1900AnP...306..719P">1900AnP...306..719P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19003060410">10.1002/andp.19003060410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.atitle=Entropie+und+Temperatur+strahlender+W%C3%A4rme&rft.volume=306&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E719-%3C%2Fspan%3E737&rft.date=1900&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.19003060410&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1900AnP...306..719P&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1423979&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1900d" class="citation journal cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck, M.</a> (1900d). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1423973">"Über irreversible Strahlungsvorgänge"</a> [On Irreversible Radiation Processes]. <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik" title="Annalen der Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i>. <b>306</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">69–</span>122. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1900AnP...306...69P">1900AnP...306...69P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19003060105">10.1002/andp.19003060105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+irreversible+Strahlungsvorg%C3%A4nge&rft.volume=306&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E122&rft.date=1900&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.19003060105&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1900AnP...306...69P&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1423973&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1901" class="citation journal cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck, M.</a> (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19013090310">"Ueber das Gesetz der Energieverteilung im Normalspektrum"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik" title="Annalen der Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i>. <b>309</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">553–</span>563. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1901AnP...309..553P">1901AnP...309..553P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19013090310">10.1002/andp.19013090310</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.atitle=Ueber+das+Gesetz+der+Energieverteilung+im+Normalspektrum&rft.volume=309&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E553-%3C%2Fspan%3E563&rft.date=1901&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.19013090310&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1901AnP...309..553P&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fandp.19013090310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span> Translated in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndo" class="citation web cs1">Ando, K. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111006162543/http://theochem.kuchem.kyoto-u.ac.jp/Ando/planck1901.pdf">"On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theochem.kuchem.kyoto-u.ac.jp/Ando/planck1901.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+the+Law+of+Distribution+of+Energy+in+the+Normal+Spectrum&rft.aulast=Ando&rft.aufirst=K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheochem.kuchem.kyoto-u.ac.jp%2FAndo%2Fplanck1901.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1903" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck, M.</a> (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/treatiseonthermo00planuoft#page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Treatise on Thermodynamics</i></a>. Ogg, A. (transl.). London: Longmans, Green & Co. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7246691M">7246691M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treatise+on+Thermodynamics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+%26+Co&rft.date=1903&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7246691M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Ftreatiseonthermo00planuoft%23page%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1906" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck, M.</a> (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vorlesungenberd03plangoog"><i>Vorlesungen über die Theorie der Wärmestrahlung</i></a>. Leipzig: J.A. Barth. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/07004527">07004527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vorlesungen+%C3%BCber+die+Theorie+der+W%C3%A4rmestrahlung&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=J.A.+Barth&rft.date=1906&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F07004527&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvorlesungenberd03plangoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1914" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck, M.</a> (1914). <i>The Theory of Heat Radiation</i>. Masius, M. (transl.) (2nd ed.). P. Blakiston's Son & Co. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7154661M">7154661M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Heat+Radiation&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=P.+Blakiston%27s+Son+%26+Co.&rft.date=1914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7154661M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1915" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck, M.</a> (1915). <i>Eight Lectures on Theoretical Physics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Potter_Wills" title="Albert Potter Wills">Wills, A. P.</a> (transl.). <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-69730-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-69730-4"><bdi>0-486-69730-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eight+Lectures+on+Theoretical+Physics&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1915&rft.isbn=0-486-69730-4&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1908" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck, M.</a> (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=prgnAAAAMAAJ"><i>Prinzip der Erhaltung der Energie</i></a>. Leipzig: B.G.Teubner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-598-83768-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-598-83768-4"><bdi>978-0-598-83768-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prinzip+der+Erhaltung+der+Energie&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=B.G.Teubner&rft.date=1908&rft.isbn=978-0-598-83768-4&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DprgnAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1943" class="citation journal cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck, M.</a> (1943). "Zur Geschichte der Auffindung des physikalischen Wirkungsquantums". <i><a href="/wiki/Naturwissenschaften" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturwissenschaften">Naturwissenschaften</a></i>. <b>31</b> (<span class="nowrap">14–</span>15): <span class="nowrap">153–</span>159. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1943NW.....31..153P">1943NW.....31..153P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01475738">10.1007/BF01475738</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44899488">44899488</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Naturwissenschaften&rft.atitle=Zur+Geschichte+der+Auffindung+des+physikalischen+Wirkungsquantums&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E159&rft.date=1943&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44899488%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01475738&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1943NW.....31..153P&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/41px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/55px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Biographies">Biographies portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/25px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/37px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/49px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Max_Planck" title="List of things named after Max Planck">List of things named after Max Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_inventors_and_discoverers" class="mw-redirect" title="German inventors and discoverers">German inventors and discoverers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photon_polarization" title="Photon polarization">Photon polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Max_Planck" title="Statue of Max Planck">Statue of Max Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-point_energy" title="Zero-point energy">Zero-point energy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-frs-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorn1948" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born, M.</a> (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1948.0024">"Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck. 1858–1947"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Obituary_Notices_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society">Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>6</b> (17): <span class="nowrap">161–</span>188. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1948.0024">10.1098/rsbm.1948.0024</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Obituary+Notices+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Max+Karl+Ernst+Ludwig+Planck.+1858%E2%80%931947&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E161-%3C%2Fspan%3E188&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1948.0024&rft.aulast=Born&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frsbm.1948.0024&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/pronunciation/english/planck-s-constant">"Planck's constant"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181215022326/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/pronunciation/english/planck-s-constant">Archived</a> 15 December 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge Dictionary</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/planck">"Planck"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141226061525/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/planck">Archived</a> 26 December 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1918/">The Nobel Prize in Physics 1918</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150905113018/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1918/">Archived</a> 5 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved on 5 July 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraenkel2016" class="citation book cs1">Fraenkel, Abraham (2016). <i>Recollections of a Jewish Mathematician in Germany</i>. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-30845-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-30845-6"><bdi>978-3-319-30845-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recollections+of+a+Jewish+Mathematician+in+Germany&rft.place=Basel%2C+Switzerland&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-319-30845-6&rft.aulast=Fraenkel&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historydata.com/biographies/physicists/max-planck/">"Max Planck: Unveiling the Father of Quantum Theory"</a>. 13 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Max+Planck%3A+Unveiling+the+Father+of+Quantum+Theory&rft.date=2024-02-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistorydata.com%2Fbiographies%2Fphysicists%2Fmax-planck%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeir2009" class="citation book cs1">Weir, Jane (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W3GvwcZEYwsC&q=max+planck+move+munich&pg=PT5"><i>Max Planck: Revolutionary Physicist</i></a>. Capstone. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7565-4073-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7565-4073-9"><bdi>978-0-7565-4073-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Max+Planck%3A+Revolutionary+Physicist&rft.pub=Capstone&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7565-4073-9&rft.aulast=Weir&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW3GvwcZEYwsC%26q%3Dmax%2Bplanck%2Bmove%2Bmunich%26pg%3DPT5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christoph Seidler, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/0,1518,549404,00.html"><i>Gestatten, Marx Planck</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629070656/http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/0,1518,549404,00.html">Archived</a> 29 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Spiegel Online, 24 April 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mpg.de/560620/pressemitteilung20080424">Press release</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091018023747/http://mpg.de/bilderBerichteDokumente/dokumentation/pressemitteilungen/2008/pressemitteilung20080424/index.html">Archived</a> 18 October 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a> about Max Planck's name.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/science-and-technology/physics-biographies/max-planck">"Max Planck | Encyclopedia.com"</a>. <i>www.encyclopedia.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Max+Planck+%7C+Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fpeople%2Fscience-and-technology%2Fphysics-biographies%2Fmax-planck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2015" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Brandon R. (2015). <i>Planck: Driven by Vision, Broken by War</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-021947-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-021947-5"><bdi>978-0-19-021947-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Planck%3A+Driven+by+Vision%2C+Broken+by+War&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-021947-5&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Brandon+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Encyclopædia Britannica: Max Planck</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2016" class="citation journal cs1">Wells, James D. (6 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/163719">"Prof. von Jolly's 1878 prediction of the end of theoretical physics as reported by Max Planck"</a>. <i>Scholardox</i>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F163719">2027.42/163719</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scholardox&rft.atitle=Prof.+von+Jolly%27s+1878+prediction+of+the+end+of+theoretical+physics+as+reported+by+Max+Planck&rft.date=2016-03-06&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027.42%2F163719&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeepblue.lib.umich.edu%2Fhandle%2F2027.42%2F163719&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1897" class="citation book cs1">Planck, Max (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.org/ebooks/31564"><i>Vorlesungen über Thermodynamik</i></a>. Leipzig: Verlag Von Veit & Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120624020935/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/31564">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vorlesungen+%C3%BCber+Thermodynamik&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Verlag+Von+Veit+%26+Company&rft.date=1897&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F31564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span> English translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck1903" class="citation book cs1">Planck, Max (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/treatiseonthermo00planrich"><i>Treatise on Thermodynamics</i></a>. London: Longmans, Green, and Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120220105403/http://www.archive.org/details/treatiseonthermo00planrich">Archived</a> from the original on 20 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2012</span>. <q>Treatise on Thermodynamics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treatise+on+Thermodynamics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Company&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftreatiseonthermo00planrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1918/planck-bio.html">"Max Planck – Biographical"</a>. <i>Nobelprize.org</i>. Nobel Prize Organisation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170226040835/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1918/planck-bio.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=Max+Planck+%E2%80%93+Biographical&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1918%2Fplanck-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacques_Hadamard1915" class="citation book cs1">Jacques Hadamard (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924060184375"><i>Four lectures on mathematics: delivered at Columbia University in 1911</i></a>. Columbia University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924060184375/page/n24">7</a>–<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Four+lectures+on+mathematics%3A+delivered+at+Columbia+University+in+1911&rft.pages=7-&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1915&rft.au=Jacques+Hadamard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924060184375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amacad.org/person/max-karl-ernst-ludwig-planck">"Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck"</a>. <i>American Academy of Arts & Sciences</i>. 9 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Academy+of+Arts+%26+Sciences&rft.atitle=Max+Karl+Ernst+Ludwig+Planck&rft.date=2023-02-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fperson%2Fmax-karl-ernst-ludwig-planck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en/about/history/nobel-laureates/planck/">"Max Planck – Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin"</a>. <i>www.hu-berlin.de</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160531054648/https://www.hu-berlin.de/en/about/history/nobel-laureates/planck/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hu-berlin.de&rft.atitle=Max+Planck+%E2%80%93+Humboldt-Universit%C3%A4t+zu+Berlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hu-berlin.de%2Fen%2Fabout%2Fhistory%2Fnobel-laureates%2Fplanck%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en/about/history/nobel-laureates/schroedinger">"Erwin Schrödinger – Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin"</a>. <i>www.hu-berlin.de</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160531080108/https://www.hu-berlin.de/en/about/history/nobel-laureates/schroedinger">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hu-berlin.de&rft.atitle=Erwin+Schr%C3%B6dinger+%E2%80%93+Humboldt-Universit%C3%A4t+zu+Berlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hu-berlin.de%2Fen%2Fabout%2Fhistory%2Fnobel-laureates%2Fschroedinger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001902.html">"Max Planck"</a>. <i>www.nasonline.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nasonline.org&rft.atitle=Max+Planck&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fmember-directory%2Fdeceased-members%2F20001902.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=+Max+Planck&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">"APS Member History"</a>. <i>search.amphilsoc.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=search.amphilsoc.org&rft.atitle=APS+Member+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.amphilsoc.org%2Fmemhist%2Fsearch%3Fcreator%3D%2BMax%2BPlanck%26title%3D%26subject%3D%26subdiv%3D%26mem%3D%26year%3D%26year-max%3D%26dead%3D%26keyword%3D%26smode%3Dadvanced&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerband_Deutscher_ElektrotechnikerElektrotechnischer_Verein_(Berlin,_Germany)1948" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker; Elektrotechnischer Verein (Berlin, Germany) (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFE7AAAAMAAJ">"ETZ: Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift: Ausg. A."</a> <i>ETZ: Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift</i> (in German). <b>69</b> (A). VDE-Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ETZ%3A+Elektrotechnische+Zeitschrift&rft.atitle=ETZ%3A+Elektrotechnische+Zeitschrift%3A+Ausg.+A.&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=A&rft.date=1948&rft.au=Verband+Deutscher+Elektrotechniker&rft.au=Elektrotechnischer+Verein+%28Berlin%2C+Germany%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZFE7AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&tbs=bks%3A1&q=planck++%22damals+der+einzige+theoretische%22">Snipped extract</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405025654/http://www.google.com/search?&tbs=bks%3A1&q=planck++%22damals+der+einzige+theoretische%22">Archived</a> 5 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=20750">"Max Planck – The Mathematics Genealogy Project"</a>. <i>www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170608023459/https://www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=20750">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu&rft.atitle=Max+Planck+%E2%80%93+The+Mathematics+Genealogy+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu%2Fid.php%3Fid%3D20750&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVlasak2001" class="citation journal cs1">Vlasak, Weldon (February 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubsapp.acs.org/subscribe/archive/ci/31/i02/html/02learning.html">"Planck's theory and thermodynamics"</a>. <i>Chemical Innovation</i>. <b>31</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">56–</span>59<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Innovation&rft.atitle=Planck%27s+theory+and+thermodynamics&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E56-%3C%2Fspan%3E59&rft.date=2001-02&rft.aulast=Vlasak&rft.aufirst=Weldon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubsapp.acs.org%2Fsubscribe%2Farchive%2Fci%2F31%2Fi02%2Fhtml%2F02learning.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoffmann29f-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hoffmann29f_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoffmann: <i>Max Planck.</i> Munich 2008, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hartmann156f-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hartmann156f_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartmann: <i>Max Planck als Mensch und Denker.</i> 3. revised edition, Basel 1953, p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoffmann: <i>Max Planck.</i> Munich 2008, p. 31 f.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kragh-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">For a solid approach to the complexity of Planck's intellectual motivations for the quantum, for his reluctant acceptance of its implications, see Helge Kragh, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physicsworld.com/a/max-planck-the-reluctant-revolutionary/">Max Planck: the reluctant revolutionary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181105061830/https://physicsworld.com/a/max-planck-the-reluctant-revolutionary/">Archived</a> 5 November 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Physics World</i>. December 2000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Egginton, William, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://us5.campaign-archive.com/?e=01376ceb1d&u=6557fc90400ccd10e100a13f4&id=dc364d6f8b">The Rigor of Angels: Max Planck unleashed a revolution in physics</a></i>, pp. 52–54, Pantheon, Delancy Place, 2023</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kragh, Helge (1 December 2000), Max Planck: the reluctant revolutionary, PhysicsWorld.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1918/">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1918"</a>. <i>www.nobelprize.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170609233007/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1918/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 June 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1918&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1918%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heilbron, 2000, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d5zKH2Bx2AwC&pg=PA8">p. 8</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180417074508/https://books.google.com/books?id=d5zKH2Bx2AwC&pg=PA8">Archived</a> 2018-04-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Einstein and the Quantum</i>, A.Douglas Stone, Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford, chapter 9, <i>Tripping the light heuristic</i>, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2015" class="citation book cs1">Baker, F. Todd (2015). <i>Atoms and Photons and Quanta, Oh My!: Ask the physicist about atomic, nuclear, and quantum physics</i>. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62705-940-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62705-940-4"><bdi>978-1-62705-940-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atoms+and+Photons+and+Quanta%2C+Oh+My%21%3A+Ask+the+physicist+about+atomic%2C+nuclear%2C+and+quantum+physics&rft.pub=Morgan+%26+Claypool+Publishers&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-62705-940-4&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=F.+Todd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heilbron, 2000, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d5zKH2Bx2AwC&pg=PA72">p. 72</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320070521/http://books.google.com/books?id=d5zKH2Bx2AwC&pg=PA72">Archived</a> 20 March 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvansThorndike2007" class="citation book cs1">Evans, James; Thorndike, Alan S. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S3FOuMYHcqIC"><i>Quantum mechanics at the crossroads: new perspectives from history, philosophy and physics</i></a>. Springer. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-32663-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-32663-2"><bdi>978-3-540-32663-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320051740/http://books.google.com/books?id=S3FOuMYHcqIC">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quantum+mechanics+at+the+crossroads%3A+new+perspectives+from+history%2C+philosophy+and+physics&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-540-32663-2&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Thorndike%2C+Alan+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS3FOuMYHcqIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S3FOuMYHcqIC&pg=PA31">Extract of page 31</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320054630/http://books.google.com/books?id=S3FOuMYHcqIC&pg=PA31">Archived</a> 20 March 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetype=authorDetail&aId=PE00002335">"Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (1858–1947)"</a>. Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170739/http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetype=authorDetail&aId=PE00002335">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Max+Karl+Ernst+Ludwig+Planck+%281858%E2%80%931947%29&rft.pub=Royal+Netherlands+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dwc.knaw.nl%2Fbiografie%2Fpmknaw%2F%3Fpagetype%3DauthorDetail%26aId%3DPE00002335&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScullyScully2007" class="citation book cs1">Scully, Robert J.; Scully, Marlan O. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mQHswDNUbvMC"><i>The demon and the quantum: from the pythagorean mystics to Maxwell's demon and quantum mystery</i></a>. Wiley-VCH. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-40688-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-40688-3"><bdi>978-3-527-40688-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320043330/http://books.google.com/books?id=mQHswDNUbvMC">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+demon+and+the+quantum%3A+from+the+pythagorean+mystics+to+Maxwell%27s+demon+and+quantum+mystery&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-527-40688-3&rft.aulast=Scully&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=Scully%2C+Marlan+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmQHswDNUbvMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mQHswDNUbvMC&pg=PA90">Chapter 7, p 90</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320084201/http://books.google.com/books?id=mQHswDNUbvMC&pg=PA90">Archived</a> 20 March 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Thomas Kuhn, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1970 ed.): p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IJ-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IJ_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/theithacajournal/obituary.aspx?n=johanna-kranold-stein&pid=87920213">"Johanna Kranold Stein"</a>. <i>Ithaca Journal</i>. Legacy.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161011142403/http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/theithacajournal/obituary.aspx?n=johanna-kranold-stein&pid=87920213">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ithaca+Journal&rft.atitle=Johanna+Kranold+Stein&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legacy.com%2Fobituaries%2Ftheithacajournal%2Fobituary.aspx%3Fn%3Djohanna-kranold-stein%26pid%3D87920213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In a slightly different translation, Hahn remembers Planck saying: "If you bring together 30 such men today, then tomorrow 150 will come to denounce them because they want to take their places." This translated quote is found in: Heilbron, 2000, p. 150. Heilbron, at the end of the paragraph, on p. 151, cites the following references to Hahn's writings: Otto Hahn <i>Einige persönliche Erinnerungen an Max Planck</i> MPG, <i>Mitteilungen</i> (1957) p. 244, and Otto Hahn <i>My Life</i> (Herder and Herder, 1970) p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClary2022" class="citation book cs1">Clary, David (2022). <i>Schrödinger in Oxford</i>. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022scox.book.....C">2022scox.book.....C</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Schr%C3%B6dinger+in+Oxford&rft.pages=54&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022scox.book.....C&rft.aulast=Clary&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Flaherty1956" class="citation journal cs1">O'Flaherty, James C. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40222051">"Max Planck and Adolf Hitler"</a>. <i>AAUP Bulletin</i>. <b>42</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">437–</span>444. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F40222051">10.2307/40222051</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-026X">0001-026X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40222051">40222051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AAUP+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Max+Planck+and+Adolf+Hitler&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E437-%3C%2Fspan%3E444&rft.date=1956&rft.issn=0001-026X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40222051%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F40222051&rft.aulast=O%27Flaherty&rft.aufirst=James+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40222051&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heilbron, 2000, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d5zKH2Bx2AwC&pg=PA191">p. 191</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320084452/http://books.google.com/books?id=d5zKH2Bx2AwC&pg=PA191">Archived</a> 20 March 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080512151051/http://physics.nobel.brainparad.com/max_karl_ernst_ludwig_planck.html">"Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.nobel.brainparad.com/max_karl_ernst_ludwig_planck.html">the original</a> on 12 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Max+Karl+Ernst+Ludwig+Planck&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nobel.brainparad.com%2Fmax_karl_ernst_ludwig_planck.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJürgen_HeidekingChristof_Mauch1998" class="citation book cs1">Jürgen Heideking; Christof Mauch (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xoTWkzhf2uUC&pg=PA361"><i>American Intelligence and the German Resistance to Hitler: A Documentary History</i></a>. Westview Press. pp. 361–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-3636-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-3636-7"><bdi>978-0-8133-3636-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130603082521/http://books.google.com/books?id=xoTWkzhf2uUC&pg=PA361">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Intelligence+and+the+German+Resistance+to+Hitler%3A+A+Documentary+History&rft.pages=361-&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-3636-7&rft.au=J%C3%BCrgen+Heideking&rft.au=Christof+Mauch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxoTWkzhf2uUC%26pg%3DPA361&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qHPEHvRPkM4"><i>Max Planck's Grave at Göttingen, Germany</i></a>, Youtube, January 2016, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160318002953/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qHPEHvRPkM4">archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 January</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Max+Planck%27s+Grave+at+G%C3%B6ttingen%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Youtube&rft.date=2016-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DqHPEHvRPkM4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erich Dinkler, "Planck, Max", in <i>Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart</i>, Third Edition, Volume V, Tübingen (Germany), 1961, col. 404–405</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-adherents.com-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adherents.com_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adherents.com_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170810130831/http://www.adherents.com/people/pp/Max_Planck.html">The Religious Affiliation of Physicist Max Planck</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup>. adherents.com. Retrieved on 5 July 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Max_Planck.aspx">The Life Max Planck</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121102190708/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Max_Planck.aspx">Archived</a> 2 November 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. encyclopedia.com. Retrieved on 7 March 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i>Das Wesen der Materie</i>" [The Nature of Matter], speech at Florence, Italy (1944) (from Archiv zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Abt. Va, Rep. 11 Planck, Nr. 1797)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Religion and Natural Science" (Lecture Given 1937) <i>Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers</i>, trans. F. Gaynor (New York, 1949), pp. 184</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Max Planck, Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._L._Heilbron1986" class="citation book cs1">J. L. Heilbron (1986). <i>The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science</i>. Harvard University Press. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00439-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00439-9"><bdi>978-0-674-00439-9</bdi></a>. <q>On the other side, Church spokesmen could scarcely become enthusiastic about Planck's deism, which omitted all reference to established religions and had no more doctrinal content than Einstein's Judaism. It seemed useful therefore to paint the lily, to improve the lesson of Planck's life for the use of proselytizers and to associate the deanthropomorphizer of science with a belief in a traditional Godhead.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dilemmas+of+an+Upright+Man%3A+Max+Planck+and+the+Fortunes+of+German+Science&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00439-9&rft.au=J.+L.+Heilbron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heilbron, 2000, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d5zKH2Bx2AwC&pg=PA198">page 198</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180417074505/https://books.google.com/books?id=d5zKH2Bx2AwC&pg=PA198">Archived</a> 17 April 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amir_Aczel" title="Amir Aczel">Aczel, Amir D.</a> <i>Entanglement</i>, Chapter 4. (Penguin, 2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-452-28457-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-452-28457-9">978-0-452-28457-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_L._Heilbron" title="John L. Heilbron">Heilbron, J. L.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d5zKH2Bx2AwC"><i>The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-00439-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-00439-6"><bdi>0-674-00439-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dilemmas+of+an+Upright+Man%3A+Max+Planck+and+the+Fortunes+of+German+Science&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-674-00439-6&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd5zKH2Bx2AwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clifford_A._Pickover" title="Clifford A. Pickover">Pickover, Clifford A.</a> <i>Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them</i>, Oxford University Press, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533611-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533611-5">978-0-19-533611-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedawarPyke2012" class="citation book cs1">Medawar, Jean; Pyke, David (2012). <i>Hitler's Gift: The True Story of the Scientists Expelled by the Nazi Regime</i> (Paperback). New York: Arcade Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61145-709-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61145-709-4"><bdi>978-1-61145-709-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Gift%3A+The+True+Story+of+the+Scientists+Expelled+by+the+Nazi+Regime&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Arcade+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-61145-709-4&rft.aulast=Medawar&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft.au=Pyke%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Planck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rosenthal-Schneider, Ilse <i>Reality and Scientific Truth: Discussions with Einstein, von Laue, and Planck</i> (Wayne State University, 1980) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8143-1650-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8143-1650-6">0-8143-1650-6</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck" class="extiw" title="commons:Max Planck"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Max Planck</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Max_Planck" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Max Planck">Max Planck</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/35343">Works by Max Planck</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fadedpage.com/csearch.php?author=Planck%2C%20Max">Works by Max Planck</a> at <a href="/wiki/Distributed_Proofreaders_Canada" title="Distributed Proofreaders Canada">Faded Page</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Planck%2C%20Max%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Max%20Planck%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Planck%2C%20Max%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Max%20Planck%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Planck%2C%20M%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Max%20Planck%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Planck%2C%20Max%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Max%20Planck%22%29%20OR%20%28%221858-1947%22%20AND%20Planck%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Max Planck</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/9626">Works by Max Planck</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060828134833/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FPlanck%2C+Max">Annotated bibliography for Max Planck</a> from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108525/Max-Planck">Max Planck</a> – Encyclopædia Britannica article</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/max_karl_ernst_ludwig_planck.html">Max Planck Biography</a> – www.nobel-prize-winners.com</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mpg.de/english/">Max Planck Institutes of Natural Science and Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=175&v=5mwHXBn6mcM">Max Planck – Selbstdarstellung im Filmportrait (1942)</a>, [Cinematic self-portrait of Max Planck], Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1942</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/23">Max Planck</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9021#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> including the Nobel Lecture, 2 June 1920 <i>The Genesis and Present State of Development of the Quantum Theory</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.max-planck.mpg.de">Life–Work–Personality</a> – Exhibition on the 50th anniversary of Planck's death</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/013674">Newspaper clippings about Max Planck</a> in the <a href="/wiki/20th_Century_Press_Archives" title="20th Century Press Archives">20th Century Press Archives</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_National_Library_of_Economics" title="German National Library of Economics">ZBW</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Copley_Medallists_(1901–1950)35" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Copley_Medallists_1901%E2%80%931950" title="Template:Copley Medallists 1901–1950"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Copley_Medallists_1901%E2%80%931950" title="Template talk:Copley Medallists 1901–1950"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copley_Medallists_1901%E2%80%931950" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Copley Medallists 1901–1950"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copley_Medallists_(1901–1950)35" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medallists</a> (1901–1950)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah Willard Gibbs</a> (1901)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a> (1902)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Suess" title="Eduard Suess">Eduard Suess</a> (1903)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> (1904)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a> (1905)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Metchnikoff" title="Élie Metchnikoff">Élie Metchnikoff</a> (1906)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a> (1907)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (1908)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_William_Hill" title="George William Hill">George William Hill</a> (1909)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a> (1910)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Darwin" title="George Darwin">George Darwin</a> (1911)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Felix_Klein" title="Felix Klein">Felix Klein</a> (1912)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ray_Lankester" title="Ray Lankester">Ray Lankester</a> (1913)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (1914)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a> (1915)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Dewar" title="James Dewar">James Dewar</a> (1916)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Paul_%C3%89mile_Roux" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Paul Émile Roux">Pierre Paul Émile Roux</a> (1917)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a> (1918)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Bayliss" title="William Bayliss">William Bayliss</a> (1919)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Horace_Tabberer_Brown" title="Horace Tabberer Brown">Horace Tabberer Brown</a> (1920)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">Joseph Larmor</a> (1921)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> (1922)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Horace_Lamb" title="Horace Lamb">Horace Lamb</a> (1923)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Albert_Sharpey-Schafer" title="Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer">Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer</a> (1924)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (1925)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a> (1926)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> (1927)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Algernon_Parsons" title="Charles Algernon Parsons">Charles Algernon Parsons</a> (1928)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Max Planck</a> (1929)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> (1930)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schuster" title="Arthur Schuster">Arthur Schuster</a> (1931)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Ellery_Hale" title="George Ellery Hale">George Ellery Hale</a> (1932)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Theobald_Smith" title="Theobald Smith">Theobald Smith</a> (1933)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Haldane" title="John Scott Haldane">John Scott Haldane</a> (1934)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">Charles Thomson Rees Wilson</a> (1935)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Evans" title="Arthur Evans">Arthur Evans</a> (1936)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Hallett Dale</a> (1937)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> (1938)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> (1939)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Langevin" title="Paul Langevin">Paul Langevin</a> (1940)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lewis_(cardiologist)" title="Thomas Lewis (cardiologist)">Thomas Lewis</a> (1941)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(chemist)" title="Robert Robinson (chemist)">Robert Robinson</a> (1942)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Barcroft" title="Joseph Barcroft">Joseph Barcroft</a> (1943)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/G._I._Taylor" title="G. I. Taylor">Geoffrey Ingram Taylor</a> (1944)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Avery" title="Oswald Avery">Oswald Avery</a> (1945)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian" title="Edgar Adrian">Edgar Douglas Adrian</a> (1946)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/G._H._Hardy" title="G. H. Hardy">G. H. Hardy</a> (1947)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Archibald Hill</a> (1948)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">George de Hevesy</a> (1949)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> (1950)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physics145" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physics145" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physics">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1901: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Röntgen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1902: <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Zeeman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1903: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">P. Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">M. Curie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1904: <a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Rayleigh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1905: <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Lenard" title="Philipp Lenard">Lenard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1906: <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1907: <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Michelson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1908: <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann" title="Gabriel Lippmann">Lippmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1909: <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Braun</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1910: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Van der Waals</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1911: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1912: <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Dal%C3%A9n" title="Gustaf Dalén">Dalén</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1913: <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Kamerlingh Onnes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1914: <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Laue</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1915: <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">W. L. Bragg</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">W. H. Bragg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1916</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1917: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Glover_Barkla" title="Charles Glover Barkla">Barkla</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1918: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1919: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Stark" title="Johannes Stark">Stark</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1920: <a href="/wiki/Charles_%C3%89douard_Guillaume" title="Charles Édouard Guillaume">Guillaume</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1921: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1922: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1923: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Millikan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1924: <a href="/wiki/Manne_Siegbahn" title="Manne Siegbahn">M. Siegbahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1925: <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">Franck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz" title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz">Hertz</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1926: <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Perrin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1927: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">C. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1928: <a href="/wiki/Owen_Willans_Richardson" class="mw-redirect" title="Owen Willans Richardson">O. Richardson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1929: <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">De Broglie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1930: <a href="/wiki/C._V._Raman" title="C. V. Raman">Raman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1931</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1932: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1933: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Schrödinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1934</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1935: <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1936: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Francis_Hess" title="Victor Francis Hess">Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">C. D. Anderson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1937: <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson" title="George Paget Thomson">G. P. Thomson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1938: <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1939: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1940</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1941</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1942</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1943: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Stern</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1944: <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1945: <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1946: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Bridgman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1947: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Victor_Appleton" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Victor Appleton">Appleton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1948: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Blackett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1949: <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Yukawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1950: <a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">Powell</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1951: <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1952: <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1953: <a href="/wiki/Frits_Zernike" title="Frits Zernike">Zernike</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1954: <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Bothe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1955: <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Lamb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Polykarp_Kusch" title="Polykarp Kusch">Kusch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1956: <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Brattain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1957: <a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">C. N. Yang</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">T. D. Lee</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1958: <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Cherenkov" title="Pavel Cherenkov">Cherenkov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Frank" title="Ilya Frank">Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Igor_Tamm" title="Igor Tamm">Tamm</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1959: <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/Owen_Chamberlain" title="Owen Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1960: <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Glaser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1961: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Hofstadter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_M%C3%B6ssbauer" title="Rudolf Mössbauer">Mössbauer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1962: <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1963: <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Goeppert Mayer</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Basov" title="Nikolay Basov">Basov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Prokhorov" title="Alexander Prokhorov">Prokhorov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Tomonaga</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Schwinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Kastler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Gell-Mann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_N%C3%A9el" title="Louis Néel">Néel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Gabor" title="Dennis Gabor">Gabor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leon_Cooper" title="Leon Cooper">Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">Schrieffer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Leo_Esaki" title="Leo Esaki">Esaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ivar_Giaever" title="Ivar Giaever">Giaever</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Josephson" title="Brian Josephson">Josephson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ryle" title="Martin Ryle">Ryle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antony_Hewish" title="Antony Hewish">Hewish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Roy_Mottelson" title="Ben Roy Mottelson">Mottelson</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">Rainwater</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Richter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Samuel_C._C._Ting" title="Samuel C. C. Ting">Ting</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Philip_W._Anderson" title="Philip W. Anderson">P. W. Anderson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Mott</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">Van Vleck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Kapitsa" title="Pyotr Kapitsa">Kapitsa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">R. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Glashow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Salam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">Cronin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Fitch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Bloembergen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Schawlow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kai_Siegbahn" title="Kai Siegbahn">K. Siegbahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson" title="Kenneth G. Wilson">K. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">Fowler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Rubbia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Van der Meer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing" title="Klaus von Klitzing">von Klitzing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ruska" title="Ernst Ruska">Ruska</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerd_Binnig" title="Gerd Binnig">Binnig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer" title="Heinrich Rohrer">Rohrer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Georg_Bednorz" title="Georg Bednorz">Bednorz</a> / <a href="/wiki/K._Alex_M%C3%BCller" title="K. Alex Müller">Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Lederman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Schwartz" title="Melvin Schwartz">Schwartz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Steinberger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Ramsey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_Georg_Dehmelt" title="Hans Georg Dehmelt">Dehmelt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Paul" title="Wolfgang Paul">Paul</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Friedman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Taylor" title="Richard E. Taylor">R. Taylor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Gilles_de_Gennes" title="Pierre-Gilles de Gennes">de Gennes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Georges_Charpak" title="Georges Charpak">Charpak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Hulse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">J. Taylor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Brockhouse" title="Bertram Brockhouse">Brockhouse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Shull" title="Clifford Shull">Shull</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Lewis_Perl" title="Martin Lewis Perl">Perl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Reines</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/David_Lee_(physicist)" title="David Lee (physicist)">D. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Osheroff" title="Douglas Osheroff">Osheroff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Coleman_Richardson" title="Robert Coleman Richardson">R. Richardson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Chu" title="Steven Chu">Chu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Claude_Cohen-Tannoudji" title="Claude Cohen-Tannoudji">Cohen-Tannoudji</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Daniel_Phillips" title="William Daniel Phillips">Phillips</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Laughlin" title="Robert B. Laughlin">Laughlin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Horst_Ludwig_St%C3%B6rmer" title="Horst Ludwig Störmer">Störmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Tsui" title="Daniel C. Tsui">Tsui</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">'t Hooft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martinus_J._G._Veltman" title="Martinus J. G. Veltman">Veltman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Alferov" title="Zhores Alferov">Alferov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kroemer" title="Herbert Kroemer">Kroemer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Kilby</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–<br />present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Allin_Cornell" title="Eric Allin Cornell">Cornell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Ketterle" title="Wolfgang Ketterle">Ketterle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wieman" title="Carl Wieman">Wieman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Davis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Koshiba" title="Masatoshi Koshiba">Koshiba</a> / <a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Giacconi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Abrikosov_(physicist)" title="Alexei Abrikosov (physicist)">Abrikosov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Ginzburg" title="Vitaly Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anthony_James_Leggett" title="Anthony James Leggett">Leggett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">Gross</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hugh_David_Politzer" title="Hugh David Politzer">Politzer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Roy_J._Glauber" title="Roy J. Glauber">Glauber</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_L._Hall" title="John L. Hall">Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._H%C3%A4nsch" title="Theodor W. Hänsch">Hänsch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Fert" title="Albert Fert">Fert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gr%C3%BCnberg" title="Peter Grünberg">Grünberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Nambu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Makoto_Kobayashi_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Makoto Kobayashi (physicist)">Kobayashi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Toshihide_Maskawa" title="Toshihide Maskawa">Maskawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Kao</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Boyle" title="Willard Boyle">Boyle</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Andre_Geim" title="Andre Geim">Geim</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Novoselov" title="Konstantin Novoselov">Novoselov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Saul_Perlmutter" title="Saul Perlmutter">Perlmutter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Adam_Riess" title="Adam Riess">Riess</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">Wineland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Serge_Haroche" title="Serge Haroche">Haroche</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">Englert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Higgs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Akasaki" title="Isamu Akasaki">Akasaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Amano" title="Hiroshi Amano">Amano</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shuji_Nakamura" title="Shuji Nakamura">Nakamura</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/Takaaki_Kajita" title="Takaaki Kajita">Kajita</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._McDonald" title="Arthur B. McDonald">McDonald</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Thouless" class="mw-redirect" title="David J. Thouless">Thouless</a> / <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Haldane" title="Duncan Haldane">Haldane</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Kosterlitz" title="J. Michael Kosterlitz">Kosterlitz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Weiss" title="Rainer Weiss">Weiss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Thorne</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashkin" title="Arthur Ashkin">Ashkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Mourou" title="Gérard Mourou">Mourou</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Strickland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Peebles" title="Jim Peebles">Peebles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michel_Mayor" title="Michel Mayor">Mayor</a> / <a href="/wiki/Didier_Queloz" title="Didier Queloz">Queloz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2020: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Genzel" title="Reinhard Genzel">Genzel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrea_M._Ghez" title="Andrea M. Ghez">Ghez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2021: <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Parisi" title="Giorgio Parisi">Parisi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Hasselmann" title="Klaus Hasselmann">Hasselmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Syukuro_Manabe" title="Syukuro Manabe">Manabe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2022: <a href="/wiki/Alain_Aspect" title="Alain Aspect">Aspect</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Clauser" title="John Clauser">Clauser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anton_Zeilinger" title="Anton Zeilinger">Zeilinger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2023: <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Agostini" title="Pierre Agostini">Agostini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz" title="Ferenc Krausz">Krausz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anne_L%27Huillier" title="Anne L'Huillier">L'Huillier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">Hopfield</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hinton" title="Geoffrey Hinton">Hinton</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1918_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1918_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1918 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1918_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1918 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1918_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1918 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1918_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1918 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1918_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1918 Nobel Prize in Literature">1918</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>None</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>None</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Max Planck</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>None</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1913_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1913 Nobel Prize winners">1913</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1914_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1914 Nobel Prize winners">1914</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1915_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1915 Nobel Prize winners">1915</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1916_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1916 Nobel Prize winners">1916</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1917_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1917 Nobel Prize winners">1917</a></dd> <dd><b>1918 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1919_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1919 Nobel Prize winners">1919</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1920_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1920 Nobel Prize winners">1920</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1921_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1921 Nobel Prize winners">1921</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1922_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1922 Nobel Prize winners">1922</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1923_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1923 Nobel Prize winners">1923</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants397" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants" title="Template:Scientists whose names are used in physical constants"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants" title="Template talk:Scientists whose names are used in physical constants"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists whose names are used in physical constants"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants397" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants" title="List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants">Scientists whose names are used in physical constants</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_constant" title="Physical constant">Physical <br />constants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Newtonian_constant_of_gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Newtonian constant of gravitation">Newtonian constant of gravitation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadro</a> (<a href="/wiki/Avogadro_constant" title="Avogadro constant">Avogadro constant</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (<a href="/wiki/Faraday_constant" title="Faraday constant">Faraday constant</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Josef_Loschmidt" title="Johann Josef Loschmidt">Johann Josef Loschmidt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Loschmidt_constant" title="Loschmidt constant">Loschmidt constant</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Jakob_Balmer" title="Johann Jakob Balmer">Johann Jakob Balmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Stefan" title="Josef Stefan">Josef Stefan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan–Boltzmann constant">Stefan–Boltzmann constant</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann" title="Ludwig Boltzmann">Ludwig Boltzmann</a> (<a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant" title="Boltzmann constant">Boltzmann constant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan–Boltzmann constant">Stefan–Boltzmann constant</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Rydberg" title="Johannes Rydberg">Johannes Rydberg</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rydberg_constant" title="Rydberg constant">Rydberg constant</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Max Planck</a> (<a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wilhelm Wien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Sackur" title="Otto Sackur">Otto Sackur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bohr_radius" title="Bohr radius">Bohr radius</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hubble_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble constant">Hubble constant</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Tetrode" title="Hugo Tetrode">Hugo Tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Hartree" title="Douglas Hartree">Douglas Hartree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Josephson" title="Brian Josephson">Brian Josephson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Josephson_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Josephson constant">Josephson constant</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing" title="Klaus von Klitzing">Klaus von Klitzing</a> (<a href="/wiki/Von_Klitzing_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Von Klitzing constant">von Klitzing constant</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units#Scientists_and_SI_units" title="List of scientists whose names are used as units">List of scientists whose names are used as SI units</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units#Scientists_and_non-SI_units" title="List of scientists whose names are used as units">non SI units</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9021#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4567" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9021#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9021#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000110245894">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/34487615">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/52567/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJpV97y8BGjH4JFDTwFBT3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118594818">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80038130">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12108412n">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12108412n">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00452924">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35424988">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000604452&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1072756">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/92451">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068292651">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90161766">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000155652&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000048341&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=159128">Greece</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=80691">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC201710512">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/ljx02r443b40qlb">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810662856105606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/243121">Vatican</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/296255">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007266653205171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058520413306706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14320912">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00814828?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=20750">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=16656197000">Scopus</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:planck.max">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/140195">MathSciNet</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leopoldina.org/mitgliederverzeichnis/mitglieder/member/Member/show/max-planck/">Leopoldina</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/de91273a-5917-4406-bd39-f9bd0d586d1c">MusicBrainz</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.performing-arts.eu/discovery/agent/gnd_118594818">FID</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/948030">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118594818.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118594818">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/02888566X">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w64m961m">SNAC</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/agent/67972">Te Papa (New Zealand)</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&oldid=1270000142">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&oldid=1270000142</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Max_Planck" title="Category:Max Planck">Max Planck</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1858_births" title="Category:1858 births">1858 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1947_deaths" title="Category:1947 deaths">1947 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_German_physicists" title="Category:19th-century German physicists">19th-century German physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_German_physicists" title="Category:20th-century German physicists">20th-century German physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientists_from_Kiel" title="Category:Scientists from Kiel">Scientists from Kiel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_from_the_Duchy_of_Holstein" title="Category:People from the Duchy of Holstein">People from the Duchy of Holstein</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:German_deists" title="Category:German deists">German deists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_Lutherans" title="Category:Former Lutherans">Former Lutherans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:German_Nobel_laureates" title="Category:German Nobel laureates">German Nobel laureates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Foreign_associates_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences">Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Foreign_members_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society">Foreign members of the Royal Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Pontifical_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences">Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences">Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences">Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Corresponding_members_of_the_Saint_Petersburg_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences">Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Corresponding_Members_of_the_Russian_Academy_of_Sciences_(1917%E2%80%931925)" title="Category:Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)">Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Honorary_members_of_the_USSR_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Honorary members of the USSR Academy of Sciences">Honorary members of the USSR Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nobel_laureates_in_Physics" title="Category:Nobel laureates in Physics">Nobel laureates in Physics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_the_Copley_Medal" title="Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal">Recipients of the Copley Medal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:German_quantum_physicists" title="Category:German quantum physicists">German quantum physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Optical_physicists" title="Category:Optical physicists">Optical physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_the_Pour_le_M%C3%A9rite_(civil_class)" title="Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)">Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lorentz_Medal_winners" title="Category:Lorentz Medal winners">Lorentz Medal winners</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Creators_of_temperature_scales" title="Category:Creators of temperature scales">Creators of temperature scales</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:German_People%27s_Party_politicians" title="Category:German People's Party politicians">German People's Party politicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich_alumni" title="Category:Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni">Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academic_staff_of_the_Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich" title="Category:Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich">Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Humboldt_University_of_Berlin_alumni" title="Category:Humboldt University of Berlin alumni">Humboldt University of Berlin alumni</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academic_staff_of_the_Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Category:Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin">Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academic_staff_of_the_University_of_Kiel" title="Category:Academic staff of the University of Kiel">Academic staff of the University of Kiel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:German_theoretical_physicists" title="Category:German theoretical physicists">German theoretical physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Max_Planck_Society_people" title="Category:Max Planck Society people">Max Planck Society people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Winners_of_the_Max_Planck_Medal" title="Category:Winners of the Max Planck Medal">Winners of the Max Planck Medal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Bavarian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences">Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society" title="Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society">Members of the American Philosophical Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_Franklin_Medal" title="Category:Recipients of Franklin Medal">Recipients of Franklin Medal</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Phonos_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Phonos extension">Pages using the Phonos extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_February_2021" title="Category:Use dmy dates from February 2021">Use dmy dates from February 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_May_2017" title="Category:Use American English from May 2017">Use American English from May 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biography_with_signature" title="Category:Biography with signature">Biography with signature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_hCards" title="Category:Articles with hCards">Articles with hCards</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_German_IPA" title="Category:Pages with German IPA">Pages with German IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_including_recorded_pronunciations" title="Category:Pages including recorded pronunciations">Pages including recorded pronunciations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons link is on Wikidata">Commons link is on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Project_Gutenberg_links" title="Category:Articles with Project Gutenberg links">Articles with Project Gutenberg links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Internet_Archive_links" title="Category:Articles with Internet Archive links">Articles with Internet Archive links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_LibriVox_links" title="Category:Articles with LibriVox links">Articles with LibriVox links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nobelprize_template_using_Wikidata_property_P8024" title="Category:Nobelprize template using Wikidata property P8024">Nobelprize template using Wikidata property P8024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 17 January 2025, at 12:31<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Max Planck</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>146 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-567b97b4dc-j9kxr","wgBackendResponseTime":185,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.271","walltime":"1.559","ppvisitednodes":{"value":8543,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":251396,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":20433,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":21,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":28,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":240589,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1312.885 1 -total"," 21.56% 283.110 1 Template:Infobox_scientist"," 14.36% 188.591 1 Template:Reflist"," 10.72% 140.754 11 Template:Cite_journal"," 9.06% 118.900 1 Template:Special_relativity_sidebar"," 8.90% 116.837 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 8.72% 114.452 1 Template:IPA"," 7.11% 93.310 21 Template:Cite_book"," 6.34% 83.187 6 Template:Plainlist"," 6.19% 81.282 1 Template:Birth_date"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.821","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24916537,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n}\n\"\"\ntable#1 {\n}\n\"\"\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7878cd4448-ndj7j","timestamp":"20250211195727","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Max Planck","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Max_Planck","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9021","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9021","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-09-05T08:30:17Z","dateModified":"2025-01-17T12:31:41Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/ee\/Max_Planck_by_Hugo_Erfurth_1938cr_-_restoration1.jpg","headline":"German theoretical physicist (1858\u20131947)"}</script> </body> </html>