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<!DOCTYPE html> <html > <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/open_search.xml" title="Academia.edu"> <meta content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" name="viewport"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="bKJMBZA7E43xhDOopFZkssMMkBRjvYERV-NaN4R6mrs"> <meta name="csrf-param" content="authenticity_token" /> <meta name="csrf-token" content="8e3LlpLOBVff8kmX/FgV3ZiglzBQmaeod+/5U9z0yeWT4lWZ7y/6SXVstAFGUTRD+Y7fSgJd03UKTgJtCEpd6w==" /> <meta name="citation_title" content="Pre-Industrial Inequality" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Branko Milanovic" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:url" content="https://www.academia.edu/18502777/Pre_Industrial_Inequality" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Pre-Industrial Inequality" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Is inequality largely the result of the Industrial Revolution? Or, were pre-industrial incomes as unequal as they are today? For want of sufficient data, these questions have not yet been answered. This paper infers inequality across individuals" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="http://a.academia-assets.com/images/twitter-card.jpeg" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="2369844204" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.academia.edu/18502777/Pre_Industrial_Inequality" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Pre-Industrial Inequality" /> <meta property="og:image" content="http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Is inequality largely the result of the Industrial Revolution? Or, were pre-industrial incomes as unequal as they are today? For want of sufficient data, these questions have not yet been answered. This paper infers inequality across individuals" /> <meta property="article:author" content="https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/BrankoMilanovic" /> <meta name="description" content="Is inequality largely the result of the Industrial Revolution? Or, were pre-industrial incomes as unequal as they are today? For want of sufficient data, these questions have not yet been answered. This paper infers inequality across individuals" /> <title>Pre-Industrial Inequality | Branko Milanovic - Academia.edu</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.academia.edu/18502777/Pre_Industrial_Inequality" /> <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-5VKX33P2DS"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'G-5VKX33P2DS', { cookie_domain: 'academia.edu', send_page_view: false, }); gtag('event', 'page_view', { 'controller': "single_work", 'action': "show", 'controller_action': 'single_work#show', 'logged_in': 'false', 'edge': 'unknown', // Send nil if there is no A/B test bucket, in case some records get logged // with missing data - that way we can distinguish between the two cases. // ab_test_bucket should be of the form <ab_test_name>:<bucket> 'ab_test_bucket': null, }) </script> <script> var $controller_name = 'single_work'; var $action_name = "show"; var $rails_env = 'production'; var $app_rev = '92477ec68c09d28ae4730a4143c926f074776319'; var $domain = 'academia.edu'; var $app_host = "academia.edu"; var $asset_host = "academia-assets.com"; var $start_time = new Date().getTime(); var $recaptcha_key = "6LdxlRMTAAAAADnu_zyLhLg0YF9uACwz78shpjJB"; var $recaptcha_invisible_key = "6Lf3KHUUAAAAACggoMpmGJdQDtiyrjVlvGJ6BbAj"; var $disableClientRecordHit = false; </script> <script> window.require = { config: function() { return function() {} } } </script> <script> window.Aedu = window.Aedu || {}; window.Aedu.hit_data = null; window.Aedu.serverRenderTime = new Date(1732814721000); window.Aedu.timeDifference = new Date().getTime() - 1732814721000; </script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","abstract":"Is inequality largely the result of the Industrial Revolution? Or, were pre-industrial incomes as unequal as they are today? For want of sufficient data, these questions have not yet been answered. This paper infers inequality across individuals within each of the 28 pre-industrial societies, for which data were available, using what are known as social tables, stretching from the Roman Empire 14 AD, to Byzantium in 1000, to England in 1688, to Nueva España around 1790, to China in 1880 and to British India in 1947. It applies two new concepts in making those assessments – what we call the inequality possibility frontier and the inequality extraction ratio. The two new concepts compare the observed income inequality to the maximum feasible inequality that, at a given level of income, might have been “extracted” by those in power. The results, especially when contrasted with modern countries, give new insights into the connection between inequality and economic development in the very long run.","author":[{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Branko Milanovic"}],"contributor":[],"dateCreated":"2015-11-17","dateModified":"2015-11-17","datePublished":null,"headline":"Pre-Industrial Inequality","inLanguage":"en","keywords":["Economic Inequality"],"locationCreated":null,"publication":null,"publisher":{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Organization","name":null},"image":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"url":"https://www.academia.edu/18502777/Pre_Industrial_Inequality","sourceOrganization":[{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"EducationalOrganization","name":"gc-cuny"}]}</script><link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="//a.academia-assets.com/assets/single_work_page/loswp-102fa537001ba4d8dcd921ad9bd56c474abc201906ea4843e7e7efe9dfbf561d.css" /><link rel="stylesheet" media="all" 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Or, were pre-industrial incomes as unequal as they are today? For want of sufficient data, these questions have not yet been answered. This paper infers inequality across individuals within each of the 28 pre-industrial societies, for which data were available, using what are known as social tables, stretching from the Roman Empire 14 AD, to Byzantium in 1000, to England in 1688, to Nueva España around 1790, to China in 1880 and to British India in 1947. It applies two new concepts in making those assessments – what we call the inequality possibility frontier and the inequality extraction ratio. The two new concepts compare the observed income inequality to the maximum feasible inequality that, at a given level of income, might have been “extracted” by those in power. The results, especially when contrasted with modern countries, give new insights into the connection between inequality and economic development in the very long run.\n\n"},"document_type":"paper","pre_hit_view_count_baseline":null,"quality":"high","language":"en","title":"Pre-Industrial Inequality","broadcastable":true,"draft":null,"has_indexable_attachment":true,"indexable":true}}["work"]; window.loswp.workCoauthors = [34163929]; window.loswp.locale = "en"; window.loswp.countryCode = "SG"; window.loswp.cwvAbTestBucket = ""; window.loswp.designVariant = "ds_vanilla"; window.loswp.fullPageMobileSutdModalVariant = "full_page_mobile_sutd_modal"; window.loswp.useOptimizedScribd4genScript = false; window.loswp.appleClientId = 'edu.academia.applesignon';</script><script defer="" src="https://accounts.google.com/gsi/client"></script><div class="ds-loswp-container"><div class="ds-work-card--grid-container"><div class="ds-work-card--container js-loswp-work-card"><div class="ds-work-card--cover"><div class="ds-work-cover--wrapper"><div class="ds-work-cover--container"><button class="ds-work-cover--clickable js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"swp-splash-paper-cover","attachmentId":40098935,"attachmentType":"pdf"}"><img alt="First page of “Pre-Industrial Inequality”" class="ds-work-cover--cover-thumbnail" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/40098935/mini_magick20190221-13717-940e4e.png?1550816236" /><img alt="PDF Icon" class="ds-work-cover--file-icon" src="//a.academia-assets.com/assets/single_work_splash/adobe.icon-574afd46eb6b03a77a153a647fb47e30546f9215c0ee6a25df597a779717f9ef.svg" /><div class="ds-work-cover--hover-container"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span><p>Download Free PDF</p></div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-container">Download Free PDF</div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-triangle"></div></button></div></div></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-information"><h1 class="ds-work-card--work-title">Pre-Industrial Inequality</h1><div class="ds-work-card--work-authors ds-work-card--detail"><a class="ds-work-card--author js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="34163929" href="https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/BrankoMilanovic"><img alt="Profile image of Branko Milanovic" class="ds-work-card--author-avatar" src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/s65_no_pic.png" />Branko Milanovic</a></div><div class="ds-work-card--detail"><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata"><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">visibility</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm" id="work-metadata-view-count">…</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">description</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">22 pages</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">link</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">1 file</p></div></div><script>(async () => { const workId = 18502777; const worksViewsPath = "/v0/works/views?subdomain_param=api&work_ids%5B%5D=18502777"; const getWorkViews = async (workId) => { const response = await fetch(worksViewsPath); if (!response.ok) { throw new Error('Failed to load work views'); } const data = await response.json(); return data.views[workId]; }; // Get the view count for the work - we send this immediately rather than waiting for // the DOM to load, so it can be available as soon as possible (but without holding up // the backend or other resource requests, because it's a bit expensive and not critical). const viewCount = await getWorkViews(workId); const updateViewCount = (viewCount) => { const viewCountNumber = Number(viewCount); if (!viewCountNumber) { throw new Error('Failed to parse view count'); } const commaizedViewCount = viewCountNumber.toLocaleString(); const viewCountBody = document.getElementById('work-metadata-view-count'); if (viewCountBody) { viewCountBody.textContent = `${commaizedViewCount} views`; } else { throw new Error('Failed to find work views element'); } }; // If the DOM is still loading, wait for it to be ready before updating the view count. if (document.readyState === "loading") { document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', () => { updateViewCount(viewCount); }); // Otherwise, just update it immediately. } else { updateViewCount(viewCount); } })();</script></div><p class="ds-work-card--work-abstract ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-md">Is inequality largely the result of the Industrial Revolution? Or, were pre-industrial incomes as unequal as they are today? For want of sufficient data, these questions have not yet been answered. This paper infers inequality across individuals within each of the 28 pre-industrial societies, for which data were available, using what are known as social tables, stretching from the Roman Empire 14 AD, to Byzantium in 1000, to England in 1688, to Nueva España around 1790, to China in 1880 and to British India in 1947. It applies two new concepts in making those assessments – what we call the inequality possibility frontier and the inequality extraction ratio. The two new concepts compare the observed income inequality to the maximum feasible inequality that, at a given level of income, might have been “extracted” by those in power. The results, especially when contrasted with modern countries, give new insights into the connection between inequality and economic development in the very long run. </p><div class="ds-work-card--button-container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--work-card","attachmentId":40098935,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/18502777/Pre_Industrial_Inequality"}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--work-card","attachmentId":40098935,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/18502777/Pre_Industrial_Inequality"}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div></div><div data-auto_select="false" data-client_id="331998490334-rsn3chp12mbkiqhl6e7lu2q0mlbu0f1b" data-doc_id="40098935" data-landing_url="https://www.academia.edu/18502777/Pre_Industrial_Inequality" data-login_uri="https://www.academia.edu/registrations/google_one_tap" data-moment_callback="onGoogleOneTapEvent" id="g_id_onload"></div><div class="ds-top-related-works--grid-container"><div class="ds-related-content--container ds-top-related-works--container"><h2 class="ds-related-content--heading">Related papers</h2><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="0" data-entity-id="45542541" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/45542541/Economic_inequality_in_preindustrial_times_Europe_and_beyond">Economic inequality in preindustrial times: Europe and beyond</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="32570513" href="https://unibocconi.academia.edu/GuidoAlfani">Guido Alfani</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Economic Literature, 2021</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Recent literature has reconstructed estimates of wealth and income inequality for a range of preindustrial, mostly European, societies covering Medieval and early modern times, occasionally reaching back to Antiquity and even prehistory. These estimates have radically improved our knowledge of distributive dynamics in the past. It now seems clear that in the period ca. 1300-1800, inequality of both income and wealth grew almost monotonically almost everywhere in Europe, with the exception of the century-long phase of inequality decline triggered by the Black Death of 1347-52. Regarding the causes of inequality growth, recent literature ruled out economic growth as the main one. Other possible factors include population growth (also as mediated by inheritance systems) and especially regressive fiscal institutions (also as connected to the unequal distribution of political power). The recently proposed theoretical framework of the Inequality Possibility Frontier (IPF) lends a better understanding of the implications of the reconstructed trends. This article concludes by showing how connecting preindustrial trends to modern ones changes our perception of long-term inequality altogether.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Economic inequality in preindustrial times: Europe and beyond","attachmentId":66022436,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/45542541/Economic_inequality_in_preindustrial_times_Europe_and_beyond","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/45542541/Economic_inequality_in_preindustrial_times_Europe_and_beyond"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="32410199" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/32410199/Economic_inequality_and_growth_before_the_industrial_revolution_the_case_of_the_Low_Countries_14th_19th_centuries_">Economic inequality and growth before the industrial revolution: the case of the Low Countries (14th-19th centuries)</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1327396" href="https://vub.academia.edu/WouterRyckbosch">Wouter Ryckbosch</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">This article studies a collection of data on economic inequality in fifteen towns in the Southern and Northern Low Countries from the late Middle Ages until the end of the nineteenth century. By using a single and consistent source type and adopting a uniform methodology, it is possible to study levels of urban economic inequality across time and place comparatively. The results indicate a clear growth in economic inequality in the two centuries prior to the industrial revolution and the onset of sustained economic growth per capita. The results presented lend support to the " classical " explanation of inequality as the consequence of a changing functional distribution of income favoring capital over labor over the course of the early modern period. These findings provide an alternative resolution of the conundrum presented by " optimist " and " pessimists " interpretations of early modern economic development. . Inequality in history The growth of income inequality in many countries of the Western world over the last thirty years has significantly bolstered the centrality of inequality to debates in economics, social sciences, and policy making. Nevertheless, inequality's somewhat unexpected return to public consciousness and research agendas has confronted social scientists and policymakers alike with the finding that most knowledge of its fundamental causes and effects is still limited and often highly contested. As a result, many economists have turned to the past for more insight into the underlying logic of inequality movements through time. In particular, the long-term relationship between inequality and economic development has been central to much historical investigation. This strand of economic history has sought answers to the question whether inequality is good for economic development and has tried to do so by looking at the experience of the past two centuries. The current paper addresses the same issue of the relationship between inequality and economic development, but goes further back in time, and focuses on the long formative period of Western, capitalist economies. It aims to determine the extent to which pre-industrial levels of inequality were affected by economic development, and by the long-term emergence of a capitalist economy, and to consider how inequality might have influenced development itself. Several theories on the relationship between inequality and development exist for the modern era, but given the scarcity of sources that allow for the reconstruction of income and wealth inequality before the twentieth century, their applicability to the pre-and early industrial period is largely unclear. As is well known, the most influential modeling of the relationship between economic growth and inequality was presented first by Simon Kuznets in his 1954 presidential address to the American Economic Association (Kuznets 1955). Based on cross-sectional data on the level</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Economic inequality and growth before the industrial revolution: the case of the Low Countries (14th-19th centuries)","attachmentId":52607750,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/32410199/Economic_inequality_and_growth_before_the_industrial_revolution_the_case_of_the_Low_Countries_14th_19th_centuries_","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/32410199/Economic_inequality_and_growth_before_the_industrial_revolution_the_case_of_the_Low_Countries_14th_19th_centuries_"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="67568357" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/67568357/Ancient_Inequality_Branko_Milanovic_World_Bank">Ancient Inequality Branko Milanovic , World Bank</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="10215974" href="https://ucdavis.academia.edu/PLindert">Peter Lindert</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2008</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Is inequality largely the result of the Industrial Revolution? Or, were preindustrial incomes as unequal as they are today? For want of sufficient data, these questions have not yet been answered. This paper infers inequality for 29 ancient, pre-industrial societies using what are known as social tables, stretching from the Roman Empire 14 AD, to Byzantium in 1000, to England in 1688, to Nueva España around 1790, to China in 1880 and to British India in 1947. It applies two new concepts in making those assessments – what we call the inequality possibility frontier and the inequality extraction ratio. Rather than simply offering measures of inequality, we compare its observed level with the maximum feasible inequality (or surplus) that could have been extracted by the elite. The results, especially when compared with modern poor countries, give new insights into the connection between inequality and economic development in the very long run. We acknowledge help with the data from Ken...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Ancient Inequality Branko Milanovic , World Bank","attachmentId":78336575,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/67568357/Ancient_Inequality_Branko_Milanovic_World_Bank","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/67568357/Ancient_Inequality_Branko_Milanovic_World_Bank"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="3" data-entity-id="116145224" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/116145224/Inequality_in_history_A_long_run_view">Inequality in history: A long-run view</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="32570513" href="https://unibocconi.academia.edu/GuidoAlfani">Guido Alfani</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Economic Surveys, 2024</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">This article provides an overview of long-term trends in income and wealth inequality, from ca. 1300 until today. It discusses recent acquisitions in terms of inequality measurement, building upon earlier research and systematically connecting preindustrial, industrial, and post-industrial tendencies. It shows that in the last seven centuries or so, inequality of both income and wealth has tended to grow continuously, with two exceptions: the century or so following the Black Death pandemic of 1347-52, and the period from the beginning of World War I until the mid-1970s. It discusses recent encompassing hypotheses about the factors leading to long-run inequality change, highlighting their relative merits and faults, and arguing for the need to pay close attention to the historical context.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Inequality in history: A long-run view","attachmentId":112356001,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/116145224/Inequality_in_history_A_long_run_view","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/116145224/Inequality_in_history_A_long_run_view"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="1752082" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/1752082/Comparing_Income_and_Wealth_Inequality_in_Pre_Industrial_economies_Lessons_from_Spain_in_the_18th_century">Comparing Income and Wealth Inequality in Pre-Industrial economies. Lessons from Spain in the 18th century</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="296709" href="https://upo.academia.edu/FernandoRamosPalencia">Fernando Ramos Palencia</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Literature on the history of inequality for pre-industrial economies has focused mainly on wealth inequality or income inequality. The most common problem with wealth inequality is the lack information about the bottom of the distribution while the main problem with income inequality is the lack of data to characterize the top of the distribution. Given that in general these approaches are based in different kinds of sources and methodologies, the results are not easy to compare and the links between the two distributions are difficult to establish. In this paper we use a unique data set for Spain circa 1750 and present results (the first for any pre-20th century economy) of inequality of both income and wealth for the same sample of households. Information of wealth comes from probate inventories while information of income comes from the Ensenada Cadastre. In addition to these two variables we have reconstructed other variables like household composition, occupation of the head of the household, place of residence and age of the head of the household. With this information we analyse the relationships between the two distributions and discuss the determinants of two kinds of inequalities.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Comparing Income and Wealth Inequality in Pre-Industrial economies. Lessons from Spain in the 18th century","attachmentId":21477598,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/1752082/Comparing_Income_and_Wealth_Inequality_in_Pre_Industrial_economies_Lessons_from_Spain_in_the_18th_century","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/1752082/Comparing_Income_and_Wealth_Inequality_in_Pre_Industrial_economies_Lessons_from_Spain_in_the_18th_century"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="60560608" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/60560608/Wealth_and_Income_Inequality_in_the_Long_Run_of_History">Wealth and Income Inequality in the Long Run of History</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="32570513" href="https://unibocconi.academia.edu/GuidoAlfani">Guido Alfani</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Handbook of Cliometrics, 2019</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">This article provides an overview of current knowledge about economic inequality, of both income and wealth, in the very long run of history focusing on Western Europe and North America. While most of the data provided by recent research cover the period from the late Middle Ages until today, some insights are also possible into even earlier epochs. Based on these recent findings, economic inequality seems to have been growing over centuries, with phases of clear and marked inequality reduction being relatively rare and usually associated with catastrophic events, such as the Black Death during the fifteenth century, or the World Wars in the twentieth. Traditional explanations of long-term inequality growth are found to be unsatisfying and a range of other possible causal factors are explored (demographic, social-economic, and institutional). Placing today’s situation in a very long-run perspective not only leads us to question old assumptions about the future of inequality (think of current criticism of Kuznets’s hypotheses), but also changes how we perceive inequality in the modern world.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Wealth and Income Inequality in the Long Run of History","attachmentId":73952325,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/60560608/Wealth_and_Income_Inequality_in_the_Long_Run_of_History","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/60560608/Wealth_and_Income_Inequality_in_the_Long_Run_of_History"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="43347536" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/43347536/Looking_for_the_islands_of_equality_in_a_sea_of_inequality_Why_did_some_societies_in_pre_industrial_Europe_have_relatively_low_levels_of_wealth_inequality">Looking for the islands of equality in a sea of inequality. Why did some societies in pre-industrial Europe have relatively low levels of wealth inequality?</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="841091" href="https://uu.academia.edu/BasvanBavel">Bas van Bavel</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Economic inequality in pre-industrial societies: causes and effects, 2020</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">This paper scrutinizes the insights won by recent studies in wealth inequality in pre-industrial Europe. It focuses on the regions and periods where levels of inequality were relatively low, trying to arrive at an inventory of causes of these exceptions. It discusses catastrophic events, colonization and revolution as possible causes, but argues that these only occasionally had a leveling effect, depending on the social and institutional context in which they occurred. Most clearly wealth accumulation was restricted, even by maximums on ownership, where associative organizations held a solid position, and market and state played lesser roles as coordination systems.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Looking for the islands of equality in a sea of inequality. Why did some societies in pre-industrial Europe have relatively low levels of wealth inequality?","attachmentId":63634689,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/43347536/Looking_for_the_islands_of_equality_in_a_sea_of_inequality_Why_did_some_societies_in_pre_industrial_Europe_have_relatively_low_levels_of_wealth_inequality","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/43347536/Looking_for_the_islands_of_equality_in_a_sea_of_inequality_Why_did_some_societies_in_pre_industrial_Europe_have_relatively_low_levels_of_wealth_inequality"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="17693502" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/17693502/Comments_on_the_Emergence_and_Persistence_of_Inequality_in_Premodern_Societies">Comments on the Emergence and Persistence of Inequality in Premodern Societies</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="246386" href="https://pdx.academia.edu/KenAmes">Kenneth Ames</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Current Anthropology, 2010</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Comments on the Emergence and Persistence of Inequality in Premodern Societies","attachmentId":45624882,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/17693502/Comments_on_the_Emergence_and_Persistence_of_Inequality_in_Premodern_Societies","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/17693502/Comments_on_the_Emergence_and_Persistence_of_Inequality_in_Premodern_Societies"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="6892315" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/6892315/Economic_inequality_demography_and_growth_before_the_industrial_revolution_a_case_study_of_the_Low_Countries_14th_19th_Centuries_">Economic inequality, demography and growth before the industrial revolution: a case study of the Low Countries (14th-19th Centuries)</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1327396" href="https://vub.academia.edu/WouterRyckbosch">Wouter Ryckbosch</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">This paper studies a collection of data on economic inequality in fifteen towns in the Southern and Northern Low Countries from the late Middle Ages until the end of the nineteenth century. By using a single and consistent source type and adopting a uniform methodology, it is possible to study levels of urban economic inequality across time and place comparatively. The results indicate a clear growth in economic inequality in the two centuries prior to the industrial revolution and the onset of sustained economic growth per capita. The general occurrence of this rise throughout regions with dissimilar economic trajectories contradicts the existence of a straightforward trade-off between growth and inequality as conjectured by Simon Kuznets (1955). Instead, the results presented lend support to the ‘classical’ economists’ explanation of inequality as the consequence of a changing functional distribution of income favouring capital over labour in the long run.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Economic inequality, demography and growth before the industrial revolution: a case study of the Low Countries (14th-19th Centuries)","attachmentId":35640757,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/6892315/Economic_inequality_demography_and_growth_before_the_industrial_revolution_a_case_study_of_the_Low_Countries_14th_19th_Centuries_","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/6892315/Economic_inequality_demography_and_growth_before_the_industrial_revolution_a_case_study_of_the_Low_Countries_14th_19th_Centuries_"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="72015485" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/72015485/Measuring_economic_inequality_in_Southern_Europe_the_Iberian_Peninsula_in_the_14th_17th_centuries">Measuring economic inequality in Southern Europe: the Iberian Peninsula in the 14th-17th centuries</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="270250" href="https://uv.academia.edu/AntoniFuri%C3%B3">Antoni Furió</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Disuguaglianza economica nelle società preindustriali: cause ed effetti, ed. Giampiero Nigro, Florencia, Firenze University Press, pp. 169-201, 2020</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Measuring economic inequality in Southern Europe: the Iberian Peninsula in the 14th-17th centuries","attachmentId":81117724,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/72015485/Measuring_economic_inequality_in_Southern_Europe_the_Iberian_Peninsula_in_the_14th_17th_centuries","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/72015485/Measuring_economic_inequality_in_Southern_Europe_the_Iberian_Peninsula_in_the_14th_17th_centuries"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--wrapper js-loswp-sticky-ctas hidden"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--grid-container"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":40098935,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":40098935,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div><div class="ds-below-fold--grid-container"><div class="ds-work--container js-loswp-embedded-document"><div class="attachment_preview" data-attachment="Attachment_40098935" style="display: none"><div class="scribd--being-converted-container">This document is currently being converted. Please check back in a few minutes.</div></div></div><div class="ds-sidebar--container js-work-sidebar"><div class="ds-related-content--container"><h2 class="ds-related-content--heading">Related papers</h2><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="0" data-entity-id="18607554" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/18607554/Measuring_Ancient_Inequality">Measuring Ancient Inequality</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="34163929" href="https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/BrankoMilanovic">Branko Milanovic</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2007</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Measuring Ancient Inequality","attachmentId":40154763,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/18607554/Measuring_Ancient_Inequality","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/18607554/Measuring_Ancient_Inequality"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="64798750" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/64798750/Comparing_Income_and_Wealth_Inequality_in_Pre_Industrial_Economies_Lessons_from_18th_Century_Spain">Comparing Income and Wealth Inequality in Pre-Industrial Economies: Lessons from 18th-Century Spain</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="296709" href="https://upo.academia.edu/FernandoRamosPalencia">Fernando Ramos Palencia</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2016</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Comparing Income and Wealth Inequality in Pre-Industrial Economies: Lessons from 18th-Century Spain","attachmentId":76665962,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/64798750/Comparing_Income_and_Wealth_Inequality_in_Pre_Industrial_Economies_Lessons_from_18th_Century_Spain","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/64798750/Comparing_Income_and_Wealth_Inequality_in_Pre_Industrial_Economies_Lessons_from_18th_Century_Spain"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="11991206" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/11991206/Income_inequality_since_1820">Income inequality since 1820</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="29806629" href="https://uu.academia.edu/PeterFoldvari">Peter Foldvari</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">How Was Life? 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data-entity-id="53601872" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/53601872/Real_Inequality_in_Europe_Since_1500">Real Inequality in Europe Since 1500</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="10215974" href="https://ucdavis.academia.edu/PLindert">Peter Lindert</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">The Journal of Economic History, 2002</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Real Inequality in Europe Since 1500","attachmentId":70371454,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/53601872/Real_Inequality_in_Europe_Since_1500","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" 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