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href="#Pre-Vedic_religions_(until_c._1750_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Pre-Vedic religions (until c. 1750 BCE) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pre-Vedic_religions_(until_c._1750_BCE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pre-Vedic religions (until c. 1750 BCE) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pre-Vedic_religions_(until_c._1750_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prehistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Prehistory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indus_Valley_Civilization_(c._3300–1700_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indus_Valley_Civilization_(c._3300–1700_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BCE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indus_Valley_Civilization_(c._3300–1700_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vedic_period_(c._1750–500_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedic_period_(c._1750–500_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Vedic period (c. 1750–500 BCE) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vedic_period_(c._1750–500_BCE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vedic period (c. 1750–500 BCE) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vedic_period_(c._1750–500_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Origins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rigvedic_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rigvedic_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Rigvedic religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rigvedic_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vedas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Vedas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmic_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmic_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Cosmic order </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmic_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Upanishads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upanishads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Upanishads </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upanishads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brahmanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brahmanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Brahmanism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brahmanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Urbanisation_and_decline_of_Brahmanism_(c._600–200_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Urbanisation_and_decline_of_Brahmanism_(c._600–200_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Second Urbanisation and decline of Brahmanism (c. 600–200 BCE) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_Urbanisation_and_decline_of_Brahmanism_(c._600–200_BCE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Second Urbanisation and decline of Brahmanism (c. 600–200 BCE) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Second_Urbanisation_and_decline_of_Brahmanism_(c._600–200_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Upanishads_and_Śramaṇa_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upanishads_and_Śramaṇa_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upanishads_and_Śramaṇa_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mauryan_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mauryan_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Mauryan Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mauryan_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_of_Brahmanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_of_Brahmanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Decline of Brahmanism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_of_Brahmanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Decline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Survival_of_Vedic_ritual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Survival_of_Vedic_ritual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Survival of Vedic ritual </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Survival_of_Vedic_ritual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hindu_synthesis_and_Classical_Hinduism_(c._200_BCE_–_1200_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hindu_synthesis_and_Classical_Hinduism_(c._200_BCE_–_1200_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Hindu synthesis and Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 1200 CE) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hindu_synthesis_and_Classical_Hinduism_(c._200_BCE_–_1200_CE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Hindu synthesis and Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 1200 CE) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Hindu_synthesis_and_Classical_Hinduism_(c._200_BCE_–_1200_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Hinduism_(c._200_BCE_–_320_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Hinduism_(c._200_BCE_–_320_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Early Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Hinduism_(c._200_BCE_–_320_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hindu_synthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hindu_synthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Hindu synthesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hindu_synthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smriti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smriti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Smriti </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smriti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schools_of_Hindu_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools_of_Hindu_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.3 Schools of Hindu philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schools_of_Hindu_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sangam_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sangam_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.4 Sangam literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sangam_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_trade_with_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_trade_with_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.5 Indian trade with Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_trade_with_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hindu_Colony_in_the_Middle_East_(The_Levant)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hindu_Colony_in_the_Middle_East_(The_Levant)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.6 Hindu Colony in the Middle East (The Levant) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hindu_Colony_in_the_Middle_East_(The_Levant)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Golden_Age"_of_India_(Gupta_and_Pallava_period)_(c._320–650_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Golden_Age"_of_India_(Gupta_and_Pallava_period)_(c._320–650_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 "Golden Age" of India (Gupta and Pallava period) (c. 320–650 CE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Golden_Age"_of_India_(Gupta_and_Pallava_period)_(c._320–650_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gupta_and_Pallava_Empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gupta_and_Pallava_Empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Gupta and Pallava Empires </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gupta_and_Pallava_Empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bhakti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bhakti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Bhakti </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bhakti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_in_South-East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_in_South-East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 Expansion in South-East Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_in_South-East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late-Classical_Hinduism_–_Puranic_Hinduism_and_decline_of_Buddhism_(c._650–1200_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late-Classical_Hinduism_–_Puranic_Hinduism_and_decline_of_Buddhism_(c._650–1200_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Late-Classical Hinduism – Puranic Hinduism and decline of Buddhism (c. 650–1200 CE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late-Classical_Hinduism_–_Puranic_Hinduism_and_decline_of_Buddhism_(c._650–1200_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Puranic_Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Puranic_Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Puranic Hinduism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Puranic_Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bhakti_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bhakti_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.2 Bhakti movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bhakti_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advaita_Vedanta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advaita_Vedanta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.3 Advaita Vedanta </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advaita_Vedanta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contact_with_Persia_and_Mesopotamia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contact_with_Persia_and_Mesopotamia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.4 Contact with Persia and Mesopotamia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contact_with_Persia_and_Mesopotamia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_and_early_modern_periods_(c._1200–1850_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_and_early_modern_periods_(c._1200–1850_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Medieval and early modern periods (c. 1200–1850 CE) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medieval_and_early_modern_periods_(c._1200–1850_CE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Medieval and early modern periods (c. 1200–1850 CE) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Medieval_and_early_modern_periods_(c._1200–1850_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Muslim_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Muslim period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslim_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bhakti_Vedanta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bhakti_Vedanta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Bhakti Vedanta </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bhakti_Vedanta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unifying_Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unifying_Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Unifying Hinduism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unifying_Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Ganga_and_Surya_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Ganga_and_Surya_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Eastern Ganga and Surya States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Ganga_and_Surya_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Modern_period_(c._1500–1850_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Modern_period_(c._1500–1850_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Early Modern period (c. 1500–1850 CE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Modern_period_(c._1500–1850_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vijayanagara_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vijayanagara_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.1 Vijayanagara Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vijayanagara_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renovations_of_temples_by_the_Vijayanagara_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renovations_of_temples_by_the_Vijayanagara_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.2 Renovations of temples by the Vijayanagara Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renovations_of_temples_by_the_Vijayanagara_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mughal_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mughal_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.3 Mughal period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mughal_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maratha_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maratha_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.4 Maratha Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maratha_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kingdom_of_Nepal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdom_of_Nepal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.5 Kingdom of Nepal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdom_of_Nepal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.6 Early colonialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Hinduism_(after_c._1850_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Hinduism_(after_c._1850_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Modern Hinduism (after c. 1850 CE) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_Hinduism_(after_c._1850_CE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern Hinduism (after c. 1850 CE) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_Hinduism_(after_c._1850_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hindu_revivalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hindu_revivalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Hindu revivalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hindu_revivalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_in_the_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_in_the_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Reception in the West </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_in_the_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Contemporary Hinduism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_Hinduism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contemporary Hinduism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neo-Hindu_movements_in_the_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Hindu_movements_in_the_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Neo-Hindu movements in the West </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-Hindu_movements_in_the_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hindutva" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hindutva"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Hindutva </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hindutva-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Sources </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sources subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Printed_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printed_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Printed sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Printed_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Web sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" > 33 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ الهندوسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الهندوسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="হিন্দুধর্মের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হিন্দুধর্মের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Гісторыя індуізму – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя індуізму" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%96%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B" title="རྒྱ་གར་ཆོས་འབྱུང་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རྒྱ་གར་ཆོས་འབྱུང་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27hinduisme" title="Història de l'hinduisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'hinduisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_hinduismu" title="Dějiny hinduismu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny hinduismu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduismens_historie" title="Hinduismens historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hinduismens historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_hinduismo" title="Historia del hinduismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia del hinduismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduismoaren_historia" title="Hinduismoaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hinduismoaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A2%DB%8C%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="تاریخ آیین هندوئیسم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ آیین هندوئیسم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27hindouisme" title="Histoire de l'hindouisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'hindouisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9E%8C%EB%91%90%EA%B5%90%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="힌두교의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="힌두교의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="हिन्दू धर्म का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हिन्दू धर्म का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27Induismo" title="Storia dell'Induismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'Induismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%82_%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A6_%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ಹಿಂದೂ ಧರ್ಮದ ಇತಿಹಾಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಹಿಂದೂ ಧರ್ಮದ ಇತಿಹಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduizmo_istorija" title="Hinduizmo istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Hinduizmo istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="हिंदू धर्माचा इतिहास – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="हिंदू धर्माचा इतिहास" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_het_hindoe%C3%AFsme" title="Geschiedenis van het hindoeïsme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van het hindoeïsme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="हिन्दु धर्मको इतिहास – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="हिन्दु धर्मको इतिहास" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਹਿੰਦੂ ਧਰਮ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਹਿੰਦੂ ਧਰਮ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88_%D8%AF%DA%BE%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="ہندو دھرم دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہندو دھرم دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_hinduizmu" title="Historia hinduizmu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia hinduizmu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="История индуизма – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История индуизма" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%83" title="हिन्दुधर्मस्य इतिहासः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="हिन्दुधर्मस्य इतिहासः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="හින්දුසමයේ ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="හින්දුසමයේ ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija_hinduizma" title="Istorija hinduizma – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istorija hinduizma" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindulaisuuden_historia" title="Hindulaisuuden historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hindulaisuuden historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="இந்து சமய வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இந்து சமய வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%82_%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE_%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0" title="హిందూ ధర్మ చరిత్ర – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="హిందూ ధర్మ చరిత్ర" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduizm_tarihi" title="Hinduizm tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hinduizm tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Історія індуїзму – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія індуїзму" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85%D8%AA_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="ہندومت کی تاریخ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہندومت کی تاریخ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E6%95%99%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="印度教历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="印度教历史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Hindu artifacts, artworks and temples ranging from the 9th-century to the 21st-century</div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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data-file-height="367" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="padding-bottom:0.35em; border:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Origins</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9">Historical <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic Hinduism">Vedic Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_religions_in_India" title="Tribal religions in India">Tribal religions in India</a></li></ul> Traditional <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasa-Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic-Puranic_royal_genealogies" title="Epic-Puranic royal genealogies">Epic-Puranic royal genealogies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic-Puranic_chronology" title="Epic-Puranic chronology">Epic-Puranic chronology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sampradaya" title="Sampradaya">Sampradaya (Traditions)</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Major Sampradaya (Traditions)</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pancharatra" title="Pancharatra">Pancharatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijña</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Other Sampradaya (Traditions)</a></div></dt></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Deities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Absolute Reality / Unifying Force</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Trimurti" title="Trimurti">Trimurti</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Tridevi" title="Tridevi">Tridevi</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Parvati</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other major <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Devis</a></div></dt></dl> <dl><dd>Vedic Deities:</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tridasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tridasha">Tridasha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adityas" title="Adityas">Adityas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudras" title="Rudras">Rudras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasus">Vasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashvins" title="Ashvins">Ashvins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahadevi" title="Mahadevi">Mahadevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_deities" title="Rigvedic deities">Other Vedic Deities</a></li></ul> <dl><dd>Post-Vedic:</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avatar" title="Avatar">Avatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dashavatara" title="Dashavatara">Dashavatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navadurga" title="Navadurga">Navadurga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavidya" title="Mahavidya">Mahavidya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kartikeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanuman" title="Hanuman">Hanuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakti" title="Shakti">Shakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sita</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Devata" title="Devata">Devatas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vishvakarma" title="Vishvakarma">Vishvakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kubera" title="Kubera">Kubera</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Concepts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Worldview</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_cosmology" title="Hindu cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Ontology</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tattva" title="Tattva">Tattvas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanmatras" title="Tanmatras">Subtle elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchikarana" title="Panchikarana">Panchikarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancha_Bhuta" title="Pancha Bhuta">Gross elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a" title="Guṇa">Guṇas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Purusha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">Prakṛti</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Para_Brahman" title="Para Brahman">Supreme reality</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirguna_brahman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nirguna brahman">Nirguna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saguna_brahman" title="Saguna brahman">Saguna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccid%C4%81nanda" title="Saccidānanda">Saccidānanda</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">God</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Devi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devata" title="Devata">Devatas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">God in Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_and_gender_in_Hinduism" title="God and gender in Hinduism">God and gender</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rtha" title="Puruṣārtha">Puruṣārtha (Meaning of life)</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80%C5%9Brama_(stage)" title="Āśrama (stage)">Āśrama (Stages of life)</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%E1%B9%9Bhastha" title="Gṛhastha">Gṛhastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81naprastha" title="Vānaprastha">Vānaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasa</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Three_Yogas" title="Three Yogas">Three paths to liberation</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti_yoga" title="Bhakti yoga">Bhakti yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jnana_yoga" title="Jnana yoga">Jnana yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_yoga" title="Karma yoga">Karma yoga</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Liberation</a></div></dt></dl> <dl><dd>Mokṣa-related topics:</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">Paramātman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Mind</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman (self)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81tman_(Hinduism)" title="Anātman (Hinduism)">Anātman (non-self)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_bodies_doctrine" title="Three bodies doctrine">Sūkṣma śarīra (subtle body)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antahkarana" title="Antahkarana">Antaḥkaraṇa (mental organs)</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Hinduism)" title="Prajñā (Hinduism)">Prajña (wisdom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda_(Hindu_philosophy)" title="Ānanda (Hindu philosophy)">Ānanda (happiness)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viveka" title="Viveka">Viveka (discernment)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vairagya" title="Vairagya">Vairagya (dispassion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatva" title="Samatva">Sama (equanimity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Dama (temperance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uparati" title="Uparati">Uparati (self-settledness)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titiksha" title="Titiksha">Titiksha (forbearance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Hinduism" title="Faith in Hinduism">Shraddha (faith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dh%C4%81na" title="Samādhāna">Samadhana (concentration)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arishadvargas" title="Arishadvargas">Arishadvargas (six enemies)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahamkara" title="Ahamkara">Ahamkara (attachment)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Ethics</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion#Hindu_ethics" title="Ethics in religion">Niti śastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niyama" title="Niyama">Niyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Achourya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Damah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion#Hinduism" title="Compassion">Dayā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arjava" title="Arjava">Arjava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santosha" title="Santosha">Santosha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81dhy%C4%81ya" title="Svādhyāya">Svādhyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaucha" title="Shaucha">Shaucha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitahara" title="Mitahara">Mitahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81stra_pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87am_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism">Sources of dharma</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Epistemology</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pratyaksha" title="Pratyaksha">Pratyakṣa (perception)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Anumāṇa" title="Pramana">Anumāṇa (inference)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upam%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" class="mw-redirect" title="Upamāṇa">Upamāṇa (comparison, analogy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Arthāpatti" title="Pramana">Arthāpatti (postulation, presumption)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Anupalabdi" title="Pramana">Anupalabdi (non-perception, negation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabda" title="Shabda">Śabda (word, testimony)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Worship_in_Hinduism" title="Worship in Hinduism">Worship</a>, sacrifice, and charity</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arti_(Hinduism)" title="Arti (Hinduism)">Ārtī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_in_Hinduism" title="Prayer in Hinduism">Prarthana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Murti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">Japa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhajan" title="Bhajan">Bhajana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirtan" title="Kirtan">Kīrtana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Homa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarpana" title="Tarpana">Tarpana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vrata" title="Vrata">Vrata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pr%C4%81ya%C5%9Bcitta" title="Prāyaścitta">Prāyaścitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirtha_(Hinduism)" title="Tirtha (Hinduism)">Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yatra" title="Yatra">Yatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">Tirthadana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matha" title="Matha">Matha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_dance" title="Indian classical dance">Nritta-Nritya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sev%C4%81" title="Sevā">Sevā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Meditation</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Hinduism" title="Dhyana in Hinduism">Dhyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dh%C4%81na" title="Samādhāna">Samādhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nididhy%C4%81sana" title="Nididhyāsana">Nididhyāsana</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sadhu" title="Sadhu">Sadhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogi" title="Yogi">Yogi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogini" title="Yogini">Yogini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asana" title="Asana">Asana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhan%C4%81" title="Sādhanā">Sādhanā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatha_yoga" title="Hatha yoga">Hatha yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jnana_yoga" title="Jnana yoga">Jnana yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti_yoga" title="Bhakti yoga">Bhakti yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_yoga" title="Karma yoga">Karma yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81ja_yoga" title="Rāja yoga">Rāja yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kundalini_yoga" title="Kundalini yoga">Kundalini yoga</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_art" title="Hindu art">Arts</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharatanatyam" title="Bharatanatyam">Bharatanatyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathak" title="Kathak">Kathak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathakali" title="Kathakali">Kathakali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuchipudi" title="Kuchipudi">Kuchipudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipuri_dance" title="Manipuri dance">Manipuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohiniyattam" title="Mohiniyattam">Mohiniyattam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odissi" title="Odissi">Odissi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattriya" title="Sattriya">Sattriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Mela" title="Bhagavata Mela">Bhagavata Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakshagana" title="Yakshagana">Yakshagana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dandiya_Raas" title="Dandiya Raas">Dandiya Raas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnatic_music" title="Carnatic music">Carnatic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandav_Lila" title="Pandav Lila">Pandav Lila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalaripayattu" title="Kalaripayattu">Kalaripayattu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silambam" title="Silambam">Silambam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adimurai" title="Adimurai">Adimurai</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Samskara_(rite_of_passage)" title="Samskara (rite of passage)">Rites of passage</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbhadhana" title="Garbhadhana">Garbhadhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana" title="Pumsavana">Pumsavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana_Simantonayana" title="Pumsavana Simantonayana">Pumsavana Simantonayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simantonnayana" title="Simantonnayana">Simantonnayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatakarma" title="Jatakarma">Jatakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81makara%E1%B9%87a" title="Nāmakaraṇa">Nāmakaraṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishkramana" title="Nishkramana">Nishkramana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annaprashana" title="Annaprashana">Annaprashana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chudakarana" title="Chudakarana">Chudakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnavedha" title="Karnavedha">Karnavedha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidy%C4%81ra%E1%B9%83bha%E1%B9%83" title="Vidyāraṃbhaṃ">Vidyāraṃbhaṃ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Upanayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keshanta" title="Keshanta">Keshanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritu_Kala_Samskaram" title="Ritu Kala Samskaram">Ritushuddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samavartanam" title="Samavartanam">Samavartanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_wedding" title="Hindu wedding">Vivaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antyesti" title="Antyesti">Antyesti</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_festivals" title="List of Hindu festivals">Festivals</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holi" title="Holi">Holi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Shivaratri" title="Maha Shivaratri">Maha Shivaratri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navaratri" title="Navaratri">Navaratri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durga_Puja" title="Durga Puja">Durga Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramlila" title="Ramlila">Ramlila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayadashami" title="Vijayadashami">Vijayadashami-Dussehra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raksha_Bandhan" title="Raksha Bandhan">Raksha Bandhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesh_Chaturthi" title="Ganesh Chaturthi">Ganesh Chaturthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasant_Panchami" title="Vasant Panchami">Vasant Panchami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama_Navami" title="Rama Navami">Rama Navami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Janmashtami" title="Krishna Janmashtami">Janmashtami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onam" title="Onam">Onam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makar_Sankranti" title="Makar Sankranti">Makar Sankranti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbh_Mela" title="Kumbh Mela">Kumbh Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pongal_(festival)" title="Pongal (festival)">Pongal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugadi" title="Ugadi">Ugadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisakhi" title="Vaisakhi">Vaisakhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bihu" title="Bihu">Bihu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puthandu" title="Puthandu">Puthandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishu" title="Vishu">Vishu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratha_Yatra_(Puri)" title="Ratha Yatra (Puri)">Ratha Yatra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Philosophical schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Astika" class="mw-redirect" title="Astika">Six Astika schools</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Achintya Bheda Abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svabhavika_Bhedabheda" title="Svabhavika Bhedabheda">Svabhavika Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akshar_Purushottam_Darshan" title="Akshar Purushottam Darshan">Akshar Purushottam Darshan</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other schools</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_gurus_and_sants" title="List of Hindu gurus and sants">Gurus, Rishi, Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">Ancient</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saptarshi" title="Saptarshi">Saptarshi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vashistha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vashistha">Vashistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashyapa" title="Kashyapa">Kashyapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atri" title="Atri">Atri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamadagni" title="Jamadagni">Jamadagni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyaya Sutras">Gotama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishvamitra" title="Vishvamitra">Vishvamitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharadwaja" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharadwaja">Bharadwaja</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agastya" title="Agastya">Agastya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiras" title="Angiras">Angiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruni">Aruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashtavakra" title="Ashtavakra">Ashtavakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashastapada" title="Prashastapada">Prashastapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raikva" title="Raikva">Raikva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyakama_Jabala" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyakama Jabala">Satyakama Jabala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valmiki" title="Valmiki">Valmiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yajnavalkya</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akka_Mahadevi" title="Akka Mahadevi">Akka Mahadevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allama_Prabhu" title="Allama Prabhu">Allama Prabhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvars" title="Alvars">Alvars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basava" title="Basava">Basava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_Mahaprabhu" title="Chaitanya Mahaprabhu">Chaitanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramdas_Kathiababa" title="Ramdas Kathiababa">Ramdas Kathiababa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakradhar_Swami" title="Chakradhar Swami">Chakradhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changdev" class="mw-redirect" title="Changdev">Chāngadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadu_Dayal" title="Dadu Dayal">Dadu Dayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eknath" title="Eknath">Eknath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangesha_Upadhyaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangesha Upadhyaya">Gangesha Upadhyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorakshanath" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorakshanath">Gorakshanatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haridasa_Thakur" title="Haridasa Thakur">Haridasa Thakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hith_Harivansh_Mahaprabhu" title="Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu">Harivansh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagannatha_Dasa_(Odia_poet)" title="Jagannatha Dasa (Odia poet)">Jagannatha Dasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayanta_Bhatta" title="Jayanta Bhatta">Jayanta Bhatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayatirtha" title="Jayatirtha">Jayatīrtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiva_Goswami" title="Jiva Goswami">Jiva Goswami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1%C4%81ne%C5%9Bvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jñāneśvar">Jñāneśvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabir" title="Kabir">Kabir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanaka_Dasa" title="Kanaka Dasa">Kanaka Dasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhus%C5%ABdana_Sarasvat%C4%AB" title="Madhusūdana Sarasvatī">Madhusūdana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsyendranath" class="mw-redirect" title="Matsyendranath">Matsyendranatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morya_Gosavi" title="Morya Gosavi">Morya Gosavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukundraj" title="Mukundraj">Mukundarāja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namdev" title="Namdev">Namadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narahari_Tirtha" title="Narahari Tirtha">Narahari Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narasimha_Saraswati" title="Narasimha Saraswati">Narasimha Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nayanars" title="Nayanars">Nayanars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarkacharya" title="Nimbarkacharya">Nimbarkacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srinivasacharya" title="Srinivasacharya">Srinivasacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prabh%C4%81kara" title="Prabhākara">Prabhākara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purandara_Dasa" title="Purandara Dasa">Purandara Dasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghavendra_Swami" class="mw-redirect" title="Raghavendra Swami">Raghavendra Swami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghunatha_Siromani" title="Raghunatha Siromani">Raghunatha Siromani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghuttama_Tirtha" title="Raghuttama Tirtha">Raghuttama Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_Charan_(guru)" title="Ram Charan (guru)">Ram Charan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramananda" title="Ramananda">Ramananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramprasad_Sen" title="Ramprasad Sen">Ramprasad Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidas" title="Ravidas">Ravidas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupa_Goswami" title="Rupa Goswami">Rupa Goswami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas" title="Samarth Ramdas">Samarth Ramdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankardev" title="Sankardev">Sankardev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyanatha_Tirtha" title="Satyanatha Tirtha">Satyanatha Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddheshwar" title="Siddheshwar">Siddheshwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sripada_Srivallabha" class="mw-redirect" title="Sripada Srivallabha">Sripada Srivallabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sripadaraja" title="Sripadaraja">Sripadaraja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surdas" title="Surdas">Surdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan" title="Swaminarayan">Swaminarayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syama_Sastri" title="Syama Sastri">Śyāma Śastri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukaram" title="Tukaram">Tukaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsidas" title="Tulsidas">Tulsidas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyagaraja" title="Tyagaraja">Tyagaraja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81caspati_Mi%C5%9Bra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vācaspati Miśra">Vācaspati Miśra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vadiraja_Tirtha" title="Vadiraja Tirtha">Vadiraja Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallabha" title="Vallabha">Vallabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Desika" title="Vedanta Desika">Vedanta Desika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasaraja" class="mw-redirect" title="Vyasaraja">Vyasaraja</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Modern</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaktisiddhanta_Sarasvati" title="Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati">Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaktivinoda_Thakur" title="Bhaktivinoda Thakur">Bhaktivinoda Thakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrashekarendra_Saraswati" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandrashekarendra Saraswati">Chandrashekarendra Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinmayananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinmayananda">Chinmayananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaggi_Vasudev" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaggi Vasudev">Jaggi Vasudev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishnananda_Saraswati" title="Krishnananda Saraswati">Krishnananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavatar_Babaji" title="Mahavatar Babaji">Mahavatar Babaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharishi_Mahesh_Yogi" title="Maharishi Mahesh Yogi">Mahesh Yogi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narayana_Guru" title="Narayana Guru">Narayana Guru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigamananda_Paramahansa" title="Nigamananda Paramahansa">Nigamananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisargadatta_Maharaj" title="Nisargadatta Maharaj">Nisargadatta Maharaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._C._Bhaktivedanta_Swami_Prabhupada" title="A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada">Prabhupada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramachandra_Dattatrya_Ranade" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade">R. D. Ranade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramakrishna" title="Ramakrishna">Ramakrishna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Rama_Tirtha" class="mw-redirect" title="Swami Rama Tirtha">Rama Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramana_Maharshi" title="Ramana Maharshi">Ramana Maharshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Shankar_(spiritual_leader)" title="Ravi Shankar (spiritual leader)">Ravi Shankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Ramdas" title="Swami Ramdas">Ramdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Samarth" title="Swami Samarth">Samarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathya_Sai_Baba" title="Sathya Sai Baba">Sathya Sai Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sai_Baba_of_Shirdi" title="Sai Baba of Shirdi">Shirdi Sai Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Shraddhanand" title="Swami Shraddhanand">Shraddhanand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyadhyana_Tirtha" title="Satyadhyana Tirtha">Satyadhyana Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddharameshwar_Maharaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddharameshwar Maharaj">Siddharameshwar Maharaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sivananda_Saraswati" title="Sivananda Saraswati">Sivananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailanga" title="Trailanga">Trailanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U._G._Krishnamurti" title="U. G. Krishnamurti">U. G. Krishnamurti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upasni_Maharaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Upasni Maharaj">Upasni Maharaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vethathiri_Maharishi" title="Vethathiri Maharishi">Vethathiri Maharishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramahansa_Yogananda" title="Paramahansa Yogananda">Yogananda</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81stra_pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87am_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism">Sources and classification of scripture</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80c%C4%81ra" title="Ācāra">Ācāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmatusti" title="Atmatusti">Ātmatuṣṭi</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Scriptures</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hindu_texts" title="Timeline of Hindu texts">Timeline of Hindu texts</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></li></ul> <dl><dd>Divisions</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhitapatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samhitapatha">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></div></dt></dl> <dl><dd>Rigveda:</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></li></ul> <dl><dd>Yajurveda:</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitri</a></li></ul> <dl><dd>Samaveda:</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></li></ul> <dl><dd>Atharvaveda:</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedangas" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedangas">Vedangas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_metre" title="Vedic metre">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Hindu scriptures">Other scriptures</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)" title="Agama (Hinduism)">Agamas (Hinduism)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu_Purana" title="Vishnu Purana">Vishnu Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devi_Bhagavata_Purana" title="Devi Bhagavata Purana">Devi Bhagavata Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naradiya_Purana" title="Naradiya Purana">Naradiya Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vamana_Purana" title="Vamana Purana">Vāmana Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Purana" title="Matsya Purana">Matsya Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garuda_Purana" title="Garuda Purana">Garuda Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Purana" title="Brahma Purana">Brahma Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmanda_Purana" title="Brahmanda Purana">Brahmanda Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Vaivarta_Purana" title="Brahma Vaivarta Purana">Brahma Vaivarta Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavishya_Purana" title="Bhavishya Purana">Bhavishya Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padma_Purana" title="Padma Purana">Padma Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Purana" title="Agni Purana">Agni Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Purana" title="Shiva Purana">Shiva Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linga_Purana" title="Linga Purana">Linga Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurma_Purana" title="Kurma Purana">Kūrma Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_Purana" title="Skanda Purana">Skanda Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varaha_Purana" title="Varaha Purana">Varaha Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markandeya_Purana" title="Markandeya Purana">Markandeya Purana</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedas#Upaveda" title="Vedas">Upavedas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhanurveda" title="Dhanurveda">Dhanurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandharvaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandharvaveda">Gandharvaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthapatyaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Sthapatyaveda">Sthapatyaveda</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">Shastras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">samhitas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharma Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Artha Śastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shilpa_Shastras" title="Shilpa Shastras">Shilpa Shastras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama_Sutra" title="Kama Sutra">Kama Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya_Pravachana_Sutra" title="Samkhya Pravachana Sutra">Samkhya Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purva_Mimamsa_Sutras" title="Purva Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramana Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Charaka Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Panchatantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Naalayira Divya Prabandham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramcharitmanas" title="Ramcharitmanas">Ramcharitmanas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Swarodaya" title="Shiva Swarodaya">Swara yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchadasi" title="Panchadasi">Panchadasi</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotras</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_suktas_and_stutis" title="List of suktas and stutis">stutis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bhashya" title="Bhashya">Bhashya</a> </div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kanakadhara_Stotra" title="Kanakadhara Stotra">Kanakadhara Stotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Stuti" title="Shiva Stuti">Shiva Stuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayu_Stuti" title="Vayu Stuti">Vayu Stuti</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature" title="Tamil literature">Tamil literature</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Naalayira Divya Prabandham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiruppukal" title="Tiruppukal">Tiruppukal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kural" title="Kural">Kural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_Ramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamba Ramayanam">Kamba Ramayanam/Ramavataram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athichudi" title="Athichudi">Athichudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abirami_Antati" title="Abirami Antati">Abirami Antati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed; border-bottom:1px dotted"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">Other texts</a></div></dt></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Hindu Culture & Society</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Society</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">Dalit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%81ti" title="Jāti">Jāti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotra" title="Gotra">Gotra</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu Art</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_art" title="Hindu art">Hindu art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_iconography" title="Hindu iconography">Hindu iconography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shilpa_Shastras" title="Shilpa Shastras">Shilpa Shastras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa (aesthetics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_aesthetics" title="Indian aesthetics">Indian aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yantra" title="Yantra">Yantra</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu Architecture</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_architecture" title="Hindu architecture">Hindu architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Hindu temple architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastu_shastra" title="Vastu shastra">Vastu shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talamana" title="Talamana">Talamana</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu Music</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_music" title="Hindu music">Hindu music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shruti_(music)" title="Shruti (music)">Shruti (music)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svara" title="Svara">Svara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alank%C4%81ra" title="Alankāra">Alankāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tala_(music)" title="Tala (music)">Tala (music)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raga" title="Raga">Raga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa (aesthetics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangita" title="Sangita">Sangita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vadya" title="Vadya">Vadya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Food & Diet Customs</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_in_Hinduism" title="Diet in Hinduism">Diet in Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattvic_diet" title="Sattvic diet">Sattvic diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitahara" title="Mitahara">Mitahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jhatka" title="Jhatka">Jhatka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vrata" title="Vrata">Vrata</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Time Keeping Practices</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu units of time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchangam" title="Panchangam">Panchangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikram_Samvat" title="Vikram Samvat">Vikram Samvat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaka_era" title="Shaka era">Shaka era</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu Pilgrimage</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage sites</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other society-related topics:</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_organisations" title="List of Hindu organisations">Organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Reform movements</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Other topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_by_country" title="Hinduism by country">Hinduism by country</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Shaktism" title="Caribbean Shaktism">Caribbean Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Template:Hindu scriptures and texts">Template:Hindu scriptures and texts</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hinduism & Other Religions</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Jainism" title="Hinduism and Jainism">Hinduism and Jainism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">and Buddhism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Sikhism" title="Hinduism and Sikhism">and Sikhism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">and Judaism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduism and Christianity">and Christianity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">and Islam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other Related Links (Templates)</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Template:Hindu scriptures and texts"> Hindu Scriptures & Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_philosophy" title="Template:Hindu philosophy"> Hindu Philosphy</a></li> <li>Sampradayas (Traditions) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Saivism" title="Template:Saivism"> Shaivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Vaishnavism" title="Template:Vaishnavism"> Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Saktism" title="Template:Saktism"> Shaktism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Hinduism" title="Outline of Hinduism">Outline</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/16px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/23px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/31px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Hinduism portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hinduism" title="Template:Hinduism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hinduism" title="Template talk:Hinduism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hinduism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hinduism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The history of Hinduism covers a wide variety of related <a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">religious traditions</a> native to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrodd2003-1">[1]</a> It overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Iron Age</a>, with some of its traditions tracing back to <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">prehistoric religions</a> such as those of the Bronze Age <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> has been called the "oldest religion" in the world,<a href="#cite_note-Oldest_religion-2">[a]</a> but scholars regard Hinduism as a relatively recent synthesis<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockard200750-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193-5">[4]</a> of various Indian cultures and traditions,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockard200750-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199616-6">[5]</a> with diverse roots<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan200911-7">[6]</a> and no single founder,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsborne20059-8">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-roots-9">[b]</a> which emerged around the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelbon2004-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hindu-synthesis_date-11">[c]</a> The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions. Northern India had the Vedic period with the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">historical Vedic religion</a> (sometimes called Vedic Hinduism or ancient Hinduism<a href="#cite_note-Vedic_Hinduism-12">[d]</a>) by the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migrations" title="Indo-Aryan migrations">Indo-Aryan migrations</a>, starting somewhere between 1900 BCE and 1400 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200432–36-13">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[note 1]</a> The subsequent period of the second urbanisation (600-200 BCE) is a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, followed by "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200438-17">[12]</a> during the Epic and Early Puranic period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 BCE to 500 CE), when the <a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Epics</a> and the first Purānas were composed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009-18">[13]</a> This was followed by the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 320–650 CE), which coincides with the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>. In this period the six branches of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a> evolved, namely, <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedānta</a>. Monotheistic sects like <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> developed during this same period through the <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a>. It flourished in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">medieval period</a> period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE, which forms the late Classical period<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels2004-19">[14]</a> or early Middle Ages, with the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">decline of Buddhism in India</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson1995109–111-20">[15]</a> and the establishment of classical Puranic Hinduism is established. Hinduism under both Hindu and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_rulers_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent">Islamic</a> rulers from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 to 1750 CE<a href="#cite_note-21">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[17]</a> saw the increasing prominence of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today. <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> became glorified as the main proponent of <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a>, in response to the success of Vaishnavite bhakti. The <a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">colonial period</a> saw the emergence of various <a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Hindu reform movements</a> partly inspired by western movements, such as <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a> in 1947 was along religious lines, with the <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Republic of India</a> emerging with a Hindu majority. During the 20th century, due to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_diaspora" title="Indian diaspora">Indian diaspora</a>, Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in absolute numbers in the <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_the_United_States" title="Hinduism in the United States">United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hinduism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roots_of_Hinduism">Roots of Hinduism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Roots of Hinduism">edit</a>]</div> While the <a href="/wiki/Puranic_chronology" class="mw-redirect" title="Puranic chronology">Puranic chronology</a> presents a genealogy of thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockard200750-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lockard-23">[note 2]</a> or synthesis<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hiltebeitel-24">[note 3]</a> of various Indian cultures and traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-fusion-30">[note 4]</a> Among its roots are the historical Vedic religion,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199616-6">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201041–42-31">[20]</a> itself already the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite200628-32">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vedic_composite-33">[note 5]</a> which evolved into the Brahmanical religion and ideology of the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a> of Iron Age northern India; but also the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGomez201342-34">[22]</a> or renouncer traditions<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199616-6">[5]</a> of <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">northeast India</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGomez201342-34">[22]</a> and mesolithic<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoniger201066-35">[23]</a> and neolithic<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006xvii-36">[24]</a> cultures of India, such as the religions of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-37">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_peoples" title="Dravidian peoples">Dravidian</a> traditions,<a href="#cite_note-38">[26]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">local traditions</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199616-6">[5]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tribal_religions_in_India" title="Tribal religions in India">tribal religions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiwari2002v-39">[27]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Hindu_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu synthesis">Hindu synthesis</a> emerged after the Vedic period, between 500<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a>–200<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009-18">[13]</a> BCE and <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300 CE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a> in the period of the <a href="/wiki/Second_urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Second urbanisation">second urbanisation</a> and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the <a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Epics</a> and the first <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a> were composed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009-18">[13]</a> This Brahmanical synthesis incorporated śramaṇic<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009-18">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuller200488-40">[28]</a> and Buddhist influences<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009-18">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECousins2010-41">[29]</a> and the emerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the smriti literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200713-42">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009-18">[13]</a> This synthesis emerged under the pressure of the success of Buddhism and Jainism,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200121-43">[31]</a> starting with the conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Aryavarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryavarta">Vedic heartland</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a> rulers, which deprived the Brahmins of their patrons, threatening the survival of the Vedic ritual tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst201132–33-44">[32]</a> In response, Brahmins broadened their services,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst201133-34-45">[33]</a> eventually resulting in the Hindu synthesis of Brahmanical orthodoxy with local religious traditions,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200121-43">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst201129-46">[34]</a> which, centuries later, came to dominate India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst201129-46">[34]</a> During the Gupta reign the first Puranas were written,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200119-47">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Puranas-date-48">[note 6]</a> which were used to disseminate "mainstream religious ideology amongst pre-literate and tribal groups undergoing acculturation."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200119-47">[35]</a> The resulting Puranic Hinduism differed markedly from the earlier Brahmanism of the <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra#The_Dharmasutras" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmasutras</a> and the smritis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200119-47">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Michaels-legacy-49">[note 7]</a> Hinduism co-existed for several centuries with Buddhism,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193–228-50">[36]</a> to finally gain the upper hand at all levels in the 8th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaju199231-51">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oslo-Mauryan-52">[web 1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mahadana-53">[note 8]</a> From northern India this "Hindu synthesis", and its societal divisions, spread to southern India and parts of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, as courts and rulers adopted the Brahmanical culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193–228,_339–353,_specifically_pp._76–79_and_p._199-54">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Samuel-northsouth-55">[note 9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Larson-NorthSouth-56">[note 10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Flood-NorthSouth-57">[note 11]</a> It was aided by the settlement of Brahmins on land granted by local rulers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201077-58">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath2001-59">[40]</a> the incorporation and assimilation of popular non-Vedic gods,<a href="#cite_note-EBHinbduism6-60">[web 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200131–34-61">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-pantheon_explosion-62">[note 12]</a> and the process of <a href="/wiki/Sanskritization" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritization">Sanskritization</a>, in which "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms".<a href="#cite_note-EBHinbduism6-60">[web 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sanskritization-63">[note 13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996128,_129,_148-64">[42]</a> This process of assimilation explains the wide diversity of local cultures in India "half shrouded in a taddered cloak of conceptual unity".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich200636-65">[43]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Eliot_Deutsch" title="Eliot Deutsch">Eliot Deutsch</a>, Brahmins played an essential role in the development of this synthesis. They were bilingual and bicultural, speaking both their local language, and popular <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, which transcended regional differences in culture and language. They were able to "translate the mainstream of the large culture in terms of the village and the culture of the village in terms of the mainstream", thereby integrating the local culture into a larger whole.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeutschDalvi200499–100-66">[44]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Vaidikas" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaidikas">vaidikas</a> and, to a lesser degree, <a href="/wiki/Smartas" class="mw-redirect" title="Smartas">smartas</a>, remained faithful to the traditional Vedic lore, a new brahminism arose which composed litanies for the local and regional gods, and became the ministers of these local traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeutschDalvi200499–100-66">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Periodisation">Periodisation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Periodisation">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">Outline of South Asian history</a></div> Authors on Hinduism and its history have used various periodisations, elaborating on influential periodisations like Mill's, and also describing some of the constituting traditions preceding the Hindu-synthesis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmart2003-67">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels2004-19">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuesse2003-68">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996-69">[47]</a> An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels2004-19">[14]</a> <ul><li>Pre-history and Indus Valley Civilisation (until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1750 BCE);</li> <li>Vedic period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1750–500 BCE);</li> <li>"Second Urbanisation" (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 600–200 BCE);</li> <li>Classical Period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 BCE – 1200 CE);<a href="#cite_note-71">[note 14]</a> <ul><li>Pre-classical period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 BCE – 300 CE);</li> <li>"Golden Age" of India (Gupta Empire) (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 320–650 CE);</li> <li>Late-Classical period - Puranic Hinduism (c. 650–1200 CE);</li></ul></li> <li>Medieval Period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200–1500 CE);</li> <li>Early Modern Period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1850);</li> <li>Modern period (British Raj and independence) (from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1850).</li></ul> <table class="wikitable collapsible autocollapse" style="width:100%;text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="5">History of Hinduism </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">James Mill</a> (1773–1836), in his <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_British_India" title="The History of British India">The History of British India</a> (1817),<a href="#cite_note-KhannaXVII-72">[A]</a> distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations.<a href="#cite_note-KhannaXVII-72">[A]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[B]</a> This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to.<a href="#cite_note-74">[C]</a> Another influential periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods".<a href="#cite_note-75">[D]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Smart<a href="#cite_note-Smart5253-76">[E]</a> </th> <th colspan="2">Michaels<a href="#cite_note-Mike2004-77">[F]</a> </th> <th>Muesse<a href="#cite_note-Muesse2011-78">[G]</a> </th> <th>Flood<a href="#cite_note-79">[H]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3000–1000 BCE) </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Prehistoric_era_(until_c._3300_BCE)" title="History of India">Prevedic religions</a> (until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1750 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-Mike32-80">[I]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a> (3300–1400 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2500 to 1500 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Early Vedic Period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1750–1200 BCE) </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> (1600–800 BCE) </td> <td rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–500 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">Middle Vedic period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200–850 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;">Pre-classical period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000 BCE – 100 CE) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Late Vedic period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 850–500 BCE) </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Mahajanapadas_(600–300_BC)" title="History of India">Classical period</a> (800–200 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Shramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Shramana">Ascetic reformism</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500–200 BCE) </td> <td rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Epic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranic</a> period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 BCE to 500 CE) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;">Classical </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Preclassical Hinduism (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 BCE – 300 CE)<a href="#cite_note-Mike38-81">[J]</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Epic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranic</a> period (200 BCE – 500 CE) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">Classical period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 100 – 1000 CE) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">"Golden Age" (<a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>) (c. 320–650 CE)<a href="#cite_note-82">[K]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Late-Classical_Hinduism_–_Puranic_Hinduism_(c._650–1200_CE)">Late-Classical Hinduism</a> (c. 650–1100 CE)<a href="#cite_note-83">[L]</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">Medieval and Late Puranic period (500–1500 CE) </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">Medieval and Late Puranic period (500–1500 CE) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">Hindu-Islamic civilisation (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000–1750 CE) </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Empires_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Empires in India">Islamic rule</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">"Sects of Hinduism"</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1100–1850 CE)<a href="#cite_note-Mike43-84">[M]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Early_modern_period_(1526–1858_CE)" title="History of India">Modern</a> (1500–present) </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Early_modern_period_(1526–1858_CE)" title="History of India">Modern period</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 CE to present) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">Modern period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1750 CE – present) </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Modern Hinduism</a> (from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1850)<a href="#cite_note-Mike45-85">[N]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="12"> <table class="collapsible collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th>Notes and references for table </th></tr> <tr> <td> Notes Smart<a href="#cite_note-Smart5253-76">[E]</a> and Michaels<a href="#cite_note-Mike32-80">[I]</a> seem to follow Mill's periodisation (Michaels mentions Flood 1996 as a source for "Prevedic Religions".<a href="#cite_note-86">[O]</a>), while Flood<a href="#cite_note-87">[P]</a> and Muesse<a href="#cite_note-88">[Q]</a><a href="#cite_note-Muesse2011-78">[G]</a> follow the "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods" periodisation.<a href="#cite_note-89">[R]</a> Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism": <ul><li>Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical". It is the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism (Smart distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the Vedic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the Upanishads.<a href="#cite_note-90">[S]</a>), Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.<a href="#cite_note-91">[T]</a></li> <li>For Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism",<a href="#cite_note-92">[U]</a> whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".<a href="#cite_note-Mike38-81">[J]</a></li> <li>Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period". According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time.<a href="#cite_note-93">[V]</a></li></ul> References <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-upper-alpha" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-KhannaXVII-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KhannaXVII_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KhannaXVII_72-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKhanna2007">Khanna 2007</a>, p. xvii </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMisra2004">Misra 2004</a>, p. 194 </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund2004">Kulke & Rothermund 2004</a>, p. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-Smart5253-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smart5253_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smart5253_76-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmart2003">Smart 2003</a>, pp. 52–53 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mike2004-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Mike2004_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muesse2011-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Muesse2011_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Muesse2011_78-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuesse2011">Muesse 2011</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, pp. 21–22 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mike32-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mike32_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mike32_80-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 32 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mike38-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mike38_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mike38_81-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 38 </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 40 </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 41 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mike43-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Mike43_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 43 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mike45-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Mike45_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 45 </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, pp. 31, 348 </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuesse2003">Muesse 2003</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuesse2011">Muesse 2011</a>, p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmart2003">Smart 2003</a>, pp. 52, 83–86 </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmart2003">Smart 2003</a>, p. 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 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(2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hindutraditionsc00mues">The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction</a>. Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780800697907" title="Special:BookSources/9780800697907"><bdi>9780800697907</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Traditions%3A+A+Concise+Introduction&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780800697907&rft.aulast=Muesse&rft.aufirst=Mark+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhindutraditionsc00mues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Smart, Ninian (2003). Godsdiensten van de wereld (The World's religions). Kampen: Uitgeverij Kok.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Godsdiensten+van+de+wereld+%28The+World%27s+religions%29&rft.place=Kampen&rft.pub=Uitgeverij+Kok&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Smart&rft.aufirst=Ninian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-Vedic_religions_(until_c._1750_BCE)">Pre-Vedic religions (until c. 1750 BCE)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pre-Vedic religions (until c. 1750 BCE)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</a>]</div> According to Doniger, Hinduism may have roots in pre-historic (pre-textual, pre-Vedic) <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">prehistoric religion</a>, such as evidenced in the rock paintings of <a href="/wiki/Bhimbetka_rock_shelters" title="Bhimbetka rock shelters">Bhimbetka rock shelters</a>,<a href="#cite_note-100">[note 15]</a> which are about 10,000 years old (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 8,000 BCE),<a href="#cite_note-YM-94">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-SKT-95">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-UB-96">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-SM-97">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-AJ-98">[52]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">neolithic</a> times. At least some of these shelters were occupied over 100,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-101">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[note 16]</a> Several <a href="/wiki/Tribal_religions_in_India" title="Tribal religions in India">tribal religions</a> still exist, though their practices may not resemble those of prehistoric religions.<a href="#cite_note-103">[web 3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indus_Valley_Civilization_(c._3300–1700_BCE)">Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BCE)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BCE)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization">Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">History of Jainism</a></div> Some Indus valley seals show <a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastikas</a>, which are found in other religions worldwide. Phallic symbols interpreted as the much later Hindu <a href="/wiki/Lingam" title="Lingam">linga</a> have been found in the Harappan remains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham1967-104">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[55]</a> Many Indus valley seals show animals. One seal showing a horned figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_position" title="Lotus position">Lotus position</a> and surrounded by animals was named by early excavators "<a href="/wiki/Pashupati" title="Pashupati">Pashupati</a>", an epithet of the later Hindu gods <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudra" title="Rudra">Rudra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosen200645-108">[58]</a> Writing in 1997, <a href="/wiki/Doris_Meth_Srinivasan" title="Doris Meth Srinivasan">Doris Meth Srinivasan</a> said, "Not too many recent studies continue to call the seal's figure a 'Proto-Siva', rejecting thereby Marshall's package of proto-Shiva features, including that of three heads. She interprets what <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)" title="John Marshall (archaeologist)">John Marshall</a> interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man."&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESrinivasan1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-109">[59]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification needed</a>] According to <a href="/wiki/Iravatham_Mahadevan" title="Iravatham Mahadevan">Iravatham Mahadevan</a>, symbols 47 and 48 of his Indus script glossary The Indus Script: Texts, Concordance and Tables (1977), representing seated human-like figures, could describe the South Indian deity <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[60]</a> In view of the large number of figurines found in the Indus valley, some scholars believe that the Harappan people worshipped a <a href="/wiki/Mother_goddess" title="Mother goddess">mother goddess</a> symbolizing fertility, a common practice among rural Hindus even today.<a href="#cite_note-111">[61]</a> However, this view has been disputed by S. Clark who sees it as an inadequate explanation of the function and construction of many of the figurines.<a href="#cite_note-112">[62]</a> There are no religious buildings or evidence of elaborate burials. If there were temples, they have not been identified.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Attribution_needed" title="Wikipedia:Attribution needed">attribution needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-113">[63]</a> However, House – 1 in HR-A area in <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo Daro</a>'s Lower Town has been identified as a possible temple.<a href="#cite_note-114">[64]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Horned_deities_on_an_Indus_Valley_seal_with_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Horned deity with one-horned attendants on an Indus Valley seal. Horned deities are a standard Mesopotamian theme. 2000-1900 BCE. Islamabad Museum.[65][web 4][66][67]"><img alt="Horned deity with one-horned attendants on an Indus Valley seal. Horned deities are a standard Mesopotamian theme. 2000-1900 BCE. Islamabad Museum.[65][web 4][66][67]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Horned_deities_on_an_Indus_Valley_seal_with_detail.jpg/200px-Horned_deities_on_an_Indus_Valley_seal_with_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Horned_deities_on_an_Indus_Valley_seal_with_detail.jpg/300px-Horned_deities_on_an_Indus_Valley_seal_with_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Horned_deities_on_an_Indus_Valley_seal_with_detail.jpg/400px-Horned_deities_on_an_Indus_Valley_seal_with_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2846" data-file-height="1574" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Horned deity with one-horned attendants on an Indus Valley seal. Horned deities are a standard Mesopotamian theme. 2000-1900 BCE. Islamabad Museum.<a href="#cite_note-115">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[web 4]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[67]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Indus_bull-man_fighting_beast.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fighting scene between a beast and a man with horns, hooves and a tail, who has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man Enkidu.[68][69][70] Indus Valley Civilisation seal."><img alt="Fighting scene between a beast and a man with horns, hooves and a tail, who has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man Enkidu.[68][69][70] Indus Valley Civilisation seal." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indus_bull-man_fighting_beast.jpg/200px-Indus_bull-man_fighting_beast.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indus_bull-man_fighting_beast.jpg/300px-Indus_bull-man_fighting_beast.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indus_bull-man_fighting_beast.jpg/400px-Indus_bull-man_fighting_beast.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1572" data-file-height="1517" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fighting scene between a beast and a man with horns, hooves and a tail, who has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man <a href="/wiki/Enkidu" title="Enkidu">Enkidu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gods,_Goddesses,_and_Mythology-119">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDs_hazstxY4CpgPA389_389]-120">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearson_Education_India-121">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a> seal.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Swastika Seals from the Indus Valley Civilization preserved at the British Museum"><img alt="Swastika Seals from the Indus Valley Civilization preserved at the British Museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG/200px-IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG/300px-IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG/400px-IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG 2x" data-file-width="411" data-file-height="237" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a> Seals from the Indus Valley Civilization preserved at the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vedic_period_(c._1750–500_BCE)">Vedic period (c. 1750–500 BCE)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vedic period (c. 1750–500 BCE)">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="margin:0 auto;"> <caption>Spread of Indo-European languages </caption> <tbody><tr> <td> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE5500BP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/IE5500BP.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="169" /></a><figcaption>Indo-European languages <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3500 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE4500BP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/IE4500BP.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="169" /></a><figcaption>Indo-European languages <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2500 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE3500BP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/IE3500BP.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="169" /></a><figcaption>Indo-European languages <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE2500BP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/IE2500BP.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="169" /></a><figcaption>Indo-European languages <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE1500BP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/IE1500BP.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="169" /></a><figcaption>Indo-European languages <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 AD</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="margin:0 auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Indo-Aryan migration </th></tr> <tr> <td> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yamna-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Yamna-en.svg/400px-Yamna-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Yamna-en.svg/600px-Yamna-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Yamna-en.svg/800px-Yamna-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1174" data-file-height="916" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a>, 3500–2000 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE_expansion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/IE_expansion.png/400px-IE_expansion.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/IE_expansion.png 1.5x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="275" /></a><figcaption>Scheme of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a> from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a>. The magenta area corresponds to the assumed <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_Urheimat_hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses">Urheimat</a> (<a href="/wiki/Samara_culture" title="Samara culture">Samara culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog culture</a>). The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to ca. 2500 BCE; the orange area to 1000 BCE. (Christopher I. Beckwith (2009), Empires of the Silk Road, Oxford University Press, p.30)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andronovo_culture.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Andronovo_culture.png/400px-Andronovo_culture.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Andronovo_culture.png 1.5x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>Map of the approximate maximal extent of the Andronovo culture. The formative <a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta-Petrovka</a> culture is shown in darker red. The location of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Spoke" title="Spoke">spoke</a>-wheeled <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a> finds is indicated in purple. Adjacent and overlapping cultures (<a href="/wiki/Afanasevo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Afanasevo culture">Afanasevo culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Srubna_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Srubna culture">Srubna culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a>) are shown in green.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-Iranian_origins.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indo-Iranian_origins.png/400px-Indo-Iranian_origins.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Indo-Iranian_origins.png 1.5x" data-file-width="581" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>Archaeological cultures associated with <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Iranian migration">Indo-Iranian migrations</a> (after <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">EIEC</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yaz_culture" title="Yaz culture">Yaz</a> cultures have often been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations. The <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">GGC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper_Hoard_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Hoard Culture">Copper Hoard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">PGW</a> cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-Aryan movements.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Vedic_Culture_(1700-1100_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/400px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/600px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/800px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>Early Vedic Period</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Iron Age in India</a></div> The historical Vedic religion, also known as Vedicism and Vedism, sometimes referred to as an early phase of Hinduism called Vedic Hinduism and Ancient Hinduism,<a href="#cite_note-Vedic_Hinduism-12">[d]</a> was the sacrificial religion of the early <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryans">Indo-Aryans</a>, speakers of early <a href="/wiki/Old_Indic" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Indic">Old Indic</a> dialects, ultimately deriving from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> peoples of the Bronze Age who lived on the Central Asian steppes.<a href="#cite_note-122">[note 17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan peoples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migrations" title="Indo-Aryan migrations">Indo-Aryan migrations</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European religion">Proto-Indo-European religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian religion</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Vedic_Culture_(1700-1100_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/320px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/480px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/640px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>A map of tribes and rivers mentioned in the Rigveda</figcaption></figure> The Vedic period, named after the Vedic religion of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryans</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a> 1200 BCE – 525 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008185-123">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[note 18]</a> lasted from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1750 to 500 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200432-125">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[note 19]</a> The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language">Indo-European language</a> family, which many scholars believe originated in <a href="/wiki/Kurgan" title="Kurgan">Kurgan</a> culture of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asian</a> <a href="/wiki/Steppes" class="mw-redirect" title="Steppes">steppes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-127">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee_et_al.2011-128">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[note 20]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[note 21]</a> Indeed, the ancient Vedic religion, including the names of certain deities, was in essence a branch of the same religious tradition as the ancient Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Germanic peoples. For example, the Vedic god <a href="/wiki/Dyaus" title="Dyaus">Dyaus</a> is a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European religion">Proto-Indo-European</a> god <a href="/wiki/Dy%C4%93us" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyēus">*Dyēus ph2ter</a> (or simply *Dyēus), from which also derive the Greek <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> and the Roman <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a>. Similarly the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Manu_(Hinduism)" title="Manu (Hinduism)">Manu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yama_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yama (Hinduism)">Yama</a> derive from the Proto-Indo-European *Manu and *Yemo, from which also derive the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Mannus" title="Mannus">Mannus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ymir" title="Ymir">Ymir</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European migration">Indo-European migration</a> theory, the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a> were the common ancestor of the Indo-Aryans and the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranians</a>. The Indo-Iranians split into the Indo-Aryans and Iranians around 1800–1600 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007408-131">[75]</a> The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-132">[76]</a> who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200433-133">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199630–35-134">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20075-135">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[note 22]</a> The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a>, which originated in the <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007410–411-137">[80]</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>-<a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Margiana</a> era, in present northern Afghanistan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-138">[81]</a> The roots of this culture go back further to the <a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a>, with funeral sacrifices which show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007375,_408–411-139">[82]</a> Although some early depictions of deities seem to appear in the art of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a>, very few religious artifacts remain from the period corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration">Indo-Aryan migration</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BIKA-140">[83]</a> It has been suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">early Vedic religion</a> focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations.<a href="#cite_note-BIKA-140">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-TBI-141">[84]</a> Various artefacts may belong to the <a href="/wiki/Copper_Hoard_culture" title="Copper Hoard culture">Copper Hoard culture</a> (2nd millennium CE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics.<a href="#cite_note-IS248-142">[85]</a> Interpretations vary as to the exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged.<a href="#cite_note-IS248-142">[85]</a> During the Early Vedic period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1100 BCE<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-132">[76]</a>) Indo-Aryan tribes were pastoralists in north-west India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201041–48-143">[86]</a> After 1100 BCE, with the introduction of iron, the Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the western Ganges Plain, adopting an agrarian lifestyle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-132">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201041–93-144">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein201048–49-145">[88]</a> Rudimentary state-forms appeared, of which the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru</a>-tribe and realm was the most influential.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-132">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201061–93-146">[89]</a> It was a tribal union, which developed into the first recorded <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state-level society</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> around 1000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-132">[76]</a> It decisively changed their religious heritage of the early Vedic period, collecting their ritual hymns into the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Veda-collections</a>, and developing new rituals which gained their position in <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Indian civilization</a> as the orthodox <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a> rituals,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-132">[76]</a> which contributed to the so-called "classical synthesis"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-147">[90]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hinduism#Roots_of_Hinduism" title="Hinduism">"Hindu synthesis"</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rigvedic_religion">Rigvedic religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rigvedic religion">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1023981488">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .rquote{width:auto!important;float:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote rquote" style="float: right; width: 33%;"><div class="poem"> Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Nasadiya_Sukta" title="Nasadiya Sukta">Nasadiya Sukta</a>, concerns the <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of the universe">origin of the universe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, 10:129-6<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKramer1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRzUAu-43W5oCpgPA34_34]–-148">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Christian2011-149">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH3lUIIYxWkECpgPA206_206–]-150">[93]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda,_manuscript_page_sample_i,_Mandala_1,_Hymn_1_(Sukta_1),_Adhyaya_1,_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9,_Sanskrit,_Devanagari.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/280px-1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/420px-1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/560px-1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2791" data-file-height="1150" /></a><figcaption>Rigveda manuscript page, Mandala 1, Hymn 1 (Sukta 1), lines 1.1.1 to 1.1.9 (Sanskrit, Devanagari script)</figcaption></figure> The Indo-Aryans brought with them their language<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201053–56-151">[94]</a> and religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199630-152">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20075–7-153">[96]</a> The Indo-Aryan and Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European religion">Proto-Indo-European religion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Woodard2006-154">[97]</a> and the Indo-Iranian religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-155">[98]</a> According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the <a href="/wiki/Zeravshan_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeravshan River">Zeravshan River</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>) and (present-day) Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007462-156">[99]</a> It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007462-156">[99]</a> which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-155">[98]</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-155">[98]</a> At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> and the ritual drink <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454–455-157">[100]</a> According to Anthony, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, <a href="/wiki/Verethragna" title="Verethragna">Verethragna</a>, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-138">[81]</a></blockquote> The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, are found not in northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200749-158">[101]</a> The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200749-158">[101]</a> The Old Indic term <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata" title="Ṛta">r'ta</a>, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200749-158">[101]</a> And Old Indic gods, including <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>, were also known in the <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200750-159">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood200868-160">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeltonBaumann2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidv2yiyLLOj88CpgPA1412_1412]-161">[104]</a> Their religion was further developed when they migrated into the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Ganges Plain</a> after <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1100 BCE and became settled farmers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-132">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51,_61–93-162">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20078–10-163">[106]</a> further syncretising with the native cultures of northern India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-147">[90]</a> The Brahmanical culture of the later Vedic period co-existed with local religions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Yaksha" title="Yaksha">Yaksha</a> cults,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-147">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham198974–75-164">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-yaksha-165">[web 5]</a> and was itself the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite200628-32">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vedic_composite-33">[note 5]</a> David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite200328-166">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vedic_composite-33">[note 5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vedas">Vedas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vedas">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isapur_sacrificial_pillar_of_Vasishka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Isapur_sacrificial_pillar_of_Vasishka.jpg/170px-Isapur_sacrificial_pillar_of_Vasishka.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="619" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Isapur_sacrificial_pillar_of_Vasishka.jpg/255px-Isapur_sacrificial_pillar_of_Vasishka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Isapur_sacrificial_pillar_of_Vasishka.jpg/340px-Isapur_sacrificial_pillar_of_Vasishka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="2154" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Y%C5%ABpa" title="Yūpa">Yūpa</a> (यूप) sacrificial pillar, one of the most important elements of the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_ritual" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic ritual">Vedic ritual</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mathura_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathura Museum">Mathura Museum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PCS-167">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-YB-168">[110]</a></figcaption></figure> Its liturgy is preserved in the three <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic Samhitas</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a>. The Vedic texts were the texts of the elite, and do not necessarily represent popular ideas or practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008184-169">[111]</a> Of these, the Rig-Veda is the oldest, a collection of hymns composed between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 and 1200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-170">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954-171">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-138">[81]</a> The other two add ceremonial detail for the performance of the actual sacrifice. The <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a> may also contain compositions dating to before 1000 BCE. It contains material pertinent to domestic ritual and folk magic of the period. These texts, as well as the voluminous commentary on orthopraxy collected in the <a href="/wiki/Brahmanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanas">Brahmanas</a> compiled during the early 1st millennium BCE, were transmitted by <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> alone until the advent, in the 4th century CE, of the <a href="/wiki/Pallava" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallava">Pallava</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gupta" title="Gupta">Gupta</a> period and by a combination of written and oral tradition since then. The Hindu samskaras <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">go back to a hoary antiquity. The Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Grhyasutras, the Dharmasutras, the Smritis and other treatises describe the rites, ceremonies and customs.<a href="#cite_note-172">[114]</a></blockquote> The earliest text of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>,<a href="#cite_note-173">[115]</a> a collection of poetic hymns used in the sacrificial rites of <a href="/wiki/Vedic_priesthood" title="Vedic priesthood">Vedic priesthood</a>. Many Rigvedic hymns concern the <a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">fire ritual</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agnihotra" title="Agnihotra">Agnihotra</a>) and especially the offering of <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a> to the gods (<a href="/wiki/Somayajna" title="Somayajna">Somayajna</a>). Soma is both an intoxicant and a god itself, as is the sacrificial fire, <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a>. The royal <a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">horse sacrifice</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ashvamedha" title="Ashvamedha">Ashvamedha</a>) is a central rite in the <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_deities" title="Rigvedic deities">gods in the Rig-Veda</a> are mostly personified concepts, who fall into two categories: the <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">devas</a> – who were gods of nature – such as the weather deity <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> (who is also the King of the gods), <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a> ("fire"), <a href="/wiki/Usha_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Usha (goddess)">Usha</a> ("dawn"), <a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a> ("sun") and Apas ("waters") on the one hand, and on the other hand the <a href="/wiki/Asura" title="Asura">asuras</a> – gods of moral concepts – such as <a href="/wiki/Mitra_(Vedic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitra (Vedic)">Mitra</a> ("contract"), <a href="/wiki/Aryaman" title="Aryaman">Aryaman</a> (guardian of guest, friendship and marriage), <a href="/wiki/Bhaga" title="Bhaga">Bhaga</a> ("share") or <a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a>, the supreme Asura (or Aditya). While Rigvedic deva is variously applied to most gods, including many of the Asuras, the Devas are characterised as Younger Gods while Asuras are the Older Gods (pūrve devāḥ). In later Vedic texts, "Asura" comes to mean demon. The Rigveda has 10 mandalas ('books'). There is significant variation in the language and style between the family books (RV books 2–7), <a href="/wiki/Mandala_8" title="Mandala 8">book 8</a>, the "Soma Mandala" (<a href="/wiki/Mandala_9" title="Mandala 9">RV 9</a>), and the more recent books <a href="/wiki/Mandala_1" title="Mandala 1">1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandala_10" title="Mandala 10">10</a>. The older books share many aspects of common <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Indo-Iranian</a> religion, and is an important source for the reconstruction of earlier <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">common Indo-European traditions</a>. Especially <a href="/wiki/Mandala_8" title="Mandala 8">RV 8</a> has striking similarity to the <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a>,<a href="#cite_note-174">[116]</a> containing allusions to <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghan</a> flora and fauna,<a href="#cite_note-175">[117]</a> e.g. to camels (úṣṭra- = <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> uštra). Many of the central religious terms in Vedic Sanskrit have cognates in the religious vocabulary of other Indo-European languages (deva: Latin deus; <a href="/wiki/Hotar" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotar">hotar</a>: Germanic <a href="/wiki/God_(word)" title="God (word)">god</a>; asura: Germanic <a href="/wiki/Ansuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ansuz">ansuz</a>; <a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">yajna</a>: Greek hagios; <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">brahman</a>: Norse <a href="/wiki/Bragi" title="Bragi">Bragi</a> or perhaps Latin <a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">flamen</a> etc.). In the <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a>, Asura (Ahura) is considered good and Devas (Daevas) are considered evil entities, quite the opposite of the Rig Veda. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cosmic_order">Cosmic order</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cosmic order">edit</a>]</div> Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> and <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata" title="Ṛta">Ṛta</a>. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute.<a href="#cite_note-176">[118]</a> Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2004215-177">[119]</a> Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Panikkar remarks: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Ṛta is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. ... It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything....<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanikkar2001350–351-178">[120]</a></blockquote> The term "dharma" was already used in Brahmanical thought, where it was conceived as an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Rta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rta">Rta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[121]</a> The term rta is also known from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian religion</a>, the religion of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian peoples</a> prior to the earliest <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic</a> (Indo-Aryan) and <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> (Iranian) scriptures. <a href="/wiki/Asha" title="Asha">Asha</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Pronunciation" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation">pronunciation?</a>] (aša) is the <a href="/wiki/Avestan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Avestan language">Avestan language</a> term corresponding to <a href="/wiki/Vedic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic language">Vedic language</a> <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata" title="Ṛta">ṛta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuchesne-Guillemin196346-180">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Upanishads">Upanishads</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Upanishads">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MS_Indic_37,_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg/300px-MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg/450px-MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg/600px-MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="880" /></a><figcaption>A page of <a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha Upanishad</a> manuscript</figcaption></figure> The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusner2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid34vGv_HDGG8CpgPA183_183]-181">[123]</a> Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> (conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Veda">Veda</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeltonBaumann2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidv2yiyLLOj88CpgPA1324_1324]-182">[124]</a> The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the rituals, however, a philosophical and allegorical meaning is also given to these rituals. In some later Upanishads there is a spirit of accommodation towards rituals. The tendency which appears in the philosophical hymns of the Vedas to reduce the number of gods to one principle becomes prominent in the Upanishads.<a href="#cite_note-Mahadevan_1956_57-183">[125]</a> Although it is sometimes assumed that the Upanishads propound a monistic framework, scholars like Brian Black and Andrew Nicholson have argued that this is an unfair assumption, referring to the presence of philosophically diverse themes in early Upanishads like the <a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka Upanishad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya Upanishad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-184">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson201025-185">[127]</a> The ideas of the Upanishads were synthesised into a theistic framework in the <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brahmanism">Brahmanism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Brahmanism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shrauta_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrauta Sutra">Shrauta Sutra</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1863_CE_palm_leaf_manuscript,_Jaiminiya_Aranyaka_Gana,_Samaveda_(unidentified_layer_of_texts),_Sanskrit,_Southern_Grantha_script,_sample_i.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/1863_CE_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Jaiminiya_Aranyaka_Gana%2C_Samaveda_%28unidentified_layer_of_texts%29%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Southern_Grantha_script%2C_sample_i.jpg/300px-1863_CE_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Jaiminiya_Aranyaka_Gana%2C_Samaveda_%28unidentified_layer_of_texts%29%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Southern_Grantha_script%2C_sample_i.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/1863_CE_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Jaiminiya_Aranyaka_Gana%2C_Samaveda_%28unidentified_layer_of_texts%29%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Southern_Grantha_script%2C_sample_i.jpg/450px-1863_CE_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Jaiminiya_Aranyaka_Gana%2C_Samaveda_%28unidentified_layer_of_texts%29%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Southern_Grantha_script%2C_sample_i.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/1863_CE_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Jaiminiya_Aranyaka_Gana%2C_Samaveda_%28unidentified_layer_of_texts%29%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Southern_Grantha_script%2C_sample_i.jpg/600px-1863_CE_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Jaiminiya_Aranyaka_Gana%2C_Samaveda_%28unidentified_layer_of_texts%29%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Southern_Grantha_script%2C_sample_i.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2642" data-file-height="606" /></a><figcaption>A page of the Jaiminiya <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a> Gana found embedded in the Samaveda palm leaf manuscript (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha script</a>)</figcaption></figure> Brahmanism, also called Brahminism or Brahmanical Hinduism, developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to a <a href="/wiki/Aryavarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryavarta">region stretching from</a> the northwest Indian subcontinent to the Ganges valley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeesterman20059552–9553-187">[129]</a> Brahmanism included the Vedic corpus, but also post-Vedic texts such as the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras, which gave prominence to the priestly (Brahmin) class of the society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeesterman20059552–9553-187">[129]</a> The emphasis on ritual and the dominant position of Brahmans developed as an ideology developed in the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru-Pancala realm</a>, and expanded into a wider realm after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala realm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-132">[76]</a> It co-existed with local religions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Yaksha" title="Yaksha">Yaksha</a> cults.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-147">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham198974–75-164">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-yaksha-165">[web 5]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age India</a>, during a period roughly spanning the 10th to 6th centuries BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a> arise from the earlier kingdoms of the various <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rigvedic tribes">Indo-Aryan tribes</a>, and the remnants of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Harappan" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Harappan">Late Harappan</a> culture. In this period the mantra portions of the Vedas are largely completed, and a flowering industry of <a href="/wiki/Vedic_priesthood" title="Vedic priesthood">Vedic priesthood</a> organised in numerous schools (<a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">shakha</a>) develops exegetical literature, viz. the <a href="/wiki/Brahmanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanas">Brahmanas</a>. These schools also edited the Vedic mantra portions into fixed recensions, that were to be preserved purely by <a href="/wiki/Patha" class="mw-redirect" title="Patha">oral tradition</a> over the following two millennia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_Urbanisation_and_decline_of_Brahmanism_(c._600–200_BCE)">Second Urbanisation and decline of Brahmanism (c. 600–200 BCE)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Second Urbanisation and decline of Brahmanism (c. 600–200 BCE)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Upanishads_and_Śramaṇa_movements">Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:272px;max-width:272px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:270px;max-width:270px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:151px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg/268px-City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg" decoding="async" width="268" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg/402px-City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg/536px-City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1427" data-file-height="805" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">City of <a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a> in the 5th century BCE, according to a 1st-century BCE relief in <a href="/wiki/Sanchi" title="Sanchi">Sanchi</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:99px;max-width:99px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:166px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg/97px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg.png" decoding="async" width="97" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg/146px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg/194px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1124" data-file-height="1934" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:169px;max-width:169px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:166px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/167px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="167" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/251px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/334px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Buddhism and Jainism are two of many Indian philosophies considered as Śramaṇic traditions.</div></div></div></div> Brahmanism, with its orthodox rituals, may have been challenged as a consequence of the increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE, and the influx of foreign stimuli initiated with the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley</a> (circa 535 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-BIKA-140">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKpIWhKnYmF0CpgPA82_82]-188">[130]</a> New ascetic or sramana movements arose, such as <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and local popular cults, which challenged the established religious orthodoxy.<a href="#cite_note-BIKA-140">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKpIWhKnYmF0CpgPA82_82]-188">[130]</a> The anthropomorphic depiction of various deities apparently resumed in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, also as the consequence of the reduced authority of Vedism.<a href="#cite_note-BIKA-140">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 549–477 BCE), proponent of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 563–483 BCE), founder of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, were the most prominent icons of this movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusner2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid34vGv_HDGG8CpgPA184_184]-189">[131]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Zimmer" title="Heinrich Zimmer">Heinrich Zimmer</a>, Jainism and Buddhism are part of the pre-Vedic heritage, which also includes Samkhya and Yoga: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer1989217-190">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[note 23]</a></blockquote> The Sramana tradition in part created the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a>, and the concept of liberation, which became characteristic for Hinduism.<a href="#cite_note-193">[note 24]</a> Pratt notes that <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Oldenberg" title="Hermann Oldenberg">Oldenberg</a> (1854–1920), <a href="/wiki/Karl_Eugen_Neumann" title="Karl Eugen Neumann">Neumann</a> (1865–1915) and <a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a> (1888–1975) believed that the Buddhist canon had been influenced by Upanishads, while <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_La_Vall%C3%A9e-Poussin" title="Louis de La Vallée-Poussin">la Vallee Poussin</a> thinks the influence was nil, and "Eliot and several others insist that on some points the Buddha was directly antithetical to the Upanishads".<a href="#cite_note-194">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[note 25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mauryan_Empire">Mauryan Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mauryan Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></div> The Mauryan period saw an early flowering of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Sanskrit">classical Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">Shastra</a> literature and the scholarly exposition of the "circum-Vedic" fields of the <a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a>. However, during this time Buddhism was patronised by <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>, who ruled large parts of India, and Buddhism was also the mainstream religion until the Gupta period. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline_of_Brahmanism">Decline of Brahmanism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Decline of Brahmanism">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decline">Decline</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Decline">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yajna1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Yajna1.jpg/220px-Yajna1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Yajna1.jpg/330px-Yajna1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Yajna1.jpg/440px-Yajna1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Nambūdiri Brahmin performing śrauta rites</figcaption></figure> The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200437–39-197">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2017363-198">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-Michaels_decline-199">[note 26]</a> At the end of the Vedic period, the meaning of the words of the Vedas had become obscure, and was perceived as "a fixed sequence of sounds"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier200755-200">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[note 27]</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">magical</a> power, "means to an end."<a href="#cite_note-202">[note 28]</a> With the growth of cities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins; the rise of Buddhism; and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">Indian campaign of Alexander the Great</a> (327–325 BCE), the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a> (322–185 BCE) with its embrace of Buddhism, and the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Saka</a> invasions and rule of northwestern India (2nd c. BCE – 4th c. CE), Brahmanism faced a grave threat to its existence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20169–10-203">[139]</a> In some later texts, Northwest-India (which earlier texts consider as part of "Aryavarta") is even seen as "impure", probably due to invasions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Survival_of_Vedic_ritual">Survival of Vedic ritual</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Survival of Vedic ritual">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></div> Vedism as the religious tradition of a priestly elite was marginalised by other traditions such as <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> in the later Iron Age, but in the Middle Ages would rise to renewed prestige with the <a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa">Mimamsa</a> school, which as well as all other <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">astika</a> traditions of Hinduism, considered them authorless (<a href="/wiki/Apaurusheyatva" class="mw-redirect" title="Apaurusheyatva">apaurusheyatva</a>) and eternal. A last surviving elements of the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a> or Vedism is <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a> tradition, following many major elements of the ancient Vedic religion and is prominent in <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>, with communities in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>, but also in some pockets of <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a> and other states; the best known of these groups are the <a href="/wiki/Nambudiri" title="Nambudiri">Nambudiri</a> of Kerala, whose traditions were notably documented by <a href="/wiki/Frits_Staal" title="Frits Staal">Frits Staal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Staal-206">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hindu_synthesis_and_Classical_Hinduism_(c._200_BCE_–_1200_CE)">Hindu synthesis and Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 1200 CE)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Hindu synthesis and Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 1200 CE)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Hinduism_(c._200_BCE_–_320_CE)">Early Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Early Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Buddhism and Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hindu_synthesis">Hindu synthesis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Hindu synthesis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deity_Krishna-Vasudeva_on_a_coin_of_Agathocles_of_Bactria_190-180_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Deity_Krishna-Vasudeva_on_a_coin_of_Agathocles_of_Bactria_190-180_BCE.jpg/170px-Deity_Krishna-Vasudeva_on_a_coin_of_Agathocles_of_Bactria_190-180_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Deity_Krishna-Vasudeva_on_a_coin_of_Agathocles_of_Bactria_190-180_BCE.jpg/255px-Deity_Krishna-Vasudeva_on_a_coin_of_Agathocles_of_Bactria_190-180_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Deity_Krishna-Vasudeva_on_a_coin_of_Agathocles_of_Bactria_190-180_BCE.jpg/340px-Deity_Krishna-Vasudeva_on_a_coin_of_Agathocles_of_Bactria_190-180_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81sudeva" title="Vāsudeva">Vāsudeva</a>-<a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a> on a coin of <a href="/wiki/Agathocles_of_Bactria" title="Agathocles of Bactria">Agathocles of Bactria</a>, circa 190–180 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH3lUIIYxWkECpgPA437_436–438]-207">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[144]</a> This is "the earliest unambiguous image" of the deity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESrinivasan1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvZheP9dIX9wCpgPA215_215]-209">[145]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heliodorus_pillar_inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Heliodorus_pillar_inscription.jpg/170px-Heliodorus_pillar_inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Heliodorus_pillar_inscription.jpg/255px-Heliodorus_pillar_inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Heliodorus_pillar_inscription.jpg/340px-Heliodorus_pillar_inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="473" data-file-height="860" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Heliodorus_pillar" title="Heliodorus pillar">Heliodorus pillar</a>, commissioned by Indo-Greek ambassador <a href="/wiki/Heliodorus_(votive_erector)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliodorus (votive erector)">Heliodorus</a> around 113 BCE, is the first known inscription related to <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> in the Indian subcontinent.<a href="#cite_note-210">[146]</a> Heliodurus was one of the earliest recorded foreign converts to <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRoW9GuFJ9GICpgPA73_73]-211">[147]</a></figcaption></figure> The decline of Brahmanism was overcome by providing new services<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20152-212">[148]</a> and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to contemporary <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20169–10-203">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[web 6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-147">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2007-214">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-132">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeesterman20059552–9553-187">[129]</a> Between 500<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a>–200<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009-18">[13]</a> BCE and <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300 CE the "Hindu synthesis" developed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009-18">[13]</a> which incorporated <a href="/wiki/Sramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sramana">Sramanic</a> and Buddhist influences<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009-18">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECousins2010-41">[29]</a> and the emerging <a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a> tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the smriti literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200713-42">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009-18">[13]</a> This synthesis emerged under the pressure of the success of Buddhism and Jainism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200121-43">[31]</a> According to Embree, several other religious traditions had existed side by side with the Vedic religion. These indigenous religions "eventually found a place under the broad mantle of the Vedic religion".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmbree1988277-215">[150]</a> When Brahmanism was declining<a href="#cite_note-Michaels_decline-199">[note 26]</a> and had to compete with Buddhism and Jainism,<a href="#cite_note-216">[note 29]</a> the popular religions had the opportunity to assert themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmbree1988277-215">[150]</a> According to Embree, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[T]he Brahmanists themselves seem to have encouraged this development to some extent as a means of meeting the challenge of the heterodox movements. At the same time, among the indigenous religions, a common allegiance to the authority of the Vedas provided a thin, but nonetheless significant, thread of unity amid their variety of gods and religious practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmbree1988277-215">[150]</a></blockquote> This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to the supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmins could provide,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20152-212">[148]</a> and resulted in a resurgence of Brahmanical influence, dominating Indian society since the classical Age of Hinduism in the early centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20169–10-203">[139]</a> It is reflected in the process of <a href="/wiki/Sanskritization" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritization">Sanskritization</a>, a process in which "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms".<a href="#cite_note-EBHinbduism6-60">[web 2]</a> It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.<a href="#cite_note-EBHinbduism6-60">[web 2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Smriti">Smriti</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Smriti">edit</a>]</div> The Brahmins response of assimilation and consolidation is reflected in the smriti literature which took shape in this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009185-217">[151]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Smriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Smriti">smriti</a> texts of the period between 200 BCE and 100 CE proclaim the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, and acceptance of the Vedas became a central criterion for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200714-218">[152]</a> Most of the basic ideas and practices of classical Hinduism derive from the new smriti literature.<a href="#cite_note-219">[note 30]</a> Of the six Hindu darsanas, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta "are rooted primarily in the Vedic sruti tradition and are sometimes called smarta schools in the sense that they develop smarta orthodox current of thoughts that are based, like smriti, directly on sruti".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002-220">[153]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verify</a>] According to Hiltebeitel, "the consolidation of Hinduism takes place under the sign of bhakti".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002-220">[153]</a> It is the Bhagavadgita that seals this achievement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002-220">[153]</a> The result is a "universal achievement" that may be called <a href="/wiki/Smarta_Tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Smarta Tradition">smarta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002-220">[153]</a> It views Shiva and Vishnu as "complementary in their functions but ontologically identical".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002-220">[153]</a> The major Sanskrit epics, <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>, which belong to the smriti, were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-221">[web 7]</a> They contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">devas and devis</a>, their interactions with humans and their battles against <a href="/wiki/Rakshasa" title="Rakshasa">rakshasa</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a> "seals the achievement"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200720-222">[154]</a> of the "consolidation of Hinduism",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200720-222">[154]</a> integrating Brahmanic and sramanic ideas with theistic devotion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200720-222">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheepers2000-223">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaju1992211-224">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-EB-BG-225">[web 8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Schools_of_Hindu_philosophy">Schools of Hindu philosophy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Schools of Hindu philosophy">edit</a>]</div> In early centuries CE several schools of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a> were formally codified, including <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Purva-Mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Purva-Mimamsa">Purva-Mimamsa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Radhaxviii-xxi-226">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sangam_literature">Sangam literature</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sangam literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism_in_Ancient_Tamilakam" title="Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam">Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a> (300 BCE – 400 CE), written in the <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a>, is a mostly secular body of classical literature in the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil language</a>. Nonetheless, there are some works, significantly <a href="/wiki/Pattupp%C4%81%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADu" class="mw-redirect" title="Pattuppāṭṭu">Pattuppāṭṭu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parip%C4%81%E1%B9%ADal" title="Paripāṭal">Paripāṭal</a>, wherein the personal devotion to God was written in the form of devotional poems. <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a> were mentioned gods. These works are therefore the earliest evidence of monotheistic <a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a> traditions, preceding the large <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">bhakti movement</a>, which was given great attention in later times. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_trade_with_Africa">Indian trade with Africa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Indian trade with Africa">edit</a>]</div> During the time of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, trade took place between India and east Africa, and there is archaeological evidence of small Indian presence in Zanzibar, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, and the coastal parts of Kenya along with the Swahili coast,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan200810–12-227">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-whi-228">[159]</a> but no conversion to Hinduism took place.<a href="#cite_note-whi-228">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hindu_Colony_in_the_Middle_East_(The_Levant)">Hindu Colony in the Middle East (The Levant)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Hindu Colony in the Middle East (The Levant)">edit</a>]</div> Armenian historian <a href="/wiki/Zenob_Glak" title="Zenob Glak">Zenob Glak</a> (300–350 CE) said "there was an Indian colony in the canton of Taron on the upper <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, to the west of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Van" title="Lake Van">Lake Van</a>, as early as the second century B.C. The Indians had built there two temples containing images of gods about 18 and 22 feet high."<a href="#cite_note-Majumdar_1968-230">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Golden_Age"_of_India_(Gupta_and_Pallava_period)_(c._320–650_CE)">"Golden Age" of India (Gupta and Pallava period) (c. 320–650 CE)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: "Golden Age" of India (Gupta and Pallava period) (c. 320–650 CE)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deogarh01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Deogarh01.jpg/220px-Deogarh01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Deogarh01.jpg/330px-Deogarh01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Deogarh01.jpg/440px-Deogarh01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dashavatara_Temple,_Deogarh" title="Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh">Dashavatara Temple</a> is a Vishnu Hindu temple build during the Gupta period.</figcaption></figure> During this period, power was centralised, along with a growth of near distance trade, standardization of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200440-231">[162]</a> Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura2004687-232">[163]</a> who were Vaishnavas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003325-233">[164]</a> The position of the Brahmans was reinforced,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200440-231">[162]</a> the first Hindu temples dedicated to the gods of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Hindu deities</a>, emerged during the late Gupta age.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200440-231">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[note 31]</a> During the Gupta reign the first <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a> were written,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200119-47">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Puranas-date-48">[note 6]</a> which were used to disseminate "mainstream religious ideology amongst pre-literate and tribal groups undergoing acculturation".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200119-47">[35]</a> The Guptas patronised the newly emerging Puranic religion, seeking legitimacy for their dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003325-233">[164]</a> The resulting Puranic Hinduism, differed markedly from the earlier Brahmanism of the Dharmasastras and the smritis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200119-47">[35]</a> According to P. S. Sharma, "the Gupta and Harsha periods form really, from the strictly intellectual standpoint, the most brilliant epocha in the development of Indian philosophy", as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies flourished side by side.<a href="#cite_note-235">[165]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a>, the atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a> before the 8th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya201165-236">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gupta_and_Pallava_Empires">Gupta and Pallava Empires</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Gupta and Pallava Empires">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Gupta_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Gupta period">Gupta period</a> (4th to 6th centuries) saw a flowering of scholarship, the codification of the classical schools of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>, and of classical <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Sanskrit literature</a> in general on topics ranging from medicine, veterinary science, mathematics, to astrology and astronomy and astrophysics. The famous <a href="/wiki/Aryabhata" title="Aryabhata">Aryabhata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Var%C4%81hamihira" title="Varāhamihira">Varāhamihira</a> belong to this age. The Gupta established a strong central government which also allowed a degree of local control. Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Brahmanical beliefs. This included a strict caste system, or class system. The peace and prosperity created under Gupta leadership enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors. The <a href="/wiki/Pallava" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallava">Pallavas</a> (4th to 9th centuries) were, alongside the <a href="/wiki/Gupta" title="Gupta">Guptas</a> of the <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North</a>, patronisers of Sanskrit in the <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a>. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in <a href="/wiki/Mahabalipuram" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahabalipuram">Mahabalipuram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanchipuram" title="Kanchipuram">Kanchipuram</a> and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets, who are as famous as <a href="/wiki/Kalidasa" title="Kalidasa">Kalidasa</a>. During early Pallavas period, there are different connections to <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asian</a> and other countries. Due to it, in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, Hinduism became the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a> in many kingdoms of Asia, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a>—from Afghanistan (<a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>) in the West and including almost all of Southeast Asia in the East (<a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>)—and only by the 15th century was near everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECœdès1968-237">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPande2006-238">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-spread-239">[169]</a> The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic <a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">temple architecture</a> and sculpture (see <a href="/wiki/Vastu_shastra" title="Vastu shastra">Vastu shastra</a>). <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Shore_temple,_mahabalipuram.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Hindu Shore Temple (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) at Mamallapuram built by Narasimhavarman II"><img alt="The Hindu Shore Temple (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) at Mamallapuram built by Narasimhavarman II" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg/80px-Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg/120px-Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg/160px-Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Hindu <a href="/wiki/Shore_Temple" title="Shore Temple">Shore Temple</a> (a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Mamallapuram" title="Mamallapuram">Mamallapuram</a> built by <a href="/wiki/Narasimhavarman_II" title="Narasimhavarman II">Narasimhavarman II</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Deogarh,_Dasavatara-Tempel_Vishnu_(1999)_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Maha Vishnu sleeping, protected by Shesha, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh. Sculpted by Gupta Empire around 400 CE."><img alt="Maha Vishnu sleeping, protected by Shesha, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh. Sculpted by Gupta Empire around 400 CE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Deogarh%2C_Dasavatara-Tempel_Vishnu_%281999%29_%28cropped%29.JPG/92px-Deogarh%2C_Dasavatara-Tempel_Vishnu_%281999%29_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Deogarh%2C_Dasavatara-Tempel_Vishnu_%281999%29_%28cropped%29.JPG/138px-Deogarh%2C_Dasavatara-Tempel_Vishnu_%281999%29_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Deogarh%2C_Dasavatara-Tempel_Vishnu_%281999%29_%28cropped%29.JPG/183px-Deogarh%2C_Dasavatara-Tempel_Vishnu_%281999%29_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1840" data-file-height="2406" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Maha_Vishnu" class="mw-redirect" title="Maha Vishnu">Maha Vishnu</a> sleeping, protected by <a href="/wiki/Shesha" title="Shesha">Shesha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dashavatara_Temple,_Deogarh" title="Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh">Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh</a>. Sculpted by <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> around 400 CE.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bhakti">Bhakti</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Bhakti">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism_in_Ancient_Tamilakam" title="Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam">Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a></div> This period saw the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a>. The Bhakti movement was a rapid growth of bhakti beginning in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> in Southern India with the <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaisnava</a> Alvars (3rd to 9th centuries CE)<a href="#cite_note-240">[170]</a> and Saiva <a href="/wiki/Nayanars" title="Nayanars">Nayanars</a> (4th to 10th centuries CE)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmbree1988342-241">[171]</a> who spread bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India by the 12th to 18th centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996131-242">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmbree1988342-241">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Expansion_in_South-East_Asia">Expansion in South-East Asia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Expansion in South-East Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Hinduism in Southeast Asia">Hinduism in Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation" title="Sanskritisation">Sanskritisation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Expansion of Hinduism in Southeast Asia"><img alt="Expansion of Hinduism in Southeast Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia.svg/200px-Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia.svg/300px-Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia.svg/400px-Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="382" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Expansion of Hinduism in Southeast Asia</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Angkor_Wat_W-Seite.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Angkor Wat in Cambodia is the largest Hindu monument in the world. It is one of hundreds of ancient Hindu temples in Southeast Asia."><img alt="Angkor Wat in Cambodia is the largest Hindu monument in the world. It is one of hundreds of ancient Hindu temples in Southeast Asia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Angkor_Wat_W-Seite.jpg/200px-Angkor_Wat_W-Seite.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Angkor_Wat_W-Seite.jpg/300px-Angkor_Wat_W-Seite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Angkor_Wat_W-Seite.jpg/400px-Angkor_Wat_W-Seite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="627" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Angkor_Wat" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> is the largest Hindu monument in the world. It is one of hundreds of ancient Hindu temples in Southeast Asia.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pura Besakih, the holiest temple of Hindu religion in Bali"><img alt="Pura Besakih, the holiest temple of Hindu religion in Bali" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg/200px-Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg/300px-Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg/400px-Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3840" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pura Besakih, the holiest temple of Hindu religion in <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a></div> </li> </ul> Hindu influences reached the <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Indonesia" title="List of islands of Indonesia">Indonesian Archipelago</a> as early as the first century.<a href="#cite_note-jgonda-244">[174]</a> At this time, India started to strongly influence <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asian</a> countries. Trade routes linked India with southern <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a>, central and southern <a href="/wiki/Siam" class="mw-redirect" title="Siam">Siam</a>, lower <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> and numerous urbanised coastal settlements were established there. For more than a thousand years, Indian Hindu/Buddhist influence was, therefore, the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli">Pali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> languages and the Indian script, together with <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Brahmanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic Brahmanism">Brahmanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, were transmitted from direct contact as well as through sacred texts and Indian literature, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> epics. From the 5th to the 13th century, South-East Asia had very powerful Indian colonial empires and became extremely active in Hindu and Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The <a href="/wiki/Sri_Vijaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Vijaya">Sri Vijaya</a> Empire to the south and the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer Empire</a> to the north competed for influence. <a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a> (-langkha <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> for "resplendent land" -sukkha of "bliss") was an ancient <a href="/wiki/Hindu_king" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu king">Hindu kingdom</a> located in the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a>. The kingdom, along with Old <a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> settlement, are probably the earliest territorial footholds founded on the Malay Peninsula. According to tradition, the founding of the kingdom happened in the 2nd century; <a href="/wiki/Malay_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay people">Malay</a> legends claim that Langkasuka was founded at <a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a>, and later moved to <a href="/wiki/Pattani_province" title="Pattani province">Pattani</a>. From the 5th to 15th centuries <a href="/wiki/Sri_Vijaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Vijaya">Sri Vijayan</a> empire, a maritime empire centred on the island of <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a line of rulers named the <a href="/wiki/Sailendra" class="mw-redirect" title="Sailendra">Sailendras</a>. The Empire of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Vijaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Vijaya">Sri Vijaya</a> declined due to conflicts with the <a href="/wiki/Chola" class="mw-redirect" title="Chola">Chola</a> rulers of India. The <a href="/wiki/Majapahit_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Majapahit Empire">Majapahit Empire</a> succeeded the <a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a> empire. It was one of the last and greatest Hindu empires in <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">maritime Southeast Asia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Funan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Funan">Funan</a> was a pre-<a href="/wiki/Angkor" title="Angkor">Angkor</a> <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodian</a> kingdom, located around the <a href="/wiki/Mekong" title="Mekong">Mekong</a> delta, probably established by <a href="/wiki/Mon-Khmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mon-Khmer">Mon-Khmer</a> settlers speaking an <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Austroasiatic">Austroasiatic</a> language. According to reports by two Chinese envoys, K'ang T'ai and Chu Ying, the state was established by an Indian <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a> named <a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a>, who in the 1st century CE was given instruction in a dream to take a magic bow from a temple and defeat a Khmer queen, Soma. Soma, the daughter of the king of the <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81ga" title="Nāga">Nagas</a>, married Kaundinya and their lineage became the royal dynasty of Funan. The myth had the advantage of providing the legitimacy of both an Indian Brahmin and the divinity of the cobras, who at that time were held in religious regard by the inhabitants of the region. The kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a> (or Lin-yi in Chinese records) controlled what is now south and central <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> from approximately 192 through 1697. The dominant religion of the <a href="/wiki/Cham_(Asia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cham (Asia)">Cham people</a> was <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and the culture was heavily influenced by India. Later, from the 9th to the 13th century, the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer Empire</a> dominated much of the South-East Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. <a href="/wiki/Angkor" title="Angkor">Angkor</a> was at the centre of this development, with a temple complex and urban organisation able to support around one million urban dwellers. The largest temple complex of the world, Angkor Wat, stands here; built by the king Vishnuvardhan. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late-Classical_Hinduism_–_Puranic_Hinduism_and_decline_of_Buddhism_(c._650–1200_CE)">Late-Classical Hinduism – Puranic Hinduism and decline of Buddhism (c. 650–1200 CE)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Late-Classical Hinduism – Puranic Hinduism and decline of Buddhism (c. 650–1200 CE)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Early_medieval_period_(mid_6th_–_c._1200)" title="History of India">Early medieaval period in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Teli_ka_Mandir_(15702266503).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg/170px-Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg/255px-Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg/340px-Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>One of the four entrances of the <a href="/wiki/Teli_ka_Mandir" title="Teli ka Mandir">Teli ka Mandir</a>. This Hindu temple was built by the <a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara">Gurjara-Pratihara</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Mihira_Bhoja" title="Mihira Bhoja">Mihira Bhoja</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bajpai2006-245">[175]</a></figcaption></figure> After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200441-246">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[note 32]</a> The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200441-246">[176]</a> as reflected in the <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantric</a> <a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a>, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite200025–28-248">[177]</a> The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442-249">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[note 33]</a> Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442-249">[178]</a> was diminished.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442-249">[178]</a> Rural and devotional movements arose, along with <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaisnavism" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaisnavism">Vaisnavism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442-249">[178]</a> though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442-249">[178]</a> Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442-249">[178]</a> Buddhism <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">lost its position</a> after the 8th century, due to the loss of financial support from royal donors and the lack of appeal among the rural masses, and began to disappear in India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442-249">[178]</a> This was reflected in the change of puja-ceremonies at the courts in the 8th century, where Hindu gods replaced the Buddha as the "supreme, imperial deity".<a href="#cite_note-inden_1998-251">[note 34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Puranic_Hinduism">Puranic Hinduism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Puranic Hinduism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Krishna_and_the_Gopis_(herdsmaids).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Krishna_and_the_Gopis_%28herdsmaids%29.jpg/170px-Krishna_and_the_Gopis_%28herdsmaids%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Krishna_and_the_Gopis_%28herdsmaids%29.jpg/255px-Krishna_and_the_Gopis_%28herdsmaids%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Krishna_and_the_Gopis_%28herdsmaids%29.jpg/340px-Krishna_and_the_Gopis_%28herdsmaids%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="928" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The mythology in the Puranas has inspired many <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">reliefs</a> and sculptures found in <a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Hindu temples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-252">[179]</a> The legend behind the Krishna and Gopis relief above is described in the Bhagavata Purana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryant2007111–119-253">[180]</a></figcaption></figure> The Brahmanism of the <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a> and the smritis underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of Puranic Hinduism,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200119-47">[35]</a> "which like a colossus striding across the religious firmanent soon came to overshadow all existing religions".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200120-254">[181]</a> Puranic Hinduism was a "multiplex belief-system which grew and expanded as it absorbed and synthesised polaristic ideas and cultic traditions".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200120-254">[181]</a> It was distinguished from its Vedic Smarta roots by its popular base, its theological and sectarian pluralism, its Tantric veneer, and the central place of bhakti.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200120-254">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-Michaels-legacy-49">[note 7]</a> The early mediaeval <a href="/wiki/Purana" class="mw-redirect" title="Purana">Puranas</a> were composed to disseminate religious mainstream ideology among the pre-literate <a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">tribal societies</a> undergoing <a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">acculturation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200119-47">[35]</a> With the breakdown of the Gupta empire, gifts of virgin waste-land were heaped on brahmanas,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath2001-59">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003325,_487-255">[182]</a> to ensure profitable agrarian exploitation of land owned by the kings,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath2001-59">[40]</a> but also to provide status to the new ruling classes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath2001-59">[40]</a> Brahmanas spread further over India, interacting with local clans with different religions and ideologies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath2001-59">[40]</a> The Brahmanas used the Puranas to incorporate those clans into the agrarian society and its accompanying religion and ideology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath2001-59">[40]</a> According to Flood, "[t]he Brahmans who followed the puranic religion became known as <a href="/wiki/Smarta_Tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Smarta Tradition">smarta</a>, those whose worship was based on the smriti, or <a href="/wiki/Katha_(storytelling_format)" title="Katha (storytelling format)">pauranika</a>, those based on the Puranas."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996113-256">[183]</a> Local chiefs and peasants were absorbed into the <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varna</a>, which was used to keep "control over the new kshatriyas and shudras."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003487-257">[184]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila,_Kabul,_7-8th_century_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila%2C_Kabul%2C_7-8th_century_CE.jpg/170px-Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila%2C_Kabul%2C_7-8th_century_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila%2C_Kabul%2C_7-8th_century_CE.jpg/255px-Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila%2C_Kabul%2C_7-8th_century_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila%2C_Kabul%2C_7-8th_century_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="283" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gardez_Ganesha" title="Gardez Ganesha">Gardez Ganesha</a>, a statue of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu deity">Hindu deity</a> <a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a>, consecrated in the mid-8th century CE, during the <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Turk Shahi">Turk Shahi</a> era, in <a href="/wiki/Gardez" title="Gardez">Gardez</a>, Afghanistan<a href="#cite_note-258">[185]</a></figcaption></figure> The Brahmanic group was enlarged by incorporating local subgroups, such as local priests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath2001-59">[40]</a> This also lead to stratification within the Brahmins, with some Brahmins having a lower status than other Brahmins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath2001-59">[40]</a> The use of caste worked better with the new Puranic Hinduism than with the Sramanic sects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003487-257">[184]</a> The Puranic texts provided extensive genealogies which gave status to the new kshatriyas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003487-257">[184]</a> Buddhist myths pictured government as a contract between an elected ruler and the people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003487-257">[184]</a> And the Buddhist chakkavatti<a href="#cite_note-259">[note 35]</a> "was a distinct concept from the models of conquest held up to the kshatriyas and the Rajputs".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003487-257">[184]</a> Many local religions and traditions were assimilated into puranic Hinduism. Vishnu and Shiva emerged as the main deities, together with Sakti/Deva.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200131-260">[186]</a> Vishnu subsumed the cults of <a href="/wiki/Narayana" title="Narayana">Narayana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jagannath" title="Jagannath">Jagannaths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venkateswara" title="Venkateswara">Venkateswara</a> "and many others".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200131-260">[186]</a> Nath: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[S]ome incarnations of Vishnu such as Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and perhaps even Nrsimha helped to incorporate certain popular totem symbols and creation myths, especially those related to wild boar, which commonly permeate preliterate mythology, others such as Krsna and Balarama became instrumental in assimilating local cults and myths centering around two popular pastoral and agricultural gods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200131–32-261">[187]</a></blockquote> The transformation of Brahmanism into Pauranic Hinduism in post-<a href="/wiki/Gupta_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Gupta period">Gupta</a> India was due to a process of <a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">acculturation</a>. The Puranas helped establish a religious mainstream among the pre-literate tribal societies undergoing acculturation. The tenets of Brahmanism and of the <a href="/wiki/Dharmashastras" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmashastras">Dharmashastras</a> underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of a mainstream "Hinduism" that overshadowed all earlier traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath2001-59">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bhakti_movement">Bhakti movement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Bhakti movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tulsidas" title="Tulsidas">Tulsidas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kabir" title="Kabir">Kabir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mirabai" title="Mirabai">Mirabai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_Mahaprabhu" title="Chaitanya Mahaprabhu">Chaitanya Mahaprabhu</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nammazhwar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nammazhwar.jpg/200px-Nammazhwar.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nammazhwar.jpg/300px-Nammazhwar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nammazhwar.jpg/400px-Nammazhwar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="442" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavite Saint</a> <a href="/wiki/Nammalvar" title="Nammalvar">Nammalvar</a>. He is one of the most prominent of the 12 <a href="/wiki/Alvars" title="Alvars">Alvars</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a> <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a>.</figcaption></figure> Rama and Krishna became the focus of a strong bhakti tradition, which found expression particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a>. The Krishna tradition subsumed numerous Naga, yaksa and hill and tree-based cults.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200132-262">[188]</a> Shiva absorbed local cults by the suffixing of Isa or <a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Isvara</a> to the name of the local deity, for example, Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, and Chandesvara.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200131-260">[186]</a> In 8th-century royal circles, the Buddha started to be replaced by Hindu gods in pujas.<a href="#cite_note-inden_1998-251">[note 34]</a> This also was the same period of time the Buddha was made into an avatar of Vishnu.<a href="#cite_note-263">[189]</a> The first documented Bhakti movement was founded by the first three <a href="/wiki/Alvars" title="Alvars">Vaishnavite Alvars</a>. Traditionally, the Alvars are considered to have lived between 4200 BCE and 2700 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-264">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[191]</a> while some texts account for range between 4200 BCE and early 5th century. Traditional dates take them to the age of <a href="/wiki/Shuka" title="Shuka">Shuka</a> from the period of the <a href="/wiki/Mahabaratha" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahabaratha">Mahabharata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a>, the first four (<a href="/wiki/Poigai_Alvar" title="Poigai Alvar">Poigai</a> Alvar, <a href="/wiki/Bhoothath_Alvar" title="Bhoothath Alvar">Bhoothath Alvar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pey_Alvar" title="Pey Alvar">Peyalvar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thirumalisai_Alvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirumalisai Alvar">Tirumalisai</a> Alvar) are from the <a href="/wiki/Dvapara_Yuga" title="Dvapara Yuga">Dvapara Yuga</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Nammalvar" title="Nammalvar">Nammalvar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhurakavi_Alvar" title="Madhurakavi Alvar">Madhurakavi Alvar</a> and others belong to the <a href="/wiki/Kali_Yuga" title="Kali Yuga">Kali Yuga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-266">[192]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shuka" title="Shuka">Shuka</a> is dated minimum around 200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Buitenen20136:_"ca._200_BC_is_a_likely_date".-267">[193]</a> Hence the first three Alvars are also considered minimum 200 BCE. The twelve Alvars who were <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavite</a> devotees and the sixty-three <a href="/wiki/Nayanars" title="Nayanars">Nayanars</a> who were Shaivite devotees nurtured the incipient Bhakti movement in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>. During the 12th century CE in Karnataka, the Bhakti movement took the form of the <a href="/wiki/Virashaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Virashaiva">Virashaiva</a> movement. It was inspired by <a href="/wiki/Basavanna" class="mw-redirect" title="Basavanna">Basavanna</a>, a Hindu reformer who created the sect of <a href="/wiki/Lingayats" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingayats">Lingayats</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> bhaktas. During this time, a unique and native form of <a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a> literature-poetry called <a href="/wiki/Vachanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Vachanas">Vachanas</a> was born. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Advaita_Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Advaita Vedanta">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg/170px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg/255px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg/340px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5146" data-file-height="7262" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> is credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-268">[194]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ateshgah_temple_inscription.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Ateshgah_temple_inscription.png/170px-Ateshgah_temple_inscription.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Ateshgah_temple_inscription.png/255px-Ateshgah_temple_inscription.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Ateshgah_temple_inscription.png/340px-Ateshgah_temple_inscription.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>An inscribed invocation to <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> in Sanskrit at the <a href="/wiki/Ateshgah_of_Baku" title="Ateshgah of Baku">Ateshgah of Baku</a>, west of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></figcaption></figure> The early Advaitin <a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a> (6th–7th c. CE) was influenced by Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200060–64-269">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaju1992177–178-270">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenard2010157-271">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComans200035–36-272">[198]</a> Gaudapda took over the Buddhist doctrines that <a href="/wiki/Yogachara#Representation-only" title="Yogachara">ultimate reality is pure consciousness (vijñapti-mātra)</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaju1992177-273">[199]</a> and "that the nature of the world is the four-cornered negation".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaju1992177-273">[199]</a> Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya Upanishad</a>, which was further developed by Shankara".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaju1992177–178-270">[196]</a> Gaudapada also took over the Buddhist concept of "<a href="/wiki/Aj%C4%81tiv%C4%81da" title="Ajātivāda">ajāta</a>" from <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenard2010157-271">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComans200035–36-272">[198]</a> Gaudapada seems to have ignored the Brahma-sutras, and it was Shankara who succeeded in reading Gaudapada's mayavada, a polemic term used by opponents,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200064-274">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-mayavada-279">[note 36]</a> into Badarayana's Brahma Sutras, "and give it a locus classicus",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200064-274">[200]</a> against the realistic strain of the Brahma Sutras.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200064-274">[200]</a> Shankara (8th century CE) was a scholar who synthesized and systematized <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a> views which already existed at his lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura2004678-280">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1962vi-281">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComans2000163-282">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[web 13]</a> Shankara propounded a unified reality, in which the innermost self of a person (atman) and the supernatural power of the entire world (brahman) are one and the same. Perceiving the changing multiplicity of forms and objects as the final reality is regarded as <a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">maya</a>, "illusion", obscuring the unchanging ultimate reality of brahman.<a href="#cite_note-284">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[207]</a> While Shankara has an unparalleled status in the history of Advaita Vedanta, Shankara's early influence in India is doubtful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHacker199529–30-288">[208]</a> Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson2010157;_229_note_57-289">[209]</a> and until the 10th century Shankara himself was overshadowed by his older contemporary <a href="/wiki/Ma%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dana_Mi%C5%9Bra" title="Maṇḍana Miśra">Maṇḍana Miśra</a>, who was considered to be the major representative of Advaita.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2002128-290">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoodurmum200233–34-291">[211]</a> Several scholars suggest that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta grew only centuries later, during the era of the Muslim invasions and consequent devastation of India,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHacker199529–30-288">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake_Michael199260–62_with_notes_6,_7_and_8-292">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson2010178–183-293">[213]</a> due to the efforts of <a href="/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a> (14th c.), who created legends to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his digvijaya ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHacker199529-294">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund1998177-295">[215]</a> Shankara's position was further established in the 19th and 20th centuries, when neo-Vedantins and western Orientalists elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2001129-296">[216]</a> Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1999-195">[135]</a> Shankara became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture", despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2001129–130-297">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contact_with_Persia_and_Mesopotamia">Contact with Persia and Mesopotamia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Contact with Persia and Mesopotamia">edit</a>]</div> Hindu and also <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> religious and secular learning had first reached <a href="/wiki/Greater_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Persia">Persia</a> in an organised manner in the 6th century, when the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid">Sassanid</a> Emperor <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> (531–579) deputed <a href="/wiki/Burzoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Burzoe">Borzuya the physician</a> as his envoy, to invite Indian and Chinese scholars to the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gondishapur" title="Academy of Gondishapur">Academy of Gondishapur</a>. Burzoe had translated the Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Panchatantra</a>. His Pahlavi version was translated into Arabic by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Muqaffa%27" title="Ibn al-Muqaffa'">Ibn al-Muqaffa'</a> under the title of <a href="/wiki/Kalila_and_Dimna" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalila and Dimna">Kalila and Dimna</a> or The Fables of Bidpai.<a href="#cite_note-298">[218]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> caliphate, <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> had replaced <a href="/wiki/Gundeshapur" title="Gundeshapur">Gundeshapur</a> as the most important centre of learning in the then vast <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Islamic Empire</a>, wherein the traditions, as well as scholars of the latter, flourished. Hindu scholars were invited to the conferences on sciences and mathematics held in Baghdad.<a href="#cite_note-299">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_and_early_modern_periods_(c._1200–1850_CE)">Medieval and early modern periods (c. 1200–1850 CE)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Medieval and early modern periods (c. 1200–1850 CE)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muslim_period">Muslim period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Muslim period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_India" title="Islam in India">Islam in India</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-right"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Benares-_The_Golden_Temple,_India,_ca._1915_(IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kashi Vishwanath Temple was destroyed by the army of Delhi Sultan Qutb ud-Din Aibak.[220]"><img alt="The Kashi Vishwanath Temple was destroyed by the army of Delhi Sultan Qutb ud-Din Aibak.[220]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg/150px-Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg/226px-Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg/301px-Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="3829" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Kashi_Vishwanath_Temple" title="Kashi Vishwanath Temple">Kashi Vishwanath Temple</a> was destroyed by the army of Delhi Sultan <a href="/wiki/Qutb_ud-Din_Aibak" title="Qutb ud-Din Aibak">Qutb ud-Din Aibak</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton2000-300">[220]</a></div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> The Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent took place between the 13th and the 18th centuries. The <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_of_Ghor" title="Muhammad of Ghor">Muhammad of Ghor</a> laid the foundation of Muslim rule in India in 1192,<a href="#cite_note-301">[221]</a> expanding up to <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> by 1202. The Ghurid Empire soon evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> in 1206, transitioning to the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Delhi)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)">Mamluk dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sen2-302">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[223]</a> During this historical period, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> experienced a decline,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaborieau1985-304">[224]</a> and there were instances of religious tensions and conflicts in the Indian subcontinent. Some records indicate incidents of raids, property seizures, and the enslavement of some Hindu families.<a href="#cite_note-richardeaton-305">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWink199114–16,_172–174,_etc-306">[226]</a> Additionally, there were accounts suggesting that some Hindus may have converted to Islam, possibly under various circumstances, including to secure their freedom.<a href="#cite_note-307">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-phardy-308">[228]</a> In between the periods of wars and conquests, there were periods of cooperation and <a href="/wiki/Din-i_Ilahi" title="Din-i Ilahi">syncretism</a>. There were harmonious Hindu-Muslim relations in most Indian communities.<a href="#cite_note-Gier2014_p9-309">[229]</a> No populations were expelled based on their religion by either the Muslim or <a href="/wiki/Hindu_king" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu king">Hindu kings</a>, nor were attempts made to annihilate a specific religion.<a href="#cite_note-Gier2014_p9-309">[229]</a> In the 16th century, the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> was established. Under the Mughals, India experienced a period of relative stability and prosperity.<a href="#cite_note-310">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-311">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[232]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mughal_dynasty" title="Mughal dynasty">Mughals</a> were generally known for their religious tolerance,<a href="#cite_note-313">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-314">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-a1-315">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[236]</a> and they actively patronized the arts and literature. There were instances of religious <a href="/wiki/Mughal%E2%80%93Rajput_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal–Rajput Wars">conflicts between the Mughals and the Rajput</a> over control of territories. <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a> in particular was noted for his policies of religious intolerance towards non-Muslims and destruction of temples.<a href="#cite_note-317">[web 14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyalon1986271-318">[237]</a> The impact and consequences of the Muslim conquest of South Asia remain subjects of scrutiny and diverse viewpoints. <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a> characterizes the Muslim conquest of India as a particularly tumultuous chapter in history. He suggests that it was marked by significant violence and upheaval, which he attributes in part to factors such as internal divisions, the influence of religions like Buddhism and Jainism. <a href="/wiki/Alain_Dani%C3%A9lou" title="Alain Daniélou">Alain Daniélou</a> criticized the Muslim rulers, claiming that the violence was often justified in the name of religious <a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">holy wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BasuMiroshnik2017-319">[238]</a> Other, like <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnold" title="Thomas Walker Arnold">Sir Thomas Arnold</a> and <a href="/wiki/De_Lacy_O%27Leary" title="De Lacy O'Leary">De Lacy O'Leary</a>, criticized the view that Islam was spread by force and sword as 'absurd.'<a href="#cite_note-Munir-320">[239]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Ira_M._Lapidus" title="Ira M. Lapidus">Ira Lapidus</a>, while instances of forced conversion in Muslim regions did occur, they were relatively infrequent. Muslim conquerors generally sought to exert control rather than enforce conversion, with the majority of conversions to Islam being voluntary in nature.<a href="#cite_note-321">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-Munir-320">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bhakti_Vedanta">Bhakti Vedanta</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Bhakti Vedanta">edit</a>]</div> Teachers such as <a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhva</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_Mahaprabhu" title="Chaitanya Mahaprabhu">Chaitanya</a> aligned the Bhakti movement with the textual tradition of Vedanta, which until the 11th century was only a peripheral school of thought,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson2010157;_229_note_57-289">[209]</a> while rejecting and opposing the abstract notions of Advaita. Instead, they promoted emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible <a href="/wiki/Avatar" title="Avatar">Avatars</a>, especially Krishna and Rama.<a href="#cite_note-{{ISBN|0-19-563921-9}}-322">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-JordensISBN_0-19-563921-9-323">[242]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unifying_Hinduism">Unifying Hinduism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Unifying Hinduism">edit</a>]</div> According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century, "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson20102-326">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-327">[note 37]</a> Michaels notes that a historicization emerged which preceded later nationalism, articulating ideas which glorified Hinduism and the past.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200444-328">[246]</a> Several scholars suggest that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was intentionally established during this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHacker199529–30-288">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake_Michael199260–62_with_notes_6,_7_and_8-292">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson2010178–183-293">[213]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a> (14th c.), also known as Madhava and a follower of Shankara, created legends to turn Shankara, whose elevated philosophy had no appeal to gain widespread popularity, into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his digvijaya ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHacker199529-294">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund1998177-295">[215]</a> In his Savadarsanasamgraha ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all darsanas, presenting the other darsanas as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHacker199529-294">[214]</a> Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,<a href="#cite_note-talbot-329">[247]</a> and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHacker199529–30-288">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Ganga_and_Surya_States">Eastern Ganga and Surya States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Eastern Ganga and Surya States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:248px;max-width:248px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:184px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Konark_sun_temple_06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Konark_sun_temple_06.jpg/246px-Konark_sun_temple_06.jpg" decoding="async" width="246" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Konark_sun_temple_06.jpg/369px-Konark_sun_temple_06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Konark_sun_temple_06.jpg/492px-Konark_sun_temple_06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Konark_Sun_Temple" title="Konark Sun Temple">Konark Sun Temple</a> at <a href="/wiki/Konark" title="Konark">Konark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odisha,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Odisha, India">Odisha</a>, built by <a href="/wiki/Narasimhadeva_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Narasimhadeva I">Narasimhadeva I</a> (1238–1264 CE) of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ganga_dynasty" title="Eastern Ganga dynasty">Eastern Ganga dynasty</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:184px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE,_PURI,_ORISSA,_INDIA,_ASIA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg/138px-PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg/207px-PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg/276px-PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Jagannath_Temple,_Puri" title="Jagannath Temple, Puri">Jagannath Temple, Puri</a> built by <a href="/wiki/Anantavarman_Chodaganga_Deva" class="mw-redirect" title="Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva">Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva</a></div></div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ganga_dynasty" title="Eastern Ganga dynasty">Eastern Ganga</a> and Surya were Hindu polities, which ruled much of present-day <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a> (historically known as <a href="/wiki/Kalinga_(historical_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalinga (historical region)">Kalinga</a>) from the 11th century until the mid-16th century CE. During the 13th and 14th centuries, when large parts of India were under the rule of Muslim powers, an independent Kalinga became a stronghold of Hindu religion, philosophy, art, and architecture. The Eastern Ganga rulers were great patrons of religion and the arts, and the temples they built are considered among the masterpieces of Hindu architecture.<a href="#cite_note-330">[web 15]</a><a href="#cite_note-331">[web 16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Modern_period_(c._1500–1850_CE)">Early Modern period (c. 1500–1850 CE)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Early Modern period (c. 1500–1850 CE)">edit</a>]</div> The fall of <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a> to Muslim rulers had marked the end of Hindu imperial defences in the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a>. But, taking advantage of an over-stretched <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> (1526–1857), Hinduism once again rose to political prestige, under the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a>, from 1674 to 1818. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vijayanagara_Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Vijayanagara Empire">edit</a>]</div> The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by <a href="/wiki/Harihara_I" title="Harihara I">Harihara I</a> and his brother <a href="/wiki/Bukka_Raya_I" title="Bukka Raya I">Bukka Raya I</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sangama_dynasty" title="Sangama dynasty">Sangama dynasty</a>,<a href="#cite_note-332">[248]</a> which originated as a political heir of the <a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya Empire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton200628–29-333">[249]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pandyan_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyan Empire">Pandyan Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-334">[250]</a> The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off <a href="/wiki/Islamic_invasions_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic invasions of India">Islamic invasions</a> by the end of the 13th century. According to one narrative, the empire's founders <a href="/wiki/Harihara_I" title="Harihara I">Harihara I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukka_Raya_I" title="Bukka Raya I">Bukka Raya I</a> were two brothers in the service of the <a href="/wiki/Kampili_kingdom" title="Kampili kingdom">Kampili chief</a>. After Kampili fell to the Muslim invasion, they were taken to Delhi and converted to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. They were sent back to Kampili as the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultan</a>'s vassals. After gaining power in the region, they approached <a href="/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a>, who converted them back to the Hindu faith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake_Michael1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwclA8r5f_LcCpgPA26_26]-335">[251]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_the_Virupaksha_temple_gopura_from_Hemakuta_hill_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/View_of_the_Virupaksha_temple_gopura_from_Hemakuta_hill_2.JPG/220px-View_of_the_Virupaksha_temple_gopura_from_Hemakuta_hill_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/View_of_the_Virupaksha_temple_gopura_from_Hemakuta_hill_2.JPG/330px-View_of_the_Virupaksha_temple_gopura_from_Hemakuta_hill_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/View_of_the_Virupaksha_temple_gopura_from_Hemakuta_hill_2.JPG/440px-View_of_the_Virupaksha_temple_gopura_from_Hemakuta_hill_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Virupaksha_Temple,_Hampi" title="Virupaksha Temple, Hampi">Virupaksha Temple</a> is dedicated to Lord Virupaksha, a form of <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Stone_Chariot,Hampi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg/220px-The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg/330px-The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg/440px-The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Stone <a href="/wiki/Temple_car" title="Temple car">temple car</a> in the Vitthala Temple at Hampi</figcaption></figure> The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.<a href="#cite_note-democracy-336">[252]</a> The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins") and Hindurayasuratrana (lit. "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress.<a href="#cite_note-337">[253]</a> The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout <a href="/wiki/Shaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva">Shaivas</a> (worshippers of <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a>), but made grants to the <a href="/wiki/Vaishnava" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaishnava">Vaishnava</a> order of <a href="/wiki/Sringeri" title="Sringeri">Sringeri</a> with <a href="/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a> as their patron saint, and designated <a href="/wiki/Varaha" title="Varaha">Varaha</a> (the boar, an <a href="/wiki/Avatar" title="Avatar">avatar</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a>) as their <a href="/wiki/Emblem" title="Emblem">emblem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath2001177-338">[254]</a> Over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found an "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter". Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later <a href="/wiki/Saluva" class="mw-redirect" title="Saluva">Saluva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuluva" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuluva">Tuluva</a> kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as <a href="/wiki/Venkateswara" title="Venkateswara">Venkateswara</a> (Vishnu) at <a href="/wiki/Tirumala_Venkateswara_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirumala Venkateswara Temple">Tirupati</a>. A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya, called Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzMichell200114-339">[255]</a> The kings patronised the saints of the <a href="/wiki/Dvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvaita">dvaita</a> order (philosophy of dualism) of <a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a> at <a href="/wiki/Udupi" title="Udupi">Udupi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath2001177–178-340">[256]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a> (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known <a href="/wiki/Haridasa" title="Haridasa">Haridasas</a> (devotee saints) of that time. Like the <a href="/wiki/Virashaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Virashaiva">Virashaiva</a> movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The haridasas represented two groups, the <a href="/wiki/Vyasakuta" title="Vyasakuta">Vyasakuta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dasakuta" title="Dasakuta">Dasakuta</a>, the former being required to be proficient in the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Darshana_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Darshana (Hinduism)">Darshanas</a>, while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs (Devaranamas and Kirthanas). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as <a href="/wiki/Naraharitirtha" class="mw-redirect" title="Naraharitirtha">Naraharitirtha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jayatirtha" title="Jayatirtha">Jayatirtha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sripadaraya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sripadaraya">Sripadaraya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vyasatirtha" title="Vyasatirtha">Vyasatirtha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vadirajatirtha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vadirajatirtha">Vadirajatirtha</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-yathi_trayaru-341">[257]</a> Vyasatirtha, the guru (teacher) of Vadirajatirtha, <a href="/wiki/Purandaradasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Purandaradasa">Purandaradasa</a> (Father of Carnatic music<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIyer200693-342">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-father-343">[note 38]</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Kanakadasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanakadasa">Kanakadasa</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShiva_Prakash1997196-344">[259]</a> earned the devotion of King Krishnadevaraya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShiva_Prakash1997195-345">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath2001178-346">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENilakanta_Sastri1955324-347">[262]</a> The king considered the saint his Kuladevata (family deity) and honoured him in his writings.<a href="#cite_note-348">[web 17]</a> During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, <a href="/wiki/Annamacharya" title="Annamacharya">Annamacharya</a> composed hundreds of Kirthanas in <a href="/wiki/Telugu_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Telugu Language">Telugu</a> at Tirumala – Tirupati, in present-day <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath2001185-349">[263]</a> The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Krishnadevaraya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Krishnadevaraya">Sri Krishnadevaraya</a> when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.<a href="#cite_note-350">[264]</a> Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya. Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talikota" title="Battle of Talikota">Battle of Talikota</a> (1565). After the death of <a href="/wiki/Aliya_Rama_Raya" class="mw-redirect" title="Aliya Rama Raya">Aliya Rama Raya</a> in the Battle of Talikota, <a href="/wiki/Tirumala_Deva_Raya" title="Tirumala Deva Raya">Tirumala Deva Raya</a> started the <a href="/wiki/Aravidu_dynasty" title="Aravidu dynasty">Aravidu dynasty</a>, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChatterjeeEaton2006100–101-351">[265]</a> Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur Sultanate and others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath2001174-352">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-353">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChatterjeeEaton2006101–115-354">[268]</a> During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Mysore Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keladi_Nayaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Keladi Nayaka">Keladi Nayaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madurai_Nayak_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Madurai Nayak Dynasty">Nayaks of Madurai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur_Nayaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanjavur Nayaks">Nayaks of Tanjore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Chitradurga" title="Nayakas of Chitradurga">Nayakas of Chitradurga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nayaks_of_Gingee" title="Nayaks of Gingee">Nayak Kingdom of Gingee</a> – all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath2001220,_226,_234-355">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Renovations_of_temples_by_the_Vijayanagara_Empire">Renovations of temples by the Vijayanagara Empire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Renovations of temples by the Vijayanagara Empire">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Srirangam-Rajagopuram-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Aerial image of a temple campus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Srirangam-Rajagopuram-1.jpg/220px-Srirangam-Rajagopuram-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Srirangam-Rajagopuram-1.jpg/330px-Srirangam-Rajagopuram-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Srirangam-Rajagopuram-1.jpg/440px-Srirangam-Rajagopuram-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2105" data-file-height="2481" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam" title="Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam">Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Srirangam" title="Srirangam">Srirangam</a>. The temple complex has been nominated as a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Sites_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>.<a href="#cite_note-unescosrirang-356">[270]</a></figcaption></figure> The Vijayanagara Empire renovated many ancient temples of Ancient Tamilakam, they made significant contributions to temples like <a href="/wiki/Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam" title="Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam">Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Perumal temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meenakshi_Temple" title="Meenakshi Temple">Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kallalagar_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Kallalagar temple">Kallalagar temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajagopalaswamy_Temple,_Mannargudi" title="Rajagopalaswamy Temple, Mannargudi">Rajagopalaswamy Temple, Mannargudi</a> and many more. <a href="/wiki/Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam" title="Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam">Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Perumal temple</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a> site saw over 200 years of stability, repairs, first round of fortifications, and addition of mandapas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichell199573–74-357">[271]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Maha_Vishnu" class="mw-redirect" title="Maha Vishnu">Maha Vishnu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Mahalakshmi</a> images were reinstalled and the site became a Hindu temple again in 1371 CE under Kumara Kampana, a Vijayanagara commander and the son of <a href="/wiki/Bukka_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukka I">Bukka I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichell199576–77-358">[272]</a> In the last decade of the 14th century, a pillared antechamber was gifted by the Vijayanagara rulers. In the 15th century, they coated the apsidal roofs with solid gold sheets, followed by financing the addition of a series of new shrines, mandapas and gopuras to the temple.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichell199576–77-358">[272]</a>The Nayakas fortified the temple town and the seven prakaras. Now this temple is the largest temple compound in India and one of the largest religious complexes in the world.<a href="#cite_note-unescosrirang-356">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMittalThursby2005456-359">[273]</a> Some of these structures have been renovated, expanded and rebuilt over the centuries as a living temple. Srirangam temple is often listed as one of the largest functioning <a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Hindu temple</a> in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVater201040-360">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones20044-361">[275]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mughal_period">Mughal period</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Mughal period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaturbhuj_Temple,_Orchha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg/142px-Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg/213px-Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg/284px-Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Chaturbhuj_Temple_(Orchha)" title="Chaturbhuj Temple (Orchha)">Chaturbhuj Temple</a>, dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Lakshmi_Temple,_Orchha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Lakshmi_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg/142px-Lakshmi_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Lakshmi_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg/213px-Lakshmi_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Lakshmi_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg/284px-Lakshmi_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Lakshmi Temple, dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">Chaturbhuj and Lakshmi temples, located in <a href="/wiki/Orchha" title="Orchha">Orchha</a>, were built by Hindu Rajput <a href="/wiki/Orchha_State" title="Orchha State">Orchha State</a>, who were vassal of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>.</div></div></div></div> The official state religion of <a href="/wiki/Mughal_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal India">Mughal India</a> was <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, with the preference to the <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a> <a href="/wiki/Madh%27hab" class="mw-redirect" title="Madh'hab">Madhhab</a> (Mazhab). Hinduism remained under strain during Babur and Humanyun's reigns. <a href="/wiki/Sher_Shah_Suri" title="Sher Shah Suri">Sher Shah Suri</a>, the Afghan ruler of North India was comparatively non-repressive. Hinduism came to fore during the three-year rule of Hindu ruler <a href="/wiki/Hemu_Vikramaditya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemu Vikramaditya">Hemu Vikramaditya</a> during 1553–1556 when he had defeated Akbar at Agra and Delhi and had taken up the reign from Delhi as a Hindu 'Vikramaditya' after his 'Rajyabhishake' or <a href="/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">coronation</a> at <a href="/wiki/Purana_Quila" class="mw-redirect" title="Purana Quila">Purana Quila</a> in Delhi. However, during Mughal history, at times, subjects had the freedom to practise any religion of their choice, though <a href="/wiki/Kafir" title="Kafir">kafir</a> able-bodied adult males with income were obliged to pay the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a>, which signified their status as <a href="/wiki/Dhimmis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhimmis">dhimmis</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jesuits_at_Akbar%27s_court.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Jesuits_at_Akbar%27s_court.jpg/170px-Jesuits_at_Akbar%27s_court.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Jesuits_at_Akbar%27s_court.jpg/255px-Jesuits_at_Akbar%27s_court.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Jesuits_at_Akbar%27s_court.jpg/340px-Jesuits_at_Akbar%27s_court.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2275" data-file-height="4123" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Akbar_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Akbar the Great">Akbar the Great</a> holds a religious assembly of different faiths, including Hindus, in the <a href="/wiki/Ibadat_Khana" title="Ibadat Khana">Ibadat Khana</a> in Fatehpur Sikri.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a>, the Mughal emperor <a href="/wiki/Humayun" title="Humayun">Humayun</a>'s son and heir from his <a href="/wiki/Sindhis" title="Sindhis">Sindhi</a> queen Hameeda Banu Begum, had a broad vision of Indian and Islamic traditions. One of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a>'s most unusual ideas regarding religion was <a href="/wiki/Din-i-Ilahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Din-i-Ilahi">Din-i-Ilahi</a> (Faith of God), which was an eclectic mix of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>, Hinduism, <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. It was proclaimed the state religion until his death. These actions, however, met with stiff opposition from the Muslim clergy, especially the <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> Shaykh Alf Sani <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Ahmad Sirhindi</a>. Akbar's abolition of poll-tax on non-Muslims, acceptance of ideas from other religious philosophies, toleration of public worship by all religions and his interest in other faiths showed an attitude of considerable religious tolerance, which, in the minds of his orthodox Muslim opponents, were tantamount to <a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">apostasy</a>. Akbar's imperial expansion acquired many Hindu states, many of whom were Hindu <a href="/wiki/Rajput" title="Rajput">Rajputs</a>, through vassalage. The Rajput vassals maintained semi-autonomy in running religious affairs. Many Hindu Rajput vassals built monumental Hindu temples during the period, such as <a href="/wiki/Chaturbhuj_Temple_(Orchha)" title="Chaturbhuj Temple (Orchha)">Chaturbhuj Temple</a> and Lakshmi Temple at <a href="/wiki/Orchha" title="Orchha">Orchha</a>, by the Mughal vassal, the Hindu Rajput <a href="/wiki/Orchha_State" title="Orchha State">Orchha State</a>.<a href="#cite_note-busch29-362">[276]</a> Akbar's son, <a href="/wiki/Jahangir" title="Jahangir">Jahangir</a>, half Rajput, was also a religious moderate, his mother being Hindu. The influence of his two Hindu queens (the Maharani Maanbai and Maharani Jagat) kept religious moderation as a centre-piece of state policy which was extended under his son, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a>, who was by blood 75% <a href="/wiki/Rajput" title="Rajput">Rajput</a> and less than 25% <a href="/wiki/Mughal_people" title="Mughal people">Moghul</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/Somnath_temple_in_ruins,_1869" title="Somnath temple in ruins, 1869"><img alt="Somnath temple in ruins, 1869" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg/142px-Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg/213px-Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg/284px-Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="852" data-file-height="640" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Somnath temple in ruins, 1869</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/Front_view_of_the_present_Somnath_Temple" title="Front view of the present Somnath Temple"><img alt="Front view of the present Somnath Temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somnath-current.jpg/142px-Somnath-current.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somnath-current.jpg/213px-Somnath-current.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somnath-current.jpg/284px-Somnath-current.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="534" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Front view of the present Somnath Temple</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Somnath_temple" title="Somnath temple">Somnath temple</a> was first attacked by Muslim Turkic invader <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud of Ghazni</a> and repeatedly rebuilt after being demolished by successive Muslim rulers, including the Mughals under <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a>.</div></div></div></div> Religious orthodoxy would only play an important role during the reign of Shah Jahan's son and successor, <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a>, a devout Sunni Muslim. Aurangzeb was comparatively less tolerant of other faiths than his predecessors had been; and has been subject to controversy and criticism for his policies that abandoned his predecessors' legacy of pluralism, citing his introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> tax, doubling of custom duties on Hindus while abolishing it for Muslims, destruction of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Hindu temples</a>, forbidding construction and repairs of some non-Muslim temples, and the executions of <a href="/wiki/Maratha_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha people">Maratha</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Sambhaji" title="Sambhaji">Sambhaji</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehta200547-363">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-SBBhattacherje2009-364">[278]</a> and the ninth <a href="/wiki/Sikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh">Sikh</a> guru, <a href="/wiki/Guru_Tegh_Bahadur" title="Guru Tegh Bahadur">Guru Tegh Bahadur</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyalon1986271-318">[237]</a> and his reign saw an increase in the number and importance of Islamic institutions and scholars. He led many military campaigns against the remaining non-Muslim powers of the Indian subcontinent – the <a href="/wiki/Sikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh">Sikh</a> states of Punjab, the last independent Hindu <a href="/wiki/Rajputs" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajputs">Rajputs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Maratha" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha">Maratha</a> rebels – as also against the Shia Muslim kingdoms of the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a>. He also virtually stamped out, from his empire, open proselytisation of Hindus and Muslims by foreign Christian <a href="/wiki/Missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Missionaries">missionaries</a>, who remained successfully active, however, in the adjoining regions (i.e regions outside of his dominion) namely: present day <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a>. The Hindus in Konkan were helped by Marathas, Hindus in Punjab, Kashmir and North India were helped by Sikhs and Hindus in Rajasthan and Central India were helped by Rajputs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maratha_Empire">Maratha Empire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Maratha Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> Marathas had resisted incursions into the region by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> rulers of northern India. Under their ambitious leader <a href="/wiki/Shivaji" title="Shivaji">Chhatrapati Shivaji</a> Maharaj, the Maratha freed themselves from the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> sultans of <a href="/wiki/Bijapur_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bijapur Sultanate">Bijapur</a> to the southeast and, becoming much more aggressive, began to frequently raid Mughal territory. The Marathas had spread and conquered much of central India by Shivaji's death in 1680. Subsequently, under the able leadership of <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a> prime ministers (<a href="/wiki/Peshwas" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshwas">Peshwas</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a> reached its zenith; <a href="/wiki/Pune" title="Pune">Pune</a>, the seat of Peshwas, flowered as a centre of Hindu learning and traditions. The empire at its peak stretched from <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehta2005204-365">[279]</a> in the south, to <a href="/wiki/Peshawar" title="Peshawar">Peshawar</a>, present day <a href="/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Khyber Pakhtunkhwa</a><a href="#cite_note-XWiACEwPR8C_p.16-366">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-368">[note 39]</a> in the north, and <a href="/wiki/Maratha_expeditions_in_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha expeditions in Bengal">Bengal</a> in the east.<a href="#cite_note-369">[web 18]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:India1760_1905.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The last Hindu empire of India, the Maratha Empire, in 1760 CE"><img alt="The last Hindu empire of India, the Maratha Empire, in 1760 CE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/India1760_1905.jpg/155px-India1760_1905.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/India1760_1905.jpg/233px-India1760_1905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/India1760_1905.jpg/311px-India1760_1905.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1154" data-file-height="1485" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The last <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> empire of India, the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a>, in 1760 CE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ahilya_Ghat_by_the_Ganges,_Varanasi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ahilya Ghat, part of the Ghats in Varanasi, many of which were built by the Marathas[282]"><img alt="Ahilya Ghat, part of the Ghats in Varanasi, many of which were built by the Marathas[282]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ahilya_Ghat_by_the_Ganges%2C_Varanasi.jpg/200px-Ahilya_Ghat_by_the_Ganges%2C_Varanasi.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ahilya_Ghat_by_the_Ganges%2C_Varanasi.jpg/300px-Ahilya_Ghat_by_the_Ganges%2C_Varanasi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ahilya_Ghat_by_the_Ganges%2C_Varanasi.jpg/400px-Ahilya_Ghat_by_the_Ganges%2C_Varanasi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ahilya Ghat, part of the <a href="/wiki/Ghats_in_Varanasi" title="Ghats in Varanasi">Ghats in Varanasi</a>, many of which were built by the Marathas<a href="#cite_note-370">[282]</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kingdom_of_Nepal">Kingdom of Nepal</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Kingdom of Nepal">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Kingdom of Nepal</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Nepal" title="Hinduism in Nepal">Hinduism in Nepal</a></div> King <a href="/wiki/Prithvi_Narayan_Shah" title="Prithvi Narayan Shah">Prithvi Narayan Shah</a>, the last <a href="/wiki/Gorkha_Kingdom" title="Gorkha Kingdom">Gorkhali</a> monarch, self-proclaimed the newly unified <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Kingdom of Nepal</a> as Asal Hindustan ("Real Land of Hindus") due to North India being ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal rulers</a>. The proclamation was done to enforce Hindu social code <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a> over his reign and refer to his country as being inhabitable for <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a>. He also referred Northern India as Mughlan (Country of <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a>) and called the region infiltrated by Muslim foreigners.<a href="#cite_note-371">[283]</a> After the Gorkhali conquest of <a href="/wiki/Kathmandu_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Kathmandu valley">Kathmandu valley</a>, King <a href="/wiki/Prithvi_Narayan_Shah" title="Prithvi Narayan Shah">Prithvi Narayan Shah</a> expelled the <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> Capuchin missionaries from <a href="/wiki/Patan,_Nepal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patan, Nepal">Patan</a> and revisioned Nepal as Asal <a href="/wiki/Hindustan" title="Hindustan">Hindustan</a> ("real land of <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a>").<a href="#cite_note-HarkaG-372">[284]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> <a href="/wiki/Tagadhari" title="Tagadhari">Tagadharis</a>, a Nepalese Hindu socio-religious group, were given the privileged status in the Nepalese capital thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-373">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-374">[286]</a> Since then Hinduisation became the significant policy of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Kingdom of Nepal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HarkaG-372">[284]</a> Professor <a href="/wiki/Harka_Gurung" title="Harka Gurung">Harka Gurung</a> speculates that the presence of Islamic <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal rule</a> and Christian <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British rule in India</a> had compelled the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Brahminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahminism">Brahmin Orthodoxy</a> in Nepal for the purpose building a haven for Hindus in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Kingdom of Nepal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HarkaG-372">[284]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_colonialism">Early colonialism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Early colonialism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_India" title="Christianity in India">Christianity in India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_procession_of_the_Inquisition_in_Goa_entering_th_Wellcome_V0041645.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_procession_of_the_Inquisition_in_Goa_entering_th_Wellcome_V0041645.jpg/220px-The_procession_of_the_Inquisition_in_Goa_entering_th_Wellcome_V0041645.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_procession_of_the_Inquisition_in_Goa_entering_th_Wellcome_V0041645.jpg/330px-The_procession_of_the_Inquisition_in_Goa_entering_th_Wellcome_V0041645.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_procession_of_the_Inquisition_in_Goa_entering_th_Wellcome_V0041645.jpg/440px-The_procession_of_the_Inquisition_in_Goa_entering_th_Wellcome_V0041645.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2760" data-file-height="2277" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Auto-da-f%C3%A9" title="Auto-da-fé">Auto-da-fé</a> procession of the Inquisition at Goa.<a href="#cite_note-375">[287]</a> An annual event to publicly humiliate and punish the heretics, it shows the Chief Inquisitor, Dominican friars, Portuguese soldiers, as well as religious criminals condemned to be burnt in the procession.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a> was the office of the Christian <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> acting in the Indian city of <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a> and the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese empire">Portuguese empire</a> in Asia. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a>, in a 1545 letter to <a href="/wiki/John_III_of_Portugal" title="John III of Portugal">John III</a>, requested for an <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> to be installed in Goa. It was installed eight years after the death of Francis Xavier in 1552. Established in 1560 and operating until 1774, this highly controversial institution was aimed primarily at <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindus</a> and wayward new converts.<a href="#cite_note-376">[288]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a> would see the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British</a> as a political power; their rule later expanded to cover much of India over the next hundred years, conquering all of the Hindu states on the Indian subcontinent,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaravane201438-377">[289]</a> with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Kingdom of Nepal</a>. While the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a> remained the preeminent power in India, making it the last remaining Hindu empire,<a href="#cite_note-378">[290]</a> until their defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Third Anglo-Maratha War">Third Anglo-Maratha War</a> which left the East India Company in control of most of India; as noted by acting Governor-General Charles Metcalfe, after surveying and analyzing the conditions in India, in 1806 wrote: "India contains no more than two great powers, British and Mahratta."<a href="#cite_note-379">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-380">[292]</a> During this period, Northeastern India was divided into many kingdoms, most notable being the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Manipur" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Manipur">Kingdom of Manipur</a>, which ruled from their seat of power at <a href="/wiki/Kangla_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Kangla Palace">Kangla Palace</a> and developed a sophisticated Hindu <a href="/wiki/Gaudiya_Vaishnavism" title="Gaudiya Vaishnavism">Gaudiya Vaishnavism</a> culture, later the kingdom became a <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">princely state</a> of the British.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200483–84-381">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReginald_Massey2004177-382">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERagini_Devi1990175–180-383">[295]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</a> was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Fourth Anglo-Mysore War">Fourth Anglo-Mysore War</a> by the British East India Company, leading to the reinstatement of the Hindu <a href="/wiki/Wadiyar_dynasty" title="Wadiyar dynasty">Wadiyar dynasty</a> in Mysore as a princely states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaravane2014178–181-384">[296]</a> In 1817, the British went to war with the <a href="/wiki/Pindari" title="Pindari">Pindaris</a>, raiders who were based in Maratha territory, which quickly became the <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Third Anglo-Maratha War">Third Anglo-Maratha War</a>, and the British government offered its protection to the mainly Hindu Rajput rulers of <a href="/wiki/Rajputana" title="Rajputana">Rajputana</a> from the Pindaris and the Marathas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack200678-385">[297]</a> The mainly Hindu <a href="/wiki/Palaiyakkarar" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaiyakkarar">Palaiyakkarar</a> states emerged from the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a>, and were a bastion of Hindu resistance; and managed to weather invasions and survive till the advent of the British.<a href="#cite_note-386">[web 19]</a> From 1799 to 1849, the <a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh Empire</a>, ruled by members of the <a href="/wiki/Sikh_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh religion">Sikh religion</a>, emerged as the last major indigenous power in the Northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Maharaja" title="Maharaja">Maharaja</a> <a href="/wiki/Ranjit_Singh" title="Ranjit Singh">Ranjit Singh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-387">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grewal-388">[299]</a> After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, alienating Hindu vassals and Wazirs, and leading to the conflict with the British East India Company, marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it the last area of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The entire subcontinent fell under <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British rule</a> (partly <a href="/wiki/Indirect_rule" title="Indirect rule">indirectly</a>, via <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_Princely_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Indian Princely States">princely states</a>) following the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_Hinduism_(after_c._1850_CE)">Modern Hinduism (after c. 1850 CE)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Modern Hinduism (after c. 1850 CE)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Swami_Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Swami_Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg/220px-Swami_Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Swami_Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg/330px-Swami_Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Swami_Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg/440px-Swami_Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="933" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Swami Vivekananda</a> was a key figure in introducing <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>,<a href="#cite_note-389">[300]</a> raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarke2006209-390">[301]</a></figcaption></figure> With the onset of the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>, the colonization of India by the British, there also started a <a href="/wiki/Bengali_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali Renaissance">Hindu Renaissance</a> in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2002-391">[302]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indology" title="Indology">Indology</a> as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Woodroffe" title="John Woodroffe">John Woodroffe</a>. They brought <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puranic" class="mw-redirect" title="Puranic">Puranic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantric</a> literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. Western <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">orientalist</a> searched for the "essence" of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2002118-392">[303]</a> and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism" as a unified body of religious praxis<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1999-195">[135]</a> and the popular picture of 'mystical India'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1999-195">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2002-391">[302]</a> This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by <a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Hindu reform movements</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Brahmo_Samaj" title="Brahmo Samaj">Brahmo Samaj</a>, which was supported for a while by the <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarian Church</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006114-393">[304]</a> together with the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Universalism_in_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Universalism in religion">Universalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a>, the idea that all religions share a common <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystic</a> ground.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2002119–120-394">[305]</a> This "<a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Hindu modernism</a>", with proponents like <a href="/wiki/Vivekananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aurobindo" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rabindranath" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabindranath">Rabindranath</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radhakrishnan" class="mw-redirect" title="Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a>, became central in the popular understanding of Hinduism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2002123-395">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuesse20113–4-396">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoniger201018-397">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJouhki200610–11-398">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1999-195">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hindu_revivalism">Hindu revivalism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Hindu revivalism">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_Hinduism" title="Special:EditPage/History of Hinduism">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2019) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hindu_revivalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu revivalism">Hindu revivalism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bengali_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali Renaissance">Bengali Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brahmo_Samaj" title="Brahmo Samaj">Brahmo Samaj</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arya_Samaj" title="Arya Samaj">Arya Samaj</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ramakrishna_Math" title="Ramakrishna Math">Ramakrishna Math</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg/220px-Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg/330px-Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg/440px-Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1534" data-file-height="1241" /></a><figcaption>1909 Prevailing Religions, map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the prevailing majority religions of the population for different districts</figcaption></figure> During the 19th century, Hinduism developed a large number of <a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">new religious movements</a>, partly inspired by the European <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Esotericism" class="mw-redirect" title="Esotericism">esotericism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Theosophy_(Blavatskian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theosophy (Blavatskian)">Theosophy</a>) popular at the time (while conversely and contemporaneously, India had a similar effect on European culture with <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Hindoo_style" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindoo style">Hindoo style</a>" architecture, reception of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a> and similar). According to Paul Hacker, "the ethical values of Neo-Hinduism stem from Western philosophy and Christianity, although they are expressed in Hindu terms".<a href="#cite_note-399">[310]</a> These reform movements are summarised under <a href="/wiki/Hindu_revivalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu revivalism">Hindu revivalism</a> and continue into the present. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan" title="Swaminarayan">Swaminarayan</a> establishes the <a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan Sampradaya</a> sect around 1800.<a href="#cite_note-400">[311]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmo_Samaj" title="Brahmo Samaj">Brahmo Samaj</a> is a social and religious movement founded in <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a> in 1828 by <a href="/wiki/Ram_Mohan_Roy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ram Mohan Roy">Raja Ram Mohan Roy</a>. He was one of the first Indians to visit Europe and was influenced by western thought. He died in <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>, England. The Brahmo Samaj movement thereafter resulted in the Brahmo religion in 1850 founded by <a href="/wiki/Debendranath_Tagore" title="Debendranath Tagore">Debendranath Tagore</a> — better known as the father of <a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-401">[312]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramakrishna" title="Ramakrishna">Ramakrishna</a> and his pupil <a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Swami Vivekananda</a> led reform in Hinduism in the late 19th century. Their ideals and sayings have inspired numerous Indians as well as non-Indians, Hindus as well as non-Hindus.<a href="#cite_note-402">[313]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arya_Samaj" title="Arya Samaj">Arya Samaj</a> ("Society of <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Nobles</a>") is a <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> <a href="/wiki/Reform_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform movement">reform movement</a> in India that was founded by <a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Swami Dayananda</a> in 1875. He was a <a href="/wiki/Sannyasin" class="mw-redirect" title="Sannyasin">sannyasin</a> (renouncer) who believed in the <a href="/wiki/Infallible" class="mw-redirect" title="Infallible">infallible</a> <a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">authority</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>. Dayananda advocated the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a>, and emphasised the ideals of <a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">brahmacharya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">chastity</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sanyasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanyasa">sanyasa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">renunciation</a>). <a href="/wiki/Dayananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Dayananda">Dayananda</a> claimed to be rejecting all non-Vedic beliefs altogether. Hence the Arya Samaj unequivocally condemned <a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">idolatry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">animal sacrifices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestor worship">ancestor worship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">pilgrimages</a>, priestcraft, offerings made in <a href="/wiki/Temple" title="Temple">temples</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a> system, <a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">untouchability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">child marriages</a>, on the grounds that all these lacked Vedic sanction. It aimed to be a universal church based on the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>. Dayananda stated that he wanted 'to make the whole world Aryan', i.e. he wanted to develop <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionary</a> Hinduism based on the universality of the Vedas. To this end, the Arya Samaj started <a href="/wiki/Shuddhi_(Hinduism)" title="Shuddhi (Hinduism)">Shuddhi</a> movement in the early 20th century to bring back to <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> people converted to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, set up schools and missionary organisations, and extended its activities outside India.<a href="#cite_note-403">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-404">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-405">[316]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reception_in_the_West">Reception in the West</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Reception in the West">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_the_West" title="Hinduism in the West">Hinduism in the West</a></div> An important development during the British colonial period was the influence Hindu traditions began to form on <a href="/wiki/West" title="West">Western</a> thought and <a href="/wiki/New_religious_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="New religious movements">new religious movements</a>. An early champion of Indian-inspired thought in the West was <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> who in the 1850s advocated ethics based on an "Aryan-Vedic theme of spiritual self-conquest", as opposed to the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism of the superficially this-worldly "Jewish" spirit.<a href="#cite_note-406">[317]</a> <a href="/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky" title="Helena Blavatsky">Helena Blavatsky</a> moved to India in 1879, and her <a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society_Adyar" title="Theosophical Society Adyar">Theosophical Society</a>, founded in New York in 1875, evolved into a peculiar mixture of Western occultism and Hindu mysticism over the last years of her life. The sojourn of <a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Swami Vivekananda</a> to the <a href="/wiki/World_Parliament_of_Religions" class="mw-redirect" title="World Parliament of Religions">World Parliament of Religions</a> in Chicago in 1893 had a lasting effect. Vivekananda founded the <a href="/wiki/Ramakrishna_Mission" title="Ramakrishna Mission">Ramakrishna Mission</a>, a Hindu missionary organisation still active today. In the early 20th century, Western occultists influenced by Hinduism include <a href="/wiki/Maximiani_Portaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximiani Portaz">Maximiani Portaz</a> – an advocate of "Aryan Paganism" – who styled herself Savitri Devi and <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Wilhelm_Hauer" title="Jakob Wilhelm Hauer">Jakob Wilhelm Hauer</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/German_Faith_Movement" title="German Faith Movement">German Faith Movement</a>. It was in this period, and until the 1920s, that the <a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastika</a> became a <a href="/wiki/Western_use_of_the_swastika_in_the_early_20th_century" title="Western use of the swastika in the early 20th century">ubiquitous symbol of good luck in the West</a> before its association with the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> became dominant in the 1930s. Hinduism-inspired elements in <a href="/wiki/Theosophy_(Blavatskian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theosophy (Blavatskian)">Theosophy</a> were also inherited by the spin-off movements of <a href="/wiki/Ariosophy" title="Ariosophy">Ariosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> and ultimately contributed to the renewed <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> boom of the 1960s to 1980s, the term New Age itself deriving from Blavatsky's 1888 <a href="/wiki/The_Secret_Doctrine" title="The Secret Doctrine">The Secret Doctrine</a>. Influential 20th-century Hindus were <a href="/wiki/Ramana_Maharshi" title="Ramana Maharshi">Ramana Maharshi</a>, <a href="/wiki/B._K._S._Iyengar" title="B. K. S. Iyengar">B. K. S. Iyengar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paramahansa_Yogananda" title="Paramahansa Yogananda">Paramahansa Yogananda</a>, <a href="/wiki/A._C._Bhaktivedanta_Swami_Prabhupada" title="A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada">Prabhupada</a> (founder of <a href="/wiki/ISKCON" class="mw-redirect" title="ISKCON">ISKCON</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sri_Chinmoy" title="Sri Chinmoy">Sri Chinmoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swami_Rama" title="Swami Rama">Swami Rama</a> and others who translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, raising the profiles of Yoga and <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> in the West and attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_Hinduism">Contemporary Hinduism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Contemporary Hinduism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Hindu reform movements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Hindu denominations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Contemporary Sant Mat movements</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_organisations" title="List of Hindu organisations">List of Hindu organisations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_by_country" title="Hinduism by country">Hinduism by country</a></div> Hinduism is followed by around 1.1 billion people in India.<a href="#cite_note-407">[web 20]</a> Other <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_by_country" title="Hinduism by country">significant populations</a> are found in Nepal (21.5 million), Bangladesh (13.1 million), and the <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Indonesia" title="Hinduism in Indonesia">Indonesian</a> island of <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a> (3.9 million).<a href="#cite_note-408">[web 21]</a> The majority of the Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/Cham_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cham people">Cham people</a> also follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion in <a href="/wiki/Ninh_Thu%E1%BA%ADn_province" title="Ninh Thuận province">Ninh Thuận province</a>.<a href="#cite_note-409">[web 22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-Hindu_movements_in_the_West">Neo-Hindu movements in the West</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Neo-Hindu movements in the West">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_the_West" title="Hinduism in the West">Hinduism in the West</a></div> In modern times Smarta-views have been highly influential in both the Indian<a href="#cite_note-iskon-smarta-410">[web 23]</a> and western<a href="#cite_note-hinduism-guide.com-Hinduism-411">[web 24]</a> understanding of Hinduism via <a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a>. Vivekananda was an advocate of Smarta-views,<a href="#cite_note-hinduism-guide.com-Hinduism-411">[web 24]</a> and Radhakrishnan was himself a Smarta-Brahman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFort1998179-412">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinor19873-413">[319]</a> According to iskcon.org, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by adhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers.<a href="#cite_note-iskon-smarta-410">[web 23]</a></blockquote> Influential in spreading Hinduism to a western audience were <a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Swami Vivekananda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paramahansa_Yogananda" title="Paramahansa Yogananda">Paramahansa Yogananda</a>, <a href="/wiki/A._C._Bhaktivedanta_Swami_Prabhupada" title="A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada">A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hare_Krishna_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Hare Krishna movement">Hare Krishna movement</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meher_Baba" title="Meher Baba">Meher Baba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maharishi_Mahesh_Yogi" title="Maharishi Mahesh Yogi">Maharishi Mahesh Yogi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a>), <a href="/wiki/Jiddu_Krishnamurti" title="Jiddu Krishnamurti">Jiddu Krishnamurti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sathya_Sai_Baba" title="Sathya Sai Baba">Sathya Sai Baba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mother_Meera" title="Mother Meera">Mother Meera</a>, among others. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hindutva">Hindutva</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Hindutva">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></div> In the 20th century, Hinduism also gained prominence as a political force and a source for national identity in India. With origins traced back to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Mahasabha" title="Hindu Mahasabha">Hindu Mahasabha</a> in the 1910s, the movement grew with the formulation and development of the <a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a> ideology in the following decades; the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Rashtriya_Swayamsevak_Sangh" title="Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh">Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh</a> (RSS) in 1925; and the entry, and later success, of RSS offshoots <a href="/wiki/Jana_Sangha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jana Sangha">Jana Sangha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">Bharatiya Janata Party</a> (BJP) in electoral politics in post-independence India.<a href="#cite_note-Ram-Prasad-414">[320]</a> Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERinehart2004196–197-415">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-416">[note 40]</a><a href="#cite_note-neo-417">[note 41]</a> Besides <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, the idea of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Hindu nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a> can also be seen in the other areas with good population of <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a>, such as in <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-418">[web 25]</a><a href="#cite_note-419">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-420">[323]</a> In the modern world, the Hindu identity and nationalism is encouraged by many organisations as per their areas and territories. In India, <a href="/wiki/Sangh_Parivar" title="Sangh Parivar">Sangh Parivar</a> is the umbrella organisation for most of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalist_parties" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu nationalist parties">Hindu nationalist organisations</a>, including that of <a href="/wiki/Rashtriya_Swayamsevak_Sangh" title="Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh">Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">Bharatiya Janata Party</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vishva_Hindu_Parishad" title="Vishva Hindu Parishad">Vishva Hindu Parishad</a>, etc.<a href="#cite_note-421">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-422">[325]</a> The other nationalist organisations include <a href="/wiki/Siva_Senai" title="Siva Senai">Siva Senai</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>), <a href="/wiki/Nepal_Shivsena" title="Nepal Shivsena">Nepal Shivsena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rastriya_Prajatantra_Party" title="Rastriya Prajatantra Party">Rastriya Prajatantra Party</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Prajatantrik_Party" title="Hindu Prajatantrik Party">Hindu Prajatantrik Party</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>) <a href="/wiki/Bangabhumi" title="Bangabhumi">Bangabhumi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>) and <a href="/wiki/HINDRAF" title="HINDRAF">HINDRAF</a> (<a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>). <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Path_Sanchalan_Bhopal-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh in India"><img alt="Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh in India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Path_Sanchalan_Bhopal-1.jpg/200px-Path_Sanchalan_Bhopal-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Path_Sanchalan_Bhopal-1.jpg/300px-Path_Sanchalan_Bhopal-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Path_Sanchalan_Bhopal-1.jpg/400px-Path_Sanchalan_Bhopal-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3417" data-file-height="2278" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Rashtriya_Swayamsevak_Sangh" title="Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh">Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh</a> in India</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Jhandi.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Saffron Flag of Hinduism in India"><img alt="Saffron Flag of Hinduism in India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Jhandi.gif/200px-Jhandi.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Jhandi.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="261" data-file-height="123" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Saffron Flag of Hinduism in India</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indianisation" title="Indianisation">Indianisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indomania" title="Indomania">Indomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indosphere" title="Indosphere">Indosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation" title="Sanskritisation">Sanskritisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_empires_and_dynasties" title="List of Hindu empires and dynasties">List of Hindu empires and dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers#Ancient_India" title="List of ancient great powers">India as major ancient great power</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_by_country" title="Hinduism by country">Hinduism by country</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asians_in_ancient_Indian_literature" title="Central Asians in ancient Indian literature">Central Asians in ancient Indian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Hinduism in Southeast Asia">Hinduism in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Arab_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduism in Arab states">Hinduism in Arab states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese Hinduism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indianization_of_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Indianization of Southeast Asia">Indianization of Southeast Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indianized_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indianized kingdom">Indianized kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_influence_on_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia">History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asia_campaign_of_Rajendra_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I">South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_invasion_of_Srivijaya" title="Chola invasion of Srivijaya">Chola invasion of Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_influences_in_early_Philippine_polities" title="Indian influences in early Philippine polities">Indian influences in early Philippine polities</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History of India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">Religion in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yoga" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Yoga">History of Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shaivism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Shaivism">History of Shaivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Mahabharata" class="mw-redirect" title="Historicity of the Mahabharata">Historicity of the Mahabharata</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953–4-14">[10]</a> Flood mentions 1500 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199621-15">[11]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lockard-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Lockard_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLockard2007">Lockard (2007</a>, p. 50): "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Aryan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_peoples" title="Dravidian peoples">Dravidian</a> occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis." Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries." </li> <li id="cite_note-Hiltebeitel-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Hiltebeitel_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel (2007</a>, p. 12): "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of 'Hindu synthesis', 'Brahmanic synthesis', or 'orthodox synthesis', takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency (c. 320–467 CE)." </li> <li id="cite_note-fusion-30"><a href="#cite_ref-fusion_30-0">^</a> See also: <ul><li>J. H. Hutton (1931), in <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1980">Ghurye (1980</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pTNmCIc9hCUC&pg=PA3">3–4</a>)<a href="#cite_note-26">[subnote 1]</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFZimmer1951">Zimmer (1951</a>, pp. 218–219)</li> <li>Tyler (1973), India: An Anthropological Perspective, Goodyear Publishing Company. In: <a href="#CITEREFSjoberg1990">Sjoberg (1990</a>, p. 43).<a href="#cite_note-28">[subnote 2]</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFSjoberg1990">Sjoberg (1990)</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood (1996</a>, p. 16)</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFVijay_Nath2001">Vijay Nath (2001)</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFWerner2005">Werner (2005</a>, pp. 8–9)</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFLockard2007">Lockard (2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC&pg=PA50">50</a>)</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel (2007)</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFHopfeWoodward2008">Hopfe & Woodward (2008</a>, p. 79)<a href="#cite_note-Hopfe-29">[subnote 3]</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel (2010)</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vedic_composite-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vedic_composite_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vedic_composite_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vedic_composite_33-2">c</a> See: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFWhite2006">White (2006</a>, p. 28): "[T]he religion of the Vedas was already a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations."</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFGombrich1996">Gombrich (1996</a>, pp. 35–36): "It is important to bear in mind that the Indo-Aryans did not enter an uninhabited land. For nearly two millennia they and their culture gradually penetrated India, moving east and south from their original seat in the Punjab. They mixed with people who spoke Munda or Dravidian languages, who have left no traces of their culture beyond some archaeological remains; we know as little about them as we would about the Indo-Aryans if they had left no texts. In fact we cannot even be sure whether some of the archaeological finds belong to Indo-Aryans, autochthonous populations, or a mixture.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> It is to be assumed – though this is not fashionable in Indian historiography – that the clash of cultures between Indo-Aryans and autochtones was responsible for many of the changes in Indo-Aryan society. We can also assume that many – perhaps most – of the indigenous population came to be assimilated into Indo-Aryan culture.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Puranas-date-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Puranas-date_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Puranas-date_48-1">b</a> The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas (<a href="#CITEREFJohnson2009">Johnson 2009</a>, p. 247). They may have existed in some oral form before being written down (<a href="#CITEREFJohnson2009">Johnson 2009</a>, p. 247). </li> <li id="cite_note-Michaels-legacy-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Michaels-legacy_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Michaels-legacy_49-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels (2004</a>, p. 38): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions." See also <a href="#CITEREFHalbfass1991">Halbfass 1991</a>, pp. 1–2 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mahadana-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Mahadana_53-0">^</a> University of Oslo: "During the period following Ashoka, until the end of the 7th century AD, the great gift ceremonies honoring the Buddha remained the central cult of Indian imperial kingdoms".<a href="#cite_note-Oslo-Mauryan-52">[web 1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Samuel-northsouth-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Samuel-northsouth_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel (2010</a>, p. 76): "Certainly, there is substantial textual evidence for the outward expansion of Vedic-Brahmanical culture."<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel (2010</a>, p. 77): "[T]he Buddhist sutras describe what was in later periods a standard mechanism for the expansion of Vedic-Brahmanical culture: the settlement of Brahmins on land granted by local rulers." See also <a href="#CITEREFVijay_Nath2001">Vijay Nath (2001)</a>.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel (2010</a>, p. 199): "By the first and second centuries CE, the Dravidian-speaking regions of the south were also increasingly being incorporated into the general North and Central Indian cultural pattern, as were parts at least of Southeast Asia. The Pallava kingdom in South India was largely Brahmanical in orientation although it included a substantial Jain and Buddhist population, while Indic states were also beginning to develop in Southeast Asia." </li> <li id="cite_note-Larson-NorthSouth-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Larson-NorthSouth_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson1995">Larson (1995</a>, p. 81): "Also, the spread of the culture of North India to the South was accomplished in many instances by the spread of Buddhist and Jain institutions (monasteries, lay communities, and so forth). The Pallavas of Kanci appear to have been one of the main vehicles for the spread of specifically Indo-Brahmanical or Hindu institutions in the South, a process that was largely completed after the Gupta Age. As Basham has noted, "the contact of Aryan and Dravidian produced a vigorous cultural synthesis, which in turn had an immense influence on Indian civilization as a whole." </li> <li id="cite_note-Flood-NorthSouth-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Flood-NorthSouth_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood (1996</a>, p. 129): "The process of Sanskritization only began to significantly influence the south after the first two centuries CE and Tamil deities and forms of worship became adapted to northern <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> forms." </li> <li id="cite_note-pantheon_explosion-62"><a href="#cite_ref-pantheon_explosion_62-0">^</a> Wendy Doniger: "If Sanskritization has been the main means of connecting the various local traditions throughout the subcontinent, the converse process, which has no convenient label, has been one of the means whereby Hinduism has changed and developed over the centuries. Many features of Hindu mythology and several popular gods—such as Ganesha, an elephant-headed god, and Hanuman, the monkey god—were incorporated into Hinduism and assimilated into the appropriate Vedic gods by this means. Similarly, the worship of many goddesses who are now regarded as the consorts of the great male Hindu gods, as well as the worship of individual unmarried goddesses, may have arisen from the worship of non-Vedic local goddesses. Thus, the history of Hinduism can be interpreted as the interplay between orthoprax custom and the practices of wider ranges of people and, complementarily, as the survival of features of local traditions that gained strength steadily until they were adapted by the Brahmans."<a href="#cite_note-EBHinbduism6-60">[web 2]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <a href="#CITEREFVijay_Nath2001">Vijay Nath (2001</a>, p. 31): "Visnu and Siva, on the other hand, as integral components of the Triad while continuing to be a subject of theological speculation, however, in their subsequent "<a href="/wiki/Avatar" title="Avatar">avataras</a>" began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. Thus, whereas <a href="/wiki/Visnu" class="mw-redirect" title="Visnu">Visnu</a> came to subsume the cults of <a href="/wiki/Narayana" title="Narayana">Narayana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jagannatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jagannatha">Jagannatha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venkateswara" title="Venkateswara">Venkateswara</a> and many others, <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Siva</a> became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvarato the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara." </li> <li id="cite_note-Sanskritization-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Sanskritization_63-0">^</a> Wendy Doniger: "The process, sometimes called 'Sanskritization', began in Vedic times and was probably the principal method by which the Hinduism of the Sanskrit texts spread through the subcontinent and into Southeast Asia. Sanskritization still continues in the form of the conversion of tribal groups, and it is reflected in the persistence of the tendency among some Hindus to identify rural and local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts."<a href="#cite_note-EBHinbduism6-60">[web 2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism": <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFSmart2003">Smart (2003</a>, p. 52) calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical". It is the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism<a href="#cite_note-70">[subnote 4]</a> Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.</li> <li>For <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels (2004</a>, pp. 36, 38), the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism", whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMuesse2003">Muesse (2003</a>, p. 14) discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period". According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFStein2010">Stein (2010</a>, p. 107) The Indian History Congress, formally adopted 1206 CE as the date medieval India began.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDoniger2010">Doniger 2010</a>, p. 66: "Much of what we now call Hinduism may have had roots in cultures that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence. Remarkable cave paintings have been preserved from Mesolithic sites dating from c. 30,000 BCE in <a href="/wiki/Bhimbetka_rock_shelters" title="Bhimbetka rock shelters">Bhimbetka</a>, near present-day Bhopal, in the Vindhya Mountains in the province of Madhya Pradesh."<a href="#cite_note-99">[subnote 5]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJonesRyan2006">Jones & Ryan 2006</a>, p. xvii: "Some practices of Hinduism must have originated in Neolithic times (c. 4000 BCE). The worship of certain plants and animals as sacred, for instance, could very likely have very great antiquity. The worship of goddesses, too, a part of Hinduism today, may be a feature that originated in the Neolithic." </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMallory1989">Mallory 1989</a>, p. 38f. The separation of the early Indo-Aryans from the Proto-Indo-Iranian stage is dated to roughly 1800 BCE in scholarship. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels (2004</a>, p. 33): "They called themselves arya ('Aryans', literally 'the hospitable', from the Vedic arya, 'homey, the hospitable') but even in the Rgveda, arya denotes a cultural and linguistic boundary and not only a racial one." </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel (1995</a>, pp. 3–4) mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE. <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood (1996</a>, p. 21) mentions 1500 BCE. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllchinErdosy1995">Allchin & Erdosy (1995)</a>: "There has also been a fairly general agreement that the Proto-Indoaryan speakers at one time lived on the steppes of Central Asia and that at a certain time they moved southwards through Bactria and Afghanistan, and perhaps the Caucasus, into Iran and India-Pakistan (Burrow 1973; Harmatta 1992)." </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998">Kulke & Rothermund (1998)</a>: "During the last decades intensive archaeological research in Russia and the Central Asian Republics of the former Soviet Union as well as in Pakistan and northern India has considerably enlarged our knowledge about the potential ancestors of the Indo-Aryans and their relationship with cultures in west, central and south Asia. Previous excavations in southern Russia and Central Asia could not confirm that the Eurasian steppes had once been the original home of the speakers of Indo-European language." </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Aryan_migration_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryan migration theory">Aryan migration theory</a> has been challenged by some researchers (<a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 33, <a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 186), due to a lack of archaeological evidence and signs of cultural continuity (<a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 33), hypothesizing instead a slow process of acculturation or transformation (<a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 33, <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, pp. 30–35). Nevertheless, linguistic and archaeological data clearly show a cultural change after 1750 BCE (<a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 33), with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with Indo-European languages and religion (<a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 33). According to <a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 186, "The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants." </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFSmart1964">Smart (1964</a>, pp. 27–32)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrangle19947-191">[133]</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFBelvakarRanade1974">Belvakar & Ranade (1974</a>, pp. 81, 303–409)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrangle19947-191">[133]</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood2008">Flood (2008</a>, pp. 273–274): "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history ... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism, in particular, were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence." </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing1999">King (1999)</a> notes that Radhakrishnan was a representative of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1999-195">[135]</a> which had a specific understanding of Indian religions: "The inclusivist appropriation of other traditions, so characteristic of neo-Vedanta ideology, appears on three basic levels. First, it is apparent in the suggestion that the (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy of Sankara (c. eighth century CE) constitutes the central philosophy of Hinduism. Second, in an Indian context, neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedantic ideology. The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition, merely attempting to reform it from within. Finally, at a global level, neo-Vedanta colonises the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of a non-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis underlying all cultural differences." </li> <li id="cite_note-Michaels_decline-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Michaels_decline_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Michaels_decline_199-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels (2004</a>, p. 38): "At the time of upheaval [500–200 BCE], many elements of the Vedic religion were lost". </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKlostermaier2007">Klostermaier 2007</a>, p. 55: "Kautas, a teacher mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a> by <a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81ska" title="Yāska">Yāska</a> (ca. 500 BCE), a work devoted to an etymology of Vedic words that were no longer understood by ordinary people, held that the word of the Veda was no longer perceived as meaningful "normal" speech but as a fixed sequence of sounds, whose meaning was obscure beyond recovery." </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Klostermaier: "Brahman, derived from the root bŗh = to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the principal means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech-act</a>" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end". <a href="#CITEREFKlostermaier2007">Klostermaier 2007</a>, p. 55 quotes Madhav M. Deshpande (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/378011865/Madhav-Deshpande-Changing-Conceptions-of-the-Veda-From-Speech-Acts-to-Magical-Sounds">Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel (2007</a>, p. 13): "The emerging self-definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions (Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas) throughout this whole period, and with foreign people (Yavanas, or Greeks; Sakas, or Scythians; Pahlavas, or Parthians; and Kusanas, or Kushans) from the third phase on [between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas]. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2009">Larson (2009</a>, p. 185): "[I]n contrast to the sruti, which Hindus, for the most part, pay little more than lip service to." </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels (2004</a>, p. 40) mentions the <a href="/wiki/Durga_temple,_Aihole" title="Durga temple, Aihole">Durga temple in Aihole</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dashavatara_Temple,_Deogarh" title="Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh">Visnu Temple in Deogarh</a>. <a href="#CITEREFMichell1977">Michell (1977</a>, p. 18) notes that earlier temples were built of timber, brick and plaster, while the first stone temples appeared during the period of Gupta rule. </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels (2004</a>, p. 41): <ul><li>In the east the <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Empire</a> (770–1125 CE),</li> <li>in the west and north the <a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara">Gurjara-Pratihara</a> (7th–10th century),</li> <li>in the southwest the <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Dynasty">Rashtrakuta Dynasty</a> (752–973),</li> <li>in the Dekkhan the <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya dynasty</a> (7th–8th century),</li> <li>and in the south the <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava dynasty</a> (7th–9th century) and the <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola dynasty</a> (9th century).</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcRae2003">McRae (2003)</a>: This resembles the development of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Ch%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Chán">Chinese Chán</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Ch%C3%A1n#An_Lu-shan_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Chán">An Lu-shan rebellion</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Ch%C3%A1n#Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_Period_(907–960/979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Chán">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979)</a>, during which power became decentralised end new Chán-schools emerged. </li> <li id="cite_note-inden_1998-251">^ <a href="#cite_ref-inden_1998_251-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-inden_1998_251-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFInden1998">Inden (1998</a>, p. 67): "Before the eighth century, the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies by which a king attained to imperial status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa ... This pattern changed in the eighth century. The Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods (except under the Palas of eastern India, the Buddha's homeland) ... Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship (puja). Now as one of the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship." </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThapar2003">Thapar (2003</a>, p. 325): The king who ruled not by conquest but by setting in motion the wheel of law. </li> <li id="cite_note-mayavada-279"><a href="#cite_ref-mayavada_279-0">^</a> The term "mayavada" is still being used, in a critical way, by the Hare Krshnas. See<a href="#cite_note-275">[web 9]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[web 10]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[web 11]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[web 12]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by <a href="#CITEREFBurley2007">Burley (2007</a>, p. 34). Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus (<a href="#CITEREFLorenzen2006">Lorenzen 2006</a>, pp. 24–33), and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other" which started well before 1800 (<a href="#CITEREFLorenzen2006">Lorenzen 2006</a>, pp. 26–27). Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers (<a href="#CITEREFNicholson2010">Nicholson 2010</a>, p. 2) </li> <li id="cite_note-father-343"><a href="#cite_ref-father_343-0">^</a> Owing to his contributions to carnatic music, Purandaradasa is known as Karnataka Sangita Pitamaha. (Kamat, Saint Purandaradasa) </li> <li id="cite_note-368"><a href="#cite_ref-368">^</a> Many historians consider <a href="/wiki/Attock" title="Attock">Attock</a> to be the final frontier of the Maratha Empire.<a href="#cite_note-367">[281]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-416"><a href="#cite_ref-416">^</a> This conjunction of nationalism and religion is not unique to India. The complexities of Asian nationalism are to be seen and understood in the context of colonialism, modernization and <a href="/wiki/Nation-building" title="Nation-building">nation-building</a>. See, for example, <a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala" title="Anagarika Dharmapala">Anagarika Dharmapala</a>, for the role of Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lankese struggle for independence (<a href="#CITEREFMcMahan2008">McMahan 2008</a>), and <a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D. T. Suzuki</a>, who conjuncted <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> to <a href="/wiki/Nihonjinron" title="Nihonjinron">Japanese nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bushido" title="Bushido">militarism</a>, in defense against both western hegemony and the pressure on Japanese Zen during the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a> to conform to <a href="/wiki/Shinbutsu_Bunri" class="mw-redirect" title="Shinbutsu Bunri">Shinbutsu Bunri</a> (<a href="#CITEREFSharf1993">Sharf 1993</a>, <a href="#CITEREFSharf1995">Sharf 1995</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-neo-417"><a href="#cite_ref-neo_417-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRinehart2004">Rinehart (2004</a>, p. 198): Neo-Vedanta also contributed to <a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a> ideology, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu politics">Hindu politics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communalism_(South_Asia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (South Asia)">communalism</a>. Yet, Rinehart emphasises that it is "clear that there isn't a neat line of causation that leads from the philosophies of Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan to the agenda of ... militant Hindus." </li> </ol></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Oldest_religion-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Oldest_religion_2-0">^</a> See: <ul><li>"Oldest religion": <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFFowler1997">Fowler (1997</a>, p. 1): "probably the oldest religion in the world"</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFGellmanHartman2011">Gellman & Hartman (2011)</a>: "Hinduism, the world's oldest religion"</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFStevens2001">Stevens (2001</a>, p. 191): "Hinduism, the oldest religion in the world"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFSarma1987">Sarma (1987</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]): the "<a href="/wiki/Oldest_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Oldest religion">oldest living religion</a>"</li> <li>The "oldest living major religion" in the world.<a href="#cite_note-423">[326]</a>(<a href="#CITEREFKlostermaier2007">Klostermaier 2007</a>, p. 1) <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFLaderman2003">Laderman (2003</a>, p. 119): "world's oldest living civilisation and religion"</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFTurner1996-B">Turner & 1996-B</a>, p. 359): "It is also recognized as the oldest major religion in the world."</li></ul></li></ul> <a href="#CITEREFSmart1993">Smart (1993</a>, p. 1), on the other hand, calls it also one of the youngest religions: "Hinduism could be seen to be much more recent, though with various ancient roots: in a sense it was formed in the late 19th Century and early 20th Century." See also: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urreligion" title="Urreligion">Urreligion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shamanism#Hypotheses_on_origins" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestor worship">Ancestor worship</a> for some of the oldest forms of religion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a>, Indian Tribal religions connected to the earliest migrations into India</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Aboriginal mythology">Australian Aboriginal mythology</a>, one of the oldest surviving religions in the world.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-roots-9"><a href="#cite_ref-roots_9-0">^</a> Among its roots are the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a> (<a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 16) of the late <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans (<a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 48–53), but also the religions of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a> (<a href="#CITEREFNarayanan2009">Narayanan 2009</a>, p. 11, <a href="#CITEREFLockard2007">Lockard 2007</a>, p. 52, <a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel 2007</a>, p. 3, <a href="#CITEREFJonesRyan2006">Jones & Ryan 2006</a>, p. xviii), the <a href="/wiki/Sramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sramana">Sramana</a> (<a href="#CITEREFGomez2013">Gomez 2013</a>, p. 42) or renouncer traditions (<a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 16) of <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">east India</a> (<a href="#CITEREFGomez2013">Gomez 2013</a>, p. 42), and "popular or <a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">local traditions</a>" (<a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 16). </li> <li id="cite_note-Hindu-synthesis_date-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Hindu-synthesis_date_11-0">^</a> More specifically, between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 (<a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel 2007</a>, p. 12) - 200 (<a href="#CITEREFLarson2009">Larson 2009</a>) BCE and <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300 CE (<a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel 2007</a>, p. 12) in or after the period of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Urbanisation">Second Urbanisation</a>, and during the early <a href="#Hindu_synthesis_and_Classical_Hinduism_(c._200_BCE_–_1200_CE)">classical period of Hinduism</a> (200 BCE – 300 CE) (<a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel 2007</a>, p. 12, <a href="#CITEREFLarson2009">Larson 2009</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-Vedic_Hinduism-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vedic_Hinduism_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vedic_Hinduism_12-1">b</a> Scholars such as Jan Gonda have used the term ancient Hinduism, distinguishing it from "recent Hinduism". <a href="#CITEREFJamisonWitzel1992">Jamison & Witzel (1992</a>, p. 3) use the term "Vedic Hinduism," but state:"... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a <a href="/wiki/Contradictio_in_terminis" class="mw-redirect" title="Contradictio in terminis">contradictio in terminis</a> since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism". <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels (2004</a>, p. 38) also emphasizes the differences: "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions." See also <a href="#CITEREFHalbfass1991">Halbfass (1991</a>, pp. 1–2) Encyclopedia Britannica, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedic-religion">Vedic religion</a>: "It [Vedic religion] takes its name from the collections of sacred texts known as the Vedas. Vedism is the oldest stratum of religious activity in India for which there exist written materials. It was one of the major traditions that shaped Hinduism." The Encyclopædia Britannica, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77141/Brahmanism">Brahmanism</a>, further explains that from the Vedic religion emerged Brahmanism, a religious tradition of ancient India. It states, "Brahmanism emphasized the rites performed by, and the status of, the Brahman, or priestly, class as well as speculation about Brahman (the Absolute reality) as theorized in the Upanishads (speculative philosophical texts that are considered to be part of the Vedas, or scriptures)." From Brahmanism developed Hinduism, when it was synthesized, around the start of the Common Era, with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and with local religious traditions; see <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>; <a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2002">Hiltebeitel 2002</a>; <a href="#CITEREFWelbon2004">Welbon 2004</a>; <a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst2007">Bronkhorst 2007</a>; <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> Subnotes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Ghurye: He [Hutton] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. "The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19804-25">[18]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Tyler, in India: An Anthropological Perspective (1973), p. 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESjoberg199043-27">[19]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hopfe-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Hopfe_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHopfeWoodward2008">Hopfe & Woodward (2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BVbiMBDVrdEC&pg=PA79">79</a>): "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism." </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmart2003">Smart (2003</a>, pp. 52, 83–86) distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the Vedic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the Upanishads. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> 30,000 BCE is incorrect; this must be 8,000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-YM-94">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-SKT-95">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-UB-96">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-SM-97">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-AJ-98">[52]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrodd2003-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrodd2003_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrodd2003">Brodd 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELockard200750-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockard200750_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockard200750_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockard200750_3-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLockard2007">Lockard 2007</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_4-11">l</a> <a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel 2007</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199616-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199616_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199616_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199616_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199616_6-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan200911-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan200911_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNarayanan2009">Narayanan 2009</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsborne20059-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsborne20059_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOsborne2005">Osborne 2005</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelbon2004-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWelbon2004_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWelbon2004">Welbon 2004</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200432–36-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200432–36_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, pp. 32–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953–4-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953–4_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>, pp. 3–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199621-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199621_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200438-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200438_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2009-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2009_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2009_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2009_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2009_18-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2009_18-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2009_18-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2009_18-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2009_18-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2009_18-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2009_18-9">j</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2009">Larson 2009</a>. </li> <li 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Arnold-Heinemann. p. 45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Indian+Civilization&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Arnold-Heinemann&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Bongard-Levin&rft.aufirst=Grigori%C4%AD+Maksimovich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosen200645-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosen200645_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosen2006">Rosen 2006</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESrinivasan1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESrinivasan1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSrinivasan1997">Srinivasan 1997</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahadevan2006" class="citation book cs1">Mahadevan, Iravatham (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060904034700/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html">A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery</a>. harappa.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html">the original</a> on 4 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Note+on+the+Muruku+Sign+of+the+Indus+Script+in+light+of+the+Mayiladuthurai+Stone+Axe+Discovery&rft.pub=harappa.com&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Mahadevan&rft.aufirst=Iravatham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harappa.com%2Farrow%2Fstone_celt_indus_signs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeuersteinKakFrawley2001" class="citation book cs1">Feuerstein, Georg; Kak, Subhash; Frawley, David (2001). In Search of the Cradle of Civilization:New Light on Ancient India. Quest Books. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8356-0741-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8356-0741-0"><bdi>0-8356-0741-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+the+Cradle+of+Civilization%3ANew+Light+on+Ancient+India&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Quest+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8356-0741-0&rft.aulast=Feuerstein&rft.aufirst=Georg&rft.au=Kak%2C+Subhash&rft.au=Frawley%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2007" class="citation thesis cs1">Clark, Sharri R. (2007). The social lives of figurines: recontextualizing the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan (PhD). Harvard.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+social+lives+of+figurines%3A+recontextualizing+the+third+millennium+BC+terracotta+figurines+from+Harappa%2C+Pakistan&rft.inst=Harvard&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Sharri+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Thapar, Romila, Early India: From the Origins to 1300, London, Penguin Books, 2002 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> McIntosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. p. 84,276 </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJarrigeGerryMeadow1992" class="citation book cs1">Jarrige, Catherine; Gerry, John P.; Meadow, Richard H., eds. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ye2s6ZZ09S0C">South Asian Archaeology, 1989: Papers from the Tenth International Conference of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe, Musée National Des Arts Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris, France, 3–7 July 1989</a>. Prehistory Press. p. 227. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-881094-03-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-881094-03-6"><bdi>978-1-881094-03-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223182117/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ye2s6ZZ09S0C">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023. <q>An anthropomorphic figure has knelt in front of a fig tree, with hands raised in respectful salutation, prayer or worship. This reverence suggests the divinity of its object, another anthropomorphic figure standing inside the fig tree. In the ancient Near East, the gods and goddesses, as well as their earthly representatives, the divine kings and queens functioning as high priests and priestesses, were distinguished by a horned crown. A similar crown is worn by the two anthropomorphic figures in the fig deity seal. Among various tribal people of India, horned head-dresses are worn by priests on sacrificial occasions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Asian+Archaeology%2C+1989%3A+Papers+from+the+Tenth+International+Conference+of+South+Asian+Archaeologists+in+Western+Europe%2C+Mus%C3%A9e+National+Des+Arts+Asiatiques-Guimet%2C+Paris%2C+France%2C+3%E2%80%937+July+1989&rft.pages=227&rft.pub=Prehistory+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1-881094-03-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYe2s6ZZ09S0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA403">Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus</a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2003. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-043-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-043-1"><bdi>978-1-58839-043-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223182051/https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA403#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+of+the+First+Cities%3A+The+Third+Millennium+B.C.+from+the+Mediterranean+to+the+Indus&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-043-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8l9X_3rHFdEC%26pg%3DPA403&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/TheIndusScript.TextConcordanceAndTablesIravathanMahadevan/Corpus%20of%20Indus%20Seals%20and%20Inscriptions.%20Collections%20in%20Pakistan#page/n173/mode/2up">The Indus Script. Text, Concordance And Tables Iravathan Mahadevan</a>. p. 139.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indus+Script.+Text%2C+Concordance+And+Tables+Iravathan+Mahadevan&rft.pages=139&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FTheIndusScript.TextConcordanceAndTablesIravathanMahadevan%2FCorpus%2520of%2520Indus%2520Seals%2520and%2520Inscriptions.%2520Collections%2520in%2520Pakistan%23page%2Fn173%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gods,_Goddesses,_and_Mythology-119"><a href="#cite_ref-Gods,_Goddesses,_and_Mythology_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittleton2005" class="citation book cs1">Littleton, C. Scott (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u27FpnXoyJQC&pg=PA732">Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology</a>. Marshall Cavendish. p. 732. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7565-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7565-1"><bdi>978-0-7614-7565-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223182624/https://books.google.com/books?id=u27FpnXoyJQC&pg=PA732#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gods%2C+Goddesses%2C+and+Mythology&rft.pages=732&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7614-7565-1&rft.aulast=Littleton&rft.aufirst=C.+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du27FpnXoyJQC%26pg%3DPA732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDs_hazstxY4CpgPA389_389]-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDs_hazstxY4CpgPA389_389]_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarshall1996">Marshall 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ds_hazstxY4C&pg=PA389">389</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pearson_Education_India-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_Education_India_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Vipul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wsiXwh_tIGkC&pg=PA35">The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination</a>. Pearson Education India. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788131717530" title="Special:BookSources/9788131717530"><bdi>9788131717530</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223182624/https://books.google.com/books?id=wsiXwh_tIGkC&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pearson+Indian+History+Manual+for+the+UPSC+Civil+Services+Preliminary+Examination&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.isbn=9788131717530&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Vipul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwsiXwh_tIGkC%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008185-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008185_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200432-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200432_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-127"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee_et_al.2011-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukherjee_et_al.2011_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMukherjee_et_al.2011">Mukherjee et al. 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007408-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007408_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 408. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_132-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_132-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_132-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_132-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_132-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_132-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_132-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_132-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200433-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200433_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199630–35-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199630–35_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, pp. 30–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20075-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20075_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel 2007</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007410–411-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007410–411_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, pp. 410–411. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-138">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_138-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_138-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_138-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 454. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007375,_408–411-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007375,_408–411_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, pp. 375, 408–411. </li> <li id="cite_note-BIKA-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BIKA_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BIKA_140-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BIKA_140-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BIKA_140-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BIKA_140-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulPaul1989" class="citation journal cs1">Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations". East and West. 39 (1/4): 111–143, especially 112–114, 115, 125. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29756891">29756891</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East+and+West&rft.atitle=Brahmanical+Imagery+in+the+Ku%E1%B9%A3%C4%81%E1%B9%87a+Art+of+Mathur%C4%81%3A+Tradition+and+Innovations&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1%2F4&rft.pages=111-143%2C+especially+112-114%2C+115%2C+125&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F29756891%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.aufirst=Pran+Gopal&rft.au=Paul%2C+Debjani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TBI-141"><a href="#cite_ref-TBI_141-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrishanTadikonda1996" class="citation book cs1">Krishan, Yuvraj; Tadikonda, Kalpana K. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PP13">The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development</a>. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. ix–x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-215-0565-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-215-0565-9"><bdi>978-81-215-0565-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223182553/https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Buddha+Image%3A+Its+Origin+and+Development&rft.pages=ix-x&rft.pub=Bharatiya+Vidya+Bhavan&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-215-0565-9&rft.aulast=Krishan&rft.aufirst=Yuvraj&rft.au=Tadikonda%2C+Kalpana+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkDyJh--iaL0C%26pg%3DPP13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IS248-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IS248_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IS248_142-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShawJameson2008" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC&pg=PA248">A Dictionary of Archaeology</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 248. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75196-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75196-1"><bdi>978-0-470-75196-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223182553/https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC&pg=PA248#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Archaeology&rft.pages=248&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-470-75196-1&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Jameson%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8HKDtlPuM2oC%26pg%3DPA248&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201041–48-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201041–48_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 41–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201041–93-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201041–93_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 41–93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein201048–49-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein201048–49_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStein2010">Stein 2010</a>, pp. 48–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201061–93-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201061–93_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 61–93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_147-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_147-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_147-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_147-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKramer1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRzUAu-43W5oCpgPA34_34]–-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKramer1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRzUAu-43W5oCpgPA34_34]–_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKramer1986">Kramer 1986</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RzUAu-43W5oC&pg=PA34">34</a>–. </li> <li id="cite_note-Christian2011-149"><a href="#cite_ref-Christian2011_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Christian2011" class="citation book cs1">David Christian (1 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA18">Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History</a>. University of California Press. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95067-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95067-2"><bdi>978-0-520-95067-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223182558/https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA18#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 8 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maps+of+Time%3A+An+Introduction+to+Big+History&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2011-09-01&rft.isbn=978-0-520-95067-2&rft.au=David+Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7RdVmDjwTtQC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH3lUIIYxWkECpgPA206_206–]-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH3lUIIYxWkECpgPA206_206–]_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA206">206–</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201053–56-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201053–56_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 53–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199630-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199630_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20075–7-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20075–7_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel 2007</a>, pp. 5–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-Woodard2006-154"><a href="#cite_ref-Woodard2006_154-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodard2006" class="citation book cs1">Woodard, Roger D. 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University of Chicago Press. pp. 37–39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-06456-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-06456-7"><bdi>978-0-226-06456-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223183055/https://books.google.com/books?id=r4I-FsZCzJEC&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. 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Sussex Academic Press. pp. xxii–xxiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84519-346-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84519-346-1"><bdi>978-1-84519-346-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bhagavad+Gita%3A+A+Text+and+Commentary+for+Students&rft.pages=xxii-xxiii&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=2012-02-01&rft.isbn=978-1-84519-346-1&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Jeaneane+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzU4E5ZidVr0C%26pg%3DPR24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeesterman20059552–9553-187">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeesterman20059552–9553_187-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeesterman20059552–9553_187-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeesterman20059552–9553_187-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeesterman2005">Heesterman 2005</a>, pp. 9552–9553. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKpIWhKnYmF0CpgPA82_82]-188">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKpIWhKnYmF0CpgPA82_82]_188-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKpIWhKnYmF0CpgPA82_82]_188-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82">82</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusner2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid34vGv_HDGG8CpgPA184_184]-189"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusner2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid34vGv_HDGG8CpgPA184_184]_189-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeusner2009">Neusner 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C&pg=PA184">184</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer1989217-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmer1989217_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZimmer1989">Zimmer 1989</a>, p. 217. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrangle19947-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrangle19947_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrangle19947_191-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrangle1994">Crangle 1994</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratt1996" class="citation book cs1">Pratt, James Bissett (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cLXwU9e6D4sC&pg=PA90">The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage</a>. Asian Educational Services. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1196-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1196-2"><bdi>978-81-206-1196-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223183102/https://books.google.com/books?id=cLXwU9e6D4sC&pg=PA90#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mahavidya.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Nippard-Andrea-The-Alvars-Yes.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 December 2013. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mahavidya.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Nippard-Andrea-The-Alvars-Yes.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Alvars&rft.au=Andrea+Nippard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mahavidya.ca%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2010%2F05%2FNippard-Andrea-The-Alvars-Yes.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jgonda-244"><a href="#cite_ref-jgonda_244-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jan_Gonda" title="Jan Gonda">Jan Gonda</a>, The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali, in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X7YfAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1">Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions</a>, p. 1, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, pp. 1–54 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bajpai2006-245"><a href="#cite_ref-Bajpai2006_245-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._D._Bajpai2006" class="citation book cs1">K. D. Bajpai (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3KcwLKuRnYC&pg=PA31">History of Gopāchala</a>. Bharatiya Jnanpith. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-263-1155-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-263-1155-2"><bdi>978-81-263-1155-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Gop%C4%81chala&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Bharatiya+Jnanpith&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-81-263-1155-2&rft.au=K.+D.+Bajpai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ3KcwLKuRnYC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200441-246">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200441_246-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200441_246-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite200025–28-248"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite200025–28_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2000">White 2000</a>, pp. 25–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442-249">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442_249-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442_249-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442_249-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442_249-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442_249-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442_249-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200442_249-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> Sara Schastok (1997), The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western India, BRILL, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004069411" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004069411">978-9004069411</a>, pp. 77–79, 88 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryant2007111–119-253"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryant2007111–119_253-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryant2007">Bryant 2007</a>, pp. 111–119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200120-254">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200120_254-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200120_254-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200120_254-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFVijay_Nath2001">Vijay Nath 2001</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003325,_487-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003325,_487_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThapar2003">Thapar 2003</a>, pp. 325, 487. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996113-256"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996113_256-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003487-257">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003487_257-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003487_257-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003487_257-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003487_257-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003487_257-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFThapar2003">Thapar 2003</a>, p. 487. </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuwayama1976">Kuwayama 1976</a>, p. 405: "It is not therefore possible to attribute these pieces to the Hindu Shahi period. They should be attributed to the Shahi period before the Hindu Shahis originated by the Brahman wazir Kallar, that is, the Turki Shahis." <a href="#CITEREFKuwayama1976">Kuwayama 1976</a>, p. 407: "According to the above sources, Brahmanism and Buddhism are properly supposed to have coexisted especially during the 7th-8th centuries A.D. just before the Muslim hegemony. The marble sculptures from eastern Afghanistan should not be attributed to the period of the Hindu Shahis but to that of the Turki Shahis." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200131-260">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200131_260-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200131_260-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200131_260-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFVijay_Nath2001">Vijay Nath 2001</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200131–32-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200131–32_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVijay_Nath2001">Vijay Nath 2001</a>, pp. 31–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200132-262"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVijay_Nath200132_262-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVijay_Nath2001">Vijay Nath 2001</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> Holt, John. The Buddhist Visnu. Columbia University Press, 2004, p. 12, 15 "The replacement of the Buddha as the 'cosmic person' within the mythic ideology of Indian kingship, as we shall see shortly, occurred at about the same time the Buddha was incorporated and subordinated within the Brahmanical cult of <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Maha Vishnu</a>." </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> S. M. Srinivasa Chari, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwHhuZrZ-wC">"Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs"</a>, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120813427" title="Special:BookSources/9788120813427">9788120813427</a>, p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> "Śrībhāṣyam: Catuḥsūtryātmakaḥ", by Rāmānuja, Raghunath Damodar Karmarkar, p.18, original from the University of Michigan </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJean_Filliozat" class="citation book cs1">Jean Filliozat. Religion, Philosophy, Yoga: A Selection of Articles. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion%2C+Philosophy%2C+Yoga%3A+A+Selection+of+Articles&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.au=Jean+Filliozat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Buitenen20136:_"ca._200_BC_is_a_likely_date".-267"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Buitenen20136:_"ca._200_BC_is_a_likely_date"._267-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvan_Buitenen2013">van Buitenen 2013</a>, pp. 6: "ca. 200 BC is a likely date".. </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014), Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472419132" title="Special:BookSources/978-1472419132">978-1472419132</a>, p. 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; ... Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200060–64-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200060–64_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharma2000">Sharma 2000</a>, pp. 60–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaju1992177–178-270">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaju1992177–178_270-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaju1992177–178_270-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaju1992">Raju 1992</a>, pp. 177–178. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERenard2010157-271">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenard2010157_271-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenard2010157_271-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRenard2010">Renard 2010</a>, p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEComans200035–36-272">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComans200035–36_272-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComans200035–36_272-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFComans2000">Comans 2000</a>, pp. 35–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaju1992177-273">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaju1992177_273-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaju1992177_273-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaju1992">Raju 1992</a>, p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200064-274">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200064_274-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200064_274-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200064_274-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharma2000">Sharma 2000</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura2004678-280"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura2004678_280-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNakamura2004">Nakamura 2004</a>, p. 678. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1962vi-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1962vi_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharma1962">Sharma 1962</a>, p. vi. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEComans2000163-282"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComans2000163_282-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFComans2000">Comans 2000</a>, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenon2004" class="citation book cs1">Menon, Y. 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Bloomsbury. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-350-04402-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-350-04402-4"><bdi>1-350-04402-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technic+and+Magic%3A+The+Reconstruction+of+Reality&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.isbn=1-350-04402-4&rft.aulast=Campagna&rft.aufirst=Federico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShankara" class="citation book cs1">Shankara, Adi. Nirguna Manasa Puja: Worship of the Attributeless. 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Springer Science & Business Media. p. 214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-47151-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-47151-3"><bdi>978-0-306-47151-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Self+and+Identity+in+Modern+Psychology+and+Indian+Thought&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-306-47151-3&rft.aulast=Paranjpe&rft.aufirst=Anand+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHacker199529–30-288">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHacker199529–30_288-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHacker199529–30_288-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHacker199529–30_288-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHacker199529–30_288-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHacker1995">Hacker 1995</a>, p. 29–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson2010157;_229_note_57-289">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholson2010157;_229_note_57_289-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholson2010157;_229_note_57_289-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicholson2010">Nicholson 2010</a>, p. 157; 229 note 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2002128-290"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2002128_290-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2002">King 2002</a>, p. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoodurmum200233–34-291"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoodurmum200233–34_291-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoodurmum2002">Roodurmum 2002</a>, pp. 33–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake_Michael199260–62_with_notes_6,_7_and_8-292">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlake_Michael199260–62_with_notes_6,_7_and_8_292-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlake_Michael199260–62_with_notes_6,_7_and_8_292-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlake_Michael1992">Blake Michael 1992</a>, p. 60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson2010178–183-293">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholson2010178–183_293-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholson2010178–183_293-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicholson2010">Nicholson 2010</a>, pp. 178–183. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHacker199529-294">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHacker199529_294-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHacker199529_294-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHacker199529_294-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHacker1995">Hacker 1995</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund1998177-295">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund1998177_295-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund1998177_295-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998">Kulke & Rothermund 1998</a>, p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2001129-296"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2001129_296-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2001">King 2001</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2001129–130-297"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2001129–130_297-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2001">King 2001</a>, p. 129–130. </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodríguez_Adradosde_Bloisvan_Dijk2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Rodr%C3%ADguez_Adrados" title="Francisco Rodríguez Adrados">Rodríguez Adrados, Francisco</a>; de Blois, Lukas; van Dijk, Gert-Jan (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=093Gl8KEktMC&pg=PA707">Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava: Supplementum</a>. Brill. pp. 707–708. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11454-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11454-8"><bdi>978-90-04-11454-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mnemosyne%2C+Bibliotheca+Classica+Batava%3A+Supplementum&rft.pages=707-708&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11454-8&rft.aulast=Rodr%C3%ADguez+Adrados&rft.aufirst=Francisco&rft.au=de+Blois%2C+Lukas&rft.au=van+Dijk%2C+Gert-Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D093Gl8KEktMC%26pg%3DPA707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Malley1970" class="citation book cs1">O'Malley, Charles Donald (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=afYzWG1FLroC&pg=PA352">The History of Medical Education: An International Symposium Held February 5–9, 1968</a>. University of California Press. p. 352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01578-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01578-4"><bdi>978-0-520-01578-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Medical+Education%3A+An+International+Symposium+Held+February+5%E2%80%939%2C+1968&rft.pages=352&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-520-01578-4&rft.aulast=O%27Malley&rft.aufirst=Charles+Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DafYzWG1FLroC%26pg%3DPA352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton2000-300"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton2000_300-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEaton2000">Eaton 2000</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNizami1970" class="citation book cs1">Nizami, K. A. (1970). Mohammad Habib; Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ">Foundation of the Delhi Sultanat</a>. A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206-1526). Vol. 5 (Second ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31870180">31870180</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131632/https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundation+of+the+Delhi+Sultanat&rft.series=A+Comprehensive+History+of+India%3A+The+Delhi+Sultanat+%28A.D.+1206-1526%29&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=The+Indian+History+Congress+%2F+People%27s+Publishing+House&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31870180&rft.aulast=Nizami&rft.aufirst=K.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_9cmAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sen2-302"><a href="#cite_ref-sen2_302-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen2013" class="citation book cs1">Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 68–102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-38060-734-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-38060-734-4"><bdi>978-9-38060-734-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Textbook+of+Medieval+Indian+History&rft.pages=68-102&rft.pub=Primus+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-9-38060-734-4&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Sailendra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> Chapman, Graham. "Religious vs. regional determinism: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire." Shared space: Divided space. Essays on conflict and territorial organization (1990): 106-134. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaborieau1985-304"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaborieau1985_304-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGaborieau1985">Gaborieau 1985</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-richardeaton-305"><a href="#cite_ref-richardeaton_305-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEaton2006">Eaton (2006)</a>, p. 11: "In 1562 Akbar abolished the practice of enslaving the families of war captives; his son Jahangir banned sending of slaves from Bengal as tribute in lieu of cash, which had been the custom since the 14th century. These measures notwithstanding, the Mughals actively participated in slave trade with Central Asia, deporting [Hindu] rebels and subjects who had defaulted on revenue payments, following precedents inherited from Delhi Sultanate" (emphasis added?). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWink199114–16,_172–174,_etc-306"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWink199114–16,_172–174,_etc_306-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWink1991">Wink 1991</a>, pp. 14–16, 172–174, etc. </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma1991" class="citation cs2">Sharma, Hari (1991), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?ei=TYMYTPfXCse0rAf8-62tCg">The real Tipu: a brief history of Tipu Sultan</a>, Rishi publications, p. 112</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+real+Tipu%3A+a+brief+history+of+Tipu+Sultan&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=Rishi+publications&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Hari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fei%3DTYMYTPfXCse0rAf8-62tCg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-phardy-308"><a href="#cite_ref-phardy_308-0">^</a> P. Hardy (1977), "Modern European and Muslim explanations of conversion to Islam in South Asia: A preliminary survey of the literature", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, Volume 109, Issue 02, pp. 177–206 </li> <li id="cite_note-Gier2014_p9-309">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gier2014_p9_309-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gier2014_p9_309-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGier2014" class="citation cs2">Gier, Nicholas F. (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0LBhBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9">The Origins of Religious Violence: An Asian Perspective</a>, Lexington Books, p. 9, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-9223-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-9223-8"><bdi>978-0-7391-9223-8</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223183131/https://books.google.com/books?id=0LBhBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false">archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023, retrieved 23 December 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Religious+Violence%3A+An+Asian+Perspective&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-9223-8&rft.aulast=Gier&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0LBhBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988">: 'Quite apart from Akbar, most Indian medieval communities experienced harmonious relations, as Stuart Gordon explains: "No Muslim or Hindu enclaves were seized; populations were not expelled on the basis of religion. No prince publicly committed himself and all of his resources to the annihilation of the Other. Both Hindus and Muslims were routinely and without comment recruited into all the armies of the period."' </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2023" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Stephanie Honchell (1 August 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://origins.osu.edu/read/aurangzeb-mughal-emperor?language_content_entity=en">"Aurangzeb: Mughal Emperor"</a>. The Ohio State University. Retrieved 25 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Ohio+State+University&rft.atitle=Aurangzeb%3A+Mughal+Emperor&rft.date=2023-08-01&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Stephanie+Honchell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Forigins.osu.edu%2Fread%2Faurangzeb-mughal-emperor%3Flanguage_content_entity%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanwal2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kanwal, Fariha (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assap.wum.edu.pk/index.php/ojs/article/view/24">"Mughal Rulers' (1526-1707) Religious Tolerance Policy and its Impacts on the Society of Sub-Continent"</a>. 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Reorient. 5 (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.13169%2Freorient.5.2.0137">10.13169/reorient.5.2.0137</a>. 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Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh. p. 278. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-40126-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-40126-6"><bdi>978-90-04-40126-6</bdi></a>. 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Springer. pp. 52ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-53372-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-53372-8"><bdi>978-3-319-53372-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223183121/https://books.google.com/books?id=lhUwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 26 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+as+an+Organization%3A+Volume+One%3A+A+Strategic+Risk+Analysis+of+Ideals%2C+Heritage+and+Vision&rft.pages=52ff&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017-08-07&rft.isbn=978-3-319-53372-8&rft.au=Dipak+Basu&rft.au=Victoria+Miroshnik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlhUwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Munir-320">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Munir_320-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Munir_320-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunir2018" class="citation web cs1">Munir, Hassam (12 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/did-islam-spread-by-the-sword-a-critical-look-at-forced-conversions">"Did Islam Spread by the Sword? A Critical Look at Forced Conversions"</a>. Yaqeen Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231114042739/https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/did-islam-spread-by-the-sword-a-critical-look-at-forced-conversions">Archived</a> from the original on 14 November 2023. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139048828">10.1017/CBO9781139048828</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521514309" title="Special:BookSources/9780521514309"><bdi>9780521514309</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220503164345/https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/a-history-of-islamic-societies/22183D81CFE5E37E5DBED1A0F5AB0FB9#overview">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Islamic+Societies&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139048828&rft.isbn=9780521514309&rft.aulast=Lapidus&rft.aufirst=Ira+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fhighereducation%2Fbooks%2Fa-history-of-islamic-societies%2F22183D81CFE5E37E5DBED1A0F5AB0FB9%23overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-{{ISBN|0-19-563921-9}}-322"><a href="#cite_ref-{{ISBN|0-19-563921-9}}_322-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBasham1999">Basham 1999</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-JordensISBN_0-19-563921-9-323"><a href="#cite_ref-JordensISBN_0-19-563921-9_323-0">^</a> J. 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Retrieved 5 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Tamils&rft.pages=Li-Lii&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6445-0&rft.au=Vijaya+Ramaswamy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH4q0DHGMcjEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChatterjeeEaton2006101–115-354"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChatterjeeEaton2006101–115_354-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChatterjeeEaton2006">Chatterjee & Eaton 2006</a>, pp. 101–115. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath2001220,_226,_234-355"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath2001220,_226,_234_355-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKamath2001">Kamath 2001</a>, pp. 220, 226, 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-unescosrirang-356">^ <a href="#cite_ref-unescosrirang_356-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unescosrirang_356-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5894/">"Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231635/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5894/">Archived</a> 16 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, UNESCO </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichell199573–74-357"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichell199573–74_357-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichell1995">Michell 1995</a>, pp. 73–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichell199576–77-358">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichell199576–77_358-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichell199576–77_358-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichell1995">Michell 1995</a>, pp. 76–77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMittalThursby2005456-359"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMittalThursby2005456_359-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMittalThursby2005">Mittal & Thursby 2005</a>, p. 456. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVater201040-360"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVater201040_360-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVater2010">Vater 2010</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones20044-361"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones20044_361-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones2004">Jones 2004</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-busch29-362"><a href="#cite_ref-busch29_362-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBusch2011" class="citation book cs1">Busch, Allison (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dl0sbzehWvAC&pg=PA29">Poetry of Kings: The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976592-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976592-8"><bdi>978-0-19-976592-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223183132/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dl0sbzehWvAC&pg=PA29">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poetry+of+Kings%3A+The+Classical+Hindi+Literature+of+Mughal+India&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-976592-8&rft.aulast=Busch&rft.aufirst=Allison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDl0sbzehWvAC%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehta200547-363"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMehta200547_363-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMehta2005">Mehta 2005</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-SBBhattacherje2009-364"><a href="#cite_ref-SBBhattacherje2009_364-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhattacherje2009" class="citation book cs1">Bhattacherje, S. B. (1 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oGVSvXuCsyUC&pg=SL1-PA81">Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates</a>. Sterling. pp. A80–A81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-207-4074-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-207-4074-7"><bdi>978-81-207-4074-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223183123/https://books.google.com/books?id=oGVSvXuCsyUC&pg=SL1-PA81#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Indian+Events+%26+Dates&rft.pages=A80-A81&rft.pub=Sterling&rft.date=2009-05-01&rft.isbn=978-81-207-4074-7&rft.aulast=Bhattacherje&rft.aufirst=S.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoGVSvXuCsyUC%26pg%3DSL1-PA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehta2005204-365"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMehta2005204_365-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMehta2005">Mehta 2005</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-XWiACEwPR8C_p.16-366"><a href="#cite_ref-XWiACEwPR8C_p.16_366-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen2019" class="citation book cs1">Sen, Sailendra Nath (24 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&q=Tukoji&pg=PR22">An Advanced History of Modern India</a>. Macmillan India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-32885-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-32885-3"><bdi>978-0-230-32885-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223183133/https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&q=Tukoji&pg=PR22">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Advanced+History+of+Modern+India&rft.pub=Macmillan+India&rft.date=2019-01-24&rft.isbn=978-0-230-32885-3&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Sailendra+Nath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbXWiACEwPR8C%26q%3DTukoji%26pg%3DPR22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-367"><a href="#cite_ref-367">^</a> Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bharatiya Itihasa Samiti, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar – <a href="/wiki/The_History_and_Culture_of_the_Indian_People" title="The History and Culture of the Indian People">The History and Culture of the Indian People</a>: The Maratha supremacy[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> Diana Eck, Banaras: City of Light, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691020235" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691020235">978-0691020235</a>, Princeton University Press </li> <li id="cite_note-371"><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaraharinathAcharya2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yogi_Naraharinath" title="Yogi Naraharinath">Naraharinath, Yogi</a>; <a href="/wiki/Baburam_Acharya" title="Baburam Acharya">Acharya, Baburam</a> (2014). Badamaharaj Prithivi Narayan Shah ko Divya Upadesh (2014 reprint ed.). Kathmandu: Shree Krishna Acharya. pp. 4, 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-99933-912-1-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-99933-912-1-0"><bdi>978-99933-912-1-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Badamaharaj+Prithivi+Narayan+Shah+ko+Divya+Upadesh&rft.place=Kathmandu&rft.pages=4%2C+5&rft.edition=2014+reprint&rft.pub=Shree+Krishna+Acharya&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-99933-912-1-0&rft.aulast=Naraharinath&rft.aufirst=Yogi&rft.au=Acharya%2C+Baburam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HarkaG-372">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HarkaG_372-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HarkaG_372-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HarkaG_372-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/OPSA/article/download/1133/1558">Harka Gurung</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100417055323/http://www.nepjol.info/index.php/OPSA/article/download/1133/1558">Archived</a> 17 April 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; The Dalit context </li> <li id="cite_note-373"><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDharam_Vir1988" class="citation book cs1">Dharam Vir (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56">Education and Polity in Nepal: An Asian Experiment</a>. Northern Book Centre. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85119-39-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-85119-39-7"><bdi>978-81-85119-39-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201001113713/https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56%2F">Archived</a> from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 2 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Education+and+Polity+in+Nepal%3A+An+Asian+Experiment&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Northern+Book+Centre&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-81-85119-39-7&rft.au=Dharam+Vir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyEHODCDK-8kC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-374"><a href="#cite_ref-374">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorgström1980" class="citation book cs1">Borgström, Bengt-Erik (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DxY1AAAAIAAJ">The patron and the panca: village values and pancayat democracy in Nepal</a>. Vikas House. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7069-0997-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7069-0997-5"><bdi>978-0-7069-0997-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223184131/https://books.google.com/books?id=DxY1AAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+patron+and+the+panca%3A+village+values+and+pancayat+democracy+in+Nepal&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Vikas+House&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-7069-0997-5&rft.aulast=Borgstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Bengt-Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDxY1AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-375"><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethencourt1992" class="citation journal cs1">Bethencourt, Francisco (1992). "The Auto da Fe: Ritual and Imagery". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. 55. The Warburg Institute: 155–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F751421">10.2307/751421</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/751421">751421</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:192167324">192167324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Warburg+and+Courtauld+Institutes&rft.atitle=The+Auto+da+Fe%3A+Ritual+and+Imagery&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=155-168&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A192167324%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F751421%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F751421&rft.aulast=Bethencourt&rft.aufirst=Francisco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-376"><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/little-known-history-of-goa-and-the-portuguese-inquistion/">"Goa Inquisition and massacre of Native Hindus by Portuguese | Sanskriti - Hinduism and Indian Culture Website"</a>. 29 April 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231003052655/https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/little-known-history-of-goa-and-the-portuguese-inquistion/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Goa+Inquisition+and+massacre+of+Native+Hindus+by+Portuguese+%7C+Sanskriti+-+Hinduism+and+Indian+Culture+Website&rft.date=2014-04-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sanskritimagazine.com%2Flittle-known-history-of-goa-and-the-portuguese-inquistion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaravane201438-377"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaravane201438_377-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNaravane2014">Naravane 2014</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-378"><a href="#cite_ref-378">^</a> J. N. Sarkar (1919), Shivaji and his Times </li> <li id="cite_note-379"><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_William_Kaye1855" class="citation book cs1">John William Kaye, ed. (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/selectionsfromp01metcgoog">Selections from the papers of Lord Metcalfe; late governor-general of India, governor of Jamaica, and governor-general of Canada</a>. London: Smith, Elder and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selections+from+the+papers+of+Lord+Metcalfe%3B+late+governor-general+of+India%2C+governor+of+Jamaica%2C+and+governor-general+of+Canada&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+and+Co.&rft.date=1855&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fselectionsfromp01metcgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanigrahi" class="citation book cs1">Panigrahi, D. N. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a5d4PgAACAAJ">Charles Metcalfe In India: Ideas And Administration 1806–35</a>. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-215-0365-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-215-0365-5"><bdi>978-81-215-0365-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223184107/https://books.google.com/books?id=a5d4PgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charles+Metcalfe+In+India%3A+Ideas+And+Administration+1806%E2%80%9335&rft.pub=Munshiram+Manoharlal+Publishers&rft.isbn=978-81-215-0365-5&rft.aulast=Panigrahi&rft.aufirst=D.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da5d4PgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200483–84-381"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200483–84_381-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2004">Williams 2004</a>, pp. 83–84; the other major classical Indian dances are: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Chau, Satriya, Yaksagana, and Bhagavata Mela </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReginald_Massey2004177-382"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReginald_Massey2004177_382-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReginald_Massey2004">Reginald Massey 2004</a>, p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERagini_Devi1990175–180-383"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERagini_Devi1990175–180_383-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRagini_Devi1990">Ragini Devi 1990</a>, pp. 175–180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaravane2014178–181-384"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaravane2014178–181_384-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNaravane2014">Naravane 2014</a>, pp. 178–181. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack200678-385"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack200678_385-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlack2006">Black 2006</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-387"><a href="#cite_ref-387">^</a> Gulcharan Singh, "Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Principles of War", USI Journal, July 1981, Vol. 111 Issue 465, pp. 184–192 </li> <li id="cite_note-Grewal-388"><a href="#cite_ref-Grewal_388-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrewal1990" class="citation book cs1">Grewal, J. S. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216043951/http://histories.cambridge.org/extract?id=chol9780521268844_CHOL9780521268844A008">"Chapter 6: The Sikh empire (1799–1849)"</a>. The Sikhs of the Punjab. The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://histories.cambridge.org/extract?id=chol9780521268844_CHOL9780521268844A008">the original</a> on 16 February 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+The+Sikh+empire+%281799%E2%80%931849%29&rft.btitle=The+Sikhs+of+the+Punjab&rft.series=The+New+Cambridge+History+of+India&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Grewal&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistories.cambridge.org%2Fextract%3Fid%3Dchol9780521268844_CHOL9780521268844A008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-389"><a href="#cite_ref-389">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorg2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Feuerstein" title="Georg Feuerstein">Georg, Feuerstein</a> (2002). The Yoga Tradition. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 600.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Yoga+Tradition&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pages=600&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Georg&rft.aufirst=Feuerstein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarke2006209-390"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarke2006209_390-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClarke2006">Clarke 2006</a>, p. 209. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2002-391">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2002_391-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2002_391-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2002">King 2002</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2002118-392"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2002118_392-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2002">King 2002</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006114-393"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006114_393-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJonesRyan2006">Jones & Ryan 2006</a>, p. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2002119–120-394"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2002119–120_394-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2002">King 2002</a>, pp. 119–120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2002123-395"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2002123_395-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2002">King 2002</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuesse20113–4-396"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuesse20113–4_396-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuesse2011">Muesse 2011</a>, pp. 3–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoniger201018-397"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoniger201018_397-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDoniger2010">Doniger 2010</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJouhki200610–11-398"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJouhki200610–11_398-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJouhki2006">Jouhki 2006</a>, pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-399"><a href="#cite_ref-399">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodhead2016" class="citation book cs1">Woodhead, Linda (2016). Religions of the Modern World. Routledge. pp. 57, 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-85881-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-85881-6"><bdi>978-0-415-85881-6</bdi></a>. <q>The term 'Neo Hinduism' has been applied to reformed Hinduism by Paul Hacker and others. According to Hacker, the ethical values of Neo-Hinduism stem from Western philosophy and Christianity, although they are expressed in Hindu terms.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religions+of+the+Modern+World&rft.pages=57%2C+58&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-415-85881-6&rft.aulast=Woodhead&rft.aufirst=Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-400"><a href="#cite_ref-400">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams,_Raymond_Brady.2001" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Raymond Brady. (2001). An introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. 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N. (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/modernreligiousm00farquoft">Modern religious movements in India</a>. Robarts – University of Toronto. New York: Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+religious+movements+in+India&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1915&rft.aulast=Farquhar&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernreligiousm00farquoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-402"><a href="#cite_ref-402">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanhatti1995" class="citation book cs1">Banhatti, G. S. (1995). Life and philosophy of Swami Vivekananda. New Delhi: Atlantic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7156-291-4" title="Special:BookSources/81-7156-291-4"><bdi>81-7156-291-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/499226506">499226506</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+philosophy+of+Swami+Vivekananda&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Atlantic&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F499226506&rft.isbn=81-7156-291-4&rft.aulast=Banhatti&rft.aufirst=G.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-403"><a href="#cite_ref-403">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaxenab1990" class="citation book cs1">Saxenab, Gulshan Swarup (1990). Arya Samaj movement in India, 1875–1947 (1st ed.). New Delhi, India: Commonwealth Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7169-045-9" title="Special:BookSources/81-7169-045-9"><bdi>81-7169-045-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/21563139">21563139</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arya+Samaj+movement+in+India%2C+1875%E2%80%931947&rft.place=New+Delhi%2C+India&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Commonwealth+Publishers&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F21563139&rft.isbn=81-7169-045-9&rft.aulast=Saxenab&rft.aufirst=Gulshan+Swarup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-404"><a href="#cite_ref-404">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrier1967" class="citation journal cs1">Barrier, Norman G. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-20566-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-20566-9"><bdi>978-1-135-20566-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230207082452/https://books.google.com/books?id=UwvKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93">Archived</a> from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnicity%2C+Gender+and+the+Subversion+of+Nationalism&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-02-04&rft.isbn=978-1-135-20566-9&rft.aulast=Frederiksen&rft.aufirst=Bodil+Folke&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Fiona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUwvKAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-422"><a href="#cite_ref-422">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValiani2011" class="citation book cs1">Valiani, A. (11 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_XLHAAAAQBAJ">Militant Publics in India: Physical Culture and Violence in the Making of a Modern Polity</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-37063-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-37063-0"><bdi>978-0-230-37063-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223184133/https://books.google.com/books?id=_XLHAAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Militant+Publics+in+India%3A+Physical+Culture+and+Violence+in+the+Making+of+a+Modern+Polity&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011-11-11&rft.isbn=978-0-230-37063-0&rft.aulast=Valiani&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_XLHAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-423"><a href="#cite_ref-423">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerriam-Webster2000" class="citation cs2">Merriam-Webster (2000), Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia, Merriam-Webster, p. 751</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster%27s+Collegiate+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=751&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Merriam-Webster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printed_sources">Printed sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Printed sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllchinErdosy1995" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Allchin" title="Raymond Allchin">Allchin, Frank Raymond</a>; Erdosy, George (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EfZRVIjjZHYC">The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States</a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37695-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37695-2"><bdi>978-0-521-37695-2</bdi></a>, retrieved 25 November 2008</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Early+Historic+South+Asia%3A+The+Emergence+of+Cities+and+States&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-37695-2&rft.aulast=Allchin&rft.aufirst=Frank+Raymond&rft.au=Erdosy%2C+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEfZRVIjjZHYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2007" class="citation cs2">Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Horse+The+Wheel+And+Language.+How+Bronze-Age+Riders+From+the+Eurasian+Steppes+Shaped+The+Modern+World&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyalon1986" class="citation cs2">Ayalon, David (1986), Studies in Islamic History and Civilisation, BRILL, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-264-014-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-264-014-7"><bdi>978-965-264-014-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Islamic+History+and+Civilisation&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-965-264-014-7&rft.aulast=Ayalon&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyyappapanicker1997" class="citation cs2">Ayyappapanicker, ed. (1997), Medieval Indian Literature:An Anthology, Sahitya Akademi, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-260-0365-0" title="Special:BookSources/81-260-0365-0"><bdi>81-260-0365-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Indian+Literature%3AAn+Anthology&rft.pub=Sahitya+Akademi&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=81-260-0365-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasham1967" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Llewellyn_Basham" title="Arthur Llewellyn Basham">Basham, Arthur Llewellyn</a> (1967), <a href="/wiki/The_Wonder_That_was_India" class="mw-redirect" title="The Wonder That was India">The Wonder That was India</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wonder+That+was+India&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Basham&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Llewellyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasham1989" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Llewellyn_Basham" title="Arthur Llewellyn Basham">Basham, Arthur Llewellyn</a> (1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC&q=history+of+hinduism">The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism</a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507349-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507349-2"><bdi>978-0-19-507349-2</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223184204/https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC&q=history+of+hinduism#v=snippet&q=history%20of%20hinduism&f=false">archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023, retrieved 23 December 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+and+Development+of+Classical+Hinduism&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507349-2&rft.aulast=Basham&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Llewellyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2aqgTYlhLikC%26q%3Dhistory%2Bof%2Bhinduism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasham1999" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Llewellyn_Basham" title="Arthur Llewellyn Basham">Basham, Arthur Llewellyn</a> (1999), A Cultural History of India, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-563921-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-563921-6"><bdi>978-0-19-563921-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+of+India&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-563921-6&rft.aulast=Basham&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Llewellyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith2009" class="citation cs2">Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009), Empires of the Silk Road, Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13589-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13589-2"><bdi>978-0-691-13589-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+the+Silk+Road&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13589-2&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelvakarRanade1974" class="citation cs2">Belvakar, S. K.; Ranade, R. D. (1974) [1927], History of Indian philosophy</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Indian+philosophy&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Belvakar&rft.aufirst=S.+K.&rft.au=Ranade%2C+R.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhattacharya2011" class="citation book cs1">Bhattacharya, Ramkrishna (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=59eygxzQTWQC">Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata</a>. Anthem Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85728-433-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85728-433-4"><bdi>978-0-85728-433-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+the+Carvaka%2FLokayata&rft.pub=Anthem+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-85728-433-4&rft.aulast=Bhattacharya&rft.aufirst=Ramkrishna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D59eygxzQTWQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2006" class="citation book cs1">Black, Jeremy (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hNVtQY4sXYMC">A Military History of Britain: from 1775 to the Present</a>. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99039-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99039-8"><bdi>978-0-275-99039-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223184217/https://books.google.com/books?id=hNVtQY4sXYMC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+Britain%3A+from+1775+to+the+Present&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-275-99039-8&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhNVtQY4sXYMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlake_Michael1992" class="citation cs2">Blake Michael, R. 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Retrieved 13 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hinduism+Guide&rft.atitle=Hinduism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hinduism-guide.com%2Fhinduism%2Fhinduism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-418"><a href="#cite_ref-418">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGill" class="citation web cs1">Gill, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thediplomat.com/2019/02/indian-hindu-nationalisms-nepali-cousin/">"Indian Hindu Nationalism's Nepali Cousin"</a>. thediplomat.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210523063521/https://thediplomat.com/2019/02/indian-hindu-nationalisms-nepali-cousin/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=thediplomat.com&rft.atitle=Indian+Hindu+Nationalism%27s+Nepali+Cousin&rft.aulast=Gill&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthediplomat.com%2F2019%2F02%2Findian-hindu-nationalisms-nepali-cousin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/R._C._Majumdar" title="R. C. Majumdar">Majumdar, R. C.</a>; Raychauduri, H. C.; Datta, Kaukinkar (1960), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090206173606/http://dli.iiit.ac.in/cgi-bin/Browse/scripts/use_scripts/advnew/aui/bookreader/bookReader_public.cgi?path1=%2Fserver6%2Fdisk2%2FDATA%20SUBMITTED%2FAn_Advancd_History_Of_India_Part%20II%2F&first=1&last=432&barcode=5010010000259">An Advanced History of India</a>, Macmillan and Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-90298-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-90298-X"><bdi>0-333-90298-X</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dli.iiit.ac.in/cgi-bin/Browse/scripts/use_scripts/advnew/aui/bookreader/bookReader_public.cgi?path1=/server6/disk2/DATA%20SUBMITTED/An_Advancd_History_Of_India_Part%20II/&first=1&last=432&barcode=5010010000259">the original</a> on 6 February 2009, retrieved 22 October 2017</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Advanced+History+of+India&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Company&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=0-333-90298-X&rft.aulast=Majumdar&rft.aufirst=R.+C.&rft.au=Raychauduri%2C+H.+C.&rft.au=Datta%2C+Kaukinkar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdli.iiit.ac.in%2Fcgi-bin%2FBrowse%2Fscripts%2Fuse_scripts%2Fadvnew%2Faui%2Fbookreader%2FbookReader_public.cgi%3Fpath1%3D%2Fserver6%2Fdisk2%2FDATA%2520SUBMITTED%2FAn_Advancd_History_Of_India_Part%2520II%2F%26first%3D1%26last%3D432%26barcode%3D5010010000259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Walker_(author)" title="Benjamin Walker (author)">Benjamin Walker</a> Hindu World: An Encyclopaedic Survey of Hinduism, (Two Volumes), Allen & Unwin, London, 1968; Praeger, New York, 1968; Munshiram Manohar Lal, New Delhi, 1983; HarperCollins, New Delhi, 1985; Rupa, New Delhi, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-291-0670-1" title="Special:BookSources/81-291-0670-1">81-291-0670-1</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/A._L._Basham" class="mw-redirect" title="A. L. Basham">Basham, A. L.</a> (1967), <a href="/wiki/The_Wonder_That_was_India" class="mw-redirect" title="The Wonder That was India">The Wonder That was India</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wonder+That+was+India&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Basham&rft.aufirst=A.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gangooly, J. C. (1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74152">Life and religion of the Hindoos</a>, United States: Crosby, Nichols, Lee and Company</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hinduism&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_Hinduism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of Hinduism">History of Hinduism</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/hinduism/">"History of Hinduism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=History+of+Hinduism&rft.btitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Fhinduism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091029093051/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715_9/Hinduism.html">"History of Hinduism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encarta" title="Encarta">Encarta</a>. 31 October 2002. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715_9/Hinduism.html">the original</a> on 29 October 2009. Retrieved 25 November 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=History+of+Hinduism&rft.btitle=Encarta&rft.date=2002-10-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencarta.msn.com%2Fencyclopedia_761555715_9%2FHinduism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Hinduism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/ancient-medieval/early-indian-empires/a/hinduism-in-indian-culture">"The history of Hinduism (article)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Khan_Academy" title="Khan Academy">Khan Academy</a>.</cite><span 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/23px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/30px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> <a href="/wiki/File:HinduSwastika.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/14px-HinduSwastika.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/21px-HinduSwastika.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/28px-HinduSwastika.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="145" /></a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Glossary</a></li> <li>Index</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Hinduism">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Atman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rtha" title="Puruṣārtha">Puruṣārthas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion#Hindu_ethics" title="Ethics in religion">Niti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Asteya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aparigraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Aparigraha">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Damah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion#Hinduism" title="Compassion">Dayā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Āstika</a>: <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Nāstika</a>: <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="Hindu "Om" symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/100px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/150px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/200px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="507" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smṛti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_chant" title="Vedic chant">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitrayaniya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Upaveda">Upavedas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Dhanurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natyaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Sthapatyaveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">Other</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)" title="Agama (Hinduism)">Agamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads#Classification" title="Upanishads">Minor Upanishads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitisara" title="Nitisara">Nitisara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81radasm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Nāradasmṛti">Nāradasmṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81j%C3%B1avalkya_Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Yājñavalkya Smṛti">Yājñavalkya Smṛti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subhashita" title="Subhashita">Subhashita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Hinduism)">Tantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divya_Prabandham" class="mw-redirect" title="Divya Prabandham">Divya Prabandham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugal">Thiruppugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirukkural">Thirukkural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_Ramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamba Ramayanam">Kamba Ramayanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athichudi" title="Athichudi">Athichudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhirami_Antati" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhirami Antati">Abhirami Antati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedarthasamgraha" title="Vedarthasamgraha">Vedarthasamgraha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Deities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Gods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trimurti" title="Trimurti">Trimurti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dattatreya" title="Dattatreya">Dattatreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanuman" title="Hanuman">Hanuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kartikeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_gods" title="Category:Hindu gods">more</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Goddesses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tridevi" title="Tridevi">Tridevi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Parvati</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhumi_(goddess)" title="Bhumi (goddess)">Bhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali" title="Kali">Kali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavidya" title="Mahavidya">Mahavidya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrika">Matrika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukmini" title="Rukmini">Rukmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Hindu_goddess)" title="Sati (Hindu goddess)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakti" title="Shakti">Shakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shashthi" title="Shashthi">Shashthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_goddesses" title="Category:Hindu goddesses">more</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Worship_in_Hinduism" title="Worship in Hinduism">Worship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Murti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">Japa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhajan" title="Bhajan">Bhajan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naivedhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Naivedhya">Naivedhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Homa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Hinduism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">Tirthatana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sanskara_(rite_of_passage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskara (rite of passage)">Sanskaras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbhadhana" title="Garbhadhana">Garbhadhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana" title="Pumsavana">Pumsavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana_Simantonayana" title="Pumsavana Simantonayana">Simantonayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatakarma" title="Jatakarma">Jatakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81makara%E1%B9%87a" title="Nāmakaraṇa">Namakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishkramana" title="Nishkramana">Nishkramana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annaprashana" title="Annaprashana">Annaprashana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chudakarana" title="Chudakarana">Chudakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnavedha" title="Karnavedha">Karnavedha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidy%C4%81ra%E1%B9%83bha%E1%B9%83" title="Vidyāraṃbhaṃ">Vidyarambha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Upanayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keshanta" title="Keshanta">Keshanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritu_Kala_Samskaram" title="Ritu Kala Samskaram">Ritushuddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samavartanam" title="Samavartanam">Samavartanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivaah" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivaah">Vivaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antyesti" title="Antyesti">Antyeshti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Varnashrama</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashrama_(stage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashrama (stage)">Ashrama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grihastha" class="mw-redirect" title="Grihastha">Grihastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanaprastha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanaprastha">Vanaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_festivals" title="List of Hindu festivals">Festivals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holi" title="Holi">Holi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Shivaratri" title="Maha Shivaratri">Shivaratri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raksha_Bandhan" title="Raksha Bandhan">Raksha Bandhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navaratri" title="Navaratri">Navaratri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durga_Puja" title="Durga Puja">Durga Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramlila" title="Ramlila">Ramlila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayadashami" title="Vijayadashami">Vijayadashami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesh_Chaturthi" title="Ganesh Chaturthi">Ganesh Chaturthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama_Navami" title="Rama Navami">Rama Navami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Janmashtami" title="Krishna Janmashtami">Janmashtami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onam" title="Onam">Onam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pongal_(festival)" title="Pongal (festival)">Pongal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makar_Sankranti" title="Makar Sankranti">Makar Sankranti</a></li> <li>New Year <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bihu" title="Bihu">Bihu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_Padwa" title="Gudi Padwa">Gudi Padwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahela_Baishakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahela Baishakh">Pahela Baishakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puthandu" title="Puthandu">Puthandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisakhi" title="Vaisakhi">Vaisakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishu" title="Vishu">Vishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugadi" title="Ugadi">Ugadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbh_Mela" title="Kumbh Mela">Kumbh Mela</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haridwar_Kumbh_Mela" title="Haridwar Kumbh Mela">Haridwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashik-Trimbakeshwar_Simhastha" title="Nashik-Trimbakeshwar Simhastha">Nashik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayag_Kumbh_Mela" title="Prayag Kumbh Mela">Prayag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ujjain_Simhastha" title="Ujjain Simhastha">Ujjain</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ratha_Yatra_(Puri)" title="Ratha Yatra (Puri)">Ratha Yatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teej" title="Teej">Teej</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasant_Panchami" title="Vasant Panchami">Vasant Panchami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_festivals" title="Template:Hindu festivals">Others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81dhy%C4%81ya" title="Svādhyāya">Svādhyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namaste" title="Namaste">Namaste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bindi_(decoration)" title="Bindi (decoration)">Bindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilaka" title="Tilaka">Tilaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Related</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus#Etymology" title="Hindus">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Hindus" title="Lists of Hindus">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Denominations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Anti-Hindu sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Hinduism" title="Criticism of Hinduism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_gurus_and_sants" title="List of Hindu gurus and sants">Hindu gurus and sants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_studies" title="Hindu studies">Hindu studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_iconography" title="Hindu iconography">Iconography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_other_religions" title="Hinduism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Hinduism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Hinduism">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jainism and Hinduism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Sikhism" title="Hinduism and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Theosophy" title="Hinduism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_by_country" title="Hinduism by country">Hinduism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu temples">Hindu temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_temples" title="List of Hindu temples">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Architecture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:bold;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Hinduism" title="Outline of Hinduism">Outline</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Hinduism" title="Category:Hinduism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Hinduism" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Hinduism">WikiProject</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_topics" title="Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_topics" title="Template talk:Religion topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>/<a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren" title="Schwarzenau Brethren">Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#Associated_Bible_Students" title="Bible Student movement">Associated Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Bible_Students" title="Free Bible Students">Free Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Kitawala" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Kitawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laymen%27s_Home_Missionary_Movement" title="Laymen's Home Missionary Movement">Laymen's Home Missionary Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">Swedenborgianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Modernist Salafism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Illahism" title="Ali-Illahism">Ali-Illahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishikism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Alevism" title="Kurdish Alevism">Kurdish Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdawi_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdawi movement">Mahdavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milah_Abraham" title="Milah Abraham">Milah Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azali" title="Azali">Azalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm-e-Khshnoom" title="Ilm-e-Khshnoom">Ilm-e-Khshnoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdaznan" title="Mazdaznan">Mazdaznan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kurdish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Assianism/Uatsdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roshani_movement" title="Roshani movement">Roshani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvationist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto_sects_and_schools" title="Shinto sects and schools">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeung_San_Do" title="Jeung San Do">Jeungsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_M%E1%BA%ABu" title="Đạo Mẫu">Đạo Mẫu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hoahaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_B%E1%BB%ADu_S%C6%A1n_K%E1%BB%B3_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương">Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishnaism" title="Krishnaism">Krishnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sampradaya" title="Brahma Sampradaya">Brahma Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushtimarg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtimarg">Pushtimarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanandi_Sampradaya" title="Ramanandi Sampradaya">Ramanandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warkari" title="Warkari">Warkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapatya" title="Ganapatya">Ganapatya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingayatism" title="Lingayatism">Lingayatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Nath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saura_(Hinduism)" title="Saura (Hinduism)">Sauraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mat" title="Sant Mat">Sant Mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Neo-Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Amidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Neo-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_people#Religion" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kirat Mundhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda#Religion" title="Vedda">Vedda religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidassia" title="Ravidassia">Ravidassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sects_of_Sikhism" title="Sects of Sikhism">Sects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_creation_myth" title="Tungusic creation myth">Tungusic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenks#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarna_(place)" title="Sarna (place)">Sarnaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Batak Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayak_people#Religion_and_festivals" title="Dayak people">Dayak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Sabahan_religions" title="Traditional Sabahan religions">Traditional Sabahan religions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indonesian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_Kepercayaan" title="Aliran Kepercayaan">Aliran Kepercayaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapitayan" title="Kapitayan">Kapitayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemena" title="Pemena">Karo Pemena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine Dayawism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Sumbese Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sundanese Wiwitan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaskan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Anishinaabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe#Spiritual_beliefs" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache#Religion" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_religion" title="Pomo religion">Pomo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_religion" title="Crow religion">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Cherokee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people#Religion" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Muscogee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_mythology" title="Seneca mythology">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyandot religion">Wyandot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_peoples#Religion" title="Jivaroan peoples">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_religion" title="Purépecha religion">Purépecha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo#Spiritual_and_religious_beliefs" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology" title="Nuu-chah-nulth mythology">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_religion" title="Pueblo religion">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo#Religion" title="Acoma Pueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux#Religion" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_religion" title="Lakota religion">Lakota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology" title="Tsimshian mythology">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_mythology" title="Ute mythology">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions#Washat_Dreamers_Religion" title="Native American religions">Washat Dreamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui#Yaqui_cosmology_and_religion" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Hmongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Guanche church</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Sub-Saharan African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Akamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogon religion">Dogon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_people" title="Ik people">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotuko_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotuko mythology">Lotuko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Odinala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_mythology" title="Tumbuka mythology">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waaqeffanna" title="Waaqeffanna">Waaqeffanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">Diasporic</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_Orisha" title="Trinidad Orisha">Trinidad Orisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Siberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syncretic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Religion" title="Coconut Religion">Coconut Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meivazhi" title="Meivazhi">Meivazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modekngei" title="Modekngei">Modekngei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roerichism" title="Roerichism">Roerichism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensegrity_(Castaneda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensegrity (Castaneda)">Tensegrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Theosophy" title="Neo-Theosophy">Neo-Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Yoga" title="Agni Yoga">Agni Yoga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">White Brotherhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern paganism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetanism" title="Hetanism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Xabze" title="Adyghe Xabze">Circassian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(modern_religion)" title="Hellenism (modern religion)">Hellenism (modern religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Roman_religion" title="Reconstructionist Roman religion">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Authentism" title="Russian Authentism">Authentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Finnish_paganism" title="Modern Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_religion" title="Mari religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzyan_native_religion" title="Erzyan native religion">Erzya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">De novo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eckankar" title="Eckankar">Eckankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jediism" title="Jediism">Jediism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology" title="Scientology">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historical religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Religion" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians#Spiritual_culture" title="Fuegians">Fuegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(religion)" title="Orphism (religion)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#System_of_beliefs" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Harappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederacy#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Confederacy">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Jamaican Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_Indigenous_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauruan Indigenous religion">Nauruan Indigenous religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian mythology">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_III_Era#Culture_and_religion" title="Basketmaker III Era">Ancestral Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_II_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo II Period">Pueblo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_III_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo III Period">Pueblo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_IV_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo IV Period">Pueblo IV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cult of Magna Mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu#Religion" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization#Religion_and_Myth" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Religious_disaffiliation" title="Religious disaffiliation">Disaffiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_to_prayer" title="Call to prayer">Call to prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(religion)" title="Covenant (religion)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">Denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novice" title="Novice">Novice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Bodies of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains" title="Sacred mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">Trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_religion" title="Water and religion">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Astral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Place</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_and_society" title="Category:Religion and society">Religion and society</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_agriculture" title="Religion and agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_business" title="Religion and business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_assimilation" title="Religious assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_religion" title="Growth of religion">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_happiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_church" title="National church">National church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">National religiosity levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_politics" title="Religion in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_populations" title="List of religious populations">Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiocentrism" title="Religiocentrism">Religiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_video_games" title="Religion and video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_and_religion" title="Wealth and religion">Wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Overviews and <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion-related_lists" title="Category:Religion-related lists">lists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_prophets_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_have_been_considered_deities" title="List of people who have been considered deities">Deification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_religion-related_articles" title="Index of religion-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_peaceful_gatherings" title="List of largest peaceful gatherings">Mass gatherings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_religion" title="Outline of religion">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions and spiritual traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Angola" title="Religion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Benin" title="Religion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Botswana" title="Religion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Religion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burundi" title="Religion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cameroon" title="Religion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Religion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Religion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chad" title="Religion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Comoros" title="Religion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Religion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eritrea" title="Religion in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eswatini" title="Religion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ethiopia" title="Religion in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Gabon" title="Religion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Gambia" title="Religion in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ghana" title="Religion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea" title="Religion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Religion in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Religion in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kenya" title="Religion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lesotho" title="Religion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liberia" title="Religion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Libya" title="Religion in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malawi" title="Religion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mali" title="Religion in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritania" title="Religion in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritius" title="Religion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco" title="Religion in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mozambique" title="Religion in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Namibia" title="Religion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niger" title="Religion in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Senegal" title="Religion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Seychelles" title="Religion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Religion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Sudan" title="Religion in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sudan" title="Religion in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tanzania" title="Religion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Togo" title="Religion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tunisia" title="Religion in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uganda" title="Religion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zambia" title="Religion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bahrain" title="Religion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bhutan" title="Religion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brunei" title="Religion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cambodia" title="Religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cyprus" title="Religion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_East_Timor" title="Religion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jordan" title="Religion in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Korea" title="Religion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kuwait" title="Religion in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Religion in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Laos" title="Religion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Maldives" title="Religion in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oman" title="Religion in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Philippines" title="Religion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Qatar" title="Religion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Religion in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tajikistan" title="Religion in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Thailand" title="Religion in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkmenistan" title="Religion in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Religion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uzbekistan" title="Religion in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Yemen" title="Religion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Europe" title="Religion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andorra" title="Religion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bulgaria" title="Religion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Croatia" title="Religion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Denmark" title="Religion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Estonia" title="Religion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Greece" title="Religion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hungary" title="Religion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kosovo" title="Religion in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Latvia" title="Religion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Religion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malta" title="Religion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Moldova" title="Religion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Religion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Portugal" title="Religion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Romania" title="Religion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_San_Marino" title="Religion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Serbia" title="Religion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovakia" title="Religion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia" title="Religion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden" title="Religion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Religion in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Religion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Barbados" title="Religion in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belize" title="Religion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Religion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cuba" title="Religion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Dominica" title="Religion in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_El_Salvador" title="Religion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guatemala" title="Religion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Haiti" title="Religion in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Honduras" title="Religion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jamaica" title="Religion in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Panama" title="Religion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Religion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Zealand" title="Religion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Palau" title="Religion in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Religion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Samoa" title="Religion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Religion in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tonga" title="Religion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tuvalu" title="Religion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vanuatu" title="Religion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_America" title="Religion in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Argentina" title="Religion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bolivia" title="Religion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brazil" title="Religion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chile" title="Religion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Colombia" title="Religion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ecuador" title="Religion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guyana" title="Religion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Paraguay" title="Religion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Peru" title="Religion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Suriname" title="Religion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uruguay" title="Religion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Venezuela" title="Religion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion" title="Category:Religion">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_religions" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_religions" title="Template:History of religions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_religions" title="Template talk:History of religions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_religions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of religions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">List of religions and spiritual traditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="History of the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rastafari" title="History of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Amerindian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shintoism#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Shintoism">Shinto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism#History" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism#Origins" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wicca" title="History of Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Thought" title="History of New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Kardecist spiritism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Near East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic religion">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Illyro-thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Hinduism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Evolutionary origin of religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atheism" title="History of atheism">History of atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theology" title="History of theology">History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a 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Template:Refn"," 3.51% 144.772 1 Template:IAST"," 3.46% 142.839 1 Template:Transliteration"," 3.40% 140.319 13 Template:Cite_journal"," 2.96% 122.142 1 Template:Hinduism_small"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.762","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":17561079,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAkhtar\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllchinErdosy1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrea_Nippard\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAnthony2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAyalon1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAyyappapanicker1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBanhatti1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarrier1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBasham1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBasham1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBasham1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeckwith2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBelvakarRanade1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenichou2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBethencourt1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhattacharya2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhattacherje2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlake_Michael1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBongard-Levin1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBonnefoy1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorgström1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrodd2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBronkhorst2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBronkhorst2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBronkhorst2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBronkhorst2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBronkhorst2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryant2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurley2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBusch2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampagna\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChatterjeeEaton2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarke2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFComans2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCousins2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrangle1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCœdès1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Christian2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeutschDalvi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDharam_Vir1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDipak_BasuVictoria_Miroshnik2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoniger2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuchesne-Guillemin1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaton2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaton2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmbree1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarquhar1915\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeuersteinKakFrawley2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisher2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlood1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlood2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFort1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFowler1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFowler2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrederiksenWilson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFritzMichell2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuller2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaborieau1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGellmanHartman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorg2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhurye1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGier2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGill\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiordan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiri\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGombrich1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGombrich2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGomez2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrewal1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHacker1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalbfass1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeesterman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiltebeitel2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiltebeitel2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoldrege2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHopfeWoodward2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInden1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIyer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJamisonWitzel1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarrigeGerryMeadow1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJavidJāvīdJaveed2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJean_Filliozat\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_William_Kaye1855\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesRyan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesRyan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJouhki2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK._D._Bajpai2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamath2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKanwal2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhanna2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinra2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlostermaier2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKramer1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrishanTadikonda1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulkeRothermund2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuwayama1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaderman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapidus2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittleton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLockard2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLorenzen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahadevan1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahadevan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajumdar1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallory1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathpal1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMahan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcRae2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMehta2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeltonBaumann2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenon2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerriam-Webster2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichaels2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichell1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichell1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinor1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMishra2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMisra2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMithen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMittalThursby2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuesse2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuesse2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMukherjee_et_al.2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMunir2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNakamura2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaraharinathAcharya2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaravane2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarayanan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeusner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNilakanta_Sastri1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNilakanta_Sastri2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNizami1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Malley1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOsborne2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPande2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanigrahi\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanikkar2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParanjpe2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaulPaul1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPratt1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPujarRaoRaghunandan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRagini_Devi1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaju1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRam-Prasad2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRanbir_Vohra2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReginald_Massey2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenard2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRinehart2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodríguez_Adradosde_Bloisvan_Dijk2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoodurmum2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahoo1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarma1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaxenab1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheepers2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShamshad2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShankara\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharf1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharf1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShawJameson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShiva_Prakash1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimoons1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSjoberg1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmart1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmart1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmart2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrinivasan1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaal1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStein2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevens2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoker2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTiwari2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTiwari2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTripathi1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner1996-B\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValiani2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVater2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVijay_Nath2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVijaya_Ramaswamy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWagoner1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelbon2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWerner2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams,_Raymond_Brady.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWink1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodhead2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Buitenen2013\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"=\"] = 1,\n [\"Attribution needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 7,\n [\"Circa\"] = 45,\n [\"Citation\"] = 120,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 90,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 25,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 9,\n [\"Efn-ua\"] = 27,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 10,\n [\"Gallery\"] = 2,\n [\"Google books\"] = 2,\n [\"Harv\"] = 11,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 69,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 59,\n [\"Hindudharma\"] = 1,\n [\"Hinduism small\"] = 1,\n [\"History of religions\"] = 1,\n [\"IAST\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 9,\n [\"Main\"] = 16,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 4,\n [\"Multipleimage\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist-ua\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 4,\n [\"Paragraph break\"] = 4,\n [\"Portalbar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pronunciation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 4,\n [\"Refn\"] = 51,\n [\"Religion topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Rquote\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 7,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 324,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Verify quote\"] = 1,\n [\"Verify source\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 12,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","540","19.1"],["?","440","15.6"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","300","10.6"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","6.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","160","5.7"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","140","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","100","3.5"],["(for generator)","100","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","80","2.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","80","2.8"],["[others]","700","24.8"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-v9sff","timestamp":"20241128015927","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of Hinduism","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_Hinduism","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1192933","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1192933","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, 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