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T. Whittaker]] * [[Alfred North Whitehead]] * [[Ernest William Barnes]] * [[Robert Alfred Herman]] }} | doctoral_students = [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]]<ref>{{MathGenealogy|id=18250}}</ref><br />[[Leslie Comrie]]<br />[[Hermann Bondi]] | notable_students = [[Georges Lemaître]]<br />[[Vibert Douglas]]<br />[[George C. McVittie]] | known_for = [[Arrow of time]]<br />[[Radiative transfer#The Eddington approximation|Eddington approximation]]<br />[[Eddington experiment]]<br />[[Classical unified field theories#Eddington's affine geometry|Eddington's affine geometry]]<br />[[Eddington limit]]<br />[[Eddington number]]<br />[[Eddington valve]]<br />[[Eddington–Dirac number]]<br />[[Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates]]<br />[[Radiation zone#Eddington stellar model|Eddington stellar model]]<br />Eddington–Sweet circulation | author_abbrev_bot = | author_abbrev_zoo = | awards = [[Royal Society]] [[Royal Medal]] (1928)<br /> [[Smith's Prize]] (1907) <br /> [[Royal Astronomical Society|RAS]] [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society|Gold Medal]] (1924)<br />[[Henry Draper Medal]] (1924) <br /> [[Bruce Medal]] (1924)<br />[[Knight Bachelor]] (1930)<br />[[Order of Merit]] (1938) | signature =  }} '''Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington''' {{postnominals|country=GBR|OM|FRS}}<ref name="frs">{{Cite journal| last1 = Plummer | first1 = H. C.| author-link = Henry Crozier Keating Plummer| title = Arthur Stanley Eddington. 1882–1944| doi = 10.1098/rsbm.1945.0007| journal = [[Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society]]| volume = 5| issue = 14| pages = 113–126| year = 1945| s2cid = 121473352}}</ref> (28 December 1882 – 22 November 1944) was an English astronomer, physicist, and mathematician. He was also a [[Philosophy of science|philosopher of science]] and a populariser of science. The [[Eddington limit]], the natural limit to the [[luminosity]] of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honour. Around 1920, he foreshadowed the discovery and mechanism of [[nuclear fusion]] processes in stars, in his paper "The Internal Constitution of the Stars".<ref name=eddington>The Internal Constitution of the Stars A. S. Eddington The Scientific Monthly Vol. 11, No. 4 (Oct., 1920), pp. 297–303 {{JSTOR|6491}}</ref><ref name=eddington2>{{cite journal|bibcode=1916MNRAS..77...16E|title=On the radiative equilibrium of the stars|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=77|pages=16–35|last1=Eddington|first1=A. S.|year=1916|doi=10.1093/mnras/77.1.16|doi-access=free}}</ref> At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington was the first to correctly speculate that the source was fusion of [[hydrogen]] into [[helium]]. Eddington wrote a number of articles that announced and explained [[Albert Einstein|Einstein's]] theory of [[general relativity]] to the English-speaking world. [[World War I]] had severed many lines of scientific communication, and new developments in German science were not well known in England. He also conducted [[Eddington experiment|an expedition]] to observe the [[solar eclipse of May 29, 1919|solar eclipse of 29 May 1919]] on the [[Príncipe|Island of Príncipe]] that provided one of the earliest confirmations of general relativity, and he became known for his popular expositions and interpretations of the theory. ==Early years== Eddington was born 28 December 1882 in [[Kendal]], [[Westmorland]] (now [[Cumbria]]), England, the son of [[Quaker]] parents, Arthur Henry Eddington, headmaster of the Quaker School, and Sarah Ann Shout.<ref>{{cite book|title=Biographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002|year=2006|publisher=The Royal Society of Edinburgh|isbn=090219884X|url=https://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf|access-date=1 April 2016|archive-date=24 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124115814/http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> His father taught at a Quaker training college in [[Lancashire]] before moving to Kendal to become headmaster of Stramongate School. He died in the [[typhoid]] epidemic which swept England in 1884. His mother was left to bring up her two children with relatively little income. The family moved to [[Weston-super-Mare]] where at first Stanley (as his mother and sister always called Eddington) was educated at home before spending three years at a preparatory school. The family lived at a house called Varzin, 42 Walliscote Road, Weston-super-Mare. A commemorative plaque on the building explains Sir Arthur's contribution to science. In 1893 Eddington entered Brynmelyn School. He proved to be a most capable scholar, particularly in mathematics and English literature. His performance earned him a scholarship to Owens College, Manchester (what was later to become the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]]), in 1898, which he was able to attend, having turned 16 that year. He spent the first year in a general course, but he turned to [[physics]] for the next three years. Eddington was greatly influenced by his physics and mathematics teachers, [[Arthur Schuster]] and [[Horace Lamb]]. At Manchester, Eddington lived at Dalton Hall, where he came under the lasting influence of the Quaker mathematician J. W. Graham. His progress was rapid, winning him several scholarships, and he graduated with a BSc in physics with First Class Honours in 1902. Based on his performance at Owens College, he was awarded a scholarship to [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], in 1902. His tutor at Cambridge was [[Robert Alfred Herman]] and in 1904 Eddington became the first ever second-year student to be placed as [[Senior Wrangler (University of Cambridge)|Senior Wrangler]]. After receiving his M.A. in 1905, he began research on [[thermionic emission]] in the [[Cavendish Laboratory]]. This did not go well, and meanwhile he spent time teaching mathematics to first year engineering students. This hiatus was brief. Through a recommendation by [[E. T. Whittaker]], his senior colleague at Trinity College, he secured a position at the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]], where he was to embark on his career in [[astronomy]], a career whose seeds had been sown even as a young child when he would often "try to count the stars".<ref name=Douglas1956 /> [[File:Arthur Eddington.jpg|thumb|260x260px|Plaque at 42 Walliscote Road, Weston-super-Mare]] [[File:Frederick Stratton, John William Nicholson, K. Schwarzschild, Frank Watson Dyson ride in automobile.jpg|alt=Eddington are on a horse; possibly during the Fifth Conference of the International Union for Co-operation in Solar Research, held in Bonn, Germany|thumb|Eddington, right, on a toy donkey; possibly during the Fifth Conference of the International Union for Co-operation in Solar Research, held in [[Bonn|Bonn, Germany]], 1913]] ==Astronomy== In January 1906, Eddington was nominated to the post of chief assistant to the [[Astronomer Royal]] at the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]]. He left Cambridge for Greenwich the following month. He was put to work on a detailed analysis of the [[parallax]] of [[433 Eros]] on [[photographic plate]]s that had started in 1900. He developed a new statistical method based on the apparent drift of two background stars, winning him the [[Smith's Prize]] in 1907. The prize won him a fellowship of Trinity College, Cambridge. In December 1912, [[George Darwin]], son of [[Charles Darwin]], died suddenly, and Eddington was promoted to his chair as the [[Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy]] in early 1913. Later that year, [[Robert Stawell Ball|Robert Ball]], holder of the theoretical [[Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry|Lowndean chair]], also died, and Eddington was named the director of the entire [[Cambridge Observatory]] the next year. In May 1914, he was elected a [[fellow of the Royal Society]]: he was awarded the [[Royal Medal]] in 1928 and delivered the [[Bakerian Lecture]] in 1926.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=%28Surname%3D%27eddington%27%29| title = Library and Archive Catalogue| publisher = Royal Society| access-date=29 December 2010}}</ref> Eddington also investigated the interior of [[star]]s through theory, and developed the first true understanding of stellar processes. He began this in 1916 with investigations of possible physical explanations for [[Cepheid variables|Cepheid variable stars]]. He began by extending [[Karl Schwarzschild]]'s earlier work on radiation pressure in [[Lane–Emden equation|Emden polytropic models]]. These models treated a star as a sphere of gas held up against gravity by internal thermal pressure, and one of Eddington's chief additions was to show that radiation pressure was necessary to prevent collapse of the sphere. He developed his model despite knowingly lacking firm foundations for understanding opacity and energy generation in the stellar interior. However, his results allowed for calculation of temperature, [[density]] and [[pressure]] at all points inside a star (thermodynamic [[anisotropy]]), and Eddington argued that his theory was so useful for further astrophysical investigation that it should be retained despite not being based on completely accepted physics. [[James Jeans]] contributed the important suggestion that stellar matter would certainly be [[Ionization|ionized]], but that was the end of any collaboration between the pair, who became famous for their lively debates. Eddington defended his method by pointing to the utility of his results, particularly his important [[mass–luminosity relation]]. This had the unexpected result of showing that virtually all stars, including [[Giant star|giants]] and [[Dwarf star|dwarfs]], behaved as [[ideal gases]]. In the process of developing his stellar models, he sought to overturn current thinking about the sources of stellar energy. Jeans and others defended the [[Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism]], which was based on classical mechanics, while Eddington speculated broadly about the qualitative and quantitative consequences of possible proton–electron annihilation and nuclear fusion processes. Around 1920, he anticipated the discovery and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper "The Internal Constitution of the Stars".<ref name=eddington/><ref name=eddington2/> At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to Einstein's equation {{nowrap|1=''E'' = ''mc''<sup>2</sup>}}. This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even the fact that stars are largely composed of [[hydrogen]] (see [[metallicity]]), had not yet been discovered. Eddington's paper, based on knowledge at the time, reasoned that: # The leading theory of stellar energy, the contraction hypothesis (cf. the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism), should cause stars' rotation to visibly speed up due to [[conservation of angular momentum]]. But observations of [[Cepheid]] variable stars showed this was not happening. # The only other known plausible source of energy was conversion of matter to energy; Einstein had shown some years earlier that a small amount of matter was equivalent to a large amount of energy. # [[Francis William Aston|Francis Aston]] had also recently shown that the mass of a [[helium]] atom was about 0.8% less than the mass of the four hydrogen atoms which would, combined, form a helium atom, suggesting that if such a combination could happen, it would release considerable energy as a byproduct. # If a star contained just 5% of fusible hydrogen, it would suffice to explain how stars got their energy. (We now know that most "ordinary" stars contain far more than 5% hydrogen.) # Further elements might also be fused, and other scientists had speculated that stars were the "crucible" in which light elements combined to create heavy elements, but without more-accurate measurements of their [[atomic mass]]es nothing more could be said at the time. All of these speculations were proven correct in the following decades. With these assumptions, he demonstrated that the interior temperature of stars must be millions of degrees. In 1924, he discovered the [[Main sequence|mass–luminosity relation]] for stars (see Lecchini in ''{{section link|#Further reading}}''). Despite some disagreement, Eddington's models were eventually accepted as a powerful tool for further investigation, particularly in issues of stellar evolution. The confirmation of his estimated stellar diameters by Michelson in 1920 proved crucial in convincing astronomers unused to Eddington's intuitive, exploratory style. Eddington's theory appeared in mature form in 1926 as ''The Internal Constitution of the Stars'', which became an important text for training an entire generation of astrophysicists. Eddington's work in [[astrophysics]] in the late 1920s and the 1930s continued his work in stellar structure, and precipitated further clashes with Jeans and [[Edward Arthur Milne]]. An important topic was the extension of his models to take advantage of developments in [[quantum physics]], including the use of [[Degenerate matter|degeneracy physics]] in describing dwarf stars. ===Dispute with Chandrasekhar on the mass limit of stars=== {{main|Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute}} The topic of extension of his models precipitated his dispute with [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]], who was then a student at Cambridge. Chandrasekhar's work presaged the discovery of [[black hole]]s, which at the time seemed so absurdly non-physical that Eddington refused to believe that Chandrasekhar's purely mathematical derivation had consequences for the real world. Eddington was wrong and his motivation is controversial. Chandrasekhar's narrative of this incident, in which his work is harshly rejected, portrays Eddington as rather cruel and dogmatic. Chandra benefited from his friendship with Eddington. It was Eddington and Milne who put up Chandra's name for the fellowship for the Royal Society which Chandra obtained. An FRS meant he was at the Cambridge high-table with all the luminaries and a very comfortable endowment for research. Eddington's criticism seems to have been based partly on a suspicion that a purely mathematical derivation from relativity theory was not enough to explain the seemingly daunting physical paradoxes that were inherent to degenerate stars, but to have "raised irrelevant objections" in addition, as [[Thanu Padmanabhan]] puts it.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Padmanabhan | first1 = T.| title = The dark side of astronomy| doi = 10.1038/435020a| journal = Nature| volume = 435| issue = 7038| pages = 20–21| year = 2005|bibcode = 2005Natur.435...20P | doi-access = free}}</ref> ==Relativity== During [[World War I]], Eddington was secretary of the [[Royal Astronomical Society]], which meant he was the first to receive a series of letters and papers from [[Willem de Sitter]] regarding Einstein's theory of general relativity. Eddington was fortunate in being not only one of the few astronomers with the mathematical skills to understand general relativity, but owing to his internationalist and pacifist views inspired by his Quaker religious beliefs,<ref name=Douglas1956>{{cite book |title=The Life of Arthur Eddington |first=A. Vibert |last=Douglas |pages=92–95 |publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons |year=1956 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bw0XAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA92 }}</ref><ref name=Chandrasekhar1983>{{cite book|title=Eddington: The Most Distinguished Astrophysicist of His Time |first=Subrahmanyan|last=Chandrasekhar|pages=25–26|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1983|isbn=978-0521257466}}</ref> one of the few at the time who was still interested in pursuing a theory developed by a German physicist. He quickly became the chief supporter and expositor of relativity in Britain. He and [[Astronomer Royal]] [[Frank Watson Dyson]] organized [[Eddington experiment|two expeditions]] to observe a [[Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919|solar eclipse in 1919]] to make the first empirical test of Einstein's theory: the measurement of the deflection of light by the Sun's gravitational field. In fact, Dyson's argument for the indispensability of Eddington's expertise in this test was what prevented Eddington from eventually having to enter military service.<ref name=Douglas1956 /><ref name=Chandrasekhar1983 /> When conscription was introduced in Britain on 2 March 1916, Eddington intended to apply for an exemption as a [[conscientious objector]].<ref name=Douglas1956 /> Cambridge University authorities instead requested and were granted an exemption on the ground of Eddington's work being of national interest. In 1918, this was appealed against by the [[Ministry of National Service]]. Before the appeal tribunal in June, Eddington claimed conscientious objector status, which was not recognized and would have ended his exemption in August 1918. A further two hearings took place in June and July, respectively. Eddington's personal statement at the June hearing about his objection to war based on religious grounds is on record.<ref name=Douglas1956 /> The [[Astronomer Royal]], [[Sir Frank Dyson]], supported Eddington at the July hearing with a written statement, emphasising Eddington's essential role in the [[Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919|solar eclipse]] expedition to [[Príncipe]] in May 1919. Eddington made clear his willingness to serve in the [[Friends' Ambulance Unit]], under the jurisdiction of the British [[Red Cross]], or as a harvest labourer. However, the tribunal's decision to grant a further twelve months' exemption from military service was on condition of Eddington continuing his astronomy work, in particular in preparation for the Príncipe expedition.<ref name=Douglas1956 /><ref name=Chandrasekhar1983 /> The war ended before the end of his exemption. [[File:1919 eclipse positive.jpg|260px|thumb|right|One of Eddington's photographs of the total [[solar eclipse of 29 May 1919]], presented in his 1920 paper announcing its success, confirming [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory that light "bends"]] After the war, Eddington travelled to the island of Príncipe off the west coast of Africa to watch the [[Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919|solar eclipse of 29 May 1919]]. During the eclipse, he took pictures of the stars (several stars in the [[Hyades (star cluster)|Hyades cluster]], including [[Kappa Tauri]] of the constellation [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]) whose line of sight from the Earth happened to be near the Sun's location in the sky at that time of year.<ref name="Eddington1920"/> This effect is noticeable only during a total solar eclipse when the sky is dark enough to see stars which are normally obscured by the Sun's brightness. According to the theory of [[general relativity]], stars with light rays that passed near the Sun would appear to have been slightly shifted because their light had been curved by its gravitational field. Eddington showed that Newtonian gravitation could be interpreted to predict half the shift predicted by Einstein. Eddington's observations published the next year<ref name="Eddington1920">{{cite journal|last=Dyson|author2=Eddington, A.S.|author3=Davidson, C.R. |date=1920 |title=A Determination of the Deflection of Light by the Sun's Gravitational Field, from Observations Made at the Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919|journal= [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A]]|volume=220|issue=571–581|pages= 291–333|bibcode=1920RSPTA.220..291D|doi=10.1098/rsta.1920.0009|first =F.W.|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1432106|doi-access=free}}</ref> allegedly confirmed Einstein's theory, and were hailed at the time as evidence of general relativity over the Newtonian model. The news was reported in newspapers all over the world as a major story. Afterward, Eddington embarked on a campaign to popularize relativity and the expedition as landmarks both in scientific development and international scientific relations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sponsel|first=Alistair|date=2002|title=Constructing a 'Revolution in Science': The Campaign to Promote a Favourable Reception for the 1919 Solar Eclipse Experiments|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4028276|journal=The British Journal for the History of Science|volume=35|issue=4|pages=439–467|doi=10.1017/S0007087402004818|jstor=4028276|s2cid=145254889|issn=0007-0874}}</ref> It has been claimed that Eddington's observations were of poor quality, and he had unjustly discounted simultaneous observations at [[Sobral, Brazil]], which appeared closer to the Newtonian model, but a 1979 re-analysis with modern measuring equipment and contemporary software validated Eddington's results and conclusions.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Not Only Because of Theory: Dyson, Eddington and the Competing Myths of the 1919 Eclipse Expedition|first=Daniel|last=Kennefick|journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A |date=5 September 2007|doi=10.1016/j.shpsa.2012.07.010|arxiv=0709.0685|bibcode = 2007arXiv0709.0685K|s2cid=119203172}}</ref> The quality of the 1919 results was indeed poor compared to later observations, but was sufficient to persuade contemporary astronomers. The rejection of the results from the expedition to Brazil was due to a defect in the telescopes used which, again, was completely accepted and well understood by contemporary astronomers.<ref name="PhysToday">{{Cite journal|title=Testing relativity from the 1919 eclipse – a question of bias|first=Daniel|last=Kennefick|date=1 March 2009|journal=Physics Today|volume=62|issue=3|pages=37–42|doi=10.1063/1.3099578|bibcode = 2009PhT....62c..37K|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[File:Minutes of Eddington talk to the Del-Squared V Club.jpg|thumb|The minute book of Cambridge ∇<sup>2</sup>V Club for the meeting where Eddington presented his observations of the curvature of light around the Sun, confirming Einstein's theory of general relativity. They include the line "A general discussion followed. The President remarked that the 83rd meeting was historic".]] Throughout this period, Eddington lectured on relativity, and was particularly well known for his ability to explain the concepts in lay terms as well as scientific. He collected many of these into the ''Mathematical Theory of Relativity'' in 1923, which [[Albert Einstein]] suggested was "the finest presentation of the subject in any language." He was an early advocate of Einstein's general relativity, and an interesting anecdote well illustrates his humour and personal intellectual investment: [[Ludwik Silberstein]], a physicist who thought of himself as an expert on relativity, approached Eddington at the [[Royal Society]]'s (6 November) 1919 meeting where he had defended Einstein's relativity with his Brazil-Príncipe solar eclipse calculations with some degree of scepticism, and ruefully charged Arthur as one who claimed to be one of three men who actually understood the theory (Silberstein, of course, was including himself and Einstein as the other). When Eddington refrained from replying, he insisted Arthur not be "so shy", whereupon Eddington replied, "Oh, no! I was wondering who the third one might be!"<ref name="autogenerated1">As related by Eddington to Chandrasekhar and quoted in Walter Isaacson "Einstein: His Life and Universe", p. 262</ref> ==Cosmology== Eddington was also heavily involved with the development of the first generation of general relativistic cosmological models. He had been investigating the instability of the Einstein universe when he learned of both [[Georges Lemaître|Lemaître's]] 1927 paper postulating an expanding or contracting universe and Hubble's work on the recession of the spiral nebulae. He felt the [[cosmological constant]] must have played the crucial role in the universe's evolution from an Einsteinian steady state to its current expanding state, and most of his cosmological investigations focused on the constant's significance and characteristics. In ''The Mathematical Theory of Relativity,'' Eddington interpreted the cosmological constant to mean that the universe is "self-gauging". == Fundamental theory and the Eddington number ==  During the 1920s until his death, Eddington increasingly concentrated on what he called "[[Classical unified field theories#Eddington's affine geometry|fundamental theory]]" which was intended to be a unification of [[Quantum mechanics|quantum theory]], [[theory of relativity|relativity]], cosmology, and [[gravitation]]. At first he progressed along "traditional" lines, but turned increasingly to an almost [[numerology|numerological]] analysis of the dimensionless ratios of fundamental constants. His basic approach was to combine several fundamental constants in order to produce a dimensionless number. In many cases these would result in numbers close to 10<sup>40</sup>, its square, or its square root. He was convinced that the mass of the [[proton]] and the charge of the [[electron]] were a "natural and complete specification for constructing a Universe" and that their values were not accidental. One of the discoverers of quantum mechanics, [[Paul Dirac]], also pursued this line of investigation, which has become known as the [[Dirac large numbers hypothesis]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Srinivasan |first1=G. |title=What Are the Stars? |date=2014 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3642453021 |page=31 }}</ref> A somewhat damaging statement in his defence of these concepts involved the [[fine-structure constant]], ''α''. At the time it was measured to be very close to 1/136, and he argued that the value should in fact be exactly 1/136 for epistemological reasons. Later measurements placed the value much closer to 1/137, at which point he switched his line of reasoning to argue that one more should be added to the [[Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degrees of freedom]], so that the value should in fact be exactly 1/137, the [[Eddington number]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Whittaker|first=Edmund|date=1945|title=Eddington's Theory of the Constants of Nature|journal=The Mathematical Gazette|volume=29|issue=286|pages=137–144|doi=10.2307/3609461|jstor=3609461|s2cid=125122360 }}</ref> [[mwod:wag|Wags]] at the time started calling him "Arthur Adding-one".<ref>{{cite book|author=Kean, Sam|title=The Disappearing Spoon: And Other True Tales of Madness, Love, and the History of the World from the Periodic Table of the Elements|year=2010|location=New York|publisher=Little, Brown and Co|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cky2x4wWvEUC&pg=PT241|isbn=978-0316089081}}</ref> This change of stance detracted from Eddington's credibility in the physics community. The current CODATA value is 1/{{physconst|alphainv|after=.}} Eddington believed he had identified an algebraic basis for fundamental physics, which he termed "E-numbers" (representing a certain [[group (mathematics)|group]]&nbsp;– a [[Clifford algebra]]). These in effect incorporated [[spacetime]] into a higher-dimensional structure. While his theory has long been neglected by the general physics community, similar algebraic notions underlie many modern attempts at a [[grand unified theory]]. Moreover, Eddington's emphasis on the values of the fundamental constants, and specifically upon dimensionless numbers derived from them, is nowadays a central concern of physics. In particular, he predicted a number of hydrogen atoms in the Universe {{nowrap|136 × 2<sup>256</sup>}} ≈ {{val|1.57|e=79}}, or equivalently the half of the total number of particles protons + electrons.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barrow |first1=J. D. |last2=Tipler |first2=F. J. |title=The Anthropic Cosmological Principle |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1986 |isbn=978-0198519492 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Agvg1qD7lUkC }}</ref> He did not complete this line of research before his death in 1944; his book ''Fundamental Theory'' was published posthumously in 1948. === Eddington number for cycling === Eddington is credited with devising a measure of a [[Cycling|cyclist's]] long-distance riding achievements. The Eddington number in the context of cycling is defined as the maximum number E such that the cyclist has cycled at least E '''miles''' on at least E days.<ref name=Jeffers2005>{{cite journal |last1=Jeffers |first1=David |last2=Swanson |first2=John |date=November 2005 |title=How high is your ''E''? |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2058-7058/18/10/30 |journal=Physics World |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=21 |doi=10.1088/2058-7058/18/10/30 |access-date=2022-09-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tlatet.blogspot.com/2008/03/eddington-number.html|title=Eddington number|date=16 March 2008}}</ref> For example, an Eddington number of 70 would imply that the cyclist has cycled at least 70 miles in a day on at least 70 occasions. Achieving a high Eddington number is difficult, since moving from, say, 70 to 75 will (probably) require more than five new long-distance rides, since any rides shorter than 75 miles will no longer be included in the reckoning. Eddington's own life-time E-number was 84.<ref>{{cite journal |author= |date=July 2012 |title=Physics and sport |journal=Physics World |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=15 |doi=10.1088/2058-7058/25/07/24 |bibcode=2012PhyW...25g..15. |doi-access=free }}</ref> The Eddington number for cycling is analogous to the [[h-index|''h''-index]] that quantifies both the actual scientific productivity and the apparent scientific impact of a scientist.<ref name=Jeffers2005/> ==Philosophy== ===Idealism=== {{more citations needed section|date=May 2016}} Eddington wrote in his book ''The Nature of the Physical World'' that "The stuff of the world is mind-stuff." {{Blockquote|The mind-stuff of the world is, of course, something more general than our individual conscious minds ... The mind-stuff is not spread in space and time; these are part of the cyclic scheme ultimately derived out of it ... It is necessary to keep reminding ourselves that all knowledge of our environment from which the world of physics is constructed, has entered in the form of messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness ... Consciousness is not sharply defined, but fades into subconsciousness; and beyond that we must postulate something indefinite but yet continuous with our mental nature ... It is difficult for the matter-of-fact physicist to accept the view that the substratum of everything is of mental character. But no one can deny that mind is the first and most direct thing in our experience, and all else is remote inference.|Eddington, ''The Nature of the Physical World'', 276–81.}} The [[idealist]] conclusion was not integral to his epistemology but was based on two main arguments. The first derives directly from current physical theory. Briefly, mechanical theories of the ether and of the behaviour of fundamental particles have been discarded in both relativity and quantum physics. From this, Eddington inferred that a materialistic metaphysics was outmoded and that, in consequence, since the disjunction of materialism or idealism are assumed to be exhaustive, an idealistic metaphysics is required. The second, and more interesting argument, was based on Eddington's epistemology, and may be regarded as consisting of two parts. First, all we know of the objective world is its structure, and the structure of the objective world is precisely mirrored in our own consciousness. We therefore have no reason to doubt that the objective world too is "mind-stuff". Dualistic metaphysics, then, cannot be evidentially supported. But, second, not only can we not know that the objective world is nonmentalistic, we also cannot intelligibly suppose that it could be material. To conceive of a dualism entails attributing material properties to the objective world. However, this presupposes that we could observe that the objective world has material properties. But this is absurd, for whatever is observed must ultimately be the content of our own consciousness, and consequently, nonmaterial. Eddington believed that physics cannot explain [[consciousness]] - "light waves are propagated from the table to the eye; chemical changes occur in the retina; propagation of some kind occurs in the optic nerves; atomic changes follow in the brain. Just where the final leap into consciousness occurs is not clear. We do not know the last stage of the message in the physical world before it became a sensation in consciousness".<ref>{{cite book |last1=De Konick |first1=Charles |title=The Writings of Charles De Koninck Volume 1 |date=2016 |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press}}</ref> [[Ian Barbour]], in his book ''Issues in Science and Religion'' (1966), p.&nbsp;133, cites Eddington's ''The Nature of the Physical World'' (1928) for a text that argues the [[Werner Heisenberg|Heisenberg]] [[uncertainty principle]] provides a scientific basis for "the defense of the idea of human freedom" and his ''Science and the Unseen World'' (1929) for support of [[philosophical idealism]], "the thesis that reality is basically mental". [[Charles De Koninck]] points out that Eddington believed in objective reality existing apart from our minds, but was using the phrase "mind-stuff" to highlight the inherent [[intelligibility (philosophy)|intelligibility]] of the world: that our minds and the physical world are made of the same "stuff" and that our minds are the inescapable connection to the world.<ref name="de Koninck">{{Cite book | publisher = University of Notre Dame Press | isbn = 978-0-268-02595-3 | last = de Koninck | first = Charles | author-link=Charles De Koninck | title = The Writings of Charles de Koninck | location = Notre Dame, Ind. | date = 2008 | oclc = 615199716 | chapter = The philosophy of Sir Arthur Eddington and The problem of indeterminism }}</ref> As De Koninck quotes Eddington, {{Blockquote|There is a doctrine well known to philosophers that the moon ceases to exist when no one is looking at it. I will not discuss the doctrine since I have not the least idea what is the meaning of the word existence when used in this connection. At any rate the science of astronomy has not been based on this spasmodic kind of moon. In the scientific world (which has to fulfill functions less vague than merely existing) there is a moon which appeared on the scene before the astronomer; it reflects sunlight when no one sees it; it has mass when no one is measuring the mass; it is distant 240,000 miles from the earth when no one is surveying the distance; and it will eclipse the sun in 1999 even if the human race has succeeded in killing itself off before that date.|Eddington, ''The Nature of the Physical World'', 226}} ===Science=== {{see also|Indeterminism|Indeterminism#Science|label 2=Indeterminism in science}} Against [[Albert Einstein]] and others who advocated [[determinism]], indeterminism—championed by Eddington—says that a physical object has an [[ontology|ontologically]] undetermined component that is not due to the [[epistemology|epistemological]] limitations of physicists' understanding. The [[uncertainty principle]] in [[quantum mechanics]], then, would not necessarily be due to [[Hidden variable theory|hidden variables]] but to an indeterminism in nature itself.<ref name="de Koninck"/> Eddington proclaimed "It is a consequence of the advent of the quantum theory that physics is no longer pledged to a scheme of deterministic law".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bell |first1=Ian F.A. |title=Critic as Scientist The Modernist Poetics of Ezra Pound |date=2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=1898}}</ref> Eddington agreed with the tenet of [[logical positivism]] that "the meaning of a scientific statement is to be ascertained by reference to the steps which would be taken to verify it".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stanesby |first1=Derek |title=Science, Reason and Religion |date=2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |pages=38–9}}</ref> ==Popular and philosophical writings== Eddington wrote a parody of ''[[The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]]'', recounting his 1919 solar eclipse experiment. It contained the following [[quatrain]]:<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Arthur Eddington |first=A. Vibert |last=Douglas |page=44 |publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons |year=1956 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bw0XAQAAMAAJ }}</ref> <div style="text-align: center;"> {{poemquote |Oh leave the Wise our measures to collate One thing at least is certain, LIGHT has WEIGHT, One thing is certain, and the rest debate— Light-rays, when near the Sun, DO NOT GO STRAIGHT.}} </div> In addition to his textbook ''[[List of publications in physics#General|The Mathematical Theory of Relativity]]'', during the 1920s and 30s, Eddington gave numerous lectures, interviews, and radio broadcasts on relativity, and later, quantum mechanics. Many of these were gathered into books, including ''The Nature of the Physical World'' and ''New Pathways in Science''. His use of literary allusions and humour helped make these difficult subjects more accessible. Eddington's books and lectures were immensely popular with the public, not only because of his clear exposition, but also for his willingness to discuss the philosophical and religious implications of the new physics. He argued for a deeply rooted philosophical harmony between scientific investigation and religious mysticism, and also that the positivist nature of relativity and quantum physics provided new room for personal religious experience and free will. Unlike many other spiritual scientists, he rejected the idea that science could provide proof of religious propositions. His popular writings made him a household name in Great Britain between the world wars. ==Death== Eddington died of cancer in the [[Nuffield Health Cambridge Hospital|Evelyn Nursing Home]], Cambridge, on 22 November 1944.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=okRzDwAAQBAJ&q=Eddington+Evelyn+Nursing+Home%2C+Cambridge%2C+on+22+November+1944.&pg=PT320 |title=Proving Einstein Right: The Daring Expeditions that Changed How We Look at the Universe|first1= S. James|last1= Gates |first2=Cathie |last2=Pelletier|publisher=Public Affairs|isbn=978-1541762251|year=2019}}</ref> He was unmarried. His body was cremated at Cambridge Crematorium (Cambridgeshire) on 27 November 1944; the cremated remains were buried in the grave of his mother in the [[Ascension Parish Burial Ground]] in Cambridge. Cambridge University's [[North West Cambridge development]] has been named Eddington in his honour. Eddington was played by [[David Tennant]] in the television film ''[[Einstein and Eddington]]'', with Einstein played by [[Andy Serkis]]. The film was notable for its groundbreaking portrayal of Eddington as a somewhat repressed gay man. It was first broadcast in 2008. The actor [[Paul Eddington]] was a relative, mentioning in his autobiography (in light of his own weakness in mathematics) "what I then felt to be the misfortune" of being related to "one of the foremost physicists in the world".<ref>Quakers and the Arts: "Plain and Fancy"- An Anglo-American Perspective, David Sox, Sessions Book Trust, 2000, p. 65</ref> Paul's father Albert and Sir Arthur were second cousins, both great-grandsons of William Eddington (1755–1806). ==Honours== ===Awards and honors=== * [[Smith's Prize]] (1907) * International Honorary Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] (1922)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-09 |title=Arthur Stanley Eddington |url=https://www.amacad.org/person/arthur-stanley-eddington |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=American Academy of Arts & Sciences |language=en}}</ref> * [[Bruce Medal]] of Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1924)<ref>{{cite web|title=Past Winners of the Catherine Wolfe Bruce Gold Medal|url=http://astrosociety.org/membership/awards/pastbruce.html|publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific|access-date=19 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092933/http://astrosociety.org/membership/awards/pastbruce.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[Henry Draper Medal]] of the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] (1924)<ref name=Draper>{{cite web|title=Henry Draper Medal |url=http://www.nasonline.org/about-nas/awards/henry-draper-medal.html |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |access-date=19 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126003930/http://www.nasonline.org/about-nas/awards/henry-draper-medal.html |archive-date=26 January 2013 }}</ref> * [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] (1924) * International Member of the United States [[National Academy of Sciences]] (1925)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arthur Eddington |url=http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001256.html |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=www.nasonline.org}}</ref> * Foreign membership of the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]] (1926)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetype=authorDetail&aId=PE00000084 |title=A.S. Eddington (1882–1944) |publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences |access-date=25 January 2016}}</ref> * [[Prix Jules Janssen]] of the [[Société astronomique de France]] (French Astronomical Society) (1928) * [[Royal Medal]] of the [[Royal Society]] (1928) * [[Knight Bachelor|Knighthood]] (1930) * International Member of the [[American Philosophical Society]] (1931)<ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Arthur+S.+Eddington&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref> * [[Order of Merit (Commonwealth)|Order of Merit]] (1938) * Honorary member of the [[Norwegian Astronomical Society]] (1939)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.astronomi.no/?page_id=149 | title=Generalforsamling – Norsk Astronomisk Selskap }}</ref> * Hon. Freeman of [[Kendal]], 1930<ref name="WhosWho">''Who's who'' entry for A.S. Eddington.</ref> ===Named after him=== * Lunar crater [[Eddington (crater)|Eddington]] * [[asteroid]] [[2761 Eddington]] * [[Royal Astronomical Society]]'s [[Eddington Medal]] * [[Eddington mission]], now cancelled * Eddington Tower, halls of residence at the [[University of Essex]] * [[Kendal|Eddington Astronomical Society]], an amateur society based in his hometown of [[Kendal]] * Eddington, a house (group of students, used for in-school sports matches) of [[Kirkbie Kendal School]] * Eddington, new suburb of North West [[Cambridge]], opened in 2017 * Eddington Community Interest Company (CIC), 2003. A Community Centre focusing on Climate Information and projects, including a Waste Food Community Café and Larder, in partnership with SLACC (South Lakes Action on Climate Change), converting the former United Reform Church in [[Kendal]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thewestmorlandgazette.co.uk/news/23996579.kendal-town-council-aids-relocation-food-redistribution-project/ | title=Kendal's Waste into Wellbeing project finds new home | date=19 December 2023 }}</ref> ===Service=== * Gave the [[Swarthmore Lecture]] in 1929 * Chairman of the [[National Peace Council]] 1941–1943 * President of the [[International Astronomical Union]]; of the [[Physical Society of London|Physical Society]], 1930–32; of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1921–23<ref name="WhosWho"/> * [[Romanes Lecture]]r, 1922<ref name="WhosWho"/> * [[Gifford lectures|Gifford Lecturer]], 1927<ref name="WhosWho"/> ==In popular culture== * Eddington is a central figure in the [[short story]] "The Mathematician's Nightmare: The Vision of Professor Squarepunt" by [[Bertrand Russell]], a work featured in ''[[The Mathematical Magpie]]'' by [[Clifton Fadiman]]. * He was portrayed by [[David Tennant]] in the television film ''[[Einstein and Eddington]]'', a co-production of the [[BBC]] and [[HBO]], broadcast in the United Kingdom on Saturday, 22 November 2008, on BBC2. * His thoughts on humour and religious experience were quoted in the adventure game ''[[The Witness (2016 video game)|The Witness]]'', a production of the [[Thelka, Inc.]], released on 26 January 2016. * ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' placed him on the cover on 16 April 1934.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://content.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19340416,00.html|title=Sir Arthur Eddington |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> * The song “In Transit”, from the 2023 album ''Signs Of Life'' by [[Neil Gaiman]] and [[FourPlay String Quartet|Fourplay String Quartet]] was written in memory of him. ==Publications== * 1914. ''Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe''. London: Macmillan. * 1918. ''[https://archive.org/details/reportontherelat028829mbp Report on the relativity theory of gravitation]''. London, Fleetway Press, Ltd. * 1920. ''[[s:Space Time and Gravitation|Space, Time and Gravitation: An Outline of the General Relativity Theory]]''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-33709-7}} * 1922. ''The theory of relativity and its influence on scientific thought'' * 1923. 1952. [[List of publications in physics#General|The Mathematical Theory of Relativity]]. Cambridge University Press. * 1925. ''The Domain of Physical Science''. 2005 reprint: {{ISBN|1-4253-5842-X}} * 1926. ''[http://www.bibliomania.com/NonFiction/Eddington/Stars/index.html Stars and Atoms]''. Oxford: British Association. * 1926. ''The Internal Constitution of Stars''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-521-33708-9}} * 1928. ''The Nature of the Physical World''. MacMillan. 1935 replica edition: {{ISBN|0-8414-3885-4}}, University of Michigan 1981 edition: {{ISBN|0-472-06015-5}} (1926–27 [[Gifford lectures]]) * 1929. ''[https://archive.org/stream/scienceunseenwor00eddi#page/n5/mode/2up Science and the Unseen World]''. US Macmillan, UK Allen & Unwin. 1980 Reprint Arden Library {{ISBN|0-8495-1426-6}}. 2004 US reprint&nbsp;– Whitefish, Montana : Kessinger Publications: {{ISBN|1-4179-1728-8}}. 2007 UK reprint London, Allen & Unwin {{ISBN|978-0-901689-81-8}} ([[Swarthmore Lecture]]), with a new foreword by [[George Francis Rayner Ellis|George Ellis]]. * 1930. ''Why I Believe in God: Science and Religion, as a Scientist Sees It''. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDjjY8CW4QMC Arrow/scrollable preview.] * 1933. ''The Expanding Universe: Astronomy's 'Great Debate', 1900–1931''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-34976-1}} * 1935. ''New Pathways in Science''. Cambridge University Press. * 1936. ''Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons''. Cambridge Univ. Press. * 1939. ''Philosophy of Physical Science''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-7581-2054-0}} (1938 Tarner lectures at Cambridge) * 1946. ''Fundamental Theory''. Cambridge University Press. ==See also== ===Astronomy=== * [[Chandrasekhar limit]] * [[Eddington luminosity]] (also called the Eddington limit) * [[Gravitational lens]] * [[Outline of astronomy]] * [[Stellar nucleosynthesis]] * [[Timeline of stellar astronomy]] * [[List of astronomers]] ===Science=== * [[Arrow of time]] * [[Classical unified field theories]] * [[Degenerate matter]] * [[Dimensionless physical constant]] * [[Dirac large numbers hypothesis]] (also called the Eddington–Dirac number) * [[Eddington number]] * [[Introduction to quantum mechanics]] * [[Luminiferous aether]] * [[Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism]] * [[Special relativity]] * [[Theory of everything]] (also called "final theory" or "ultimate theory") * [[Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity]] * [[List of experiments]] ===People=== * [[List of science and religion scholars]] ===Other=== * [[Infinite monkey theorem]] * [[Numerology#Numerology in science|Numerology]] * [[Ontic structural realism]]<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/structural-realism/#Rel "Structural Realism"]: entry by James Ladyman in the ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''</ref> ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * Durham, Ian T., "Eddington & Uncertainty". Physics in Perspective (September&nbsp;– December). Arxiv, ''History of Physics'' * {{cite book |author=Kilmister, C. W. |title=Eddington's Search for a Fundamental Theory |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |date=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-37165-0 }} * Lecchini, Stefano, "How Dwarfs Became Giants. The Discovery of the Mass–Luminosity Relation" ''Bern Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science'', pp.&nbsp;224. (2007) * {{cite book |author=Vibert Douglas, A. |title=The Life of Arthur Stanley Eddington |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofarthurstan0000doug |url-access=registration |publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. |date=1956 }} * Stanley, Matthew. "An Expedition to Heal the Wounds of War: The 1919 Eclipse Expedition and Eddington as Quaker Adventurer." ''Isis'' 94 (2003): 57–89. * Stanley, Matthew. "So Simple a Thing as a Star: Jeans, Eddington, and the Growth of Astrophysical Phenomenology" in ''British Journal for the History of Science'', 2007, 40: 53–82. * {{cite book |author=Stanley, Matthew |title=Practical Mystic: Religion, Science, and A.S. Eddington |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-77097-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226770970 }} ==External links== {{Sister project links|auto=1|author=1|d=1}} * {{Gutenberg author | id=34163}} * {{FadedPage|id=Eddington, Arthur Stanley|name=Arthur Stanley Eddington|author=yes}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Arthur Stanley Eddington |birth=1882 |death=1944}} * {{Find a Grave|5935599|Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington}} * [http://www.trinitycollegechapel.com/about/memorials/brasses/eddington/ Trinity College Chapel] * [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Eddington.html Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882–1944)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051221113602/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Eddington.html |date=21 December 2005 }}. University of St Andrews, Scotland. * [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Quotations/Eddington.html Quotations by Arthur Eddington] * [http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedalists/eddington/ Arthur Stanley Eddington] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501073727/http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedalists/eddington/ |date=1 May 2015 }} The Bruce Medalists. * Russell, Henry Norris, "''[http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1928ApJ....67...83R Review of The Internal Constitution of the Stars] by A.S. Eddington''". Ap.J. 67, 83 (1928). * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928092625/http://www.cosmobrain.com.br/cosmoforum/viewtopic.php?t=118 Experiments of Sobral and Príncipe repeated in the space] project in proceeding in fórum astronomical. * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Eddington}} * [http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Eddington/index.html Biography and bibliography of Bruce medalists: Arthur Stanley Eddington] * [http://www.allais.wiki/priorartdocs/eddington.htm Eddington books: ''The Nature of the Physical World'', ''The Philosophy of Physical Science'', ''Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons'', and ''Fundamental Theory''] ===Obituaries=== * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/ApJ../0101//0000133.000.html Obituary 1] by [[Henry Norris Russell]], ''[[Astrophysical Journal]]'' '''101''' (1943–46) 133 * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/JRASC/0039//0000001.000.html Obituary 2] by [[A. Vibert Douglas]], ''[[Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada]],'' '''39''' (1943–46) 1 * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0105//0000068.000.html Obituary 3] by [[Harold Spencer Jones]] and [[E. T. Whittaker]], ''[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]'' '''105''' (1943–46) 68 * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0066//0000001.000.html Obituary 4] by [[Herbert Dingle]], ''[[The Observatory (journal)|The Observatory]]'' '''66''' (1943–46) 1 * ''[[The Times]]'', Thursday, 23 November 1944; pg. 7; Issue 49998; col D: Obituary (unsigned)&nbsp;– Image of cutting available at {{MacTutor Biography|id=Eddington}} {{relativity}} {{Portal bar|Biography|Physics|Mathematics|Astronomy|Stars|Spaceflight|Outer space|Solar System|Science}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Eddington, Arthur Stanley}} [[Category:1882 births]] [[Category:1944 deaths]] [[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge]] [[Category:Alumni of the Victoria University of Manchester]] [[Category:British anti–World War I activists]] [[Category:British astrophysicists]] [[Category:British conscientious objectors]] [[Category:British Christian pacifists]] [[Category:Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)]] [[Category:Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:British cosmologists]] [[Category:British Quakers]] [[Category:20th-century British astronomers]] [[Category:Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]] [[Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Knights Bachelor]] [[Category:Members of the Order of Merit]] [[Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]] [[Category:People from Kendal]] [[Category:Presidents of the Physical Society]] [[Category:Presidents of the Royal Astronomical Society]] [[Category:Recipients of the Bruce Medal]] [[Category:Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] [[Category:British relativity theorists]] [[Category:Royal Medal winners]] [[Category:Senior Wranglers]] [[Category:20th-century British physicists]] 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