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id="toc-Ancient_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_First_Intermediate_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_First_Intermediate_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>The First Intermediate Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_First_Intermediate_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greco-Roman_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greco-Roman_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Greco-Roman Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greco-Roman_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Islamic Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Egyptian astronomy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">20 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D9%83_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="علم الفلك في مصر القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الفلك في مصر القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_eg%C3%ADpcia" title="Astronomia egípcia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Astronomia egípcia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie_im_Alten_%C3%84gypten" title="Astronomie im Alten Ägypten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Astronomie im Alten Ägypten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronom%C3%ADa_egipcia" title="Astronomía egipcia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Astronomía egipcia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_Egiptoko_astronomia" title="Antzinako Egiptoko astronomia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako Egiptoko astronomia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="ستاره‌شناسی مصری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ستاره‌شناسی مصری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie_dans_l%27%C3%89gypte_antique" title="Astronomie dans l'Égypte antique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Astronomie dans l'Égypte antique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi_Mesir" title="Astronomi Mesir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Astronomi Mesir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_egizia" title="Astronomia egizia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Astronomia egizia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B9%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86" title="فكرة المصريين القدام عن الكون – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فكرة المصريين القدام عن الكون" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptisk_astronomi" title="Egyptisk astronomi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Egyptisk astronomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_%C3%AEn_Egiptul_Antic" title="Astronomia în Egiptul Antic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Astronomia în Egiptul Antic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Астрономия в Древнем Египте – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Астрономия в Древнем Египте" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staroegyptsk%C3%A1_astron%C3%B3mia" title="Staroegyptská astronómia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Staroegyptská astronómia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipatska_astronomija" title="Egipatska astronomija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Egipatska astronomija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipatska_astronomija" title="Egipatska astronomija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Egipatska astronomija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%B1s%C4%B1r_astronomisi" title="Mısır astronomisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mısır astronomisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83_%D0%84%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%96" title="Астрономія в Стародавньому Єгипті – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Астрономія в Стародавньому Єгипті" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Astronomy in Ancient Egypt</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Astronomical_Ceiling,_Tomb_of_Senenmut_MET_DT207429.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Astronomical_Ceiling%2C_Tomb_of_Senenmut_MET_DT207429.jpg/200px-Astronomical_Ceiling%2C_Tomb_of_Senenmut_MET_DT207429.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Astronomical_Ceiling%2C_Tomb_of_Senenmut_MET_DT207429.jpg/300px-Astronomical_Ceiling%2C_Tomb_of_Senenmut_MET_DT207429.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Astronomical_Ceiling%2C_Tomb_of_Senenmut_MET_DT207429.jpg/400px-Astronomical_Ceiling%2C_Tomb_of_Senenmut_MET_DT207429.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2913" data-file-height="3722" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_ceiling_of_Senenmut%27s_Tomb" title="Astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb">Astronomical ceiling</a> from the <a href="/wiki/TT71" title="TT71">Tomb of Senenmut</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XVIII Dynasty</a>, circa 1479–1458 BCE), discovered in <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>; facsimile preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goddess_Nut_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Goddess_Nut_1.JPG/200px-Goddess_Nut_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Goddess_Nut_1.JPG/300px-Goddess_Nut_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Goddess_Nut_1.JPG/400px-Goddess_Nut_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2567" data-file-height="3871" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sky_goddess" class="mw-redirect" title="Sky goddess">sky goddess</a> <a href="/wiki/Nut_(goddess)" title="Nut (goddess)">Nut</a> and human figures representing stars and constellations from the star chart in the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Ramses_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramses VI">Ramses VI</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Egyptian astronomy</b> started in <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> times, in the <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Predynastic Period</a>. In the 5th millennium BCE, the stone circles at <a href="/wiki/Nabta_Playa" title="Nabta Playa">Nabta Playa</a> may have made use of astronomical alignments. By the time the historical <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Dynastic Period</a> began in the 3rd millennium BCE, the 365 day period of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_calendar" title="Egyptian calendar">Egyptian calendar</a> was already in use, and the observation of <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> was important in determining the annual flooding of the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a> were carefully aligned towards the <a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and the temple of <a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun-Re</a> at <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a> was aligned on the rising of the <a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">midwinter</a> Sun.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a> played a considerable part in fixing the dates of <a href="/wiki/Religious_festival" title="Religious festival">religious festivals</a> and determining the hours of night, and temple <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrologers</a> were especially adept at watching the stars and observing the <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(astronomy)" title="Conjunction (astronomy)">conjunctions</a> and risings of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phase" title="Lunar phase">lunar phases</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, the Egyptian tradition merged with <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a>, with the city of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> becoming the centre of scientific activity across the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic world">Hellenistic world</a>. <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Roman Egypt</a> produced the greatest astronomer of the era, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> (90–168 CE). His works on astronomy, including the <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>, became the most influential books in the history of Western astronomy. Following the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a>, the region came to be <a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">dominated by Arabic culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Islamic astronomy</a>. </p><p>The astronomer <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Yunus" title="Ibn Yunus">Ibn Yunus</a> (c. 950–1009) observed the <a href="/wiki/Position_of_the_Sun" title="Position of the Sun">Sun's position</a> for many years using a large <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a>, and his observations on <a href="/wiki/Eclipse" title="Eclipse">eclipses</a> were still used centuries later. In 1006, <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan" title="Ali ibn Ridwan">Ali ibn Ridwan</a> observed the <a href="/wiki/SN_1006" title="SN 1006">SN 1006</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a> regarded as the brightest stellar event in <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">recorded history</a>, and left the most detailed description of it. In the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Najm_al-Din_al-Misri" title="Najm al-Din al-Misri">Najm al-Din al-Misri</a> wrote a treatise describing over 100 different types of scientific and astronomical instruments, many of which he invented himself. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Egypt">Ancient Egypt</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_astronomy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ancient Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nabta.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Nabta.gif" decoding="async" width="218" height="209" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="209" /></a><figcaption>Plan of a stone circle at Nabta, Egypt</figcaption></figure> <p>Egyptian astronomy dates back to prehistoric times. The presence of <a href="/wiki/Stone_circles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone circles">stone circles</a> at <a href="/wiki/Nabta_Playa" title="Nabta Playa">Nabta Playa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> from the <a href="/wiki/5th_millennium_BC" title="5th millennium BC">5th millennium BCE</a> show the importance of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> to the religious life of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, even in the prehistoric period. The annual <a href="/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">flooding of the Nile</a> meant that the <a href="/wiki/Heliacal_risings" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliacal risings">heliacal risings</a>, or first visible appearances of <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> at <a href="/wiki/Dawn" title="Dawn">dawn</a>, were of special interest in determining when this might occur. The 365 day period of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_calendar" title="Egyptian calendar">Egyptian calendar</a> was already in use at the beginning of <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">Egyptian history</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellation</a> system used among the <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a> also appears to have been essentially of native origin. Archaeological evidence has linked fractal geometry designs among Sub-Saharan African cultures with Egyptian cosmological signs.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The precise orientation of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian pyramid">Egyptian pyramids</a> serves as a lasting demonstration of the high degree of technical skill attained in the <a href="/wiki/3rd_millennium_BC" title="3rd millennium BC">3rd millennium BCE</a>. It has been shown<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)" title="Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)"><span title="The geographic scope near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2024)">where?</span></a></i>]</sup> the pyramids were aligned towards the <a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a>, which, because of the <a href="/wiki/Precession_of_the_equinoxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Precession of the equinoxes">precession of the equinoxes</a>, was at that time <a href="/wiki/Thuban" title="Thuban">Thuban</a>, a faint star in the constellation of <a href="/wiki/Draco_(constellation)" title="Draco (constellation)">Draco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evaluation of the site of the temple of <a href="/wiki/Amun-Re" class="mw-redirect" title="Amun-Re">Amun-Re</a> at <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a>, taking into account the change over time of the <a href="/wiki/Obliquity_of_the_ecliptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Obliquity of the ecliptic">obliquity of the ecliptic</a>, has shown that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the <a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">midwinter</a> Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year. </p><p>Astronomy played a considerable part in <a href="/wiki/Religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious">religious</a> matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the hours of the <a href="/wiki/Night" title="Night">night</a>. The titles of several temple books are preserved recording the movements and phases of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>. The rising of <a href="/wiki/Sirius" title="Sirius">Sirius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sopdet" title="Sopdet">Sopdet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sothis_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sothis (goddess)">Sothis</a>) at the beginning of the inundation was a particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most important Egyptian astronomical texts was the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Nut" title="Book of Nut">Book of Nut</a>, going back to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> or earlier. </p><p>For Ancient Egyptians, the death of a king had a strong connection to the stars. They believed once a king was deceased, their soul would rise to the heavens and become a star.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_Texts" title="Pyramid Texts">Pyramid Texts</a> describe the king ascending and becoming the <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Morning Star</a> among the Imperishable Stars of past kings.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_First_Intermediate_Period">The First Intermediate Period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_astronomy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The First Intermediate Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beginning with the <a href="/wiki/9th_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="9th Dynasty">9th Dynasty</a>, ancient Egyptians produced 'Diagonal star tables', which were usually painted on the inside surface of wooden coffin lids.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This practice continued until the <a href="/wiki/12th_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="12th dynasty">12th dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These 'Diagonal star tables' or star charts are also known as 'diagonal star clocks'. In the past they have also been known as 'star calendars', or 'decanal clocks'.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These star charts featuring the paintings of Egyptian deities, <a href="/wiki/Decan" title="Decan">decans</a>, constellations, and star observations are also found on the ceilings of tombs and temples. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lepsius-228-III-rams%C3%A8sVI-d%C3%A9tail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Lepsius-228-III-rams%C3%A8sVI-d%C3%A9tail.jpg/220px-Lepsius-228-III-rams%C3%A8sVI-d%C3%A9tail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Lepsius-228-III-rams%C3%A8sVI-d%C3%A9tail.jpg/330px-Lepsius-228-III-rams%C3%A8sVI-d%C3%A9tail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Lepsius-228-III-rams%C3%A8sVI-d%C3%A9tail.jpg/440px-Lepsius-228-III-rams%C3%A8sVI-d%C3%A9tail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>'<a href="/wiki/Star_clock" class="mw-redirect" title="Star clock">Star clock</a>' method from the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Rameses_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Rameses VI">Rameses VI</a></figcaption></figure> <p>From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of <a href="/wiki/Rameses_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Rameses VI">Rameses VI</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rameses_IX" class="mw-redirect" title="Rameses IX">Rameses IX</a> it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer in such a position that the line of observation of the <a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a> passed over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour was determined by a fixed star <a href="/wiki/Culmination" title="Culmination">culminating</a> or nearly culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as in the centre, on the left eye, on the right shoulder, etc. According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the north axis was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for astronomical observations. In careful hands, it might give results of a high degree of accuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Macrobius_Ambrosius_Theodosius" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius">Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius</a> (<i>floruit</i> 395–423 CE) attributed the planetary theory where the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">Earth rotates</a> on its axis and the interior planets <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> revolve <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">around the Sun</a> which in turn revolves around the Earth, to the ancient Egyptians. He called it the "Egyptian System", and stated that "it did not escape the skill of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a>", though there is no other evidence it was known in ancient Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 512">:  512 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greco-Roman_Egypt">Greco-Roman Egypt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_astronomy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Greco-Roman Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_Hellenistic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrology in Hellenistic Egypt">Astrology in Hellenistic Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek astronomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Astrological_Disc_LACMA_M.80.202.226_(1_of_3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Astrological_Disc_LACMA_M.80.202.226_%281_of_3%29.jpg/220px-Astrological_Disc_LACMA_M.80.202.226_%281_of_3%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Astrological_Disc_LACMA_M.80.202.226_%281_of_3%29.jpg/330px-Astrological_Disc_LACMA_M.80.202.226_%281_of_3%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Astrological_Disc_LACMA_M.80.202.226_%281_of_3%29.jpg/440px-Astrological_Disc_LACMA_M.80.202.226_%281_of_3%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2028" data-file-height="2040" /></a><figcaption>An Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">30th dynasty (Ptolemaic)</a> <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrological</a> disc at the <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Museum_of_Art" title="Los Angeles County Museum of Art">Los Angeles County Museum of Art</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Writing in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman era">Roman era</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> gives some idea of the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites: </p> <blockquote><p>And after the Singer advances the Astrologer (ὡροσκόπος), with a <i>horologium</i> (ὡρολόγιον) in his hand, and a <i>palm</i> (φοίνιξ), the symbols of astrology. He must know by heart the <a href="/wiki/Hermetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermetism">Hermetic</a> astrological books, which are four in number. Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the sun and moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the sun and moon; and one concerns their risings.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The astrologer's instruments (<i>horologium</i> and <i>palm</i>) are a <a href="/wiki/Plumb_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Plumb line">plumb line</a> and sighting instrument. They have been identified with two inscribed objects in the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Museum_of_Berlin" title="Egyptian Museum of Berlin">Berlin Museum</a>; a short handle from which a plumb line was hung, and a palm branch with a sight-slit in the broader end. In the Ancient Egyptian language they were referred to as the <i><a href="/wiki/Merkhet" title="Merkhet">merkhet</a></i> and <i>bay</i> respectively. The palm branch was held close to the eye, the plumb line in the other hand – perhaps at arm's length.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dendera_Deckenrelief_08.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Dendera_Deckenrelief_08.JPG/350px-Dendera_Deckenrelief_08.JPG" decoding="async" width="350" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Dendera_Deckenrelief_08.JPG/525px-Dendera_Deckenrelief_08.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Dendera_Deckenrelief_08.JPG/700px-Dendera_Deckenrelief_08.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4186" data-file-height="1557" /></a><figcaption>Astronomical ceiling relief from <a href="/wiki/Dendera_Temple_complex" title="Dendera Temple complex">Dendera</a>, Egypt</figcaption></figure> <p>Following <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s conquests and the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, the native Egyptian tradition of astronomy had merged with <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek astronomy</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a>. The city of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> became the centre of scientific activity throughout the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic civilization</a>. The greatest Alexandrian astronomer of this era was the Greek, <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> (c. 276–195 BCE), who calculated the size of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, providing an estimate for the circumference of the Earth. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Roman conquest of Egypt</a>, the region once again became the centre of scientific activity throughout the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. The greatest astronomer of this era was the <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenic</a> Egyptian, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Claudius Ptolemy</a> (90–168 CE). Originating from the <a href="/wiki/Thebaid" title="Thebaid">Thebaid</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>, he worked at Alexandria and wrote works on astronomy including the <i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i>, the <i>Planetary Hypotheses</i>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Tetrabiblos" title="Tetrabiblos">Tetrabiblos</a></i>, as well as the <i>Handy Tables</i>, the <i>Canobic Inscription</i>, and other works unrelated to astronomy. </p><p>Ptolemy's <i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i> (originally titled <i>The Mathematical Syntaxis</i>) is one of the most influential books in the history of Western astronomy. In this book, Ptolemy explained how to predict the behavior of the planets with the introduction of a new mathematical idea, the <a href="/wiki/Equant" title="Equant">equant</a>. </p><p>A few mathematicians of <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">late Antiquity</a> wrote commentaries on the <i>Almagest</i>, including <a href="/wiki/Pappus_of_Alexandria" title="Pappus of Alexandria">Pappus of Alexandria</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon of Alexandria</a> and his daughter <a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a>. Ptolemaic astronomy became standard in medieval western European and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Islamic astronomy</a> until it was displaced by <a href="/wiki/Maragheh_observatory" title="Maragheh observatory">Maraghan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tychonic_system" title="Tychonic system">Tychonic systems</a> by the 16th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Islamic_Egypt">Islamic Egypt</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_astronomy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Islamic Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Astronomy in medieval Islam</a></div> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a>, The region came to be <a href="/wiki/History_of_Arab_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Arab Egypt">dominated by Arabic culture</a>. It was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphates</a> up until the 10th century, when the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimids</a> founded their own <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> centred around the city of <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> in Egypt. The region once again became a centre of scientific activity, competing with <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> for intellectual dominance in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>. By the 13th century, the city of Cairo eventually overtook Baghdad as the intellectual center of the Islamic world.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Yunus" title="Ibn Yunus">Ibn Yunus</a> (c. 950–1009) observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a> with a diameter of nearly 1.4 meters. His observations on <a href="/wiki/Eclipse" title="Eclipse">eclipses</a> were still used centuries later in <a href="/wiki/Simon_Newcomb" title="Simon Newcomb">Simon Newcomb</a>'s investigations on the motion of the Moon, while his other observations inspired <a href="/wiki/Laplace" class="mw-redirect" title="Laplace">Laplace</a>'s <i>Obliquity of the Ecliptic</i> and <i>Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2009)">clarification needed</span></a> (not the title of any work by Laplace)</i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1006, <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan" title="Ali ibn Ridwan">Ali ibn Ridwan</a> observed the <a href="/wiki/SN_1006" title="SN 1006">supernova of 1006</a>, regarded as the brightest stellar event in recorded history, and left the most detailed description of the temporary star. He says that the object was two to three times as large as the disc of <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> and about one-quarter the brightness of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, and that the star was low on the southern horizon.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabic</a> <a href="/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)" title="Quadrant (instrument)">quadrant</a> was invented in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in the 11th century or 12th century, and later known in Europe as the "<a href="/wiki/Quadrans_Vetus" title="Quadrans Vetus">Quadrans Vetus</a>" (Old Quadrant).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 333">:  333 </span></sup> In 14th century <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, Najm al-Din al-Misri (c. 1325) wrote a treatise describing over 100 different types of scientific and astronomical instruments, many of which he invented himself.<sup id="cite_ref-King_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-King-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_astronomy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendera_zodiac" title="Dendera zodiac">Dendera zodiac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decans" class="mw-redirect" title="Decans">Decans</a>, Egyptian constellations.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Egyptian_astronomers" title="Category:Egyptian astronomers">Egyptian astronomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_calendar" title="Egyptian calendar">Egyptian calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian mathematics">Egyptian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History of astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Ancient Greek astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Medieval Islamic astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabta_Playa" title="Nabta Playa">Nabta Playa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sothic_cycle" title="Sothic cycle">Sothic cycle</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_astronomy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The "Hermetic" books which Clement refers to are the Egyptian theological texts, which probably have nothing to do with <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Hermetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermetism">Hermetism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_astronomy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Full version at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/100000870#fullscreen">Met Museum</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEglash1995" class="citation journal cs1">Eglash, Ron (1995). "Fractal Geometry in African Material Culture". <i>Symmetry: Culture and Science</i>. <b>6–1</b>: 174–177.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Symmetry%3A+Culture+and+Science.&rft.atitle=Fractal+Geometry+in+African+Material+Culture&rft.volume=6-1&rft.pages=174-177&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Eglash&rft.aufirst=Ron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuggles2005" class="citation book cs1">Ruggles, C.L.N. (2005). <i>Ancient Astronomy</i>. ABC-Clio. pp. 354–355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85109-477-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-85109-477-6"><bdi>1-85109-477-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Astronomy&rft.pages=354-355&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-85109-477-6&rft.aulast=Ruggles&rft.aufirst=C.L.N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrupp1988" class="citation book cs1">Krupp, E.C. (1988). "Light in the Temples". In Ruggles, C.L.N. (ed.). <i>Records in Stone: Papers in memory of Alexander Thom</i>. CUP. pp. 473–499. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-33381-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-33381-4"><bdi>0-521-33381-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Light+in+the+Temples&rft.btitle=Records+in+Stone%3A+Papers+in+memory+of+Alexander+Thom&rft.pages=473-499&rft.pub=CUP&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-521-33381-4&rft.aulast=Krupp&rft.aufirst=E.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffith1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Griffith, Francis Llewellyn (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Egypt/2_Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Egypt/2 Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–80.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egypt&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=39-80&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Francis+Llewellyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRelk2002–2003" class="citation journal cs1">Relk, Joan (2002–2003). "Ancient Egyptian astronomy: Ursa Major – symbol of rejuvenation". <i>Archaeoastronomy</i>. <b>17</b>: 64–80.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeoastronomy&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egyptian+astronomy%3A+Ursa+Major+%E2%80%93+symbol+of+rejuvenation&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=64-80&rft.date=2002%2F2003&rft.aulast=Relk&rft.aufirst=Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaulkner1969" class="citation book cs1">Faulkner, R.O. (1969). <i>The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts</i>. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. pp. 154, 155, 162, 173, 253.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Egyptian+Pyramid+Texts&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=154%2C+155%2C+162%2C+173%2C+253&rft.pub=The+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Faulkner&rft.aufirst=R.O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSymonsCockcroftBettencourtKoykka2013" class="citation web cs1">Symons, S.L.; Cockcroft, R.; Bettencourt, J.; Koykka, C. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aea.physics.mcmaster.ca/">"Ancient Egyptian Astronomy"</a>. Physics Department (Online database). <a href="/wiki/Hamilton,_Ontario" title="Hamilton, Ontario">Hamilton, Ontario</a>: <a href="/wiki/McMaster_University" title="McMaster University">McMaster University</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Astronomy&rft.place=Hamilton%2C+Ontario&rft.pub=McMaster+University&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Symons&rft.aufirst=S.L.&rft.au=Cockcroft%2C+R.&rft.au=Bettencourt%2C+J.&rft.au=Koykka%2C+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faea.physics.mcmaster.ca%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aea.physics.mcmaster.ca/index.php/en/database/diagonal-star-tables">"Diagonal star tables"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Diagonal+star+tables&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faea.physics.mcmaster.ca%2Findex.php%2Fen%2Fdatabase%2Fdiagonal-star-tables&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSymons" class="citation book cs1">Symons, S.L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130615213439/http://www2.le.ac.uk/Members/sls25/paperstarsyear/">"A star's year: The annual cycle in the Ancient Egyptian sky"</a>. In Steele, J.M. (ed.). <i>Calendars and Years: Astronomy and time in the ancient world</i>. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books. pp. 1–33. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.le.ac.uk/Members/sls25/paperstarsyear">the original</a> on 2013-06-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+star%E2%80%99s+year%3A+The+annual+cycle+in+the+Ancient+Egyptian+sky&rft.btitle=Calendars+and+Years%3A+Astronomy+and+time+in+the+ancient+world&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=1-33&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.aulast=Symons&rft.aufirst=S.L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.le.ac.uk%2FMembers%2Fsls25%2Fpaperstarsyear&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClagett1989" class="citation book cs1">Clagett, Marshall (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xKKPUpDOTKAC&pg=PA53"><i>Ancient Egyptian Science: Calendars, clocks, and astronomy</i></a>. American Philosophical Society. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-214-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-214-6"><bdi>978-0-87169-214-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Science%3A+Calendars%2C+clocks%2C+and+astronomy&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-214-6&rft.aulast=Clagett&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxKKPUpDOTKAC%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeugebauer1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_E._Neugebauer" title="Otto E. Neugebauer">Neugebauer, O.E.</a> (1975). <i>A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Birkh%C3%A4user" title="Birkhäuser">Birkhäuser</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-06995-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-06995-X"><bdi>3-540-06995-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Mathematical+Astronomy&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=3-540-06995-X&rft.aulast=Neugebauer&rft.aufirst=O.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRufus1923" class="citation magazine cs1">Rufus, W. Carl (1923). "The astronomical system of Copernicus". <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Astronomy_(US_magazine)" title="Popular Astronomy (US magazine)">Popular Astronomy</a></i>. Vol. 31. pp. 510–521. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1923PA.....31..510R">1923PA.....31..510R</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Astronomy&rft.atitle=The+astronomical+system+of+Copernicus&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=510-521&rft.date=1923&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1923PA.....31..510R&rft.aulast=Rufus&rft.aufirst=W.+Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClement_of_Alexandria" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a>. <i>Stromata</i>. vi 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stromata&rft.pages=vi+4&rft.au=Clement+of+Alexandria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeugebauer1942" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_E._Neugebauer" title="Otto E. Neugebauer">Neugebauer, O.E.</a> (1942). "Egyptian planetary texts". <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 237. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1005598">10.2307/1005598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1005598">1005598</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Egyptian+planetary+texts&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=237&rft.date=1942&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1005598&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1005598%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Neugebauer&rft.aufirst=O.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein1965" class="citation journal cs1">Goldstein, Bernard R. (1965). "Evidence for a supernova of A.D. 1006". <i>Astronomical Journal</i>. <b>70</b> (1): 105–114. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965AJ.....70..105G">1965AJ.....70..105G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F109679">10.1086/109679</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomical+Journal&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+a+supernova+of+A.D.+1006&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=105-114&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F109679&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1965AJ.....70..105G&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Bernard+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingvan_CleempoelMoreno2002" class="citation journal cs1">King, David A.; van Cleempoel, Koenraad; Moreno, Roberto (2002). "A recently discovered sixteenth-century Spanish astrolabe". <i>Annals of Science</i>. <b>59</b> (4): 331–362. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033790110095813">10.1080/00033790110095813</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144335909">144335909</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=A+recently+discovered+sixteenth-century+Spanish+astrolabe&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=331-362&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033790110095813&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144335909%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft.au=van+Cleempoel%2C+Koenraad&rft.au=Moreno%2C+Roberto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-King-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-King_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2004" class="citation journal cs1">King, David A. (June 2004). "Reflections on some new studies on applied science in Islamic societies (8th–19th centuries)". <i>Islam & Science</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Islam+%26+Science&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+some+new+studies+on+applied+science+in+Islamic+societies+%288th%E2%80%9319th+centuries%29&rft.date=2004-06&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_astronomy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClagett2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Clagett, Marshall (2004). <i>Ancient Egyptian Science: A source book</i>. Vol. Two: Calendars, Clocks, and Astronomy. American Philosophical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87169-214-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-87169-214-7"><bdi>0-87169-214-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Science%3A+A+source+book&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-87169-214-7&rft.aulast=Clagett&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranci2010" class="citation book cs1">Franci, Massimiliano (2010). <i>Astronomia egizia, Introduzione alle conoscenze astronomiche dell'antico Egitto</i>. <a href="/wiki/Firenze" class="mw-redirect" title="Firenze">Firenze</a>, IT: Edarc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-86428-94-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-86428-94-1"><bdi>978-88-86428-94-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astronomia+egizia%2C+Introduzione+alle+conoscenze+astronomiche+dell%27antico+Egitto&rft.place=Firenze%2C+IT&rft.pub=Edarc&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-88-86428-94-1&rft.aulast=Franci&rft.aufirst=Massimiliano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriskin2019" class="citation journal cs1">Priskin, Gyula (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enim-egyptologie.fr/index.php?page=enim-12&n=8">"The constellations of the Egyptian astronomical diagrams"</a>. <i>Égypte Nilotique et Méditerranéenne</i>. <b>12</b>: 137–180.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89gypte+Nilotique+et+M%C3%A9diterran%C3%A9enne&rft.atitle=The+constellations+of+the+Egyptian+astronomical+diagrams&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=137-180&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Priskin&rft.aufirst=Gyula&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enim-egyptologie.fr%2Findex.php%3Fpage%3Denim-12%26n%3D8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_astronomy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egyptian_astronomy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Egyptian astronomy">Ancient Egyptian astronomy</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSymonsCockcroftBettencourtKoykka2013" class="citation web cs1">Symons, S.L.; Cockcroft, R.; Bettencourt, J.; Koykka, C. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aea.physics.mcmaster.ca/">"Ancient Egyptian Astronomy"</a>. Physics Department (Online database). <a href="/wiki/Hamilton,_Ontario" title="Hamilton, Ontario">Hamilton, Ontario</a>: <a href="/wiki/McMaster_University" title="McMaster University">McMaster University</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Astronomy&rft.place=Hamilton%2C+Ontario&rft.pub=McMaster+University&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Symons&rft.aufirst=S.L.&rft.au=Cockcroft%2C+R.&rft.au=Bettencourt%2C+J.&rft.au=Koykka%2C+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faea.physics.mcmaster.ca%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Egypt_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#decd87"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Egypt_artifacts" title="Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts">Glossary of artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ancient_Egypt%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of ancient Egypt–related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt/Main_topics" title="Portal:Ancient Egypt/Main topics">Main topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding-left:81px"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_obelisks" title="List of Egyptian obelisks">Obelisks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pylon_(architecture)" title="Pylon (architecture)">Pylon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portraiture_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Portraiture in ancient Egypt">Portraiture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_towns_and_cities" title="List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Clothing in ancient Egypt">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy" title="Ancient Egyptian race controversy">Ancient Egyptian race controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population history of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_cuisine" title="Ancient Egyptian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Dance in ancient Egypt">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Dynasties of ancient Egypt">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary practices">Funerary practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Geography of ancient Egypt">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Royal_Wife" title="Great Royal Wife">Great Royal Wives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_royal_consorts" title="List of ancient Egyptian royal consorts">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_hieroglyphs" title="Cursive hieroglyphs">Cursive hieroglyphs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics" title="Ancient Egyptian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Military of ancient Egypt">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptians" title="List of ancient Egyptians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Titulary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_pottery" title="Ancient Egyptian pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_scribes" title="List of ancient Egyptian scribes">Scribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_sites" title="List of ancient Egyptian sites">Sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_capitals_of_Egypt" title="List of historical capitals of Egypt">Capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">District</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" title="Egypt–Mesopotamia relations">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/100px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/150px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/200px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding-left:81px"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptologists" title="List of Egyptologists">Egyptologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_of_Egyptian_antiquities" title="List of museums of Egyptian antiquities">Museums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#decd87"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/16px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/24px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/32px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt" title="Portal:Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Ancient Egypt">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Egypt">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Outline of ancient Egypt">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Ancient_Egypt" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Ancient Egypt">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Astronomy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Astronomy_navbox" title="Template:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Astronomy_navbox" title="Template talk:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Astronomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy" title="Outline of astronomy">Outline</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">Timeline</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">Astronomer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_symbols" title="Astronomical symbols">Astronomical symbols</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">Astronomical object</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Glossary</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Astronomy by</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Manner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">Amateur</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sidewalk_astronomy" title="Sidewalk astronomy">Sidewalk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Celestial subject</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Local system</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Solar</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">EM methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy" title="Submillimetre astronomy">Submillimetre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Far-infrared_astronomy" title="Far-infrared astronomy">Far-infrared</a></span>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Visible-light_astronomy" title="Visible-light astronomy">Visible-light <span style="font-size:85%;">(optical)</span></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">Ultraviolet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_X-ray_astronomy" title="History of X-ray astronomy">History</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">Gamma-ray</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Other methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">Neutrino</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy" title="Cosmic ray astronomy">Cosmic rays</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational radiation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radar_astronomy" title="Radar astronomy">Radar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spherical_astronomy" title="Spherical astronomy">Spherical</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Multi-messenger_astronomy" title="Multi-messenger astronomy">Multi-messenger</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_astronomy" title="Cultural astronomy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy" title="Australian Aboriginal astronomy">Australian Aboriginal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Egyptian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuit_astronomy" title="Inuit astronomy">Inuit</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Maya</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_Serbia" title="Astronomy in Serbia">Serbian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Serbian_folk_astronomy" title="Serbian folk astronomy">folk</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_astronomy" title="Tibetan astronomy">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">Optical<br />telescopes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_optical_telescopes" title="List of optical telescopes">List</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Telescopes" title="Category:Telescopes">Category</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_large_telescope" title="Extremely large telescope">Extremely large telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_Large_Telescope" title="Extremely Large Telescope">Extremely Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gran_Telescopio_Canarias" title="Gran Telescopio Canarias">Gran Telescopio Canarias</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hale_Telescope" title="Hale Telescope">Hale Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._M._Keck_Observatory" title="W. M. Keck Observatory">Keck Observatory</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Large_Binocular_Telescope" title="Large Binocular Telescope">Large Binocular Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Large_Telescope" title="Southern African Large Telescope">Southern African Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Telescope" title="Very Large Telescope">Very Large Telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astroinformatics" title="Astroinformatics">Astroinformatics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy" title="Astrology and astronomy">Astrology and astronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Astronomers_Monument" title="Astronomers Monument">Astronomers Monument</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">Astroparticle physics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Binoculars" title="Binoculars">Binoculars</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">Constellation</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IAU_designated_constellations" title="IAU designated constellations">IAU</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Photometry_(astronomy)" title="Photometry (astronomy)">Photometry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Planetarium" title="Planetarium">Planetarium</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">Quantum cosmology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomers" title="List of astronomers">List of astronomers</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_astronomers" title="List of French astronomers">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Notable_astronomers" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_astronomers_and_astrophysicists" title="List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers" title="List of women astronomers">Women</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescope</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_telescope" title="X-ray telescope">X-ray telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telescope" title="History of the telescope">history</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_telescopes" title="Lists of telescopes">lists</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">Zodiac</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Astronomy" title="Category:Astronomy">Category</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Astronomy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Astronomy">Commons</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Space_research_in_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Space_research_in_Africa" title="Template:Space research in Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Space_research_in_Africa" title="Template talk:Space research in Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Space_research_in_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Space research in Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Space_research_in_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Space_research" title="Space research">Space research</a> in Africa</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_space_agencies" title="List of government space agencies">Space agencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria"><img alt="Algeria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Space_Agency" title="Algerian Space Agency">ASAL</a> (Algeria)</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt"><img alt="Egypt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/15px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/23px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/30px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Authority_for_Remote_Sensing_and_Space_Sciences" title="National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences">NARSS</a> (Egypt)</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco"><img alt="Morocco" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/15px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/23px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/30px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Centre_royal_de_t%C3%A9l%C3%A9d%C3%A9tection_spatiale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Centre royal de télédétection spatiale (page does not exist)">CRTS</a> (Morocco)</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia"><img alt="Tunisia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Centre_national_de_la_cartographie_et_de_la_t%C3%A9l%C3%A9d%C3%A9tection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Centre national de la cartographie et de la télédétection (page does not exist)">CNCT</a> (Tunisia)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sub-Saharan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana"><img alt="Ghana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/15px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/30px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Space_Science_and_Technology_Centre" title="Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre">GSSTC</a> (Ghana)</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya"><img alt="Kenya" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/15px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/30px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kenya_Space_Agency" title="Kenya Space Agency">KSA</a> (Kenya)</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria"><img alt="Nigeria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Space_Research_and_Development_Agency" title="National Space Research and Development Agency">NASRDA</a> (Nigeria)</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda"><img alt="Rwanda" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg/15px-Flag_of_Rwanda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg/23px-Flag_of_Rwanda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg/30px-Flag_of_Rwanda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Rwanda_Space_Agency" title="Rwanda Space Agency">RSA</a> (Rwanda)</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/15px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/30px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/South_African_National_Space_Agency" title="South African National Space Agency">SANSA</a> (South Africa)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Initiatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cartography_of_Africa.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Cartography_of_Africa.svg/15px-Cartography_of_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Cartography_of_Africa.svg/23px-Cartography_of_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Cartography_of_Africa.svg/30px-Cartography_of_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="355" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/African_Space_Agency" title="African Space Agency">African Space Agency</a> (ASA)</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya"><img alt="Kenya" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/15px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/30px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_programme_of_Kenya" title="Space programme of Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda"><img alt="Uganda" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg/15px-Flag_of_Uganda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg/23px-Flag_of_Uganda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg/30px-Flag_of_Uganda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ugandan_space_initiatives" title="Ugandan space initiatives">Uganda</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia"><img alt="Zambia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Makuka_Nkoloso#Space_program" title="Edward Makuka Nkoloso">Zambia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observatories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Astronomical_observatories_in_Algeria" title="Category:Astronomical observatories in Algeria">in Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Astronomical_observatories_in_Namibia" title="Category:Astronomical observatories in Namibia">in Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Astronomical_observatories_in_South_Africa" title="Category:Astronomical observatories in South Africa">in South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Egyptian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_Society_of_Southern_Africa" title="Astronomical Society of Southern Africa">Astronomical Society of Southern Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt>See also</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_orbital_launches_by_country" title="Timeline of first orbital launches by country">Timeline of first orbital launches by country</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid 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