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id="toc-Precursors_to_reunification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Developments_from_1948" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_from_1948"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Developments from 1948 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_from_1948-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1952_onwards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1952_onwards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 1952 onwards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1952_onwards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Process_of_reunification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process_of_reunification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Process of reunification </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Process_of_reunification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Process of reunification subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Process_of_reunification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cooperation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooperation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Cooperation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooperation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_merger" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_merger"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Economic merger </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_merger-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_Reunification_Treaty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_Reunification_Treaty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 German Reunification Treaty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_Reunification_Treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_merger" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_merger"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Constitutional merger </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_merger-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unification_of_Berlin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unification_of_Berlin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Unification of Berlin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unification_of_Berlin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Day_of_German_Unity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Day_of_German_Unity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Day of German Unity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Day_of_German_Unity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domestic_opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Domestic opposition </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Domestic_opposition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Domestic opposition subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Domestic_opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_groups_and_figures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_groups_and_figures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Social groups and figures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_groups_and_figures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_support_and_opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_support_and_opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Foreign support and opposition </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Foreign_support_and_opposition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Foreign support and opposition subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Foreign_support_and_opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom_and_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom_and_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 United Kingdom and France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom_and_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rest_of_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rest_of_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Rest of Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rest_of_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_settlement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_settlement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Final settlement </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Final_settlement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Final settlement subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Final_settlement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-German_sovereignty_and_withdrawal_of_the_Allied_Forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_sovereignty_and_withdrawal_of_the_Allied_Forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 German sovereignty and withdrawal of the Allied Forces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_sovereignty_and_withdrawal_of_the_Allied_Forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polish_border" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polish_border"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Polish border </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polish_border-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 International effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domestic_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Domestic effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unified_Berlin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unified_Berlin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Unified Berlin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unified_Berlin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Assessment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Assessment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Assessment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cost_of_reunification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cost_of_reunification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Cost of reunification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cost_of_reunification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_and_life_satisfaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_and_life_satisfaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Views and life satisfaction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_and_life_satisfaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Comparison </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">German reunification</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 76 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-76" aria-hidden="true" > 76 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8C%80%E1%88%AD%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95_%E1%8B%B3%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%98%E1%8A%9B_%E1%88%98%E1%8B%88%E1%88%90%E1%8B%B5" title="የጀርመን ዳግመኛ መወሐድ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የጀርመን ዳግመኛ መወሐድ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="إعادة توحيد ألمانيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إعادة توحيد ألمانيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reunificaci%C3%B3n_alemana" title="Reunificación alemana – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reunificación alemana" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almaniyan%C4%B1n_birl%C9%99%C5%9Fdirilm%C9%99si_(1990)" title="Almaniyanın birləşdirilməsi (1990) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Almaniyanın birləşdirilməsi (1990)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%83%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3" title="জার্মান পুনঃএকত্রীকরণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জার্মান পুনঃএকত্রীকরণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%8B%D2%A3_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%88%D0%B5%D2%AF%D0%B5_(1990)" title="Германияның берләшеүе (1990) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Германияның берләшеүе (1990)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%E2%80%99%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%96_(1990)" title="Аб’яднанне Германіі (1990) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аб’яднанне Германіі (1990)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B7%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%9D%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Узьяднаньне Нямеччыны – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Узьяднаньне Нямеччыны" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_(1990)" title="Обединение на Германия (1990) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Обединение на Германия (1990)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reunifikacija_Njema%C4%8Dke" title="Reunifikacija Njemačke – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Reunifikacija Njemačke" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adunanidigezh_Alamagn" title="Adunanidigezh Alamagn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Adunanidigezh Alamagn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reunificaci%C3%B3_alemanya" title="Reunificació alemanya – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reunificació alemanya" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znovusjednocen%C3%AD_N%C4%9Bmecka" title="Znovusjednocení Německa – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Znovusjednocení Německa" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tysklands_genforening" title="Tysklands genforening – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tysklands genforening" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Wiedervereinigung" title="Deutsche Wiedervereinigung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Deutsche Wiedervereinigung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksamaa_taas%C3%BChinemine" title="Saksamaa taasühinemine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Saksamaa taasühinemine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Γερμανική επανένωση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γερμανική επανένωση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reunificaci%C3%B3n_alemana" title="Reunificación alemana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reunificación alemana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germania_reunui%C4%9Do" title="Germania reunuiĝo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Germania reunuiĝo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990eko_Alemaniaren_bateratzea" title="1990eko Alemaniaren bateratzea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="1990eko Alemaniaren bateratzea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="اتحاد دوباره آلمان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اتحاد دوباره آلمان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9unification_allemande" title="Réunification allemande – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réunification allemande" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reunificaci%C3%B3n_alem%C3%A1" title="Reunificación alemá – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reunificación alemá" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%85%EC%9D%BC%EC%9D%98_%EC%9E%AC%ED%86%B5%EC%9D%BC" title="독일의 재통일 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="독일의 재통일" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4_(1990)" title="Գերմանիայի միավորում (1990) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գերմանիայի միավորում (1990)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponovno_ujedinjenje_Njema%C4%8Dke" title="Ponovno ujedinjenje Njemačke – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ponovno ujedinjenje Njemačke" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyatuan_kembali_Jerman" title="Penyatuan kembali Jerman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penyatuan kembali Jerman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B8%D1%83" title="Германы баиу – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Германы баиу" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sameining_%C3%9E%C3%BDskalands" title="Sameining Þýskalands – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sameining Þýskalands" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riunificazione_tedesca" title="Riunificazione tedesca – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Riunificazione tedesca" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%97%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%93%D7%A9" title="איחוד גרמניה מחדש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="איחוד גרמניה מחדש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90_(1990)" title="გერმანიის გაერთიანება (1990) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გერმანიის გაერთიანება (1990)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muungano_wa_Kijerumani" title="Muungano wa Kijerumani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Muungano wa Kijerumani" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyinifikasyon_alman" title="Reyinifikasyon alman – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Reyinifikasyon alman" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restitutio_integritatis_Germaniae" title="Restitutio integritatis Germaniae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Restitutio integritatis Germaniae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%81cijas_atkalapvieno%C5%A1ana" title="Vācijas atkalapvienošana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Vācijas atkalapvienošana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vokietijos_susivienijimas" title="Vokietijos susivienijimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vokietijos susivienijimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuni_de_Deutxland" title="Reuni de Deutxland – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Reuni de Deutxland" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9metorsz%C3%A1g_%C3%BAjraegyes%C3%ADt%C3%A9se" title="Németország újraegyesítése – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Németország újraegyesítése" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Повторно обединување на Германија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Повторно обединување на Германија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="ജർമ്മനിയുടെ പുനരേകീകരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജർമ്മനിയുടെ പുനരേകീകരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8:%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="जर्मनीचे पुन:एकत्रीकरण – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जर्मनीचे पुन:एकत्रीकरण" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyatuan_semula_Jerman" title="Penyatuan semula Jerman – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penyatuan semula Jerman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasatuan_kumbali_Jerman" title="Pasatuan kumbali Jerman – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Pasatuan kumbali Jerman" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duitse_hereniging" title="Duitse hereniging – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Duitse hereniging" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8:_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="जर्मन पुन: एकीकरण – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जर्मन पुन: एकीकरण" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%89%E3%82%A4%E3%83%84%E5%86%8D%E7%B5%B1%E4%B8%80" title="ドイツ再統一 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ドイツ再統一" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tysklands_gjenforening" title="Tysklands gjenforening – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tysklands gjenforening" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%81%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="د جرمني بیاځلي اتحاد – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د جرمني بیاځلي اتحاد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponowne_zjednoczenie_Niemiec" title="Ponowne zjednoczenie Niemiec – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ponowne zjednoczenie Niemiec" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reunifica%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_Alemanha" title="Reunificação da Alemanha – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reunificação da Alemanha" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reunificarea_Germaniei" title="Reunificarea Germaniei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Reunificarea Germaniei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%8A%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8_(1990)" title="Объединение Германии (1990) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Объединение Германии (1990)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re-unificatzione_tedesca" title="Re-unificatzione tedesca – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Re-unificatzione tedesca" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="German reunification" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribashkimi_gjerman" title="Ribashkimi gjerman – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ribashkimi gjerman" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riunificazzioni_tudisca" title="Riunificazzioni tudisca – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Riunificazzioni tudisca" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="German reunification" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zjednotenie_Nemecka_(1990)" title="Zjednotenie Nemecka (1990) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zjednotenie Nemecka (1990)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponovna_zdru%C5%BEitev_Nem%C4%8Dije" title="Ponovna združitev Nemčije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ponovna združitev Nemčije" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%9A%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B5_1990." title="Уједињење Немачке 1990. – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Уједињење Немачке 1990." data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reunifikacija_Njema%C4%8Dke" title="Reunifikacija Njemačke – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Reunifikacija Njemačke" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksan_j%C3%A4lleenyhdistyminen" title="Saksan jälleenyhdistyminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Saksan jälleenyhdistyminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tysklands_%C3%A5terf%C3%B6rening" title="Tysklands återförening – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tysklands återförening" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muling_pag-iisang_Aleman" title="Muling pag-iisang Aleman – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Muling pag-iisang Aleman" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1989–1991 unification process of Germany</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the unification of most German states in 1871, see <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">German reunification</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a> and the <a href="/wiki/End_of_the_Cold_War" class="mw-redirect" title="End of the Cold War">end of the Cold War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><a href="/wiki/File:West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg/240px-West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg/360px-West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg/480px-West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="498" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Germans stand on top of the Wall in front of the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a> in the days before the Wall was torn down.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Native name</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"> Deutsche Wiedervereinigung<div style="clear:both;" class=""></div><a href="/wiki/Die_Wende" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Wende">Die Wende</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">9 November 1989 – 3 October 1990 (1989-11-09 – 1990-10-03)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location" style="text-align: left;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cause</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data description" style="text-align: left;">Reunification of Germany under the Federal Republic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> opened on 9 November 1989</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_East_German_general_election" title="1990 East German general election">Free elections</a> in East Germany return a pro-unification government (18 March 1990)</li> <li>East and West Germany establish a monetary union from a treaty signed 18 May 1990, effective 1 July 1990</li> <li>East Germany dissolves itself effective 3 October 1990</li> <li>East German <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A4nder" title="Länder">Länder</a> of <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg-Western_Pomerania" class="mw-redirect" title="Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania">Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxony-Anhalt" title="Saxony-Anhalt">Saxony-Anhalt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringia</a> reestablished to become states of the reunified Germany</li> <li>East German Länder join West Germany on 3 October 1990 under the Unification Treaty signed 31 August 1990</li> <li>East German territories reunify within the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a> and <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Plus_Four_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Plus Four Agreement">Two Plus Four Agreement</a> signed 12 September 1990 restores full sovereignty to Germany, effective 15 March 1991</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a> merges with <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a> to form a reunited <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> as the capital of Germany</li> <li>Reunited Germany <a href="/wiki/Legal_recognition" title="Legal recognition">legally recognises</a> the <a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Poland_border" title="Germany–Poland border">Germany–Poland border</a> in the <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Polish_Border_Treaty" title="German–Polish Border Treaty">German–Polish Border Treaty</a> of 1990</li> <li>Withdrawal of Soviet, then Russian troops completed 31 August 1994</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin-Bonn_Act" title="Berlin-Bonn Act">Relocation of the federal government to Berlin</a> completed 2000</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inter-German_Locator.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Inter-German_Locator.svg/300px-Inter-German_Locator.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Inter-German_Locator.svg/450px-Inter-German_Locator.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Inter-German_Locator.svg/600px-Inter-German_Locator.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a> (1949<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a>–1990)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germany_in_Europe_(-rivers_-mini_map).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Germany_in_Europe_%28-rivers_-mini_map%29.svg/300px-Germany_in_Europe_%28-rivers_-mini_map%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Germany_in_Europe_%28-rivers_-mini_map%29.svg/450px-Germany_in_Europe_%28-rivers_-mini_map%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Germany_in_Europe_%28-rivers_-mini_map%29.svg/600px-Germany_in_Europe_%28-rivers_-mini_map%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1401" data-file-height="1198" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> (1990–present)</figcaption></figure> German reunification (German: Deutsche Wiedervereinigung) was the process of re-establishing <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> as a single <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign state</a>, which began on 9 November 1989 and culminated on 3 October 1990 with the dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">German Democratic Republic</a> and the integration of its re-established constituent federated states into the <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Federal Republic of Germany</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">present-day Germany</a>. This date was chosen as the customary <a href="/wiki/German_Unity_Day" title="German Unity Day">German Unity Day</a>, and has thereafter been celebrated each year as a <a href="/wiki/National_day" title="National day">national holiday</a> in Germany since 1991.<a href="#cite_note-Einigungsvertrag-2">[1]</a> On the same date, <a href="/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West</a> <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> were also reunified into a single city, which eventually <a href="/wiki/Decision_on_the_Capital_of_Germany" title="Decision on the Capital of Germany">became the capital</a> of Germany. The <a href="/wiki/East_German_government" class="mw-redirect" title="East German government">East German government</a>, controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">Socialist Unity Party of Germany</a> (SED), started to falter on 2 May 1989, when the <a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria</a> opened a hole in the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a>. The border was still closely guarded, but the <a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a> and the indecisive reaction of the rulers of the Eastern Bloc set in motion an irreversible movement.<a href="#cite_note-Böhlau_Verlag-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_Roser_2018-4">[3]</a> It allowed an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany via <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Hungary">Hungary</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a>, part of the international <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">revolutions of 1989</a> including a series of protests by East German citizens, led to the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 and the <a href="/wiki/1990_East_German_general_election" title="1990 East German general election">GDR's first free elections</a> later on 18 March 1990 and then to negotiations between the two countries that culminated in a Unification Treaty.<a href="#cite_note-Einigungsvertrag-2">[1]</a> Other negotiations between the two Germanies and the four occupying powers in Germany produced the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a>, which granted on 15 March 1991 full <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> to a reunified German state, whose two parts were previously bound by a number of limitations stemming from their post-<a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> status as <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">occupation zones</a>, though only on 31 August 1994 did the last <a href="/wiki/Group_of_Soviet_Forces_in_Germany" title="Group of Soviet Forces in Germany">Russian occupation troops</a> leave Germany. After the <a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">end of World War II in Europe</a>, the old German Reich was abolished and Germany was <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">occupied</a> and divided by the four Allied countries. There was no peace treaty. Two countries emerged. The <a href="/wiki/American_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="American occupation zone in Germany">American-occupied</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="British occupation zone in Germany">British-occupied</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="French occupation zone in Germany">French-occupied</a> zones combined to form the FRG, i.e., West Germany, on 23 May 1949. The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="Soviet occupation zone in Germany">Soviet-occupied</a> zone formed the GDR, i.e., East Germany, in October 1949. The West German state <a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_NATO" title="Enlargement of NATO">joined NATO</a> in 1955. In 1990, a range of opinions continued to be maintained over whether a <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">reunited Germany</a> could be said to represent "Germany as a whole"<a href="#cite_note-5">[b]</a> for this purpose. In the context of the revolutions of 1989; on 12 September 1990, under the <a href="/wiki/Two_Plus_Four_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Plus Four Treaty">Two Plus Four Treaty</a> with the four Allies, both East and West Germany committed to the principle that their joint pre-1990 boundary constituted the entire territory that could be claimed by a government of Germany. The reunited state is not a <a href="/wiki/Successor_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Successor state">successor state</a>, but an enlarged continuation of the 1949–1990 West German state. The enlarged Federal Republic of Germany retained the West German seats in the governing bodies of the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a> (EC) (later the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>) and in international organizations including the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic Treaty Organization">North Atlantic Treaty Organization</a> (NATO) and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN), while relinquishing membership in the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> (WP) and other international organizations to which only East Germany belonged. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naming">Naming</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Naming">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-417,_Berlin,_Flaggen_vor_dem_Reichstag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-417%2C_Berlin%2C_Flaggen_vor_dem_Reichstag.jpg/300px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-417%2C_Berlin%2C_Flaggen_vor_dem_Reichstag.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-417%2C_Berlin%2C_Flaggen_vor_dem_Reichstag.jpg/450px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-417%2C_Berlin%2C_Flaggen_vor_dem_Reichstag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-417%2C_Berlin%2C_Flaggen_vor_dem_Reichstag.jpg/600px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-417%2C_Berlin%2C_Flaggen_vor_dem_Reichstag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>1990 Day of German Unity, with <a href="/wiki/Flags_of_German_states" title="Flags of German states">flags of all German states</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_building" title="Reichstag building">Reichstag building</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> The term "German reunification" was given to the process of the German Democratic Republic joining the Federal Republic of Germany with full German sovereignty from the <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">four Allied-occupied countries</a> to distinguish it from the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">process of unification of most of the German states</a> into the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> (German Reich) led by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> that took place from 18 August 1866 to 18 January 1871, 3 October 1990 was the day when Germany again became a single <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a>. However, for political and diplomatic reasons, West German politicians carefully avoided the term "<a href="/wiki/Reunification" class="mw-redirect" title="Reunification">reunification</a>" during the runup to what Germans frequently refer to as <a href="/wiki/Die_Wende" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Wende">Die Wende</a> (roughly: "the turning point"). The 1990 treaty defines the official term as Deutsche Einheit ("German unity");<a href="#cite_note-Einigungsvertrag-2">[1]</a> this is commonly used in Germany. After 1990, the term die Wende became more common. The term generally refers to the events (mostly in Eastern Europe) that led up to the actual reunification, and loosely translates to "the turning point". Anti-communist activists from Eastern Germany rejected the term Wende as it had been introduced by the SED Secretary General <a href="/wiki/Egon_Krenz" title="Egon Krenz">Egon Krenz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[4]</a> Some people have stated that the reunification can be classified as an annexation of the GDR by the FRG.<a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[11]</a> Scholar Ned Richardson-Little from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Erfurt" title="University of Erfurt">University of Erfurt</a> noted that the terminology of an annexation can be interpreted from backgrounds across the political spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> In 2015, a Russian proposal was made that classified it as an annexation. <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> named it 'nonsense'.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a> In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Platzeck" title="Matthias Platzeck">Matthias Platzeck</a> referred to the reunification as an '<a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">anschluss</a>'.<a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Precursors_to_reunification">Precursors to reunification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Precursors to reunification">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Germany (1945–1990)">History of Germany (1945–1990)</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Germany" title="Category:History of Germany">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">History of Germany</a></th> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/135px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="510" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_German_history" title="Timeline of German history">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany" title="Military history of Germany">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_LGBT_history_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of LGBT history in Germany">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Germany" title="History of women in Germany">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Germany" title="Territorial evolution of Germany">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Germany" title="List of historic states of Germany">Historic states</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_states_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="List of states in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_monarchs" title="List of German monarchs">Monarchs</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_German_queens" title="List of German queens">Queens</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Holy_Roman_empresses" title="List of Holy Roman empresses">Empresses</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_German_monarchs_in_1918" title="List of German monarchs in 1918">1918</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_German_monarchs" title="Family tree of German monarchs">Family tree</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Austria" title="List of rulers of Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Prussia">Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Saxony" title="List of rulers of Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Württemberg">Württemberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediatised_houses" title="Mediatised houses">Mediatised</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear Pottery culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Middle Ages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Germany" title="Kingdom of Germany">Kingdom of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Eastward settlement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Early Modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kleinstaaterei" title="Kleinstaaterei">Sectionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th-century_history_of_Germany" title="18th-century history of Germany">18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_mediatisation" title="German mediatisation">Mediatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/German_Reich" title="German Reich">German Reich</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1871–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1914–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1918–1933</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1933–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1939–1945</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Contemporary Germany</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Former_eastern_territories_of_Germany" title="Former eastern territories of Germany">Ostgebiete</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1945–1949/1952</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1944–1950</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West</a>–<a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Germany (1945–1990)">division</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1949–1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reunification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/New_states_of_Germany" title="New states of Germany">New states</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Germany (1990–present)">Modern history</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">since 1990</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/16px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/24px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Template:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deutschland_Besatzungszonen_8_Jun_1947_-_22_Apr_1949.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Deutschland_Besatzungszonen_8_Jun_1947_-_22_Apr_1949.svg/220px-Deutschland_Besatzungszonen_8_Jun_1947_-_22_Apr_1949.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Deutschland_Besatzungszonen_8_Jun_1947_-_22_Apr_1949.svg/330px-Deutschland_Besatzungszonen_8_Jun_1947_-_22_Apr_1949.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Deutschland_Besatzungszonen_8_Jun_1947_-_22_Apr_1949.svg/440px-Deutschland_Besatzungszonen_8_Jun_1947_-_22_Apr_1949.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1075" data-file-height="1273" /></a><figcaption>One map about Germany which shows the <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">four Allied occupation zones</a> (de facto not including <a href="/wiki/Saar_Protectorate" title="Saar Protectorate">Saarland</a>) in Germany (1947–1949)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_pk_0000172_011_Portr%C3%A4t,_Ernst.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fotothek_df_pk_0000172_011_Portr%C3%A4t%2C_Ernst.jpg/300px-Fotothek_df_pk_0000172_011_Portr%C3%A4t%2C_Ernst.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fotothek_df_pk_0000172_011_Portr%C3%A4t%2C_Ernst.jpg/450px-Fotothek_df_pk_0000172_011_Portr%C3%A4t%2C_Ernst.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fotothek_df_pk_0000172_011_Portr%C3%A4t%2C_Ernst.jpg/600px-Fotothek_df_pk_0000172_011_Portr%C3%A4t%2C_Ernst.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="516" /></a><figcaption><div style="float:left;">An East German political event on 21 April 1946: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Grotewohl" title="Otto Grotewohl">Otto Grotewohl</a> (right) and <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Pieck" title="Wilhelm Pieck">Wilhelm Pieck</a> (left) seal the <a href="/wiki/Merger_of_the_KPD_and_SPD_into_the_Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Merger of the KPD and SPD into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany">merger of two parties, SPD and KPD</a>, to form the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">SED</a>, a communist party that would dominate the future East German state, with a symbolic handshake. Walter Ulbricht is seated in the foreground to the right of <a href="/wiki/Otto_Grotewohl" title="Otto Grotewohl">Grotewohl</a>.</div><div style="float:right;"><a href="/wiki/Avraham_Pisarek" title="Avraham Pisarek">Avraham Pisarek</a></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germans-airlift-1948.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Germans-airlift-1948.jpg/220px-Germans-airlift-1948.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Germans-airlift-1948.jpg/330px-Germans-airlift-1948.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Germans-airlift-1948.jpg/440px-Germans-airlift-1948.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1279" data-file-height="962" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a> (1948–1949)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H26569,_Frankfurt-Main,_Frankfurter_Konferenz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H26569%2C_Frankfurt-Main%2C_Frankfurter_Konferenz.jpg/200px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H26569%2C_Frankfurt-Main%2C_Frankfurter_Konferenz.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H26569%2C_Frankfurt-Main%2C_Frankfurter_Konferenz.jpg/300px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H26569%2C_Frankfurt-Main%2C_Frankfurter_Konferenz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H26569%2C_Frankfurt-Main%2C_Frankfurter_Konferenz.jpg/400px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H26569%2C_Frankfurt-Main%2C_Frankfurter_Konferenz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="572" /></a><figcaption>West German prime ministers and mayors received the British, American, and French occupiers' <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Documents" title="Frankfurt Documents">Frankfurt Documents</a> which contained recommendations for the establishment new state and formed a working basis for the <a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany</a>; 1 July 1948</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berliner_Mauer,_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg/220px-Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg/330px-Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg/440px-Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2266" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> (1961-1989)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DBP_249_Eingliederung_Saarland_10_Pf_1957.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/DBP_249_Eingliederung_Saarland_10_Pf_1957.jpg/220px-DBP_249_Eingliederung_Saarland_10_Pf_1957.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/DBP_249_Eingliederung_Saarland_10_Pf_1957.jpg/330px-DBP_249_Eingliederung_Saarland_10_Pf_1957.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/DBP_249_Eingliederung_Saarland_10_Pf_1957.jpg/440px-DBP_249_Eingliederung_Saarland_10_Pf_1957.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption>Stamp of the Deutsche Bundespost (1957) for the <a href="/wiki/Reunification" class="mw-redirect" title="Reunification">political incorporation</a> of the Saarland into the Federal Republic of Germany on 1 January 1957 with the <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Saarland" title="Coat of arms of Saarland">new state coat of arms</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Saarland" title="Saarland">Saarland</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_175-14676,_Leipzig,_Reichsgericht,_russischer_Panzer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_175-14676%2C_Leipzig%2C_Reichsgericht%2C_russischer_Panzer.jpg/240px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_175-14676%2C_Leipzig%2C_Reichsgericht%2C_russischer_Panzer.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_175-14676%2C_Leipzig%2C_Reichsgericht%2C_russischer_Panzer.jpg/360px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_175-14676%2C_Leipzig%2C_Reichsgericht%2C_russischer_Panzer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_175-14676%2C_Leipzig%2C_Reichsgericht%2C_russischer_Panzer.jpg/480px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_175-14676%2C_Leipzig%2C_Reichsgericht%2C_russischer_Panzer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>Soviet <a href="/wiki/Iosif_Stalin_tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Iosif Stalin tank">IS-2 tank</a> in <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> in the <a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a> on 17 June</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-M0925-406,_New_York,_Fahnen_vor_dem_UNO-Geb%C3%A4ude.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-M0925-406%2C_New_York%2C_Fahnen_vor_dem_UNO-Geb%C3%A4ude.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-M0925-406%2C_New_York%2C_Fahnen_vor_dem_UNO-Geb%C3%A4ude.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-M0925-406%2C_New_York%2C_Fahnen_vor_dem_UNO-Geb%C3%A4ude.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-M0925-406%2C_New_York%2C_Fahnen_vor_dem_UNO-Geb%C3%A4ude.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-M0925-406%2C_New_York%2C_Fahnen_vor_dem_UNO-Geb%C3%A4ude.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-M0925-406%2C_New_York%2C_Fahnen_vor_dem_UNO-Geb%C3%A4ude.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Flags of the two Germanies in front of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_headquarters" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations headquarters">United Nations headquarters</a>, September 1973</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-P1219-0310,_Berlin,_Unterzeichung_Abkommen_Transitgeb%C3%BChrenpauschale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-P1219-0310%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Abkommen_Transitgeb%C3%BChrenpauschale.jpg/260px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-P1219-0310%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Abkommen_Transitgeb%C3%BChrenpauschale.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-P1219-0310%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Abkommen_Transitgeb%C3%BChrenpauschale.jpg/390px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-P1219-0310%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Abkommen_Transitgeb%C3%BChrenpauschale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-P1219-0310%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Abkommen_Transitgeb%C3%BChrenpauschale.jpg/520px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-P1219-0310%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Abkommen_Transitgeb%C3%BChrenpauschale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>On 19 December 1975, the permanent representative <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Gaus" title="Günter Gaus">Günter Gaus</a> signed an agreement on transit fees with the head of department in the East German Ministry of Finance, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Nimmerich&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hans Nimmerich (page does not exist)">Hans Nimmerich</a>, in the House of Ministries.</figcaption></figure> On 5 June 1945, with the Berlin Declaration, the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> was confirmed, and the German Reich was also de jure abolished. Germany was occupied by four countries representing the victorious <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> signing the agreement (US, UK, France, and the USSR). The declaration also formed the <a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council" title="Allied Control Council">Allied Control Council</a> (ACC) of these four countries ruling Germany,<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ziemke_1990_114-19">[17]</a> and confirmed the German borders which had been in force before <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">the annexation of Austria</a>. With the Potsdam Agreement at the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a> between the three main Allies defeating the European <a href="/wiki/Axis_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis Powers">Axis</a> (US, UK, and the USSR) on 2 August 1945, Germany was divided by the Allies into occupation zones, each under the <a href="/wiki/Military_government" title="Military government">military government</a> of one of these four countries. The agreement also modified Germany's border, with the country de facto losing its <a href="/wiki/Former_eastern_territories_of_Germany" title="Former eastern territories of Germany">former territories</a> east of the <a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Oder–Neisse line</a> to Poland and the Soviet Union (most for Poland because the <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">eastern territories</a> of <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">former Poland</a> were annexed by the USSR). Germany's border decision came under pressure from the dictator Stalin of the Soviet Union.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] During and after the war, many ethnic Germans who lived in the traditionally German lands in <a href="/wiki/Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a>, including territories east of the Oder–Neisse line, <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">fled and were expelled</a> to post-war German and Austrian territory. Saarland, an area in the <a href="/wiki/French_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="French occupation zone in Germany">French occupation zone</a>, was separated from Germany when its own constitution took effect to become <a href="/wiki/Saar_protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Saar protectorate">a French protectorate</a> on 17 December 1947.<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developments_from_1948">Developments from 1948</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Developments from 1948">edit</a>]</div> Among the Allies, geo-political tension between the Soviet Union and Western Allies in <a href="/wiki/Occupied_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupied Germany">occupied Germany</a> as part of their tension in the world led the Soviets to de facto withdraw from the ACC on 20 March 1948 (four occupying countries restored the act of the ACC in 1971) and <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">blockade West Berlin</a> (after the introduction of a <a href="/wiki/Deutsch_Mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsch Mark">new currency</a> in West Germany on 20 June of the same year) from 20 June 1948 to 12 May 1949, but the USSR could not force the three Western Allies to withdraw from West Berlin as they wanted; consequently, the foundation of a new German state became impossible. The Federal Republic of Germany, or "West Germany", a <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>, was established in the <a href="/wiki/American_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="American occupation zone in Germany">US</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="British occupation zone in Germany">UK</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="French occupation zone in Germany">French</a> zones on 23 May 1949. West Germany was de jure established in the <a href="/wiki/Trizone" class="mw-redirect" title="Trizone">Trizone</a> occupied by three Western Allies and established on 1 August 1948. Its forerunner was the <a href="/wiki/Bizone" title="Bizone">Bizone</a> formed by the US and UK zones on 1 January 1947 before the inclusion of the French zone.<a href="#cite_note-EU-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wegs-22">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> The Trizone did not include West Berlin, which was also occupied by three Western Allies, although the city was de facto part of the West German state; the German Democratic Republic or "East Germany", a <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist state</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">public economy</a> which declared itself not the successor of the German Reich a legal-former[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] German state, was established in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="Soviet occupation zone in Germany">Soviet zone</a> on 7 October 1949. It de jure did not include East Berlin, occupied by the Soviets, although the city was de facto its capital: the severe ideological conflict between German politicians and sociologists in their self-governing East-West society was preceded by the influence of higher[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] foreign occupiers; however this only really rose to become official with the birth of the two countries of Germany in the context of the period of international tension during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. The capital of West Germany was <a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a>; however it was only considered provisional due to the West German aspiration to establish Berlin as its capital, although at the time Berlin was divided, with the eastern part de facto managed by East Germany. East Germany originally also wanted to gain West Berlin and make the unified Berlin its capital. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1952_onwards">1952 onwards</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1952 onwards">edit</a>]</div> The Western Allies and West Germany rejected the Soviet Union's idea of neutral reunification in 1952, resulting in the two German governments continuing to exist side-by-side. Most of the <a href="/wiki/Inner_German_border" title="Inner German border">border between two Germanies</a>, and later the border in Berlin, were physically fortified and tightly controlled by East Germany from 1952 and 1961, respectively. The flags of the two German countries were originally the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Germany" title="Flag of Germany">same</a>, but in 1959 East Germany changed <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_East_Germany" title="Flag of East Germany">its flag</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DDR1959-24">[22]</a> The West German government initially did not recognize the new and de facto <a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Poland_border" title="Germany–Poland border">German–Polish border</a>, nor East Germany, but later eventually recognized the border in 1972 (with the 1970 Treaty of Warsaw<a href="#cite_note-Jessup-25">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Publishing2013-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Biesinger2006-27">[25]</a>) and East Germany in 1973 (with the 1972 Basic Treaty<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a>) when applying <a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">a common policy to reconcile with the communist countries in the East</a>. The East German government also had encouraged two-state status after initially denying the existence of the West German state, influenced by the Soviet policy of "<a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">peaceful coexistence</a>". The mutual recognition of the two Germanies paved the way for both countries to be widely recognized internationally.<a href="#cite_note-29">[c]</a> The two Germanies <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_335" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 335">joined</a> the United Nations as two separate country members in 1973 and East Germany abandoned its goal of reunification with their compatriots in the West in <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_East_Germany#1974_amendments" title="Constitution of East Germany">a constitutional amendment the following year</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The principle is written in <a href="/wiki/Grundgesetz" class="mw-redirect" title="Grundgesetz">our Constitution</a> – that no one has the right to give up a policy whose goal is the eventual reunification of Germany. But in a realistic view of the world, this is a goal that could take generations beyond <a href="/wiki/Silent_Generation" title="Silent Generation">my own</a> to achieve. <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Christian_Democratic_Union" title="Leader of the Christian Democratic Union">CDU Leader</a> Helmut Kohl for <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, 1976<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva,_Switzerland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg/220px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg/330px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg/440px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2651" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (United States) and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (Soviet Union) at the first Summit in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> on 19 November 1985</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002,_Leipzig,_Montagsdemonstration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>East German <a href="/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">Monday demonstration</a> against the government in <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>, 16 October 1989</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> had led the country as <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> since 1985. During this time, the Soviet Union experienced a period of <a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_stagnation" class="mw-redirect" title="Brezhnev stagnation">economic and political stagnation</a>, and correspondingly decreased intervention in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_politics" title="Eastern Bloc politics">Eastern Bloc politics</a>. In 1987, the United States President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> gave a famous speech at the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a>, challenging <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Soviet General Secretary</a> Mikhail Gorbachev to "<a href="/wiki/Tear_down_this_wall!" title="Tear down this wall!">tear down this wall</a>" which prevented freedom of movement in Berlin. <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">The wall</a> had stood as an icon for the political and economic division between East and West, a division that <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill</a> had referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a>". Gorbachev announced in 1988 that the Soviet Union would abandon the <a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a> and allow the Eastern European countries to freely determine their own internal affairs.<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> In early 1989, under a new era of Soviet policies of <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> (openness) and <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a> (economic restructuring), and taken further by Gorbachev, the <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity movement</a> took hold in Poland. Further inspired by other <a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">images of brave defiance</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">wave of revolutions</a> swept throughout the Eastern Bloc that year. In May 1989, Hungary removed their border fence. However, the dismantling of the old Hungarian border facilities did not open the borders nor were the previous strict controls removed, and the isolation by the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a> was still intact over its entire length. The opening of a border gate between <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> and Hungary at the <a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a> on 19 August 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> had disintegrated.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas_Roser_2018-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Böhlau_Verlag-3">[2]</a> Extensive advertising for the planned picnic was made by posters and flyers among the GDR holidaymakers in Hungary. The Austrian branch of the <a href="/wiki/Paneuropean_Union" title="Paneuropean Union">Paneuropean Union</a>, which was then headed by <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Habsburg" title="Karl von Habsburg">Karl von Habsburg</a>, distributed thousands of brochures inviting them to a picnic near the border at <a href="/wiki/Sopron" title="Sopron">Sopron</a>. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> had been built in 1961. After the picnic, which was based on an idea of Karl's father <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Habsburg" title="Otto von Habsburg">Otto von Habsburg</a> to test the reaction of the USSR and Mikhail Gorbachev to an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a> The media reaction of <a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a> in the "Daily Mirror" of 19 August 1989 showed the public in East and West that the Eastern European communist rulers had suffered a loss of power in their own sphere, and that they were no longer in control of events: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Poland">Poland</a>, in which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Marks, and then they were persuaded to come to the West." In particular, Habsburg and the Hungarian Minister of State <a href="/wiki/Imre_Pozsgay" title="Imre Pozsgay">Imre Pozsgay</a> considered whether Moscow would command the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet forces">Soviet troops</a> stationed in Hungary to intervene.<a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> But, with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the nonintervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams. Thus, the bracket[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] of the Eastern Bloc was broken.<a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a> Hungary was no longer ready to keep its borders completely closed or to oblige its border troops to use force of arms. By the end of September 1989, more than 30,000 East German citizens had escaped to the West before the GDR denied travel to Hungary, leaving Czechoslovakia as the only neighboring state to which East Germans could escape.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> Even then, many people within and outside Germany still believed that real reunification between the two countries would never happen in the foreseeable future.<a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a> The turning point in Germany, called <a href="/wiki/Die_Wende" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Wende">Die Wende</a>, was marked by the "<a href="/wiki/Peaceful_revolution_(German)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peaceful revolution (German)">Peaceful Revolution</a>" leading to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">fall of the Berlin Wall</a> at the night of 9 November 1989, with East and West Germany subsequently entering into negotiations toward eliminating the division that had been imposed upon Germans more than four decades earlier. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process_of_reunification">Process of reunification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Process of reunification">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooperation">Cooperation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cooperation">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_East_Germany_with_cut_out_emblem.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Flag of East Germany, with cut-out emblem." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Flag_of_East_Germany_with_cut_out_emblem.svg/219px-Flag_of_East_Germany_with_cut_out_emblem.svg.png" decoding="async" width="219" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Flag_of_East_Germany_with_cut_out_emblem.svg/329px-Flag_of_East_Germany_with_cut_out_emblem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Flag_of_East_Germany_with_cut_out_emblem.svg/438px-Flag_of_East_Germany_with_cut_out_emblem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_East_Germany" title="Flag of East Germany">Flag of the GDR/DDR</a> with cut-out <a href="/wiki/National_emblem_of_East_Germany" title="National emblem of East Germany">emblem</a>, prominently visible during protests against the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Regime">Communist Regime</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182,_Erich_Honecker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The end of East Germany became clear after the resignation of <a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg/170px-BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg/255px-BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg/340px-BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1119" data-file-height="1663" /></a><figcaption>Berlin Wall at the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a> on 10 November 1989 showing the <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a> Wie denn ("How now") over the sign warning the public that they are leaving West Berlin</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Volkspolizei_at_the_official_opening_of_the_Brandenburg_Gate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Volkspolizei_at_the_official_opening_of_the_Brandenburg_Gate.jpg/220px-Volkspolizei_at_the_official_opening_of_the_Brandenburg_Gate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Volkspolizei_at_the_official_opening_of_the_Brandenburg_Gate.jpg/330px-Volkspolizei_at_the_official_opening_of_the_Brandenburg_Gate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Volkspolizei_at_the_official_opening_of_the_Brandenburg_Gate.jpg/440px-Volkspolizei_at_the_official_opening_of_the_Brandenburg_Gate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="1860" /></a><figcaption>Police officers of the East German <a href="/wiki/Volkspolizei" title="Volkspolizei">Volkspolizei</a> wait for the official opening of the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a> of the Berlin Wall on 22 December 1989.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="647" /></a><figcaption>Berlin Wall, October 1990, saying "Thank you, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbi</a>!"</figcaption></figure> On 28 November 1989—two weeks after the fall of the Berlin Wall—West German <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a> <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Helmut Kohl</a> announced a 10-point program calling for the two Germanies to expand their cooperation with a view toward eventual reunification.<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> Initially, no timetable was proposed. However, events rapidly came to a head in early 1990. First, in March, the <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Democratic_Socialism_(Germany)" title="Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany)">Party of Democratic Socialism</a>—the former <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">Socialist Unity Party of Germany</a>—was heavily defeated in <a href="/wiki/1990_East_German_general_election" title="1990 East German general election">East Germany's first free elections</a>. A grand coalition was formed under <a href="/wiki/Lothar_de_Maizi%C3%A8re" title="Lothar de Maizière">Lothar de Maizière</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_(East_Germany)" title="Christian Democratic Union (East Germany)">East German wing</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Kohl</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_(Germany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Democratic Union (Germany)">Christian Democratic Union</a>, on a platform of speedy reunification. Second, <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_East_Germany" title="Economy of East Germany">East Germany's economy</a> and infrastructure underwent a swift and near-total collapse. Although East Germany was long reckoned as having the most robust economy in the Soviet bloc, the removal of Communist hegemony revealed the ramshackle foundations of that system. The <a href="/wiki/East_German_mark" title="East German mark">East German mark</a> had been almost worthless outside East Germany for some time before the events of 1989–1990, and the collapse of the East German economy further magnified the problem. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_merger">Economic merger</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Economic merger">edit</a>]</div> Discussions immediately began on an emergency merger of the German economies. On 18 May 1990, the two German states signed a treaty agreeing on monetary, economic, and social union. This treaty is called <a href="/wiki/Treaty_Establishing_a_Monetary,_Economic_and_Social_Union_between_the_German_Democratic_Republic_and_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Treaty Establishing a Monetary, Economic and Social Union between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany">Vertrag über die Schaffung einer Währungs-, Wirtschafts- und Sozialunion zwischen der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik und der Bundesrepublik Deutschland</a> ("Treaty Establishing a Monetary, Economic and Social Union between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany");<a href="#cite_note-verfassungen.de-39">[36]</a> it came into force on 1 July 1990, with the West German <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">Deutsche Mark</a> replacing the East German mark as the official currency of East Germany. The Deutsche Mark had a very high reputation among the East Germans and was considered stable.<a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a> While the GDR transferred its financial policy sovereignty to West Germany, the West started granting subsidies for the GDR budget and social <a href="/wiki/Security" title="Security">security</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-London-41">[38]</a> At the same time, many West German laws came into force in the GDR. This created a suitable framework for a <a href="/wiki/Political_union" title="Political union">political union</a> by diminishing the huge gap between the two existing political, social, and economic systems.<a href="#cite_note-London-41">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_Reunification_Treaty">German Reunification Treaty</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: German Reunification Treaty">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EinigungsvertragBRD-DDR.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/EinigungsvertragBRD-DDR.JPG/220px-EinigungsvertragBRD-DDR.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/EinigungsvertragBRD-DDR.JPG/330px-EinigungsvertragBRD-DDR.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/EinigungsvertragBRD-DDR.JPG/440px-EinigungsvertragBRD-DDR.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The two original copies of the Unification Treaty signed on 31 August 1990. West German Interior Minister <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Sch%C3%A4uble" title="Wolfgang Schäuble">Wolfgang Schäuble</a> signed for the FRG and the East German State Secretary <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Krause" title="Günther Krause">Günther Krause</a> signed for the GDR.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Volkskammer" title="Volkskammer">Volkskammer</a>, the Parliament of East Germany, passed a resolution on 23 August 1990 declaring the accession (Beitritt) of the German Democratic Republic to the Federal Republic of Germany, and the extension of the field of application of the Federal Republic's Basic Law to the territory of East Germany as allowed by Article 23 of the West German Basic Law, effective 3 October 1990.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-44">[41]</a> This Declaration of Accession (Beitrittserklärung) was formally presented by the President of the Volkskammer, <a href="/wiki/Sabine_Bergmann-Pohl" title="Sabine Bergmann-Pohl">Sabine Bergmann-Pohl</a>, to the President of the West German Bundestag, <a href="/wiki/Rita_S%C3%BCssmuth" title="Rita Süssmuth">Rita Süssmuth</a>, by means of a letter dated 25 August 1990.<a href="#cite_note-:2-44">[41]</a> Thus, formally, the procedure of reunification by means of the accession of East Germany to West Germany, and of East Germany's acceptance of the Basic Law already in force in West Germany, was initiated as the unilateral, sovereign decision of East Germany, as allowed by the provisions of article 23 of the West German Basic Law as it then existed. In the wake of that resolution of accession, the "German reunification treaty",<a href="#cite_note-NBClearn-45">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-deutschland.de-46">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-AssociatedPress-47">[44]</a> commonly known in German as "Einigungsvertrag" (Unification Treaty) or "Wiedervereinigungsvertrag" (Reunification Treaty), that had been negotiated between the two German states since 2 July 1990, was signed by representatives of the two governments on 31 August 1990. This Treaty, officially titled Vertrag zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik über die Herstellung der Einheit Deutschlands (Treaty between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic on the Establishment of German Unity), was approved by large majorities in the legislative chambers of both countries on 20 September 1990 (442–47 in the West German Bundestag and 299–80 in the East German Volkskammer).<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> The Treaty passed the West German Bundesrat on the following day, 21 September 1990. The amendments to the Federal Republic's Basic Law that were foreseen in the Unification Treaty or necessary for its implementation were adopted by the Federal Statute of 23 September 1990, that enacted the incorporation of the Treaty as part of the Law of the Federal Republic of Germany. The said Federal Statute, containing the whole text of the Treaty and its Protocols as an annex, was published in the <a href="/wiki/Bundesgesetzblatt_(Germany)" title="Bundesgesetzblatt (Germany)">Bundesgesetzblatt</a> (the official journal for the publication of the laws of the Federal Republic) on 28 September 1990.<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a> In the German Democratic Republic, the constitutional law (Verfassungsgesetz) giving effect to the Treaty was also published on 28 September 1990.<a href="#cite_note-:2-44">[41]</a> With the adoption of the Treaty as part of its Constitution, East Germany legislated its own abolition as a separate state. Under article 45 of the Treaty,<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> it entered into force according to international law on 29 September 1990, upon the exchange of notices regarding the completion of the respective internal constitutional requirements for the adoption of the treaty in both East Germany and West Germany. With that last step, and in accordance with article 1 of the Treaty, and in <a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">conformity</a> with East Germany's Declaration of Accession presented to the Federal Republic, Germany was officially reunited at 00:00 <a href="/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time" title="Central European Summer Time">CEST</a> on 3 October 1990. East Germany joined the Federal Republic as the five <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A4nder" title="Länder">Länder</a> (states) of <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg-Western_Pomerania" class="mw-redirect" title="Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania">Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxony-Anhalt" title="Saxony-Anhalt">Saxony-Anhalt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringia</a>. These states were the five original states of East Germany, but were abolished in 1952 in favor of a centralized system. As part of the 18 May treaty, the five East German states were reconstituted on 23 August. <a href="/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a>, the capital of East Germany, reunited with <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a>, a de facto part of West Germany, in order to form the city of <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, which joined the Federal Republic as its third <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> alongside <a href="/wiki/Bremen" title="Bremen">Bremen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>. Berlin was still formally under Allied occupation (that would only be terminated later, as a result of the provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Two Plus Four Treaty</a>), but the city's administrative merger and inclusion in the enlarged Federal Republic as its capital, effective on 3 October 1990, had been greenlit[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] by the four Allies, and were formally approved in the final meeting of the Allied Control Council on 2 October 1990. In an emotional ceremony, at the stroke of midnight on 3 October 1990, the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Germany" title="Flag of Germany">black-red-gold flag of West Germany</a>—now the flag of a reunited Germany—was raised above the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a>, marking the moment of German reunification. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_merger">Constitutional merger</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Constitutional merger">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-008,_Berlin,_Brandenburger_Tor,_Vereinigungsfeier,_Feuerwerk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-008%2C_Berlin%2C_Brandenburger_Tor%2C_Vereinigungsfeier%2C_Feuerwerk.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-008%2C_Berlin%2C_Brandenburger_Tor%2C_Vereinigungsfeier%2C_Feuerwerk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-008%2C_Berlin%2C_Brandenburger_Tor%2C_Vereinigungsfeier%2C_Feuerwerk.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-008%2C_Berlin%2C_Brandenburger_Tor%2C_Vereinigungsfeier%2C_Feuerwerk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-008%2C_Berlin%2C_Brandenburger_Tor%2C_Vereinigungsfeier%2C_Feuerwerk.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-1003-008%2C_Berlin%2C_Brandenburger_Tor%2C_Vereinigungsfeier%2C_Feuerwerk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="782" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>Fireworks at Brandenburg Gate after the reunification</figcaption></figure> The process chosen was one of the two options set out in the <a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">West German constitution</a> (Grundgesetz or Basic Law) of 1949 to facilitate eventual reunification. The Basic Law stated that it was only intended for temporary use until a permanent constitution could be adopted by the German people as a whole. Under that document's (then existing) Article 23, any new prospective Länder could adhere to the Basic Law by a simple majority vote. The initial 11 joining states of 1949 constituted the Trizone. West Berlin had been proposed as the 12th state, but this was legally inhibited by Allied objections since Berlin as a whole was legally a quadripartite occupied area. Despite this, West Berlin's political affiliation was with West Germany, and, in many fields, it functioned de facto as if it were a component state of West Germany. On 1 January 1957, before the reunification, the territory of <a href="/wiki/Saarland" title="Saarland">Saarland</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Saar_Protectorate" title="Saar Protectorate">protectorate of France</a> (1947–1956), united with West Germany (and thus rejoined Germany) as the 11th state of the Federal Republic; this was called "Little Reunification" although the Saar Protectorate itself was only one <a href="/wiki/Disputed_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Disputed territory">disputed territory</a>, as its existence was opposed by the Soviet Union. The other option was set out in Article 146, which provided a mechanism for a permanent constitution for a reunified Germany. This route would have entailed a formal union between two German states that then would have had, among other things, to create a new constitution for the newly-established country. However, by the spring of 1990, it was apparent that drafting a new constitution would require protracted negotiations that would open up numerous issues in West Germany. Even without this to consider, by the start of 1990 East Germany was in a state of economic and political collapse. In contrast, reunification under Article 23 could be implemented in as little as six months. Ultimately, when the treaty on monetary, economic, and social union was signed, it was decided to use the quicker process of Article 23. By this process, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and to join West Germany, and the area in which the Basic Law was in force was simply extended to include its constituent parts.<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> Thus, while legally East Germany as a whole acceded to the Federal Republic, the constituent parts of East Germany entered into the Federal Republic as five new states, which held their first elections on 14 October 1990. Nevertheless, although the Volkskammer's declaration of accession to the Federal Republic had initiated the process of reunification, the act of reunification itself (with its many specific terms, conditions, and qualifications, some of which required amendments to the Basic Law itself) was achieved constitutionally by the subsequent Unification Treaty of 31 August 1990; that is, through a binding agreement between the former GDR and the <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Federal Republic</a> now recognizing each another as separate sovereign states in <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a> This treaty was then voted into effect by both the <a href="/wiki/Volkskammer" title="Volkskammer">Volkskammer</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a> by the constitutionally required two-thirds majorities, effecting on the one hand, the extinction of the GDR, and on the other, the agreed amendments to the Basic Law of the Federal Republic. Hence, although the GDR declared its accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the Basic Law, this did not imply its acceptance of the Basic Law as it then stood, but rather of the Basic Law as subsequently amended in line with the Unification Treaty. Legally, the reunification did not create a third state out of the two. Rather, West Germany effectively absorbed East Germany. Accordingly, on Unification Day, 3 October 1990, the German Democratic Republic ceased to exist, and five new federated states on its former territory joined the Federal Republic of Germany. East and West Berlin were reunited as the third full-fledged federated city-state of the enlarged Federal Republic. The reunited city became the capital of the enlarged Federal Republic. Under this model, the Federal Republic of Germany, now enlarged to include the five states of the former GDR plus the reunified Berlin, continued to exist under the same legal personality that was founded in May 1949. While the Basic Law was modified, rather than replaced by a constitution as such, it still permits the adoption of a formal constitution by the German people at some time in the future. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unification_of_Berlin">Unification of Berlin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Unification of Berlin">edit</a>]</div> In the context of <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>, in addition to a wealth of new opportunity and the symbolism of two former independent states being rejoined, the reunification of Berlin presented numerous challenges. The city underwent massive <a href="/wiki/Redevelopment" title="Redevelopment">redevelopment</a>, involving the political, economic, and cultural environment of both East and West Berlin. However, the "scar" left by the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Wall</a>, which ran directly through the very heart of the city,<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> had consequences for the urban environment that planning still needs to address. The unification of Berlin presented legal, political, and technical challenges for the urban environment. The political division and physical separation of the city for more than 30 years saw the East and the West develop their own distinct urban forms, with many of these differences still visible to this day.<a href="#cite_note-Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development_2003-54">[51]</a> As urban planning in Germany is the responsibility of the city government,<a href="#cite_note-Loeb_2006_67–87-55">[52]</a> the integration of East and West Berlin was in part complicated by the fact that the existing planning frameworks became obsolete with the fall of the Wall.<a href="#cite_note-Schwedler_2001-56">[53]</a> Prior to the reunification of the city, the Land Use Plan of 1988 and General Development Plan of 1980 defined the spatial planning criteria for West and East Berlin, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Schwedler_2001-56">[53]</a> These were replaced by the new, unified Land Use Plan in 1994.<a href="#cite_note-Schwedler_2001-56">[53]</a> Termed "Critical Reconstruction", the new policy aimed to revive Berlin's prewar aesthetic;<a href="#cite_note-Tölle_2010_348–357-57">[54]</a> it was complemented by a strategic planning document for downtown Berlin, entitled "Inner City Planning Framework".<a href="#cite_note-Tölle_2010_348–357-57">[54]</a> Following the dissolution of the GDR on 3 October 1990, all planning projects under the socialist-totalitarian regime were abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-UrbanF01-58">[55]</a> Vacant lots, open areas, and empty fields in East Berlin were subject to redevelopment, in addition to space previously occupied by the Wall and associated <a href="/wiki/Buffer_zone" title="Buffer zone">buffer zone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Loeb_2006_67–87-55">[52]</a> Many of these sites were positioned in central, strategic locations of the reunified city.<a href="#cite_note-Schwedler_2001-56">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Day_of_German_Unity">Day of German Unity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Day of German Unity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2014-10-03_Tag_der_Deutschen_Einheit,_(108)_Luftballons_vom_Freundeskreis_Hannover_f%C3%BCr_Angela_Merkel_und_Joachim_Gauck,,_(01).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/2014-10-03_Tag_der_Deutschen_Einheit%2C_%28108%29_Luftballons_vom_Freundeskreis_Hannover_f%C3%BCr_Angela_Merkel_und_Joachim_Gauck%2C%2C_%2801%29.jpg/220px-2014-10-03_Tag_der_Deutschen_Einheit%2C_%28108%29_Luftballons_vom_Freundeskreis_Hannover_f%C3%BCr_Angela_Merkel_und_Joachim_Gauck%2C%2C_%2801%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/2014-10-03_Tag_der_Deutschen_Einheit%2C_%28108%29_Luftballons_vom_Freundeskreis_Hannover_f%C3%BCr_Angela_Merkel_und_Joachim_Gauck%2C%2C_%2801%29.jpg/330px-2014-10-03_Tag_der_Deutschen_Einheit%2C_%28108%29_Luftballons_vom_Freundeskreis_Hannover_f%C3%BCr_Angela_Merkel_und_Joachim_Gauck%2C%2C_%2801%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/2014-10-03_Tag_der_Deutschen_Einheit%2C_%28108%29_Luftballons_vom_Freundeskreis_Hannover_f%C3%BCr_Angela_Merkel_und_Joachim_Gauck%2C%2C_%2801%29.jpg/440px-2014-10-03_Tag_der_Deutschen_Einheit%2C_%28108%29_Luftballons_vom_Freundeskreis_Hannover_f%C3%BCr_Angela_Merkel_und_Joachim_Gauck%2C%2C_%2801%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> and President <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Gauck" title="Joachim Gauck">Joachim Gauck</a> at the Bürgerfest (German Unity Day festivities) in <a href="/wiki/Hannover" class="mw-redirect" title="Hannover">Hannover</a> in 2014</figcaption></figure> To commemorate the day that marks the official unification of the former East and West Germany in 1990, 3 October has since then been the official national holiday of Germany, the <a href="/wiki/German_Unity_Day" title="German Unity Day">Day of German Unity</a> (Tag der deutschen Einheit). It replaced the previous national holiday held in West Germany on 17 June commemorating the <a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a> and the national holiday on 7 October in the GDR, that commemorated the <a href="/wiki/Republic_Day_(East_Germany)" title="Republic Day (East Germany)">Foundation of the East German state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-London-41">[38]</a> An alternative date to commemorate the reunification could have been the day the Berlin Wall came down, 9 November (1989), which coincided with the anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–19">proclamation of the German Republic</a> in 1918, and the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Beer_Hall_Putsch" title="Beer Hall Putsch">Hitler's first coup</a> in 1923. However, 9 November was also the anniversary of the first large-scale Nazi-led <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> against Jews in 1938 (<a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a>), so the day was considered inappropriate for a national holiday.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Domestic_opposition">Domestic opposition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Domestic opposition">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Undue_weight plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-undue-weight" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may lend <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">undue weight</a> to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies. The specific problem is: See talk page. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Balance" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">balanced fashion</a> that contextualizes different points of view. (May 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Throughout the entire Cold War and until 1990, reunification did not appear likely, and the existence of two German countries was commonly regarded as an established, unalterable fact.<a href="#cite_note-winkler-61">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Helmut Kohl</a> briefly addressed this issue during the <a href="/wiki/1983_West_German_federal_election" title="1983 West German federal election">1983 West German federal election</a>, stating that despite his belief in German national unity, it would not mean a "return to the nation-state of earlier times". In the 1980s, opposition to a united German country and support for lasting peaceful coexistence between the two German countries were very common amongst <a href="/wiki/Left-wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing">left-wing</a> parties of West Germany, especially the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">SPD</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alliance_90/The_Greens" title="Alliance 90/The Greens">Greens</a>. The division of Germany was considered necessary to maintain <a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">peace</a> in Europe, and the emergence of another German state was also seen as possibly dangerous to the West German democracy. A German publicist Peter Bender wrote in 1981: "Considering the role Germany played in the origins of both World Wars, Europe cannot, and the <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a> should not, want a new German Reich, a sovereign nation-state. That is the logic of history which is, as <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a> noted, more exact than the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussian</a> government audit office."<a href="#cite_note-winkler-61">[58]</a> Opinion on reunification was not only highly partisan, but polarised along many social divides—Germans aged 35 or younger were opposed to unification, whereas older respondents were more supportive; likewise, low-income Germans tended to oppose reunification, whereas more affluent responders were likely to support it.<a href="#cite_note-kuechler-62">[59]</a> Ultimately, a poll in July 1990 found that the main motivation for reunification was economic concern rather than nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-kuechler-62">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a> Opinion polls in the late 1980s showed that young East Germans and West Germans saw each other as foreign, and did not regard themselves as a single nation.<a href="#cite_note-winkler-61">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_August_Winkler" title="Heinrich August Winkler">Heinrich August Winkler</a> observes that "an evaluation of the corresponding data in the Deutschland Archiv in 1989 showed that the GDR was perceived by a large portion of the younger generation as a foreign nation with a different social order which was no longer a part of Germany".<a href="#cite_note-winkler-61">[58]</a> Winkler argues that the reunification was not a product of popular opinion, but rather "crisis management on the highest level".<a href="#cite_note-winkler-61">[58]</a> Support for unified Germany fell once the prospect of it became a tangible reality in the fall of 1989.<a href="#cite_note-kuechler-62">[59]</a> A December 1989 poll by <a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a> indicated strong support for preserving East Germany as a separate state.<a href="#cite_note-pond-64">[61]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">SED</a> members were overrepresented amongst the responders, constituting 13% of the population, but 23% of those polled. Reporting on a student protest in <a href="/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a> on 4 November 1989, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Elizabeth_Pond&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elizabeth Pond (page does not exist)">Elizabeth Pond</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Pond" class="extiw" title="de:Elizabeth Pond">de</a>] noted that "virtually none of the demonstrators interviewed by Western reporters said they wanted unification with the Federal Republic".<a href="#cite_note-pond-64">[61]</a> In West Germany, once it became clear that a course of quick unification was negotiated, the public responded with concern.<a href="#cite_note-kuechler-62">[59]</a> In February 1990, two-thirds of West Germans considered the pace of unification as "too fast". West Germans were also hostile towards the newcomers from the East—according to an April 1990 poll, only 11% of West Germans welcomed the refugees from East Germany.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> After unification, the national divide persisted—a survey by the <a href="/wiki/Allensbach_Institute" title="Allensbach Institute">Allensbach Institute</a> in April 1993 found that only 22% of West Germans and 11% of East Germans felt they were one nation.<a href="#cite_note-winkler-61">[58]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dolores_L._Augustine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dolores L. Augustine (page does not exist)">Dolores L. Augustine</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolores_L._Augustine" class="extiw" title="de:Dolores L. Augustine">de</a>] observed that "the sense of oneness felt by East Germans and West Germans in the euphoric period after the fall of the wall proved all too transitory", as the old divisions persisted and Germans not only still saw themselves as two separate people, but also acted in accordance with their separate, regional interests.<a href="#cite_note-augustine-66">[63]</a> This state of mind became known as Mauer im Kopf ("wall in the head"), suggesting that despite the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a>, a "psychological wall" still existed between East and West Germans. Augustine argues that despite resistance to the political regime of East Germany, it still represented the history and identity of East Germans. Unification caused backlash, and the <a href="/wiki/Treuhandanstalt" title="Treuhandanstalt">Treuhandanstalt</a>, an agency created to carry out privatization, was blamed for creating mass unemployment and poverty in the East.<a href="#cite_note-augustine-66">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_groups_and_figures">Social groups and figures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Social groups and figures">edit</a>]</div> An influential part of the reunification opponents were the so-called <a href="/wiki/Anti-Germans_(political_current)" title="Anti-Germans (political current)">Anti-Germans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-erlanger-67">[64]</a> Emerging from the student Left, Anti-Germans were supportive of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and strongly opposed <a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">German nationalism</a>, arguing that an emergence of a united German state would also result in a return of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a>). They considered the social and political dynamics of 1980s and 1990s Germany to be comparable to those of the 1930s, denouncing the emerging <a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">anti-Zionism</a>, unification sentiments and reemergence of <a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">pan-Germanism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hermann_L._Gremliza" title="Hermann L. Gremliza">Hermann L. Gremliza</a>, who left the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">SPD</a> in 1989 because of its support for German unification, was repulsed by the universal support for unification amongst most major parties, stating that it reminded him of "<a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democrats</a> joining the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">National Socialists</a> (Nazis) in singing the <a href="/wiki/German_national_anthem" class="mw-redirect" title="German national anthem">German national anthem</a> in 1933, following <a href="/wiki/Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler">Hitler</a>'s declaration of his foreign policy." Several thousand people joined the Anti-Germans' 1990 protests against German reunification.<a href="#cite_note-erlanger-67">[64]</a> According to Stephen Brockmann, German reunification was feared and opposed by ethnic minorities, particularly those of East Germany.<a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a> He observes that "right-wing violence was on the rise throughout 1990 in the GDR, with frequent instances of beatings, rapes, and fights connected with xenophobia", which led to a police lockdown in Leipzig on the night of reunification.<a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a> Tensions with Poland were high, and many internal ethnic minorities such as the <a href="/wiki/Sorbs" title="Sorbs">Sorbs</a> feared further displacement or assimilationist policies; the Sorbs had received legal protection in the GDR and feared that the rights granted to them in East Germany would not be included in the law of an eventual united Germany. Ultimately, no provision on the protection of ethnic minorities was included in the post-unification reform of the <a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">Basic Law</a> in 1994.<a href="#cite_note-foy1-68">[65]</a> While politicians called for acceptance of a new multiethnic society, many were unwilling to "give up its traditional racial definition of German nationality". Feminist groups also opposed the unification, as abortion laws were less restrictive in East Germany than in West Germany, and the progress that the GDR had made in regard to women's <a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">welfare</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Legal_equality" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal equality">legal equality</a>, child care and financial support were "all less impressive or non-existent in the West".<a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a> Opposition was also prevalent amongst Jewish circles, who had special status and rights in East Germany. Some Jewish intellectuals such as <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Kunert" title="Günter Kunert">Günter Kunert</a> expressed concern of Jews being portrayed as part of the East German socialist elites, given that the Jews had unique rights, such as being allowed to travel west.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a> There was also a significant opposition to the unification in intellectual circles. <a href="/wiki/Christa_Wolf" title="Christa Wolf">Christa Wolf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manfred_Stolpe" title="Manfred Stolpe">Manfred Stolpe</a> stressed the need to forge an East German identity, while "citizens' initiatives, church groups, and intellectuals of the first hour began issuing dire warnings about a possible <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a> of the GDR by the Federal Republic".<a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-augustine-66">[63]</a> Many East German oppositionists and reformers advocated for a "third path" of an independent, democratic socialist East Germany.<a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Heym" title="Stefan Heym">Stefan Heym</a> argued that the preservation of the GDR was necessary to achieve the ideal of <a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">democratic socialism</a>, urging East Germans to oppose "capitalist annexation" in favour of a democratic socialist society.<a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a> Writers in both East and West were concerned about the destruction of the East German or West German cultural identity respectively; in "Goodbye to the Literature of the Federal Republic", <a href="/wiki/Frank_Schirrmacher" title="Frank Schirrmacher">Frank Schirrmacher</a> states that the literature of both states had been central to the consciousness and unique identity of both nations, with this newly developed culture being now endangered by looming reunification.<a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Gress" title="David Gress">David Gress</a> remarked that there was "an influential view found largely, but by no means only, on the German and international left" which saw "the drive for unification as either sinister, masking a revival of aggressive nationalist aspirations, or materialist".<a href="#cite_note-gress-70">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Grass" title="Günter Grass">Günter Grass</a>, who won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a> in 1999, also expressed his vehement opposition to the unification of Germany, citing his tragic memories of World War II as the reason.<a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a> According to Grass, the emergence of <a href="/wiki/National_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="National Socialism">National Socialism</a> and the Holocaust had deprived Germany of its right to exist as a unified nation state: he wrote: "Historical responsibility dictates opposition to reunification, no matter how inevitable it may seem."<a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a> He also claimed that "national victory threatens a cultural defeat", as "blooming of <a href="/wiki/German_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="German culture">German culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">philosophy</a> is possible only at times of fruitful national disunity", and also cited <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a>'s opposition to the first unification of Germany in 1871:<a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a> Goethe wrote: "Frankfurt, Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck are large and brilliant, and their impact on the prosperity of Germany is incalculable. Yet, would they remain what they are if they were to lose their independence and be incorporated as provincial cities into one great German Empire? I have reason to doubt this."<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> Grass also condemned the unification as <a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">philistinist</a> and purely materialist, calling it "the monetary fetish, by now devoid of all joy." <a href="/wiki/Heiner_M%C3%BCller" title="Heiner Müller">Heiner Müller</a> supported Grass' criticism of the unification process, warning East Germans: "We will be a nation without dreams, we will lose our memories, our past, and therefore also our ability to hope."<a href="#cite_note-brockmann-63">[60]</a> British historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Richard J. Evans</a> made a similar argument, criticizing the unification as driven solely by "consumerist appetites whetted by years of watching West German television advertisements".<a href="#cite_note-gress-70">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_support_and_opposition">Foreign support and opposition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Foreign support and opposition">edit</a>]</div> For decades, West Germany's allies stated their support for reunification. <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Prime_Minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli Prime Minister">Israeli Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Shamir" title="Yitzhak Shamir">Yitzhak Shamir</a>, who speculated that <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">a country</a> that "decided to kill millions of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish people">Jewish people</a>" in the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> "will try to do it again", was one of the few world leaders to publicly oppose it. As reunification became a realistic possibility, however, significant NATO and European opposition emerged in private.<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_(crop).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg/190px-RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg/285px-RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg/380px-RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Soviet_leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet leader">Soviet leader</a> Mikhail Gorbachev had initially called for a united but <a href="/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">neutral</a> Germany.<a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a></figcaption></figure> A poll of four countries in January 1990 found that a majority of surveyed Americans and French supported reunification, while British and Poles were more divided: 69 percent of Poles and 50 percent of French and British stated that they worried about a reunified Germany becoming "the dominant power in Europe". Those surveyed stated several concerns, including Germany again attempting to expand its territory, a revival of Nazism, and the <a href="/wiki/German_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="German economy">German economy</a> becoming too powerful. While British, French, and Americans favored Germany remaining a member of NATO, a majority of Poles supported neutrality for the reunified state.<a href="#cite_note-skelton19900126-74">[71]</a> The key ally was the United States. Although some top American officials opposed quick unification, Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/James_A._Baker" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Baker">James A. Baker</a> and President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> provided strong and decisive support to Kohl's proposals.<a href="#cite_note-:3-75">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[d]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom_and_France">United Kingdom and France</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: United Kingdom and France">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">We</a> <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany#World_War_I_(1914–1918)" title="Military history of Germany">defeated the Germans twice</a>! And now they're back!<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Margaret Thatcher, December 1989<a href="#cite_note-volkery20091109-79">[75]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/British_Prime_Minister" class="mw-redirect" title="British Prime Minister">British Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> was one of the most vehement opponents of German reunification. Before the fall of the Berlin Wall, Thatcher told <a href="/wiki/Soviet_General_Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet General Secretary">Soviet General Secretary</a> Mikhail Gorbachev that neither the United Kingdom nor, according to her, Western Europe, wanted the reunification of Germany. Thatcher also clarified that she wanted the Soviet leader to do what he could to stop it, telling Gorbachev, "We do not want a united Germany".<a href="#cite_note-Times2009.9.11-80">[76]</a> Although she welcomed East German democracy, Thatcher worried that a rapid reunification might weaken Gorbachev, and she favored Soviet troops staying in East Germany as long as possible to act as a counterweight to a united Germany.<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-kundnani20091028-81">[77]</a> Thatcher, who carried in her handbag a map of <a href="/wiki/Territorial_changes_of_Germany#Interbellum" class="mw-redirect" title="Territorial changes of Germany">Germany's 1937 borders</a> to show others the "German problem", feared that Germany's "national character", size, and central location in Europe would cause it to be a "destabilizing rather than a stabilizing force in Europe".<a href="#cite_note-kundnani20091028-81">[77]</a> In December 1989, she warned fellow European Community leaders at a <a href="/wiki/European_Council" title="European Council">Council</a> summit in <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a> which Kohl attended, "We defeated the Germans twice! And now they're back!".<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-volkery20091109-79">[75]</a> Although Thatcher had stated her support for German <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> in 1985,<a href="#cite_note-kundnani20091028-81">[77]</a> she now argued that Germany's allies only supported reunification because they did not believe it would ever happen.<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a> Thatcher favored a transition period of five years for reunification, during which the two Germanies would remain separate states. Although she gradually softened her opposition, as late as March 1990, Thatcher summoned historians and diplomats to a seminar at <a href="/wiki/Chequers" title="Chequers">Chequers</a> to ask "How dangerous are the Germans?",<a href="#cite_note-kundnani20091028-81">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-volkery20091109-79">[75]</a> and the French ambassador in London reported that Thatcher told him, "France and Great Britain should pull together today in the face of the German threat."<a href="#cite_note-CalgaryHerald-82">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oder-neisse.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Oder-neisse.gif/300px-Oder-neisse.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Oder-neisse.gif/450px-Oder-neisse.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Oder-neisse.gif/600px-Oder-neisse.gif 2x" data-file-width="827" data-file-height="535" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Former_eastern_territories_of_Germany" title="Former eastern territories of Germany">Former eastern territories of Germany</a> (yellow and orange)</figcaption></figure> The pace of events surprised the French, whose Foreign Ministry had concluded in October 1989 that reunification "does not appear realistic at this moment".<a href="#cite_note-DW-world2009.11.08-84">[80]</a> A representative of <a href="/wiki/French_President" class="mw-redirect" title="French President">French President</a> <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a> reportedly told an aide to Gorbachev, "France by no means wants German reunification, although it realises that in the end, it is inevitable."<a href="#cite_note-Times2009.9.11-80">[76]</a> At the Strasbourg summit, Mitterrand and Thatcher discussed the fluidity of Germany's historical borders.<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a> On 20 January 1990, Mitterrand told Thatcher that a unified Germany could "make more ground than even <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf</a> had".<a href="#cite_note-CalgaryHerald-82">[78]</a> He predicted that "bad" Germans would reemerge,<a href="#cite_note-volkery20091109-79">[75]</a> who might seek to regain <a href="/wiki/Former_eastern_territories_of_Germany#Post_World_War_II" title="Former eastern territories of Germany">former German territory lost after World War II</a> and would likely dominate Hungary, Poland, and <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-kundnani20091028-81">[77]</a> leaving "only <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> for the rest of us". The two leaders saw no way to prevent reunification, however, as "None of us was going to declare war on Germany".<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a> Mitterrand recognized before Thatcher that reunification was inevitable and adjusted his views accordingly; unlike her, he was hopeful that participation in a single currency and other European institutions could control a united Germany.<a href="#cite_note-kundnani20091028-81">[77]</a> Mitterrand still wanted Thatcher to publicly oppose unification, however, to obtain more concessions from Germany.<a href="#cite_note-volkery20091109-79">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rest_of_Europe">Rest of Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Rest of Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I love Germany so much that I prefer to see two of them.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Giulio Andreotti, Prime Minister of Italy, quoting <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mauriac" title="François Mauriac">François Mauriac</a><a href="#cite_note-folli20130507-85">[81]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Taoiseach" title="Taoiseach">Taoiseach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Haughey" title="Charles Haughey">Charles Haughey</a>, supported German reunification and he took advantage of Ireland's presidency of the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a> to call for an extraordinary <a href="/wiki/List_of_European_Council_meetings" title="List of European Council meetings">European summit</a> in Dublin in April 1990 to calm the fears held of fellow members of the EEC.<a href="#cite_note-86">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a> Haughey saw similarities between Ireland and Germany, and said "I have expressed a personal view that coming as we do from <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Ireland" title="Partition of Ireland">a country which is also divided</a> many of us would have sympathy with any wish of the people of the two German States for unification".<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a> later described other European leaders' opinion of reunification at the time as "icy". Italy's <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Andreotti" title="Giulio Andreotti">Giulio Andreotti</a> warned against a revival of "<a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">pan-Germanism</a>" and the Netherlands's <a href="/wiki/Ruud_Lubbers" title="Ruud Lubbers">Ruud Lubbers</a> questioned the German right to self-determination. They shared Britain's and France's concerns over a return to German militarism and the economic power of a reunified country. The consensus opinion was that reunification, if it must occur, should not occur until at least 1995 and preferably much later.<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a> Andreotti, quoting <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mauriac" title="François Mauriac">François Mauriac</a>, joked "I love Germany so much that I prefer to see two of them".<a href="#cite_note-folli20130507-85">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Final_settlement">Final settlement</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Final settlement">edit</a>]</div> The victors of World War II—France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, comprising the <a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council" title="Allied Control Council">Four-Power Authorities</a>—retained authority over <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, such as control over air travel and its political status. From the onset, the Soviet Union sought to use reunification as a way to push Germany out of NATO into neutrality, removing nuclear weapons from its territory. However, West Germany misinterpreted a 21 November 1989 diplomatic message on the topic to mean that the Soviet leadership already anticipated reunification only two weeks after the Wall's collapse. This belief, and the worry that his rival Genscher might act first, encouraged Kohl on 28 November to announce a detailed "Ten Point Program for Overcoming the Division of Germany and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>". While his speech was very popular within West Germany, it caused concern among other European governments, with whom he had not discussed the plan.<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-kohl19891128-90">[86]</a> The Americans did not share the Europeans' and Soviets' historical fears over German <a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">expansionism</a>; <a href="/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice" title="Condoleezza Rice">Condoleezza Rice</a> later recalled,<a href="#cite_note-rice20100929-91">[87]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The United States—and President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>—recognized that Germany went through a long <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratic transition</a>. It was a good friend, it was a member of NATO. Any issues that existed in 1945, it seemed perfectly reasonable to lay them to rest. For us, the question wasn't should Germany unify? It was how and under what circumstances? We had no concern about a resurgent Germany...</blockquote> The United States wished to ensure, however, that Germany would stay within NATO. In December 1989, the administration of President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> made a united Germany's continued NATO membership a requirement for supporting reunification. Kohl agreed, although less than 20 percent of West Germans supported remaining within NATO. Kohl also wished to avoid a neutral Germany, as he believed that would destroy NATO, cause the United States and Canada to leave Europe, and cause Britain and France to form an anti-German alliance. The United States increased its support of Kohl's policies, as it feared that otherwise <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Lafontaine" title="Oskar Lafontaine">Oskar Lafontaine</a>, a critic of NATO, might become Chancellor.<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a> Horst Teltschik, Kohl's foreign policy advisor, later recalled that Germany would have paid "100 billion deutschmarks" if the Soviets demanded it. The USSR did not make such great demands, however, with Gorbachev stating in February 1990 that "[t]he Germans must decide for themselves what path they choose to follow". In May 1990, he repeated his remark in the context of NATO membership while meeting Bush, amazing both the Americans and Germans.<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a> This removed the last significant roadblock to Germany being free to choose its international alignments, though Kohl made no secret that he intended for the reunified Germany to inherit West Germany's seats in NATO and the EC. During a NATO–Warsaw Pact conference in <a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a>, Canada; Genscher persuaded the four powers to treat the two Germanies as equals instead of defeated junior partners and for the six nations to negotiate alone. Although the Dutch, Italians, Spanish, and other NATO powers opposed such a structure, which meant that the alliance's boundaries would change without their participation, the six nations began negotiations in March 1990. After Gorbachev's May agreement on German NATO membership, the Soviets further agreed that Germany would be treated as an ordinary NATO country, with the exception that former East German territory would not have foreign NATO troops or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a>. In exchange, Kohl agreed to reduce the sizes of the militaries of both West and East Germany, renounce <a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons of mass destruction">weapons of mass destruction</a>, and accept the postwar Oder–Neisse line as Germany's eastern border. In addition, Germany agreed to pay about 55 billion deutschmarks to the Soviet Union in gifts and loans, the equivalent of eight days of the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Germany" title="Economy of Germany">West German GDP</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a> To oppose German reunification, the British insisted to the end, against Soviet opposition, that NATO be allowed to hold maneuvers in the former East Germany. Thatcher later wrote that her opposition to reunification had been an "unambiguous failure".<a href="#cite_note-kundnani20091028-81">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_sovereignty_and_withdrawal_of_the_Allied_Forces">German sovereignty and withdrawal of the Allied Forces</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: German sovereignty and withdrawal of the Allied Forces">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F086568-0046,_Leipzig,_ausgeschlachteter_PKW_Trabant_(Trabbi).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F086568-0046%2C_Leipzig%2C_ausgeschlachteter_PKW_Trabant_%28Trabbi%29.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F086568-0046%2C_Leipzig%2C_ausgeschlachteter_PKW_Trabant_%28Trabbi%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F086568-0046%2C_Leipzig%2C_ausgeschlachteter_PKW_Trabant_%28Trabbi%29.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F086568-0046%2C_Leipzig%2C_ausgeschlachteter_PKW_Trabant_%28Trabbi%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F086568-0046%2C_Leipzig%2C_ausgeschlachteter_PKW_Trabant_%28Trabbi%29.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F086568-0046%2C_Leipzig%2C_ausgeschlachteter_PKW_Trabant_%28Trabbi%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption>Many <a href="/wiki/Trabant" title="Trabant">Trabant</a> vehicles were abandoned in Germany after 1989 (this one photographed in <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>, 1990). A <a href="/wiki/Volkswagen_Golf_Mk2" title="Volkswagen Golf Mk2">Volkswagen Golf</a> can be seen parked in the background. Private brands like <a href="/wiki/Volkswagen" title="Volkswagen">Volkswagen</a> spilled over into East Germany after its state-owned auto industry collapsed.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deutschland_politisch_2010.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Deutschland_politisch_2010.png/250px-Deutschland_politisch_2010.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Deutschland_politisch_2010.png/375px-Deutschland_politisch_2010.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Deutschland_politisch_2010.png/500px-Deutschland_politisch_2010.png 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="998" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/States_of_Germany" title="States of Germany">Current administrative map of Germany</a></figcaption></figure> On 15 March 1991, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a>—that had been signed in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> back on 12 September 1990 by the two German states that then existed (East and West Germany) on one side and by the four principal Allied powers (the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States) on the other—entered into force, having been ratified by the Federal Republic of Germany (after the unification, as the united Germany) and by the four Allied states. The entry into force of that treaty (also known as the "Two Plus Four Treaty", in reference to the two German states and four Allied governments that signed it) put an end to the then-remaining limitations on German sovereignty and the ACC that resulted from the post-World War II arrangements. After the Americans intervened,<a href="#cite_note-wiegrefe20100929-72">[69]</a> both the United Kingdom and France ratified the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a> in September 1990. The Treaty entered into force on 15 March 1991, in accordance with Article 9 of the Two Plus Four Treaty, it entered into force as soon as all ratifications were deposited with the Government of Germany, thus finalizing the reunification for purposes of international law. The last party to ratify the treaty was the Soviet Union, that deposited its instrument of ratification on 15 March 1991. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet" title="Supreme Soviet">Supreme Soviet</a> of the USSR only gave its approval to the ratification of the treaty on 4 March 1991, after a hefty debate. Even prior to the ratification of the Treaty, the operation of all quadripartite Allied institutions in Germany was suspended, with effect from the reunification of Germany on 3 October 1990 and pending the final ratification of the Two Plus Four Treaty, pursuant to a declaration signed in New York on 1 October 1990 by the foreign ministers of the four Allied Powers, that was witnessed by ministers of the two German states then in existence, and that was appended text of the Two Plus Four Treaty.<a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> However, the Soviets cited their occupation rights for the last time as late as on 13 March 1991, just two days before the Treaty became effective, when the Honeckers were enabled by Soviet hardliners to flee Germany on a military jet to Moscow from the Soviet-controlled <a href="/wiki/Sperenberg_Airfield" title="Sperenberg Airfield">Sperenberg Airfield</a>, with the German Federal Government being notified of this in advance of just one hour.<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brandenburger_Tor_abends.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Brandenburger_Tor_abends.jpg/220px-Brandenburger_Tor_abends.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Brandenburger_Tor_abends.jpg/330px-Brandenburger_Tor_abends.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Brandenburger_Tor_abends.jpg/440px-Brandenburger_Tor_abends.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, national symbol of present-day Germany and its reunification in 1990</figcaption></figure> Under the treaty on final settlement (which should not be confused with the Unification Treaty that was signed only between the two German states), the last Allied forces still present in Germany left in 1994, in accordance with article 4 of the treaty, that set 31 December 1994 as the deadline for the withdrawal of the remaining Allied forces. The bulk of <a href="/wiki/Russian_ground_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian ground forces">Russian ground forces</a> left Germany on 25 June 1994 with a military parade of the <a href="/wiki/6th_Separate_Guards_Motor_Rifle_Brigade" title="6th Separate Guards Motor Rifle Brigade">6th Guards Motor Rifle Brigade</a> in Berlin. This was followed by the closure of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Berlin" title="United States Army Berlin">United States Army Berlin command</a> on 12 July 1994, an event that was marked by a casing of the colors ceremony witnessed by President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>. The withdrawal of the last Russian troops (the Russian Army's <a href="/wiki/Group_of_Soviet_Forces_in_Germany" title="Group of Soviet Forces in Germany">Western Group of Forces</a>) was completed on 31 August 1994, and the event was marked by a military ceremony in the <a href="/wiki/Treptow_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Treptow Park">Treptow Park</a> in Berlin, with the presence of Russian President <a href="/wiki/Yeltsin" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeltsin">Yeltsin</a> and German Chancellor Kohl.<a href="#cite_note-:4-94">[90]</a> Although the bulk of the British, American, and French Forces had left Germany even before the departure of the Russians, the Western Allies kept a presence in Berlin until the completion of the Russian withdrawal, and the ceremony marking the departure of the remaining Forces of the Western Allies was the last to take place: on 8 September 1994,<a href="#cite_note-95">[91]</a> a Farewell Ceremony in the courtyard of the <a href="/wiki/Charlottenburg_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Charlottenburg Palace">Charlottenburg Palace</a>, with the presence of British Prime Minister John Major, American Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Warren_Christopher" title="Warren Christopher">Warren Christopher</a>, French President François Mitterrand, and German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, marked the withdrawal of the British, American and French Occupation Forces from Berlin, and the termination of the Allied occupation in Germany.<a href="#cite_note-:4-94">[90]</a> Thus, the removal of the Allied presence took place a few months before the final deadline. Article 5 banned the deployment of nuclear weapons in the territory previously controlled by the GDR and well as a ban on stationing non-German military personnel.<a href="#cite_note-96">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polish_border">Polish border</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Polish border">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oder-Neisse_line_between_Germany_and_Poland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Oder-Neisse_line_between_Germany_and_Poland.jpg/220px-Oder-Neisse_line_between_Germany_and_Poland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Oder-Neisse_line_between_Germany_and_Poland.jpg/330px-Oder-Neisse_line_between_Germany_and_Poland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Oder-Neisse_line_between_Germany_and_Poland.jpg/440px-Oder-Neisse_line_between_Germany_and_Poland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="698" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Oder–Neisse line</a> between <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:18-09-29-G%C3%B6rlitz-RalfR-DJI_0418.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/18-09-29-G%C3%B6rlitz-RalfR-DJI_0418.jpg/220px-18-09-29-G%C3%B6rlitz-RalfR-DJI_0418.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/18-09-29-G%C3%B6rlitz-RalfR-DJI_0418.jpg/330px-18-09-29-G%C3%B6rlitz-RalfR-DJI_0418.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/18-09-29-G%C3%B6rlitz-RalfR-DJI_0418.jpg/440px-18-09-29-G%C3%B6rlitz-RalfR-DJI_0418.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4048" data-file-height="3032" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/German-Polish_border" class="mw-redirect" title="German-Polish border">German-Polish border</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Western_Neisse" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Neisse">Western Neisse river</a> between <a href="/wiki/Zgorzelec" title="Zgorzelec">Zgorzelec</a> of Poland and <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6rlitz" title="Görlitz">Görlitz</a>, a city of Germany which belonged to the former <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Lower_Silesia" title="Province of Lower Silesia">Province of Lower Silesia</a></figcaption></figure> On 14 November 1990, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> signed the <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Polish_Border_Treaty_(1990)" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Polish Border Treaty (1990)">German–Polish Border Treaty</a>, finalizing Germany's eastern boundary as permanent along the Oder–(<a href="/wiki/Lusatian_Neisse" title="Lusatian Neisse">Lusatian/Western</a>) Neisse line, and thus, renouncing any claims<a href="#cite_note-97">[93]</a> to most of <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Brandenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="East Brandenburg">East Brandenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farther_Pomerania" title="Farther Pomerania">Farther Pomerania</a>, and the southern area of the former province of <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a> (they are called the "<a href="/wiki/Recovered_Territories" title="Recovered Territories">Recovered Territories</a>" by Poland as they were once ruled by <a href="/wiki/Piast_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Piast Poland">Piast Poland</a>).<a href="#cite_note-98">[e]</a> The following month, the first <a href="/wiki/1990_German_federal_election" title="1990 German federal election">all-German free elections</a> since 1932 were held, resulting in an increased majority for the coalition government of Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Helmut Kohl</a>. As for the German–Polish Border Treaty, it was approved by the Polish <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> on 26 November 1991 and the German Bundestag on 16 December 1991, and entered into force with the exchange of the instruments of ratification on 16 January 1992. The confirmation of the border between Germany and Poland was required of Germany by the four Allied countries in the Two Plus Four Treaty. The Treaty was later supplemented by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Good_Neighbourship" title="Treaty of Good Neighbourship">Treaty of Good Neighbourship</a> between the two countries which took effect on 16 January 1992 and ensured the <a href="/wiki/German_minority_in_Poland" title="German minority in Poland">few remaining Germans in Poland</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a>) were treated better by the government. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Effects">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_effects">International effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: International effects">edit</a>]</div> The reunification made Germany into a <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great power</a> in the world again. The practical result of the chosen legal model of the unification (the incorporation of the territory of German Democratic Republic by the Federal Republic of Germany, and the continuation of the legal personality of the now enlarged Federal Republic) is that the expanded Federal Republic of Germany inherited the old West Germany's seats at the UN, NATO, the European Communities, and other international organizations. It also continued to be a party to all the <a href="/wiki/Treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaties">treaties</a> the old West Germany signed prior to the moment of reunification. The Basic Law and statutory laws that were in force in the Federal Republic, as amended in accordance with the Unification Treaty, continued automatically in force but now applied to the expanded territory. Also, the same President, Chancellor (Prime Minister), and Government of the Federal Republic remained in office, but their jurisdiction now included the newly acquired territory of the former East Germany. To facilitate this process and to reassure other countries, fundamental changes were made to the German constitution. The Preamble and Article 146 were amended, and Article 23 was replaced, but the deleted former Article 23 was applied as the constitutional model to be used for the 1990 reunification. Hence, prior to the five "New Länder" of East Germany joining, the Basic Law was amended to indicate that all parts of Germany would then be unified such that Germany could now no longer consider itself constitutionally open to further extension to include the <a href="/wiki/Former_eastern_territories_of_Germany" title="Former eastern territories of Germany">former eastern territories of Germany</a>, that were now parts of Poland and Russia (the German territory the former USSR annexed was a part of Russia-<a href="/wiki/Soviet_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Russia">a Soviet member state</a>) and were settled by <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a> respectively. The changes effectively formalized the <a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Oder–Neisse line</a> as Germany's permanent eastern border. These amendments to the Basic Law were mandated by Article I, section 4 of the Two Plus Four Treaty.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_effects">Domestic effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Domestic effects">edit</a>]</div> Vast differences between former East Germany and West Germany in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs, and other matters remain, and it is therefore still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. It is often referred to as the "wall in the head" (Mauer im Kopf).<a href="#cite_note-dw1004-99">[94]</a> Ossis (Easterners) are stereotyped as racist, poor, and largely influenced by <a href="/wiki/Russian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian culture">Russian culture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-100">[95]</a> while Wessis (Westerners) are usually considered snobbish, dishonest, wealthy, and selfish. East Germans indicate a dissatisfaction with the status quo and cultural alienation from the rest of Germany, and a sense that their cultural heritage is not acknowledged enough in the now unified Germany. The West, on the other hand, has become uninterested in what the East has to say, and this has led to more resentment toward the East, exacerbating the divide. Both the West and the East have failed to sustain an openminded dialogue, and the failure to grasp the effects of the institutional path dependency has increased the frustration each side feels.<a href="#cite_note-101">[96]</a> The economy of eastern Germany has struggled since unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east. Economically, eastern Germany has had a sharp rise of 10 percent to West Germany's 5 percent. Western Germany also still holds 56 percent of the GDP. Part of this disparity between the East and the West lies in the Western labor unions' demand for high-wage pacts in an attempt to prevent "low-wage zones". This caused many Germans from the East to be outpriced in the market, adding to the slump in businesses in eastern Germany as well as the rising unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-102">[97]</a> The former East German area has often been compared[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] to the underdeveloped <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a> during <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction era of the United States">Reconstruction</a> after the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>. While the economy of eastern Germany has recovered recently, the differences between East and West remain present.<a href="#cite_note-103">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[99]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UTafel_Deutschland_geteilt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/UTafel_Deutschland_geteilt.jpg/220px-UTafel_Deutschland_geteilt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/UTafel_Deutschland_geteilt.jpg/330px-UTafel_Deutschland_geteilt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/UTafel_Deutschland_geteilt.jpg/440px-UTafel_Deutschland_geteilt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2760" data-file-height="1890" /></a><figcaption>Placard found in all roads between western and eastern Germany that were blocked during division. Text translated as: "Here, Germany and Europe were divided until 10 December 1989 at 10:15 am". The date and time vary according to the actual moment when a particular crossing was opened.</figcaption></figure> Politicians and scholars have frequently called for a process of "inner reunification" of the two countries and asked whether there is "inner unification or continued separation".<a href="#cite_note-105">[100]</a> "The process of German unity has not ended yet", proclaimed Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a>, who grew up in East Germany, in 2009.<a href="#cite_note-welt.de-106">[101]</a> Nevertheless, the question of this "inner reunification" has been widely discussed in the German public, politically, economically, culturally, and also constitutionally since 1989. Politically, since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the successor party of the former <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">East German socialist state party</a> has become a major force in German politics. It was renamed <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Democratic_Socialism_(Germany)" title="Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany)">PDS</a>, and, later, merged with the Western leftist party <a href="/wiki/Labour_and_Social_Justice_%E2%80%93_The_Electoral_Alternative" title="Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative">WASG</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/The_Left_(Germany)" title="The Left (Germany)">Left Party</a> (Die Linke). Constitutionally, the Basic Law of West Germany (<a href="/wiki/Grundgesetz" class="mw-redirect" title="Grundgesetz">Grundgesetz</a>) provided two pathways for unification. The first was the implementation of a new all-German constitution, safeguarded by a popular referendum. Actually, this was the original idea of the Grundgesetz in 1949: it was named a "basic law" instead of a "constitution" because it was considered provisional.<a href="#cite_note-108">[f]</a> The second way was more technical: the implementation of the constitution in the East, using a paragraph originally designed for the West German states (Bundesländer) in case of internal reorganization like the merger of two states. While this latter option was chosen as the most feasible one, the first option was partly regarded as a means to foster the "inner reunification".<a href="#cite_note-109">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[104]</a> A public manifestation of coming to terms with the past (<a href="/wiki/Vergangenheitsbew%C3%A4ltigung" title="Vergangenheitsbewältigung">Vergangenheitsbewältigung</a>) is the existence of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Marianne_Birthler" title="Marianne Birthler">Birthler</a>-Behörde, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Commissioner_for_the_Stasi_Records" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records">Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records</a>, which collects and maintains the files of the East German security apparatus.<a href="#cite_note-111">[105]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ostalgie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ostalgie.jpg/220px-Ostalgie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ostalgie.jpg/330px-Ostalgie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ostalgie.jpg/440px-Ostalgie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Soviet and GDR Memorabilia for sale in Berlin in 2006</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karte_btw_linke17z_endg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Karte_btw_linke17z_endg.svg/220px-Karte_btw_linke17z_endg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Karte_btw_linke17z_endg.svg/330px-Karte_btw_linke17z_endg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Karte_btw_linke17z_endg.svg/440px-Karte_btw_linke17z_endg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Percentage of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zweitstimme&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zweitstimme (page does not exist)">party votes</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zweitstimme" class="extiw" title="de:Zweitstimme">de</a>] for the <a href="/wiki/Die_Linke" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Linke">Left Party</a> in the <a href="/wiki/2017_German_federal_election" title="2017 German federal election">2017 federal election in Germany</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Btw17afd.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Btw17afd.svg/250px-Btw17afd.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Btw17afd.svg/375px-Btw17afd.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Btw17afd.svg/500px-Btw17afd.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Second vote share percentage for <a href="/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany" title="Alternative for Germany">AfD</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Far-right" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-right">far-right</a> party, in the 2017 federal election in Germany, final results</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Economic_reconstruction" title="Economic reconstruction">economic reconstruction</a> of former East Germany following the reunification required large amounts of public funding which turned some areas into boom regions, although overall unemployment remains higher than in the former West.<a href="#cite_note-112">[106]</a> Unemployment was part of a process of deindustrialization starting rapidly after 1990. Causes for this process are disputed in political conflicts up to the present day. Most times bureaucracy and lack of efficiency of the East German economy are highlighted and the deindustrialization is seen as an inevitable outcome of the Wende. But many critics from East Germany point out that it was the shock-therapy style of <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a> that did not leave room for East German enterprises to adapt, and that alternatives like a slow transition had been possible.<a href="#cite_note-115">[g]</a> Reunification did, however, lead to a large rise in the average standard of living in former East Germany, and a stagnation in the West as $2 trillion in public spending was transferred East.<a href="#cite_note-116">[109]</a> Between 1990 and 1995, gross wages in the east rose from 35 percent to 74 percent of western levels, while pensions rose from 40 percent to 79 percent.<a href="#cite_note-parkes1997-117">[110]</a> Unemployment reached double the western level as well. West German cities close to the former border of East and West Germany experienced a disproportionate loss of market access[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] relative to other West German cities which were not as greatly affected by the reunification of Germany.<a href="#cite_note-118">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unified_Berlin">Unified Berlin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Unified Berlin">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BrandenburgerTorDezember1989.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/BrandenburgerTorDezember1989.jpg/220px-BrandenburgerTorDezember1989.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/BrandenburgerTorDezember1989.jpg/330px-BrandenburgerTorDezember1989.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/BrandenburgerTorDezember1989.jpg/440px-BrandenburgerTorDezember1989.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2780" data-file-height="1870" /></a><figcaption>Crowds at the Brandenburg Gate on 1 December 1989. The entrance to the Western side was still not opened.</figcaption></figure> While the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">fall of the Berlin Wall</a> had broad economic, political, and social impacts globally, it also had significant consequence for the local urban environment. In fact, the events of 9 November 1989 saw <a href="/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a>, two halves of a single city that had ignored one another for the better part of 40 years, finally "in confrontation with one another".<a href="#cite_note-119">[112]</a> There was a belief in the city that, after 40 years of division, the unified city would be well placed to become a major metropolis.<a href="#cite_note-Grésillon_1999_284-120">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tölle_2010_348–357-57">[54]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg/220px-KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg/330px-KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg/440px-KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="1860" /></a><figcaption>East German Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Hans_Modrow" title="Hans Modrow">Hans Modrow</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_German_Chancellor" class="mw-redirect" title="West German Chancellor">West German Chancellor</a> Helmut Kohl, and <a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_West_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayor of West Berlin">mayor of West Berlin</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Momper" title="Walter Momper">Walter Momper</a>, among other figures, take part in the official opening of the Brandenburg Gate on 22 December 1989.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Palastabriss1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Berlin_Palastabriss1.jpg/220px-Berlin_Palastabriss1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Berlin_Palastabriss1.jpg/330px-Berlin_Palastabriss1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Berlin_Palastabriss1.jpg/440px-Berlin_Palastabriss1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_the_Republic_(Berlin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace of the Republic (Berlin)">Palace of the Republic</a> was demolished in 2006 to make space for the reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_City_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin City Palace">Berlin City Palace</a>, which was finished in 2020, but houses the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Forum" title="Humboldt Forum">Humboldt Forum</a> museum.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landmark_Traffic_(26992261693).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Landmark_Traffic_%2826992261693%29.jpg/220px-Landmark_Traffic_%2826992261693%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Landmark_Traffic_%2826992261693%29.jpg/330px-Landmark_Traffic_%2826992261693%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Landmark_Traffic_%2826992261693%29.jpg/440px-Landmark_Traffic_%2826992261693%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Traffic crossing the site of the former Wall near the Brandenburg Gate in 2016</figcaption></figure> Another key priority was reestablishing Berlin as the seat of government of Germany, and this required buildings to serve government needs, including the "redevelopment of sites for scores of foreign embassies".<a href="#cite_note-Loeb_2006_67–87-55">[52]</a> With respect to redefining the city's identity, emphasis was placed on restoring Berlin's traditional landscape. "Critical Reconstruction" policies sought to disassociate the city's identity from its <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">socialist</a> legacy, though some remnants were preserved, with walkways and bicycle paths established along the border strip to preserve the memory of the Wall.<a href="#cite_note-Loeb_2006_67–87-55">[52]</a> In the center of East Berlin, much of the modernist heritage of the East German state was gradually removed.<a href="#cite_note-UrbanF01-58">[55]</a> Unification of Berlin saw the removal of politically motivated street names and monuments in the East in an attempt to reduce the socialist legacy from the face of East Berlin.<a href="#cite_note-Tölle_2010_348–357-57">[54]</a> Immediately following the fall of the Wall, Berlin experienced a boom in the construction industry.<a href="#cite_note-Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development_2003-54">[51]</a> Redevelopment initiatives saw Berlin turn into one of the largest construction sites in the world through the 1990s and early 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-Schwedler_2001-56">[53]</a> The fall of the Wall also had economic consequences. Two German systems covering distinctly divergent degrees of economic opportunity suddenly came into intimate contact.<a href="#cite_note-Frank_2007-121">[114]</a> Despite development of sites for commercial purposes, Berlin struggled to compete in economic terms with Frankfurt which remained the financial capital of the country, as well as with other key West German centers such as <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a> and <a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf" title="Düsseldorf">Düsseldorf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Krätke_2004_511–529-122">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Häußermann_2005_189–222-123">[116]</a> The intensive building activity directed by planning policy resulted in the over-expansion of office space, "with a high level of vacancies in spite of the move of most administrations and government agencies from Bonn".<a href="#cite_note-Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development_2003-54">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[117]</a> Berlin was marred by disjointed economic restructuring, associated with massive <a href="/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">deindustrialisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Krätke_2004_511–529-122">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Häußermann_2005_189–222-123">[116]</a> Economist <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Marc_Hartwich" title="Oliver Marc Hartwich">Oliver Marc Hartwich</a> asserts that, while the East undoubtedly improved economically, it was "at a much slower pace than [then Chancellor Helmut] Kohl had predicted".<a href="#cite_note-125">[118]</a> Wealth and income inequality between former East and West Germany continued for decades after reunification. On average, adults in the former West Germany had assets worth 94,000 euros in 2014 as compared to the adults in the former communist East Germany which had just over 40,000 euros in assets.<a href="#cite_note-126">[119]</a> The fall of the Berlin Wall and the factors described above led to <a href="/wiki/Mass_migration" title="Mass migration">mass migration</a> from East Berlin and East Germany, producing a large labor supply shock in the West.<a href="#cite_note-Frank_2007-121">[114]</a> Emigration from the East, totaling 870,000 people between 1989 and 1992 alone,<a href="#cite_note-127">[120]</a> led to worse employment outcomes for the least-educated workers, for blue-collar workers, for men, and for foreign nationals.<a href="#cite_note-Frank_2007-121">[114]</a> At the close of the century, it became evident that despite significant investment and planning, Berlin was unlikely to retake "its seat between the European Global Cities of <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>", primarily due to the fact that Germany's financial and commercial capital is located elsewhere (<a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>) than the administrative one (Berlin), in resemblance of Italy (<a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>), Switzerland (<a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Bern" title="Bern">Bern</a>), Canada (<a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a>), Australia (<a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Canberra" title="Canberra">Canberra</a>), the US (<a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Washington,_DC" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington, DC">Washington, DC</a>) or the Netherlands (<a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> vs <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>), as opposed to London, Paris, <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> or <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> which combine both roles.<a href="#cite_note-Tölle_2010_348–357-57">[54]</a> Yet, ultimately, the disparity between East and West portions of Berlin has led to the city achieving a new urban identity. A number of locales of East Berlin, characterized by dwellings of in-between use of abandoned space for little to no rent, have become the focal point and foundation of Berlin's burgeoning creative activities.<a href="#cite_note-:1-128">[121]</a> According to Berlin Mayor <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Wowereit" title="Klaus Wowereit">Klaus Wowereit</a>, "the best that Berlin has to offer, its unique creativity. Creativity is Berlin's future."<a href="#cite_note-:1-128">[121]</a> Overall, the Berlin government's engagement in creativity is strongly centered on marketing and promotional initiatives instead of creative production.<a href="#cite_note-129">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Assessment">Assessment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Assessment">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cost_of_reunification">Cost of reunification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Cost of reunification">edit</a>]</div> The subsequent economic restructuring and reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Germany">eastern Germany</a> resulted in significant costs, especially for <a href="/wiki/Western_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Germany">western Germany</a>, which paid large sums of money in the form of the Solidaritätszuschlag (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>German: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[zolidaʁiˈtɛːt͡st͡suːˌʃlaːk]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/2\/2d\/De-Solidarit%C3%A4tszuschlag.ogg\/De-Solidarit%C3%A4tszuschlag.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Solidarit\u00e4tszuschlag.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2d/De-Solidarit%C3%A4tszuschlag.ogg/De-Solidarit%C3%A4tszuschlag.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:De-Solidarit%C3%A4tszuschlag.ogg" title="File:De-Solidaritätszuschlag.ogg">ⓘ</a>, Solidarity Surcharge) in order to rebuild the east German infrastructure. In addition, the immensely advantageous exchange rate of 1:1 between the West German Deutschmark to the East German mark meant that East Germans could trade in their almost worthless marks for and receive wages in West German currency. This dealt a major blow to the West German budget in the coming few years.<a href="#cite_note-130">[123]</a> The cost of German reunification for the federal government is estimated to be between 1.5 and 2 trillion euros.<a href="#cite_note-131">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Views_and_life_satisfaction">Views and life satisfaction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Views and life satisfaction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ostalgie" title="Ostalgie">Ostalgie</a></div> According to a 2019 survey conducted by <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>, 89 percent of Germans living in both the West and East believe that reunification was good for Germany, with slightly more in East than West Germany supporting it.<a href="#cite_note-134">[127]</a> Around 83 percent of East Germans approve of and 13 percent disapprove of eastern Germany's transition to a <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a>, with the rest saying they were not sure.<a href="#cite_note-135">[128]</a> Life satisfaction in both the East and West has substantially increased since 1991, with 15 percent of East Germans placing their life satisfaction somewhere between 7 and 10 on a 0 to 10 scale in 1991, changing to 59 percent in 2019. For West Germans, this change over the same time period was from 52 to 64 percent.<a href="#cite_note-wikeetal2019-136">[129]</a> However, the 2019 annual reunification report by the German government found that 57% East Germans felt like second-class citizens, and 38% saw the reunification as a success – this figure declined to 20% amongst people under 40.<a href="#cite_note-137">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[131]</a> In 2023, a poll found that 40% of East Germans identify as East Germans rather than German which was 52%.<a href="#cite_note-139">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[133]</a> Additionally, German reunification was useful in generating wealth for those Eastern <a href="/wiki/Household" title="Household">household</a> households who already had ties with the West. Those who lived in West Germany and had <a href="/wiki/Social_ties" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ties">social ties</a> to the East experienced a six percent average increase in their wealth in the six years following the fall of the Wall, which more than doubled that of households who did not possess the same connections.<a href="#cite_note-:0-141">[134]</a> Entrepreneurs who worked in areas with strong social ties to the East saw their <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">incomes</a> increase as well. Incomes for this group increased at an average rate of 8.8 percent over the same six-year period following reunification. Similarly, those in the East who possessed connections to the West saw their household income increase at a positive rate in each of the six years following reunification.<a href="#cite_note-:0-141">[134]</a> Those in their regions who lacked the same ties did not see this benefit.<a href="#cite_note-:0-141">[134]</a> The fall of the Berlin Wall proved disastrous for the East German labour unions, whose bargaining power was undermined by labour reforms and companies offshoring production to low-wage East European neighbouring countries. Membership of trade unions and associations sharply declined in the mid-1990s, and collective wage and salary agreements became increasingly uncommon. As the result, average nominal compensation per employee in East Germany "fell to very low levels" after the unification. Labour reforms implemented after the unification focused on reducing costs for companies and dismantled East German wage and social security regulations in favour of incentivizing employers to create jobs. The low-wage sector in Germany expanded, and the share of employees in low-paid employment amounted to 20% of the workforce by 2009.<a href="#cite_note-142">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison">Comparison</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Comparison">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_national_border_changes_since_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="List of national border changes since World War I">List of national border changes since World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yemen_Unification_1990.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Yemen_Unification_1990.JPG/220px-Yemen_Unification_1990.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Yemen_Unification_1990.JPG/330px-Yemen_Unification_1990.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Yemen_Unification_1990.JPG/440px-Yemen_Unification_1990.JPG 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">unification</a> of <a href="/wiki/Yemen_Arab_Republic" title="Yemen Arab Republic">North Yemen</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Yemen" title="South Yemen">South Yemen</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">present-day Yemen</a> on 22 May 1990</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unification_flag_of_Korea_(pre_2009).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Unification_flag_of_Korea_%28pre_2009%29.svg/220px-Unification_flag_of_Korea_%28pre_2009%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Unification_flag_of_Korea_%28pre_2009%29.svg/330px-Unification_flag_of_Korea_%28pre_2009%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Unification_flag_of_Korea_%28pre_2009%29.svg/440px-Unification_flag_of_Korea_%28pre_2009%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Korean_Unification_Flag" title="Korean Unification Flag">Korean Unification Flag</a> (1991–present)</figcaption></figure> Germany was not the only country that had been divided into two states (1949–1990) due to the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a> (1945–present), <a href="/wiki/Two_Chinas" title="Two Chinas">China</a> (1949–present), <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemen</a> (1967–1990), and <a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">Vietnam</a> (1954–1976) were or remain separated through the establishment of "Western-(free) <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">Capitalist</a>" and "Eastern-Communist" zones or former occupations. Korea and Vietnam suffered severely from this division in the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> (1950–1953) and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> (1955–1975) respectively, which caused heavy economic and civilian damage.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] However, German separation did not result in another war. Moreover, Germany is the only one of these countries that has managed to achieve a peaceful reunification without subsequent violent conflict. For instance, Vietnam achieved reunification after the war under the communist government of <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">1976</a>, and Yemen achieved peaceful reunification in 1990 but then suffered a <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Civil_War_(1994)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yemeni Civil War (1994)">civil war</a> which delayed the reunification process. <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Mainland China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> still struggle with high political tensions and huge economic and social disparities, making a possible reunification an enormous challenge.<a href="#cite_note-143">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[137]</a> With China, the <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_independence_movement" title="Taiwan independence movement">Taiwan independence movement</a> makes Chinese unification more difficult. East and West Germany today also still have differences in economy and social ideology, similar to <a href="/wiki/Northern,_Central_and_Southern_Vietnam" title="Northern, Central and Southern Vietnam">North and South Vietnam</a>, a legacy of the separation that the German government is trying to equalize. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0506-026,_Berlin,_Unterzeichung_Kulturabkommen,_Nier,_Br%C3%A4utigam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0506-026%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Kulturabkommen%2C_Nier%2C_Br%C3%A4utigam.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0506-026%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Kulturabkommen%2C_Nier%2C_Br%C3%A4utigam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0506-026%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Kulturabkommen%2C_Nier%2C_Br%C3%A4utigam.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0506-026%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Kulturabkommen%2C_Nier%2C_Br%C3%A4utigam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0506-026%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Kulturabkommen%2C_Nier%2C_Br%C3%A4utigam.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0506-026%2C_Berlin%2C_Unterzeichung_Kulturabkommen%2C_Nier%2C_Br%C3%A4utigam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption>Signing the German-German Cultural Agreement between the two countries, East Germany and West Germany on 6 May 1986</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inner_German_relations" title="Inner German relations">Inner German relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_German_border" title="Inner German border">Inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_unification" title="Chinese unification">Chinese unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Ireland" title="United Ireland">Irish reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_reunification" title="Korean reunification">Korean reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitology" title="Transitology">Transitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_reunification" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese reunification">Vietnamese reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> The Saarland was de facto separated from occupied Germany to become a protectorate in 1947, it became part of West Germany in 1957. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> The sentence "Germany as a whole" was recorded in the Potsdam Agreement to mention Germany. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> In addition, prior to 1965 the <a href="/wiki/IOC" class="mw-redirect" title="IOC">IOC</a> only recognized the Olympic committee for Germany, so the separate Olympic committees of Saarland, the Federal Republic of Germany, and the German Democratic Republic were not recognized by the IOC, and Germany was represented by a <a href="/wiki/United_Team_of_Germany_at_the_Olympics" title="United Team of Germany at the Olympics">single team</a> in the Winter and Summer Olympics until 1968. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kristina_Spohr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kristina Spohr (page does not exist)">Kristina Spohr</a> reports that German historian <a href="/wiki/Werner_Weidenfeld" title="Werner Weidenfeld">Werner Weidenfeld</a> says that Bush fully trusted Kohl and made the United States his most important ally in the unification process.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> The territory of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> mandate of the <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Free City of Danzig</a>, annexed by Poland in 1945 and comprising the city of <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a> (Danzig) and a number of neighboring cities and municipalities, had never been claimed by any official side because West Germany followed the legal position of Germany in its borders of 1937, thus before the <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">13 March 1938 Nazi annexation of Austria</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> In fact, a new constitution was drafted by a "round table" of dissidents and delegates from East German civil society only to be discarded later, a fact that upset many East German intellectuals.<a href="#cite_note-107">[102]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> For example, the economist <a href="/w/index.php?title=J%C3%B6rg_Roesler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jörg Roesler (page does not exist)">Jörg Roesler</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[107]</a> The historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulrich_Busch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ulrich Busch (page does not exist)">Ulrich Busch</a> pointed out that the currency union as such had come too early.<a href="#cite_note-114">[108]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Einigungsvertrag-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Einigungsvertrag_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Einigungsvertrag_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Einigungsvertrag_2-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/einigvtr/BJNR208890990.html">"EinigVtr – Vertrag zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik über die Herstellung der Einheit Deutschlands"</a>. www.gesetze-im-internet.de (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221120144722/http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/einigvtr/BJNR208890990.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gesetze-im-internet.de&rft.atitle=EinigVtr+%E2%80%93+Vertrag+zwischen+der+Bundesrepublik+Deutschland+und+der+Deutschen+Demokratischen+Republik+%C3%BCber+die+Herstellung+der+Einheit+Deutschlands&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gesetze-im-internet.de%2Feinigvtr%2FBJNR208890990.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Böhlau_Verlag-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Böhlau_Verlag_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Böhlau_Verlag_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraitGehler2014" class="citation cs2">Brait, Andrea; Gehler, Michael (6 July 2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.7767/boehlau.9783205793236.9">"Grenzöffnung 1989 – Offene Grenzen?"</a>, Grenzöffnung 1989, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, pp. 9–44, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7767%2Fboehlau.9783205793236.9">10.7767/boehlau.9783205793236.9</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-205-79496-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-205-79496-7"><bdi>978-3-205-79496-7</bdi></a>, retrieved 6 March 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Grenz%C3%B6ffnung+1989&rft.atitle=Grenz%C3%B6ffnung+1989+%E2%80%93+Offene+Grenzen%3F&rft.pages=9-44&rft.date=2014-07-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7767%2Fboehlau.9783205793236.9&rft.isbn=978-3-205-79496-7&rft.aulast=Brait&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft.au=Gehler%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.7767%2Fboehlau.9783205793236.9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas_Roser_2018-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_Roser_2018_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_Roser_2018_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSardemann2010" class="citation journal cs1">Sardemann, Gerhard (1 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14512%2Ftatup.19.2.8">"Die Welt aus den Angeln heben"</a>. TATuP: Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis. 19 (2): 8–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14512%2Ftatup.19.2.8">10.14512/tatup.19.2.8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2199-9201">2199-9201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TATuP%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Technikfolgenabsch%C3%A4tzung+in+Theorie+und+Praxis&rft.atitle=Die+Welt+aus+den+Angeln+heben&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=8-17&rft.date=2010-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14512%2Ftatup.19.2.8&rft.issn=2199-9201&rft.aulast=Sardemann&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.14512%252Ftatup.19.2.8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718231606/http://1989.dra.de/ton-und-videoarchiv/archivnachweise.html?tx_weeaardra_pi2%5Bwhat%5D=031846,031846&tx_weeaardra_pi2%5Bfrom%5D=38&tx_weeaardra_pi2%5Bids%5D=302,146&tx_weeaardra_pi2%5BbackId%5D=38&cHash=ba89eab5f1">"DRA: Archivnachweise"</a>. 9 June 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://1989.dra.de/ton-und-videoarchiv/archivnachweise.html?tx_weeaardra_pi2%5Bwhat%5D=031846%2C031846&tx_weeaardra_pi2%5Bfrom%5D=38&tx_weeaardra_pi2%5Bids%5D=302%2C146&tx_weeaardra_pi2%5BbackId%5D=38&cHash=ba89eab5f1">the original</a> on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 5 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DRA%3A+Archivnachweise&rft.date=2009-06-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F1989.dra.de%2Fton-und-videoarchiv%2Farchivnachweise.html%3Ftx_weeaardra_pi2%255Bwhat%255D%3D031846%252C031846%26tx_weeaardra_pi2%255Bfrom%255D%3D38%26tx_weeaardra_pi2%255Bids%255D%3D302%252C146%26tx_weeaardra_pi2%255BbackId%255D%3D38%26cHash%3Dba89eab5f1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfeil2020" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pfeil, Ulrich (9 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bpb.de/themen/deutschlandarchiv/307645/die-ddr-als-zankapfel-in-forschung-und-politik/">"Die DDR als Zankapfel in Forschung und Politik"</a>. bpb.de (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230718110234/https://www.bpb.de/themen/deutschlandarchiv/307645/die-ddr-als-zankapfel-in-forschung-und-politik/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bpb.de&rft.atitle=Die+DDR+als+Zankapfel+in+Forschung+und+Politik&rft.date=2020-04-09&rft.aulast=Pfeil&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bpb.de%2Fthemen%2Fdeutschlandarchiv%2F307645%2Fdie-ddr-als-zankapfel-in-forschung-und-politik%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMühlbauer2015" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mühlbauer, Peter (29 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heise.de/tp/features/War-die-deutsche-Wiedervereinigung-eine-Annexion-3369834.html">"War die deutsche Wiedervereinigung eine Annexion?"</a>. Telepolis (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221214110901/https://www.heise.de/tp/features/War-die-deutsche-Wiedervereinigung-eine-Annexion-3369834.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Telepolis&rft.atitle=War+die+deutsche+Wiedervereinigung+eine+Annexion%3F&rft.date=2015-01-29&rft.aulast=M%C3%BChlbauer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heise.de%2Ftp%2Ffeatures%2FWar-die-deutsche-Wiedervereinigung-eine-Annexion-3369834.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchholz2009" class="citation book cs1">Buchholz, Erich (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/427322273">Totalliquidierung in zwei Akten : [juristische Annexion der DDR]</a>. Berlin: Homilius. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89706-406-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89706-406-5"><bdi>978-3-89706-406-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/427322273">427322273</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240213042936/https://search.worldcat.org/title/427322273">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2024. Retrieved 6 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Totalliquidierung+in+zwei+Akten+%3A+%5Bjuristische+Annexion+der+DDR%5D&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Homilius&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F427322273&rft.isbn=978-3-89706-406-5&rft.aulast=Buchholz&rft.aufirst=Erich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F427322273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/charges-that-unification-was-really-an-annexation-stir-up-memories/a-5962238">"Unification or annexation?"</a>. DW. 1 September 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230718105338/https://www.dw.com/en/charges-that-unification-was-really-an-annexation-stir-up-memories/a-5962238">Archived</a> from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DW&rft.atitle=Unification+or+annexation%3F&rft.date=2010-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fcharges-that-unification-was-really-an-annexation-stir-up-memories%2Fa-5962238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLungescu2010" class="citation news cs1">Lungescu, Oana (1 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-11447587">"Germany's reunification plunge"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230718110318/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-11447587">Archived</a> from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Germany%27s+reunification+plunge&rft.date=2010-10-01&rft.aulast=Lungescu&rft.aufirst=Oana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-11447587&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/reunification-controversy-was-east-germany-really-annexed-a-714826.html">"Reunification Controversy: Was East Germany Really 'Annexed?'"</a>. Der Spiegel. 31 August 2010. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2195-1349">2195-1349</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190823150533/https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/reunification-controversy-was-east-germany-really-annexed-a-714826.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 August 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Reunification+Controversy%3A+Was+East+Germany+Really+%27Annexed%3F%27&rft.date=2010-08-31&rft.issn=2195-1349&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fgermany%2Freunification-controversy-was-east-germany-really-annexed-a-714826.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-germany-reunification/26818112.html">"Duma May Slam East German 'Annexation'"</a>. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 29 January 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230718112738/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-germany-reunification/26818112.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radio+Free+Europe%2FRadio+Liberty&rft.atitle=Duma+May+Slam+East+German+%27Annexation%27&rft.date=2015-01-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Fa%2Frussia-germany-reunification%2F26818112.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://twitter.com/historyned/status/1529012181676834816">"Ned Richardson-Little on Twitter"</a>. Twitter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221213132012/https://twitter.com/historyned/status/1529012181676834816">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2022. Retrieved 13 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Twitter&rft.atitle=Ned+Richardson-Little+on+Twitter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftwitter.com%2Fhistoryned%2Fstatus%2F1529012181676834816&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/01/28/russias-bizarre-proposal-to-condemn-west-germanys-1989-annexation-of-east-germany/">"Russia's bizarre proposal to condemn West Germany's 1989 'annexation' of East Germany"</a>. Washington Post. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. Retrieved 18 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Russia%27s+bizarre+proposal+to+condemn+West+Germany%27s+1989+%27annexation%27+of+East+Germany&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fworldviews%2Fwp%2F2015%2F01%2F28%2Frussias-bizarre-proposal-to-condemn-west-germanys-1989-annexation-of-east-germany%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mdr.de/geschichte/eure-geschichte/nachwendegeschichte/Vom-Westen-ueberrannt-Beitritt-DDR-in-BRD-schulprojekt-eure-geschichte-bloecher-100.html">"Beitritt zur BRD: Vom Westen "überrannt"? | MDR.DE"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mitteldeutscher_Rundfunk" title="Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk">Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk</a> (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230329050535/https://www.mdr.de/geschichte/eure-geschichte/nachwendegeschichte/Vom-Westen-ueberrannt-Beitritt-DDR-in-BRD-schulprojekt-eure-geschichte-bloecher-100.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mitteldeutscher+Rundfunk&rft.atitle=Beitritt+zur+BRD%3A+Vom+Westen+%22%C3%BCberrannt%22%3F+%7C+MDR.DE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdr.de%2Fgeschichte%2Feure-geschichte%2Fnachwendegeschichte%2FVom-Westen-ueberrannt-Beitritt-DDR-in-BRD-schulprojekt-eure-geschichte-bloecher-100.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.eu/article/blame-germany-russia-policy/">"12 Germans who got played by Putin"</a>. POLITICO. 5 May 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220529010644/https://www.politico.eu/article/blame-germany-russia-policy/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2022. Retrieved 6 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=POLITICO&rft.atitle=12+Germans+who+got+played+by+Putin&rft.date=2022-05-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.eu%2Farticle%2Fblame-germany-russia-policy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeller2011" class="citation book cs1">Heller, Kevin Jon (2011). The Nuremberg Military Tribunals. OUP. p. 116.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nuremberg+Military+Tribunals&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Heller&rft.aufirst=Kevin+Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ziemke_1990_114-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Ziemke_1990_114_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiemke1990" class="citation book cs1">Ziemke, Earl Frederick (1990). The US Army and the Occupation of Germany 1944–1946. Center of Military History, United States Army. p. 114.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+US+Army+and+the+Occupation+of+Germany+1944%E2%80%931946&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Center+of+Military+History%2C+United+States+Army&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Ziemke&rft.aufirst=Earl+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Koch, Tonia (23 January 2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deutschlandradiokultur.de/die-praeambel-macht-den-unterschied.1001.de.html?dram:article_id=235212">Die Präambel macht den Unterschied. Zur Landesverfassung des Saarlands und ihrer Geschichte.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170329140450/http://www.deutschlandradiokultur.de/die-praeambel-macht-den-unterschied.1001.de.html?dram:article_id=235212">Archived</a> 29 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> In: <a href="/wiki/Deutschlandfunk" title="Deutschlandfunk">Deutschlandfunk</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.landtag-saar.de/landtag/ein-langer-weg-nach-europa/aufbau-der-demokratie-an-der-saar/">Aufbau der Demokratie an der Saar.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230516190631/https://www.landtag-saar.de/landtag/ein-langer-weg-nach-europa/aufbau-der-demokratie-an-der-saar/">Archived</a> 16 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> In: Landtag-Saar.de. </li> <li id="cite_note-EU-21"><a href="#cite_ref-EU_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cvce.eu/en/education/unit-content/-/unit/55c09dcc-a9f2-45e9-b240-eaef64452cae/5d3b421b-9a4b-46fc-a041-fab64325d6a6">"The division of Germany"</a>. Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe. The University of Luxembourg. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190731050913/https://www.cvce.eu/en/education/unit-content/-/unit/55c09dcc-a9f2-45e9-b240-eaef64452cae/5d3b421b-9a4b-46fc-a041-fab64325d6a6">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2019. Retrieved 31 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Centre+Virtuel+de+la+Connaissance+sur+l%27Europe&rft.atitle=The+division+of+Germany&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cvce.eu%2Fen%2Feducation%2Funit-content%2F-%2Funit%2F55c09dcc-a9f2-45e9-b240-eaef64452cae%2F5d3b421b-9a4b-46fc-a041-fab64325d6a6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wegs-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Wegs_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWegsLadrech2017" class="citation book cs1">Wegs, J. Robert; Ladrech, Robert (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C5tGEAAAQBAJ">Europe Since 1945: A Concise History</a> (5th ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-21122-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-21122-3"><bdi>978-0-230-21122-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+Since+1945%3A+A+Concise+History&rft.place=London&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-230-21122-3&rft.aulast=Wegs&rft.aufirst=J.+Robert&rft.au=Ladrech%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC5tGEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmann1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lehmann, Hans Georg (1981). Chronik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: 1945/49-1981. Beck'sche schwarze Reihe (in German). München: Beck. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-06035-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-06035-9"><bdi>978-3-406-06035-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronik+der+Bundesrepublik+Deutschland%3A+1945%2F49-1981&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&rft.series=Beck%27sche+schwarze+Reihe&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Beck&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-3-406-06035-9&rft.aulast=Lehmann&rft.aufirst=Hans+Georg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DDR1959-24"><a href="#cite_ref-DDR1959_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGovernment_of_the_German_Democratic_Republic1959" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Government of the German Democratic Republic (1 October 1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.documentarchiv.de/ddr/1959/ddr-staatswappen-staatsflagge-aender_ges.html">"Gesetz zur Änderung des Gesetzes über das Staatswappen und die Staatsflagge der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik"</a>. documentArchiv.de (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191113012908/http://www.documentarchiv.de/ddr/1959/ddr-staatswappen-staatsflagge-aender_ges.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=documentArchiv.de&rft.atitle=Gesetz+zur+%C3%84nderung+des+Gesetzes+%C3%BCber+das+Staatswappen+und+die+Staatsflagge+der+Deutschen+Demokratischen+Republik&rft.date=1959-10-01&rft.au=Government+of+the+German+Democratic+Republic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.documentarchiv.de%2Fddr%2F1959%2Fddr-staatswappen-staatsflagge-aender_ges.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jessup-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Jessup_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJessup1998" class="citation book cs1">Jessup, John E. (1998). An encyclopedic dictionary of conflict and conflict resolution, 1945–1996. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. p. 543. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313281129" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313281129"><bdi>978-0313281129</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+encyclopedic+dictionary+of+conflict+and+conflict+resolution%2C+1945%E2%80%931996&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pages=543&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0313281129&rft.aulast=Jessup&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Publishing2013-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Publishing2013_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBritannica_Educational_Publishing2013" class="citation book cs1">Britannica Educational Publishing (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ef2cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193">Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland</a>. Britanncia Educational Publishing. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61530-991-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61530-991-7"><bdi>978-1-61530-991-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Estonia%2C+Latvia%2C+Lithuania%2C+and+Poland&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Britanncia+Educational+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-61530-991-7&rft.au=Britannica+Educational+Publishing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEf2cAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biesinger2006-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Biesinger2006_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_A._Biesinger2006" class="citation book cs1">Joseph A. Biesinger (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=exMn24SA7fMC&pg=PA615">Germany: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present</a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 615. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7471-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7471-6"><bdi>978-0-8160-7471-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%3A+A+Reference+Guide+from+the+Renaissance+to+the+Present&rft.pages=615&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-7471-6&rft.au=Joseph+A.+Biesinger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DexMn24SA7fMC%26pg%3DPA615&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Basic-Treaty">"Basic Treaty | 1972 | Britannica"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230516210224/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Basic-Treaty">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 16 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Basic+Treaty+%26%23124%3B+1972+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FBasic-Treaty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitney1976" class="citation web cs1">Whitney, Craig R. (17 August 1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1976/08/17/archives/kohl-says-hed-bring-sounder-policy-in-bonn.html">"Kohl Says He'd Bring 'Sounder' Policy in Bonn"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Kohl+Says+He%27d+Bring+%27Sounder%27+Policy+in+Bonn&rft.date=1976-08-17&rft.aulast=Whitney&rft.aufirst=Craig+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1976%2F08%2F17%2Farchives%2Fkohl-says-hed-bring-sounder-policy-in-bonn.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoder1990" class="citation book cs1">Doder, Dusko (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/22626554">Gorbachev : heretic in the Kremlin</a>. Louise Branson. London: Macdonald. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-356-19760-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-356-19760-3"><bdi>0-356-19760-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22626554">22626554</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220306041727/https://www.worldcat.org/title/gorbachev-heretic-in-the-kremlin/oclc/22626554">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gorbachev+%3A+heretic+in+the+Kremlin&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macdonald&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22626554&rft.isbn=0-356-19760-3&rft.aulast=Doder&rft.aufirst=Dusko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F22626554&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/npcr.31171">"TV Interview Tips"</a>. Nonprofit Communications Report. 17 (4): 7. 12 March 2019. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fnpcr.31171">10.1002/npcr.31171</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1549-778X">1549-778X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242693987">242693987</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240213042937/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/npcr.31171">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2024. 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Bringing German to Life. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. 2014. pp. 43–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315756943-11">10.4324/9781315756943-11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-75694-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-75694-3"><bdi>978-1-315-75694-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Die+Insekten&rft.btitle=Bringing+German+to+Life&rft.pages=43-50&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315756943-11&rft.isbn=978-1-315-75694-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstenKrullKrull2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Osten, Philipp; Krull, Nora; Krull, Nora (2014). 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Brill, Schöningh. pp. 158–190. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30965%2F9783657779352_006">10.30965/9783657779352_006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-506-77935-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-506-77935-9"><bdi>978-3-506-77935-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wissenschaft+und+Schw%C3%A4rmerei.+Der+Pfarrer+Johann+August+Steinhofer+und+die+Somnambule+Anna+Barbara+Straub&rft.btitle=Das+Tor+zur+Seele%3A+Schlaf%2C+Somnambulismus+und+Hellsehen+im+fr%C3%BChen+19&rft.pages=158-190&rft.pub=Brill%2C+Sch%C3%B6ningh&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30965%2F9783657779352_006&rft.isbn=978-3-506-77935-9&rft.aulast=Osten&rft.aufirst=Philipp&rft.au=Krull%2C+Nora&rft.au=Krull%2C+Nora&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRödder2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rödder, Andreas (2009) [1967]. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://a248.e.akamai.net/7/1635/50139/1d/origin.nbclearn.com/files/nbcarchives/site/pdf/3838.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=United+States+and+Soviet+Union+Sign+German+Reunification+Treaty&rft.pub=NBC+Learn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fa248.e.akamai.net%2F7%2F1635%2F50139%2F1d%2Forigin.nbclearn.com%2Ffiles%2Fnbcarchives%2Fsite%2Fpdf%2F3838.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-deutschland.de-46"><a href="#cite_ref-deutschland.de_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130516041356/http://test.magazin-deutschland.de/en/artikel-en/article/article/merkel-to-mark-20th-anniversary-of-german-reunification-treaty.html">"Merkel to mark 20th anniversary of German reunification treaty"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Deutschland.de" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutschland.de">Deutschland.de</a>. 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Retrieved 22 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Merkel+to+mark+20th+anniversary+of+German+reunification+treaty&rft.pub=Deutschland.de&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftest.magazin-deutschland.de%2Fen%2Fartikel-en%2Farticle%2Farticle%2Fmerkel-to-mark-20th-anniversary-of-german-reunification-treaty.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AssociatedPress-47"><a href="#cite_ref-AssociatedPress_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImse1991" class="citation web cs1">Imse, Ann (4 March 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/34489f15c7ce3d9a072c3bdb0cabea75">"Soviet Legislature Ratifies German Reunification Treaty"</a>. <a href="/wiki/AP_News_Archive" class="mw-redirect" title="AP News Archive">AP News Archive</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200807042653/https://apnews.com/34489f15c7ce3d9a072c3bdb0cabea75">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Soviet+Legislature+Ratifies+German+Reunification+Treaty&rft.pub=AP+News+Archive&rft.date=1991-03-04&rft.aulast=Imse&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2F34489f15c7ce3d9a072c3bdb0cabea75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://germanculture.com.ua/library/history/bl_wall_collapse_unification.htm">"Opening of the Berlin Wall and Unification: German History"</a>. germanculture.com.ua. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220813234642/https://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/history/bl_wall_collapse_unification.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=germanculture.com.ua&rft.atitle=Opening+of+the+Berlin+Wall+and+Unification%3A+German+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgermanculture.com.ua%2Flibrary%2Fhistory%2Fbl_wall_collapse_unification.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav?startbk=Bundesanzeiger_BGBl&jumpTo=bgbl290s0885_gross.pdf#__bgbl__%2F%2F*%5B%40attr_id%3D%27bgbl290s0885_gross.pdf%27%5D__1467485637703">"Bundesgesetzblatt"</a> (PDF). Bgbl.de. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161207215607/http://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav?startbk=Bundesanzeiger_BGBl&jumpTo=bgbl290s0885_gross.pdf#__bgbl__%2F%2F*%5B%40attr_id%3D%27bgbl290s0885_gross.pdf%27%5D__1467485637703">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 7 December 2016. Retrieved 9 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bgbl.de&rft.atitle=Bundesgesetzblatt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bgbl.de%2Fxaver%2Fbgbl%2Fstart.xav%3Fstartbk%3DBundesanzeiger_BGBl%26jumpTo%3Dbgbl290s0885_gross.pdf%23__bgbl__%252F%252F%2A%255B%2540attr_id%253D%2527bgbl290s0885_gross.pdf%2527%255D__1467485637703&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/einigvtr/art_45.html">"Art 45 EinigVtr – Einzelnorm"</a>. www.gesetze-im-internet.de. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230309114824/http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/einigvtr/art_45.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 5 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gesetze-im-internet.de&rft.atitle=Art+45+EinigVtr+%E2%80%93+Einzelnorm&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gesetze-im-internet.de%2Feinigvtr%2Fart_45.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080720183143/http://www.europe-today.com/germany/gerunif.html">"Germany Today – The German Unification Treaty"</a>. Europe-today.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://europe-today.com/germany/gerunif.html">the original</a> on 20 July 2008. 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Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9780822395386">10.1515/9780822395386</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-9538-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-9538-6"><bdi>978-0-8223-9538-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240213043001/https://chooser.crossref.org/?doi=10.1515%2F9780822395386">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2024. 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Planning Perspectives. 21 (1): 67–87. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PlPer..21...67L">2006PlPer..21...67L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02665430500397329">10.1080/02665430500397329</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:108646113">108646113</a>. 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Retrieved 11 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Breaking+Down+the+Wall+in+the+Head&rft.pub=Deutsche+Welle&rft.date=2004-10-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw-world.de%2Fdw%2Farticle%2F0%2C1564%2C1344803%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameron2009" class="citation magazine cs1">Cameron, Abadi (7 August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090809203430/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/06/18/the_berlin_fall?page=0,2">"The Berlin fall"</a>. Foreign Policy. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/06/18/the_berlin_fall?page=0,2">the original</a> on 9 August 2009. Retrieved 11 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy&rft.atitle=The+Berlin+fall&rft.date=2009-08-07&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Abadi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2Farticles%2F2009%2F06%2F18%2Fthe_berlin_fall%3Fpage%3D0%2C2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchweiger2019" class="citation journal cs1">Schweiger, Christian (2019). "Deutschland einig Vaterland?: East-West Cleavages in Germany Thirty Years After Reunification". German Politics & Society. 37 (3): 18–31, 14p. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3167%2Fgps.2019.370303">10.3167/gps.2019.370303</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218888433">218888433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=German+Politics+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Deutschland+einig+Vaterland%3F%3A+East-West+Cleavages+in+Germany+Thirty+Years+After+Reunification&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=18-31%2C+14p&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3167%2Fgps.2019.370303&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218888433%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schweiger&rft.aufirst=Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersonRiley2022" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Clarissa; Riley, Emmitt Y (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003147473">Racial Attitudes in America Today</a>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003147473">10.4324/9781003147473</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-14747-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-14747-3"><bdi>978-1-003-14747-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247068186">247068186</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240213043454/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003147473/racial-attitudes-america-today-clarissa-peterson-emmitt-riley-iii">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2024. Retrieved 6 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Racial+Attitudes+in+America+Today&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247068186%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781003147473&rft.isbn=978-1-003-14747-3&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Clarissa&rft.au=Riley%2C+Emmitt+Y&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781003147473&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/11/underestimating-east-germany/307776/">"Underestimating East Germany"</a>. The Atlantic. 6 November 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230311193056/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/11/underestimating-east-germany/307776/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 March 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Underestimating+East+Germany&rft.date=2009-11-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2009%2F11%2Funderestimating-east-germany%2F307776%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoffe2009" class="citation web cs1">Joffe, Josef (8 November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110707144725/http://www.annistonstar.com/pages/full_story/push?article-After+the+fall-+20+years+ago+this+week-+the+crumbling+of+the+Berlin+Wall+began+an+empire-s+end%20&id=4380443-After+the+fall-+20+years+ago+this+week-+the+crumbling+of+the+Berlin+Wall+began+an+empire-s+end&instance=home_opinion">"After the fall 20 years ago this week, the crumbling of the Berlin Wall began an empire's end"</a>. Anniston Star. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.annistonstar.com/pages/full_story/push?article-After+the+fall-+20+years+ago+this+week-+the+crumbling+of+the+Berlin+Wall+began+an+empire-s+end%20&id=4380443-After+the+fall-+20+years+ago+this+week-+the+crumbling+of+the+Berlin+Wall+began+an+empire-s+end&instance=home_opinion">the original</a> on 7 July 2011. 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Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-96177-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-96177-0"><bdi>978-0-275-96177-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240213043503/https://books.google.com/books?id=LN6dpmV0p40C&q=Inner+reunification">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=National+Identity+in+Eastern+Germany%3A+Inner+Unification+Or+Continued+Separation%3F&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-275-96177-0&rft.aulast=Staab&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLN6dpmV0p40C%26q%3DInner%2Breunification&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-welt.de-106"><a href="#cite_ref-welt.de_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolms-Laubach2009" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Solms-Laubach, Franz (20 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.welt.de/politik/article3775359/Ost-und-Westdeutsche-entfernen-sich-voneinander.html">"Umfrage: Ost- und Westdeutsche entfernen sich voneinander"</a>. 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Retrieved 19 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Faz.net&rft.atitle=Gastbeitrag%3A+Nicht+f%C3%BCr+die+Ewigkeit+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BStaat+und+Recht+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BPolitik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faz.net%2Fs%2FRubD5CB2DA481C04D05AA471FA88471AEF0%2FDoc~E4120761F98224225BEB5F94E7F91077D~ATpl~Ecommon~Scontent.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718224237/http://www.das-parlament.de/2009/18-19/Beilage/004.html">"Horst Dreier | Das Grundgesetz – eine Verfassung auf Abruf?"</a>. Das-parlament.de (in German). 27 April 2009. 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Brood & Rozen. 10 (2): 34–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21825%2Fbr.v10i2.3145">10.21825/br.v10i2.3145</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1370-7477">1370-7477</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:184882749">184882749</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brood+%26+Rozen&rft.atitle=Jahrbuch+f%C3%BCr+Forschungen+zur+Geschichte+der+Arbeiterbewegung&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=34-46&rft.date=2005-05-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A184882749%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1370-7477&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21825%2Fbr.v10i2.3145&rft.aulast=Verhoeyen&rft.aufirst=Etienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.21825%252Fbr.v10i2.3145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerhoeyen2005" class="citation journal cs1">Verhoeyen, Etienne (13 May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21825%2Fbr.v10i2.3145">"Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung"</a>. Brood & Rozen. 10 (2): 5–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21825%2Fbr.v10i2.3145">10.21825/br.v10i2.3145</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1370-7477">1370-7477</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:184882749">184882749</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brood+%26+Rozen&rft.atitle=Jahrbuch+f%C3%BCr+Forschungen+zur+Geschichte+der+Arbeiterbewegung&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=5-24&rft.date=2005-05-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A184882749%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1370-7477&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21825%2Fbr.v10i2.3145&rft.aulast=Verhoeyen&rft.aufirst=Etienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.21825%252Fbr.v10i2.3145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSauga2011" class="citation news cs1">Sauga, Michael (6 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/help-for-poorer-neighbors-designing-a-transfer-union-to-save-the-euro-a-784612.html">"Help for Poorer Neighbors: Designing a Transfer Union to Save the Euro"</a>. Der Spiegel. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2195-1349">2195-1349</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230314205245/https://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/help-for-poorer-neighbors-designing-a-transfer-union-to-save-the-euro-a-784612.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 5 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Help+for+Poorer+Neighbors%3A+Designing+a+Transfer+Union+to+Save+the+Euro&rft.date=2011-09-06&rft.issn=2195-1349&rft.aulast=Sauga&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Feurope%2Fhelp-for-poorer-neighbors-designing-a-transfer-union-to-save-the-euro-a-784612.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-parkes1997-117"><a href="#cite_ref-parkes1997_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkes,_K._Stuart1997" class="citation book cs1">Parkes, K. Stuart (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=htUiBNqUAnYC&q=74%25&pg=PA209">Understanding contemporary Germany</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-14124-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-14124-9"><bdi>0-415-14124-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240213043453/https://books.google.com/books?id=htUiBNqUAnYC&q=74%25&pg=PA209">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2024. 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SSRN Electronic Journal. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.1021951">10.2139/ssrn.1021951</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068">1556-5068</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18564127">18564127</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240213043505/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1021951">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2024. Retrieved 6 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SSRN+Electronic+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Effect+of+Migration+on+Natives%27+Employment+Outcomes%3A+Evidence+from+the+Fall+of+the+Berlin+Wall&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18564127%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1556-5068&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.1021951&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Douglas+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.1021951&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krätke_2004_511–529-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Krätke_2004_511–529_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krätke_2004_511–529_122-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrätke2004" class="citation journal cs1">Krätke, S (2004). "City of talents? 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City, Culture and Society. 1 (4): 193–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ccs.2011.01.005">10.1016/j.ccs.2011.01.005</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220308193549/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877916611000063">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=City%2C+Culture+and+Society&rft.atitle=Constructing+the+creative+neighborhood%3A+Hopes+and+limitations+of+creative+city+policies+in+Berlin&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=193-198&rft.date=2010-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ccs.2011.01.005&rft.aulast=Jakob&rft.aufirst=Doreen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1877916611000063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004337862_lgbo_com_161075">"Presse- und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung (BPA)"</a>. Lexikon des gesamten Buchwesens Online. 2017. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004337862_lgbo_com_161075">10.1163/9789004337862_lgbo_com_161075</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240213044111/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/lexikon-des-gesamten-buchwesens-online/*-COM_161075">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2024. 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Pew Research Center | Global Attitudes and Trends. Pew Research Center. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230306171004/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/15/european-public-opinion-three-decades-after-the-fall-of-communism/pg_10-15-19-europe-values-01-010/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2023. 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Pew Research Center | Global Attitudes and Trends. Pew Research Center. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230306171002/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/15/european-public-opinion-three-decades-after-the-fall-of-communism/pg_10-15-19-europe-values-00-014/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2023. 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Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230306171000/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/15/european-public-opinion-three-decades-after-the-fall-of-communism/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 5 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center%27s+Global+Attitudes+Project&rft.atitle=European+Public+Opinion+Three+Decades+After+the+Fall+of+Communism&rft.date=2019-10-15&rft.aulast=Wike&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Poushter%2C+Jacob&rft.au=Silver%2C+Laura&rft.au=Devlin%2C+Kat&rft.au=Fetterolf%2C+Janell&rft.au=Alex&rft.au=Castillo%2C+ra&rft.au=Huang%2C+Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fglobal%2F2019%2F10%2F15%2Feuropean-public-opinion-three-decades-after-the-fall-of-communism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambers2019" class="citation web cs1">Chambers, Madeline (25 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN1WA1XB/">"30 years after fall of Berlin Wall, East Germans feel inferior"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=30+years+after+fall+of+Berlin+Wall%2C+East+Germans+feel+inferior&rft.date=2019-09-25&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=Madeline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FidUSKBN1WA1XB%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/former-east-germany-still-lags-behind-west/a-50583236">"Former East Germany still lags behind west"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Welle" title="Deutsche Welle">Deutsche Welle</a>. 25 September 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240129062842/https://www.dw.com/en/former-east-germany-still-lags-behind-west/a-50583236">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2024. Retrieved 29 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsche+Welle&rft.atitle=Former+East+Germany+still+lags+behind+west&rft.date=2019-09-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fformer-east-germany-still-lags-behind-west%2Fa-50583236&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.infratest-dimap.de/umfragen-analysen/bundesweit/umfragen/aktuell/33-jahre-wiedervereinigung/">"33 Jahre Wiedervereinigung"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=33+Jahre+Wiedervereinigung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infratest-dimap.de%2Fumfragen-analysen%2Fbundesweit%2Fumfragen%2Faktuell%2F33-jahre-wiedervereinigung%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoyer2024" class="citation news cs1">Hoyer, Katja (7 March 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2024/mar/07/east-germany-west-far-right-afd-gdr">"What's 'wrong' with east Germany? Look to its long neglect by the wealthy west"</a>. The Guardian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=What%27s+%27wrong%27+with+east+Germany%3F+Look+to+its+long+neglect+by+the+wealthy+west&rft.date=2024-03-07&rft.aulast=Hoyer&rft.aufirst=Katja&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2024%2Fmar%2F07%2Feast-germany-west-far-right-afd-gdr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-141">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_141-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_141-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_141-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurchardiHassan2013" class="citation journal cs1">Burchardi, Konrad B; Hassan, Tarek A (1 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/128/3/1219/1849933">"The Economic Impact of Social Ties: Evidence from German Reunification*"</a>. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 128 (3): 1219–1271. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fqje%2Fqjt009">10.1093/qje/qjt009</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10419%2F150950">10419/150950</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-5533">0033-5533</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211207000827/https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/128/3/1219/1849933">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2021. Retrieved 7 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Economic+Impact+of+Social+Ties%3A+Evidence+from+German+Reunification%2A&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1219-1271&rft.date=2013-08-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10419%2F150950&rft.issn=0033-5533&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fqje%2Fqjt009&rft.aulast=Burchardi&rft.aufirst=Konrad+B&rft.au=Hassan%2C+Tarek+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fqje%2Farticle%2F128%2F3%2F1219%2F1849933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoebgesZwienerAlbu2022" class="citation journal cs1">Joebges, Heike; Zwiener, Rudolf; Albu, Nora (2022). "The long-term effects of German unification on wages, employment and growth: a trigger for a shift to a new market constellation". European Journal of Economics and Economic Policies: Intervention. 19 (2). Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.: 278–293.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Economics+and+Economic+Policies%3A+Intervention&rft.atitle=The+long-term+effects+of+German+unification+on+wages%2C+employment+and+growth%3A+a+trigger+for+a+shift+to+a+new+market+constellation&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=278-293&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Joebges&rft.aufirst=Heike&rft.au=Zwiener%2C+Rudolf&rft.au=Albu%2C+Nora&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett2013" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, Bruce W. (19 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR331.html">Preparing for the Possibility of a North Korean Collapse</a>. RAND Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-8172-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-8172-8"><bdi>978-0-8330-8172-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221130000851/https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR331.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Preparing+for+the+Possibility+of+a+North+Korean+Collapse&rft.pub=RAND+Corporation&rft.date=2013-09-19&rft.isbn=978-0-8330-8172-8&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Bruce+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rand.org%2Fpubs%2Fresearch_reports%2FRR331.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/sites/sciencespo.fr.ceri/files/schubert.pdf">"The European dimension of German-Taiwanese relations – a critical assessment"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180426105045/https://www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/sites/sciencespo.fr.ceri/files/schubert.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+European+dimension+of+German-Taiwanese+relations+%E2%80%93+a+critical+assessment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fceri%2Fsites%2Fsciencespo.fr.ceri%2Ffiles%2Fschubert.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" 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New perspectives on the end of the Cold War: unexpected transformations?. Cold War history. Abingdon, Oxon (GB) New York (N.Y.): <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-73134-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-73134-9"><bdi>978-1-138-73134-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+perspectives+on+the+end+of+the+Cold+War%3A+unexpected+transformations%3F&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxon+%28GB%29+New+York+%28N.Y.%29&rft.series=Cold+War+history&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-138-73134-9&rft.aulast=Blumenau&rft.aufirst=Bernhard&rft.au=Hanhim%C3%A4ki%2C+Jussi&rft.au=Zanchetta%2C+Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngel2017" class="citation book cs1">Engel, Jeffrey A. (2017). When the world seemed new: George H.W. Bush and the end of the Cold War. Boston ; New York: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt_Publishing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company">Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company</a>. pp. 273–291. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-547-42306-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-547-42306-7"><bdi>978-0-547-42306-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+the+world+seemed+new%3A+George+H.W.+Bush+and+the+end+of+the+Cold+War&rft.place=Boston+%3B+New+York&rft.pages=273-291&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-547-42306-7&rft.aulast=Engel&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaier1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Maier" title="Charles S. Maier">Maier, Charles S.</a> (1999). Dissolution: The crisis of Communism and the end of East Germany. Princeton, N.J: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00746-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00746-5"><bdi>978-0-691-00746-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dissolution%3A+The+crisis+of+Communism+and+the+end+of+East+Germany&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00746-5&rft.aulast=Maier&rft.aufirst=Charles+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeacham2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jon_Meacham" title="Jon Meacham">Meacham, Jon</a> (2016). <a href="/wiki/Destiny_and_Power" title="Destiny and Power">Destiny and power: the American odyssey of George Herbert Walker Bush</a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7947-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7947-3"><bdi>978-0-8129-7947-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Destiny+and+power%3A+the+American+odyssey+of+George+Herbert+Walker+Bush&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-7947-3&rft.aulast=Meacham&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchemper2016" class="citation journal cs1">Schemper, Lukas (22 December 2016). "Diasporas and American debates on German unification". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Transatlantic_Studies" title="Journal of Transatlantic Studies">Journal of Transatlantic Studies</a>. 15 (1): 41–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14794012.2016.1265349">10.1080/14794012.2016.1265349</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1479-4012">1479-4012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Transatlantic+Studies&rft.atitle=Diasporas+and+American+debates+on+German+unification&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-60&rft.date=2016-12-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14794012.2016.1265349&rft.issn=1479-4012&rft.aulast=Schemper&rft.aufirst=Lukas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpohr2000" class="citation journal cs1">Spohr, Kristina (September 2000). "German unification: Between official history, academic scholarship, and political memoirs". The Historical Journal. 43 (3): 869–888. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X99001387">10.1017/S0018246X99001387</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-246X">0018-246X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3020982">3020982</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=German+unification%3A+Between+official+history%2C+academic+scholarship%2C+and+political+memoirs&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=869-888&rft.date=2000-09&rft.issn=0018-246X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3020982%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X99001387&rft.aulast=Spohr&rft.aufirst=Kristina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZelikowRice2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Zelikow" title="Philip Zelikow">Zelikow, Philip</a>; <a href="/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice" title="Condoleezza Rice">Rice, Condoleezza</a> (2002). Germany unified and Europe transformed: a study in statecraft; with a new preface (6. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-35325-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-35325-1"><bdi>978-0-674-35325-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+unified+and+Europe+transformed%3A+a+study+in+statecraft%3B+with+a+new+preface&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.edition=6.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-674-35325-1&rft.aulast=Zelikow&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Rice%2C+Condoleezza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.orte-der-einheit.de/en//">Sites of Unity</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230917205648/https://www.orte-der-einheit.de/en/">Archived</a> 17 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Online Project about German reunification of <a href="/wiki/Haus_der_Geschichte" title="Haus der Geschichte">Haus der Geschichte</a>, 2022.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJarauschGransow1994" class="citation book cs1">Jarausch, Konrad; Gransow, Volker, eds. (1994). Uniting Germany: documents and debates, 1944 - 1993. Translated by Brown, Allison; Cooper, Belinda. Providence: <a href="/wiki/Berghahn_Books" title="Berghahn Books">Berghahn Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-011-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-011-3"><bdi>978-1-57181-011-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uniting+Germany%3A+documents+and+debates%2C+1944+-+1993&rft.place=Providence&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-57181-011-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+reunification" class="Z3988"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_reunification&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:German_reunification" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:German reunification">German reunification</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_unification_treaty_between_the_frg_and_the_gdr_berlin_31_august_1990-en-2c391661-db4e-42e5-84f7-bd86108c0b9c.html">The Unification Treaty (Berlin, 31 August 1990)</a> website of CVCE (Centre of European Studies)</li> <li>Hessler, Uwe, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1687204,00.html">"The End of East Germany"</a>, dw-world.de, 23 August 2005.</li> <li>Berg, Stefan, Steffen Winter and Andreas Wassermann, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,373639,00.html">"Germany's Eastern Burden: The Price of a Failed Reunification"</a>, Der Spiegel, 5 September 2005.</li> <li>Wiegrefe, Klaus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,719848,00.html">"An Inside Look at the Reunification Negotiations"</a>, Der Spiegel, 29 September 2010.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/25386946/_Unfriendly_even_dangerous_Margaret_Thatcher_and_German_Unification">"Unfriendly, even dangerous"? Margaret Thatcher and German Unification, Academia.edu, 2016.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120311043808/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552564">Problems with Reunification</a> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title">Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Revolutions_of_1989" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fall_of_Communism" title="Template:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fall_of_Communism" title="Template talk:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fall_of_Communism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Revolutions_of_1989" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Internal background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_communist_party_rule" title="Criticism of communist party rule">Criticism of communist party rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_politics" title="Eastern Bloc politics">Eastern Bloc politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_media_and_propaganda" title="Eastern Bloc media and propaganda">Eastern Bloc media and propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration from the Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">Nomenklatura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortage_economy" title="Shortage economy">Shortage economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_insurgencies_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe">Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">International background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_socialist_states" title="List of socialist states">List of socialist states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictions_of_the_collapse_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union">Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorism and the Soviet Union">Terrorism and the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Vatican Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Reforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uskorenie" title="Uskorenie">Uskorenie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demokratizatsiya_(Soviet_Union)" title="Demokratizatsiya (Soviet Union)">Demokratizatsiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khozraschyot" class="mw-redirect" title="Khozraschyot">Khozraschyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/500_Days_Program" title="500 Days Program">500 Days Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_political_thinking" title="New political thinking">New political thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine" title="Sinatra Doctrine">Sinatra Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Chinese economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%95i_M%E1%BB%9Bi" title="Đổi Mới">Đổi Mới</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Government leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramiz_Alia" title="Ramiz Alia">Ramiz Alia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Gr%C3%B3sz" title="Károly Grósz">Károly Grósz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Jake%C5%A1" title="Miloš Jakeš">Miloš Jakeš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Krenz" title="Egon Krenz">Egon Krenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Wojciech Jaruzelski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Slobodan Milošević">Slobodan Milošević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathieu_K%C3%A9r%C3%A9kou" title="Mathieu Kérékou">Mathieu Kérékou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengistu_Haile_Mariam" title="Mengistu Haile Mariam">Mengistu Haile Mariam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ne_Win" title="Ne Win">Ne Win</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso" title="Denis Sassou Nguesso">Denis Sassou Nguesso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heng_Samrin" title="Heng Samrin">Heng Samrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todor_Zhivkov" title="Todor Zhivkov">Todor Zhivkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">Human chains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnitizdat" title="Magnitizdat">Magnitizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_underground_press" title="Polish underground press">Polish underground press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Political demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" title="Václav Havel">Václav Havel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Iliescu" title="Ion Iliescu">Ion Iliescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Gang" title="Liu Gang">Liu Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%27erkaixi" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu'erkaixi">Wu'erkaixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chai_Ling" title="Chai Ling">Chai Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Dan_(dissident)" title="Wang Dan (dissident)">Wang Dan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Congde" title="Feng Congde">Feng Congde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Tank Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Gauck" title="Joachim Gauck">Joachim Gauck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sali_Berisha" title="Sali Berisha">Sali Berisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjaas%C3%BCrengiin_Zorig" title="Sanjaasürengiin Zorig">Sanjaasürengiin Zorig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bukovsky" title="Vladimir Bukovsky">Vladimir Bukovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viacheslav_Chornovil" title="Viacheslav Chornovil">Viacheslav Chornovil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vytautas_Landsbergis" title="Vytautas Landsbergis">Vytautas Landsbergis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zianon_Pazniak" title="Zianon Pazniak">Zianon Pazniak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhelyu_Zhelev" title="Zhelyu Zhelev">Zhelyu Zhelev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meles_Zenawi" title="Meles Zenawi">Meles Zenawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaias_Afwerki" title="Isaias Afwerki">Isaias Afwerki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Students%27_Autonomous_Federation" title="Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation">Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_77" title="Charter 77">Charter 77</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Forum" title="New Forum">New Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Forum" title="Civic Forum">Civic Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Albania" title="Democratic Party of Albania">Democratic Party of Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Russia" title="Democratic Russia">Democratic Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiative_for_Peace_and_Human_Rights" title="Initiative for Peace and Human Rights">Initiative for Peace and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%85j%C5%ABdis" title="Sąjūdis">Sąjūdis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Movement_of_Ukraine" title="People's Movement of Ukraine">People's Movement of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Latvia" title="Popular Front of Latvia">Popular Front of Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Estonia" title="Popular Front of Estonia">Popular Front of Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Against_Violence" title="Public Against Violence">Public Against Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Popular_Front" title="Belarusian Popular Front">Belarusian Popular Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastokhez" title="Rastokhez">Rastokhez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_League_for_Democracy" title="National League for Democracy">National League for Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Salvation_Front_(Romania)" title="National Salvation Front (Romania)">National Salvation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Democratic_Forces_(Bulgaria)" title="Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria)">Union of Democratic Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-regional_Deputies_Group" title="Inter-regional Deputies Group">Inter-regional Deputies Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Free_Democrats" title="Alliance of Free Democrats">Alliance of Free Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Democratic_Forum" title="Hungarian Democratic Forum">Hungarian Democratic Forum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Events by location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Central and Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria#End_of_the_People's_Republic" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary" title="End of communism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)#Final_decade_of_the_Polish_People's_Republic_(1980–1989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Armenian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Armenian independence referendum">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Azerbaijani_independence_referendum" title="1991 Azerbaijani independence referendum">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_Revolution" title="Chechen Revolution">Chechnya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Georgian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Georgian independence referendum">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan#Towards_independence:_1985-1991" title="History of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Moldova" title="Independence of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="History of the Russian Federation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Revolution" title="Tajikistani Revolution">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Turkmen_independence_referendum" title="1991 Turkmen independence referendum">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Uzbek_independence_election" title="1991 Uzbek independence election">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicesse_Accords" title="Bicesse Accords">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin#Dissolution" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Paris_Peace_Agreements" title="1991 Paris Peace Agreements">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo#Transition" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo-Brazzaville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Derg_regime" title="Fall of the Derg regime">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War#Transition_to_peace" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">South Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Individual events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Jeltoqsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_Tibetan_unrest" title="1987–1989 Tibetan unrest">1987–1989 Tibetan unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">April 9 tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks" title="Hungarian Round Table Talks">Hungarian Round Table Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">Monday Demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexanderplatz_demonstration" title="Alexanderplatz demonstration">Alexanderplatz demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Black January</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="1990s post-Soviet aliyah">1990s post-Soviet aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Summit_(1990)" title="Helsinki Summit (1990)">Helsinki Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_on_Granite" title="Revolution on Granite">Revolution on Granite</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reunification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">January Events in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_protests_in_Belgrade" title="1991 protests in Belgrade">1991 protests in Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">1991 Belarusian strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact#End_of_the_Cold_War" title="Warsaw Pact">Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Civil_War" title="Tajikistani Civil War">Tajikistani Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Later events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decommunization" title="Decommunization">Decommunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lustration" title="Lustration">Lustration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalization" title="Economic liberalization">Economic liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Sovietism" title="Neo-Sovietism">Neo-Sovietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-communism" title="Post-communism">Post-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation Priboi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation Unthinkable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation Masterdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation Blacklist Forty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the Tuapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation Gladio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS Pueblo incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%931971_East_Pakistan_communist_insurgency" title="1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency">1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation Condor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germany_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germany_topics" title="Template:Germany topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germany_topics" title="Template talk:Germany topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germany_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germany topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germany_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Germany" title="Outline of Germany">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">History of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_German_history" title="Timeline of German history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany" title="Military history of Germany">Military history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Germanic_peoples" title="List of early Germanic peoples">List of early Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">History of the Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_warfare_between_the_Romans_and_Germanic_peoples" title="Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples">Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_campaigns_in_Germania_(12_BC_%E2%80%93_AD_16)" title="Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)">Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic Wars">Gothic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">Sack of Rome (410)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Early modern period, 1500–1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th-century_history_of_Germany" title="18th-century history of Germany">18th-century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Constitution" title="Frankfurt Constitution">Frankfurt Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">Revolution of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany#World_War_II" title="Nazi Germany">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Allied occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Flight and expulsions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">Denazification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Germany (1945–1990)">Divided Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_since_1990" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Germany since 1990">History of Germany since 1990</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Prussia">History of Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brandenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Brandenburg">History of Brandenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cologne_War" title="Cologne War">Cologne War</a>, 1583–1588</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baden_Revolution" title="Baden Revolution">Baden Revolution</a>, 1848</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Germany" title="Geography of Germany">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative divisions of Germany">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/States_of_Germany" title="States of Germany">States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Germany" title="Districts of Germany">Districts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Germany" title="List of cities and towns in Germany">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Germany" title="List of earthquakes in Germany">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Germany" title="Geology of Germany">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Germany" title="List of islands of Germany">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Germany" title="List of lakes of Germany">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Germany" title="Category:Mountains of Germany">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Germany" title="Category:Rivers of Germany">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Germany" title="Politics of Germany">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Bundesrat" title="German Bundesrat">Bundesrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundeswehr" title="Bundeswehr">Bundeswehr (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Germany" title="Cabinet of Germany">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Germany" title="Judiciary of Germany">Court system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Germany" title="Elections in Germany">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Germany" title="Foreign relations of Germany">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Germany" title="Human rights in Germany">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_Germany" title="Intersex rights in Germany">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Germany">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights_in_Germany" title="Transgender rights in Germany">Transgender</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Germany" title="Law of Germany">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Germany" title="Law enforcement in Germany">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobbying_in_Germany" title="Lobbying in Germany">Lobbying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Conservatism in Germany">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Germany" title="List of political parties in Germany">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Germany" title="President of Germany">President</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Germany" title="Economy of Germany">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Germany" title="Agriculture in Germany">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Germany" title="Automotive industry in Germany">Automobile industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Germany" title="Banking in Germany">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbank" title="Deutsche Bundesbank">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_German_Chemical_Triangle" title="Middle German Chemical Triangle">Chemical Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Germany" title="Energy in Germany">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Germany" title="List of exports of Germany">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_model" title="German model">German model</a></li> <li><a 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