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class="noprint"></div> <div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> <a id="top"></a> <div id="siteNotice"></div> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Vichy France</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content"> <div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div> <div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump"> Jump to: <a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a> </div> <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="hatnote">For other uses, see <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_(disambiguation)" title="Vichy (disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig">Vichy (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <table class="infobox geography vcard vevent" style="width:265px;"> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td colspan="3" class="fn org summary" style="text-align:center; line-height:1.2em; font-size:135%; font-weight:bold;">French State</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td colspan="3" class="fn org summary" style="text-align:center; line-height:1.2em; font-size:115%; font-weight:bold;">État français</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; font-size:115%;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_government" title="Puppet government" class="mw-redirect">Puppet government</a> of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a>, 1942–1944</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; padding:0.2em 0em 0.2em 0em;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:transparent;"> <tr> <td style="width:50px; border:0; vertical-align:middle; font-size:30%; line-height:105%;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">←</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" width="30" height="20" class="thumbborder" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/60px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"/></a> </td> <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; font-size:115%; border:0;">1940–1944</td> <td style="width:50px; border:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right; line-height:105%; font-size:30%;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Free_France_1940-1944.svg/30px-Flag_of_Free_France_1940-1944.svg.png" width="30" height="20" class="thumbborder" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Free_France_1940-1944.svg/45px-Flag_of_Free_France_1940-1944.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Free_France_1940-1944.svg/60px-Flag_of_Free_France_1940-1944.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300"/></a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">→</a> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td colspan="3" class="maptable"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:none;"> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="image" title="Flag"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/125px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" width="125" height="83" class="thumbborder" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/188px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/250px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"/></a></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_French_State.svg" class="image" title="Coat of arms"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_French_State.svg/85px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_French_State.svg.png" width="85" height="103" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_French_State.svg/128px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_French_State.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_French_State.svg/170px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_French_State.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="462" data-file-height="558"/></a></td> </tr> <tr style="font-size:95%;"> <td style="border:0; text-align:center;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Flag</a></td> <td style="border:0; text-align:center;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emblem_of_the_French_State" title="Emblem of the French State" class="mw-redirect">Emblem of the Chief of State</a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; font-size:95%;">Motto "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travail,_Famille,_Patrie" title="Travail, Famille, Patrie" class="mw-redirect">Travail, Famille, Patrie</a>" "Work, Family, Fatherland"</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; font-size:95%;">Anthem <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</a> The Song of Marseille  (official) <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C3%A9chal,_nous_voil%C3%A0_!" title="Maréchal, nous voilà !">Maréchal, nous voilà!</a> <a href="#cite_note-NDompnier-1">[1]</a> Marshal, we are here!  (unofficial)</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="text-align:center; font-size:95%; padding:0.6em 0em 0.6em 0em;"> <div class="center"> <div class="floatnone"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:French_State_1942.svg" class="image" title="Location of France"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/French_State_1942.svg/250px-French_State_1942.svg.png" width="250" height="253" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/French_State_1942.svg/375px-French_State_1942.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/French_State_1942.svg/500px-French_State_1942.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="456"/></a></div> </div> <div style="padding:0.5em 0.5em 0;line-height:1.25em;font-size:90%;">The French State in 1942: <div class="plainlist" style="padding-left: 0.6em; text-align: left;"> <ul> <li> <div class="legend">  French State</div> </li> <li> <div class="legend">  French State, German military occupation zone</div> </li> <li> <div class="legend">  French protectorates</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td colspan="3" style="text-align:center; padding:0.6em 0em;"> <div class="center"> <div class="floatnone"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vichy_france_map.png" class="image" title="Location of France"><img alt="The gradual loss of all Vichy territory to Free France and the Axis. Click on map for color legend" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/280px-Vichy_france_map.png" width="280" height="152" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/420px-Vichy_france_map.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/560px-Vichy_france_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="774"/></a></div> </div> <div style="padding-top:0.5em;line-height:1.25em;font-size:90%;">The gradual loss of all Vichy territory to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> and the Axis powers. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vichy_france_map.png" title="File:Vichy france map.png">Legend.</a></div> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td colspan="2">Capital</td> <td style="width:50%;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy" title="Vichy">Vichy</a> (de facto) Parisa (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a>)</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td colspan="2">Capital-in-exile</td> <td><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen" title="Sigmaringen">Sigmaringen</a> 1944–45</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Languages</td> <td><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td colspan="2">Government</td> <td><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarian state</a></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td colspan="2"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_France" title="List of heads of state of France" class="mw-redirect">Chief of the French State</a></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0;text-align:left;">1940–1944</td> <td><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td colspan="2"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heads_of_government_of_France" title="List of heads of government of France" class="mw-redirect">President of the Council of Ministers</a></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0;text-align:left;">1940–1942</td> <td><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0;text-align:left;">1942–1944</td> <td><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Legislature</td> <td><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Assembly_of_France" title="National Assembly of France" class="mw-redirect">National Assembly</a></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td colspan="2">Historical era</td> <td><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0em;text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Compi%C3%A8gne" title="Second Compiègne" class="mw-redirect">Second Compiègne</a></td> <td style="vertical-align: bottom;">22 June 1940</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0em;text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Pétain</a> given <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vichy_80" title="The Vichy 80">full powers</a></td> <td style="vertical-align: bottom;">10 July 1940</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0em;text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">operation Torch</a></td> <td style="vertical-align: bottom;">8 November 1942</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0em;text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a></td> <td style="vertical-align: bottom;">11 November 1942</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0em;text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France" class="mw-redirect">German retreat</a></td> <td style="vertical-align: bottom;">summer 1944</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0em;text-align:left;">capture of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" title="Sigmaringen enclave" class="mw-redirect">Sigmaringen enclave</a></td> <td style="vertical-align: bottom;">22 April 1945</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0em;text-align:left;">Disestablished</td> <td style="vertical-align: bottom;">1944</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Currency</td> <td><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">French franc</a></td> </tr> <tr style="font-size:85%;"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0.4em 0 0 0.6em;">a.</td> <td colspan="2" style="padding-left:0;text-align:left;">Paris remained the formal capital of the French State, although the Vichy government never operated from there.</td> </tr> <tr style="font-size:85%;" class="mergedbottomrow"> <td style="width:1.0em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;">b.</td> <td colspan="2" style="padding-left:0;text-align:left;">Although the French Republic's institutions were officially maintained, the word "Republic" never occurred in any official document of the Vichy government.</td> </tr> </table> <table class="vertical-navbox vcard plainlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"> <tr> <th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"> <div style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:65%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_France" title="Category:History of France">a series</a> on the</div> </th> </tr> <tr> <th class="vcard navbox-title" style="font-size: 145%;padding: 0.15em 0.1em;line-height: 1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History of France</a></th> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0.2em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fleur_de_lys_(or).svg" class="image" title="National Emblem"><img alt="National Emblem" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Fleur_de_lys_%28or%29.svg/55px-Fleur_de_lys_%28or%29.svg.png" width="55" height="78" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Fleur_de_lys_%28or%29.svg/83px-Fleur_de_lys_%28or%29.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Fleur_de_lys_%28or%29.svg/110px-Fleur_de_lys_%28or%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="214"/></a><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Napoleonic_Eagle.svg" class="image" title="National Emblem"><img alt="National Emblem" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Napoleonic_Eagle.svg/75px-Napoleonic_Eagle.svg.png" width="75" height="70" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Napoleonic_Eagle.svg/113px-Napoleonic_Eagle.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Napoleonic_Eagle.svg/150px-Napoleonic_Eagle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="346" data-file-height="321"/></a><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armoiries_r%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.svg" class="image" title="National Emblem"><img alt="National Emblem" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Armoiries_r%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.svg/80px-Armoiries_r%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.svg.png" width="80" height="91" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Armoiries_r%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.svg/120px-Armoiries_r%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Armoiries_r%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.svg/160px-Armoiries_r%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="175" data-file-height="199"/></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France" title="Prehistory of France">Prehistory</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Palaeolithic" title="Prehistory of France">Palaeolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Mesolithic" title="Prehistory of France">Mesolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Neolithic" title="Prehistory of France">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Copper_Age" title="Prehistory of France">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Bronze_Age" title="Prehistory of France">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Iron_Age" title="Prehistory of France">Iron Age</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_France#Ancient_history" title="History of France">Ancient</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greek colonies</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> </td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> </td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">50 BC – 486 AD</td> </tr> </table> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Early Middle Ages</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> </td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingians</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">481–751</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingians</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">751–987</td> </tr> </table> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">Direct Capetians</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">987–1328</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois_.28direct.29" title="House of Valois">Valois</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1328–1498</td> </tr> </table> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_France" title="Early modern France">Early modern</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois-Orl.C3.A9ans" title="House of Valois">Valois-Orléans</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1498–1515</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois-Orl.C3.A9ans-Angoul.C3.AAme" title="House of Valois">Valois-Angoulême</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1515–1589</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1589–1792</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_France" title="Early modern France">Kingdom of France</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1492–1791</td> </tr> </table> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="France in the long nineteenth century">19th century</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1789</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%931792)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–1792)" class="mw-redirect">Kingdom of the French</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1791–1792</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1792–1804</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1792–1795</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1795–1799</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1799–1804</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1804–1814</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration" title="Bourbon Restoration">Restoration</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1814–1830</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1830</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1830–1848</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">1848 Revolution</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1848</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1848–1852</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1852–1870</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1870–1940</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1871</td> </tr> </table> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_twentieth_century" title="France in the twentieth century">20th century</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> • Vichy France</td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1940–1944</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Republic</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1944–1946</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1946–1958</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a></td> <td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1958–present</td> </tr> </table> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/16px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" width="16" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/24px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"/></a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:History_of_France" title="Template:History of France">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_France" title="Template talk:History of France">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_France&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> Vichy France, officially the French State (État français), was the government headed by Marshal <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a> from 1940–1944 during <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. It was based in the small city of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy" title="Vichy">Vichy</a>, but Paris remained the official capital of France. From 1940 to 1942, while nominally the government of France as a whole, Vichy only fully-controlled the zone in southern France not occupied by German military forces, while Germany <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupied_France" title="Occupied France" class="mw-redirect">occupied</a> northern France. Following the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_landings_in_North_Africa" title="Allied landings in North Africa" class="mw-redirect">Allied landings in French North Africa</a> on 8 November 1942, southern France was also occupied by the Axis on 11 November 1942 through the enactment of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a>. The Vichy government remained in existence, but was reduced to a <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_government" title="Puppet government" class="mw-redirect">puppet government</a> by Germany. After being appointed <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_of_France#history" title="Premier of France" class="mw-redirect">Premier of France</a> by President <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Lebrun" title="Albert Lebrun" class="mw-redirect">Albert Lebrun</a>, Marshal Pétain ordered his military representatives to sign the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Armistice_at_Compi%C3%A8gne" title="Second Armistice at Compiègne" class="mw-redirect">armistice with Germany</a> on 22 June 1940. Pétain then established an authoritarian regime when the National Assembly of the Third Republic granted him <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vichy_80" title="The Vichy 80">full powers on 10 July 1940</a>. At that point, the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a> was dissolved. Calling for "National Regeneration," Vichy reversed many liberal policies and began tight supervision of the economy, with central planning a key feature. Labor unions came under tight government control. There were no elections. The independence of women was reversed, with an emphasis put on motherhood. Conservative Catholics became prominent. Paris lost its avant-garde status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and stressed virulent anti-Semitism, and after June 1941, anti-Bolshevism.<a href="#cite_note-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013-2">[2]</a> The newly formed French State maintained nominal sovereignty over the whole of French territory, but had effective sovereignty only in the unoccupied southern <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_libre" title="Zone libre">zone libre</a> ("free zone"). It had limited authority in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">northern zones</a> under <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">military occupation</a>. The occupation was to be a provisional state of affairs, pending the conclusion of the war, which at the time appeared imminent. The occupation presented certain advantages, such as keeping the French Navy and the colonial empire under French control, and avoiding full occupation of the country by Germany, thus maintaining a meaningful degree of French independence and neutrality. Vichy never joined the Axis alliance. Germany kept <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_POWs_in_World_War_II" title="French POWs in World War II" class="mw-redirect">two million French soldiers</a> in Germany as prisoners doing <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_du_travail_obligatoire" title="Service du travail obligatoire">forced labour</a> as hostages to ensure Vichy would reduce its military forces and pay a heavy tribute in gold, food, and supplies to Germany. Vichy authorities were brought in to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_France" title="The Holocaust in France">round up Jews</a> and other "undesirables" such as communists and political refugees. Much of the French public initially supported the new government, despite its undemocratic and pro-Axis policies, often seeing it as necessary to maintain a degree of French autonomy and territorial integrity. In November 1942, however, the zone libre was <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">also occupied by Axis forces</a>, leading to the disbandment of the remaining army and the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuttling_of_the_French_fleet_in_Toulon" title="Scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon">French sinking of its remaining fleet</a> and ending any semblance of independence, with Germany now closely supervising all French officials. The greater part of the overseas <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonies</a> were originally under Vichy control, but it lost one colony after another to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>'s <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> by the time of the Allied invasion of North Africa. Public opinion turned against the Vichy government and the occupying German forces, and over time and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">resistance</a> to them increased. Following the Allied invasion of France in June 1944 and the subsequent <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France" class="mw-redirect">Liberation of France</a> in summer 1944, the Free French <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> (GPRF) succeeded Vichy as France's government. Led by De Gaulle under a "national unanimity" cabinet uniting the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_networks_and_movements_of_the_French_Resistance" title="List of networks and movements of the French Resistance">many factions</a> of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a>, the GPRF re-established a provisional French Republic, thus restoring continuity with the Third Republic. Most of the Vichy government's leaders fled or were put on trial by the GPRF, and a number were executed for treason in legal purges (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">épuration légale</a>). Thousands of collaborators were <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summarily executed</a> by local Resistance forces in so-called "savage purges" (épuration sauvage). The last Vichy exiles were captured in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" title="Sigmaringen enclave" class="mw-redirect">Sigmaringen enclave</a> by the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_1st_Armoured_Division" title="French 1st Armoured Division" class="mw-redirect">French 1st Armoured Division</a> in April 1945. Pétain was put on trial for treason by the new Provisional Government, and sentenced to death, but this was commuted to life imprisonment by De Gaulle. Only four senior Vichy officials were tried for <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, although many more had participated in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_deportations_of_French_Jews_to_death_camps" title="Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps">the deportation of Jews for extermination</a> in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a>, abuses of prisoners, and severe acts against members of the Resistance. <div id="toc" class="toc"> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Overview">1 Overview</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Ideology">2 Ideology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Fall_of_France_and_establishment_of_the_Vichy_government">3 Fall of France and establishment of the Vichy government</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Conditions_of_armistice_and_10_July_1940_vote_of_full_powers">3.1 Conditions of armistice and 10 July 1940 vote of full powers</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Prisoners">3.1.1 Prisoners</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Army_of_the_Armistice">3.1.2 Army of the Armistice</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#German_custody">3.1.3 German custody</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Vichy_government">3.1.4 Vichy government</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Foreign_relations_of_Vichy_France">4 Foreign relations of Vichy France</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina_and_Franco-Thai_War">4.1 Japanese invasion of French Indochina and Franco-Thai War</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Colonial_struggle_with_Free_France">4.2 Colonial struggle with Free France</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#India_and_Oceania">4.2.1 India and Oceania</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Equatorial_and_West_Africa">4.2.2 Equatorial and West Africa</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#French_Somaliland">4.2.3 French Somaliland</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Syria_and_Madagascar">4.2.4 Syria and Madagascar</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#French_North_Africa">4.2.5 French North Africa</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#State_collaboration_with_Germany">5 State collaboration with Germany</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Vichy.27s_racial_policies_and_collaboration">5.1 Vichy's racial policies and collaboration</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Eugenics_policies">5.1.1 Eugenics policies</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Statute_on_Jews">5.1.2 Statute on Jews</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#July_1942_Vel.27_d.27Hiv_Roundup">5.2 July 1942 Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#August_1942_and_January_1943_raids">5.3 August 1942 and January 1943 raids</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Jewish_death_toll">5.4 Jewish death toll</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#French_collaborationnistes_and_collaborators">6 French collaborationnistes and collaborators</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Social_and_economic_history">7 Social and economic history</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Economy">7.1 Economy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Forced_labour">7.1.1 Forced labour</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#Food_shortages">7.1.2 Food shortages</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Women">7.2 Women</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#German_invasion.2C_November_1942">8 German invasion, November 1942</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Decline_of_the_Vichy_regime_and_exile">9 Decline of the Vichy regime and exile</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Independence_of_the_SOL">9.1 Independence of the SOL</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Sigmaringen_commission">9.2 Sigmaringen commission</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Actions_of_the_French_provisional_government">9.3 Actions of the French provisional government</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Purges">9.4 Purges</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#1980s_trials">9.5 1980s trials</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#Historiographical_debates_and_France.27s_responsibility:_the_.22Vichy_Syndrome.22">10 Historiographical debates and France's responsibility: the "Vichy Syndrome"</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#.22Sword_and_shield.22_argument">10.1 "Sword and shield" argument</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#Moralism">10.2 Moralism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#.22French_Jews_vs._foreign_Jews.22:_myth_or_reality.3F">10.3 "French Jews vs. foreign Jews": myth or reality?</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-41"><a href="#Notable_figures_in_the_Vichy_regime">11 Notable figures in the Vichy regime</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#Notable_collaborationists_or_p.C3.A9tainists_not_linked_to_the_Vichy_regime">12 Notable collaborationists or pétainists not linked to the Vichy regime</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#See_also">13 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#References">14 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="#Bibliography">15 Bibliography</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46"><a href="#English">15.1 English</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47"><a href="#Historiography">15.2 Historiography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-48"><a href="#French">15.3 French</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-49"><a href="#German">15.4 German</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-50"><a href="#Films">15.5 Films</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-51"><a href="#External_links">16 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2>Overview[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a>]</h2> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width:52px"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" width="50" height="39" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="262" data-file-height="204"/></a></div> </td> <td class="mbox-text">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2013)</td> </tr> </table> <div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Events preceding World War II in Europe</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes of World War II</a></div> In 1940, Marshal Pétain was known as a First World War hero, the victor of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">battle of Verdun</a>. As the last <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France#history" title="Prime Minister of France">premier</a> of the Third Republic, being a reactionary by inclination, he blamed the Third Republic's democracy for France's sudden defeat. He set up a paternalistic, authoritarian regime that actively collaborated with Germany, its official neutrality notwithstanding. The Vichy government cooperated with <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">the Nazis' racial policies</a>. <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg/220px-France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg.png" width="220" height="209" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg/330px-France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg/440px-France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1996" data-file-height="1894"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> France under German occupation (Nazis occupied the southern zone starting in November 1942—Operation <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a>). The green zone was under <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Fascism" title="Italian Fascism">Italian</a> administration.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain,_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/200px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png" width="200" height="133" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/300px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/400px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain,_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Personal flag of Philippe Pétain, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">Chief of State</a> of Vichy France (Chef de l'État Français)</div> </div> </div> In theory, the civil jurisdiction of the Vichy government extended over most of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">metropolitan France</a>; only the disputed border territory of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a> was placed under direct German administration.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Similarly, a sliver of French territory in the Alps was under direct Italian administration from June 1940 to September 1943. Throughout the rest of the country, civil servants were under the formal authority of French ministers in Vichy.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Bousquet" title="René Bousquet">René Bousquet</a>, the head of French police nominated by Vichy, exercised his power directly in Paris through his second-in-command, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Leguay" title="Jean Leguay">Jean Leguay</a>, who coordinated raids with the Nazis. German laws, however, took precedence over French ones in the occupied territories, and the Germans often rode roughshod over the sensibilities of Vichy administrators. On 11 November 1942, following the landing of the Allies in North Africa (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">operation Torch</a>), the Axis launched <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Operation Anton</a>, occupying southern France and disbanding the strictly limited "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armistice_Army&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Armistice Army (page does not exist)">Armistice Army</a>" that Vichy had been allowed by the armistice. Vichy's claim to be the legitimate French government has been denied by Free France and all subsequent French governments after the war. They maintain that Vichy was an illegal government run by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">traitors</a>, having come to power through an unconstitutional <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putsch" title="Putsch" class="mw-redirect">putsch</a>. Historians have particularly debated the circumstances of the vote by the parliament of the Third Republic, granting full powers to Pétain on 10 July 1940. The main arguments advanced against Vichy's right to incarnate the continuity of the French state were based on the pressure exerted by Pierre Laval, former Premier in the Third Republic, on deputies in Vichy, and on the absence of 27 deputies and senators who had fled on the ship <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vichy_80" title="The Vichy 80">Massilia</a>, and could thus not take part in the vote. <h2>Ideology[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ideology">edit</a>]</h2> Vichy sought an anti-modern counter-revolution. The Right in France, with strength in the aristocracy and among Catholics, had never accepted the republican traditions of the French Revolution. It demanded a return to traditional lines of culture and religion and embraced authoritarianism, while dismissing democracy.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> The Communist element, strongest in labour unions, turned against Vichy in June 1941, when Germany invaded the Soviet Union. Vichy was intensely anti-Communist and generally pro-Nazi; Payne finds that it, "was distinctly rightist and authoritarian but never fascist."<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Paxton analyzes the entire range of Vichy supporters, from reactionaries to moderate liberal modernizers, and concludes that genuine fascist elements had but minor roles in most sectors.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The Vichy government tried to assert its legitimacy by symbolically connecting itself to the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Roman" title="Gallo-Roman" class="mw-redirect">Gallo-Roman</a> period of France's history, and celebrated the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> chieftain <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vercingetorix" title="Vercingetorix">Vercingetorix</a> as the "founder" of the nation.<a href="#cite_note-karlsgodt-7">[7]</a> It was asserted that just as the defeat of the Gauls in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Battle of Alesia</a> had been the moment in French history when a sense of common nationhood was born, the defeat of 1940 would again unify the nation.<a href="#cite_note-karlsgodt-7">[7]</a> The Vichy government's "Francisque" insignia featured two symbols from the Gallic period: the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baton_(symbol)" title="Baton (symbol)" class="mw-redirect">baton</a> and the double-headed hatchet (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labrys" title="Labrys">labrys</a>) arranged so as to resemble the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasces" title="Fasces">fasces</a>, symbol of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">Italian Fascists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-karlsgodt-7">[7]</a> <h2>Fall of France and establishment of the Vichy government[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Fall of France and establishment of the Vichy government">edit</a>]</h2> France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, following the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_invasion_of_Poland" title="German invasion of Poland" class="mw-redirect">German invasion of Poland</a> on 1 September. After the eight-month <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a>, the Germans launched their <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">offensive in the west</a> on 10 May 1940. Within days, it became clear that French military forces were overwhelmed and that military collapse was imminent.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Government and military leaders, deeply shocked by the débâcle, debated how to proceed. Many officials, including Prime Minister <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Reynaud" title="Paul Reynaud">Paul Reynaud</a>, wanted to move the government to French territories in North Africa, and continue the war with the French Navy and colonial resources. Others, particularly the Vice-Premier Philippe Pétain and the Commander-in-Chief, General <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxime_Weygand" title="Maxime Weygand">Maxime Weygand</a>, insisted that the responsibility of the government was to remain in France and share the misfortune of its people. The latter view called for an immediate cessation of hostilities.<a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-9">[9]</a>:121–126 While this debate continued, the government was forced to relocate several times, to avoid capture by advancing German forces, finally reaching Bordeaux. Communications were poor and thousands of civilian refugees clogged the roads. In these chaotic conditions, advocates of an armistice gained the upper hand. The Cabinet agreed on a proposal to seek armistice terms from Germany, with the understanding that, should Germany set forth dishonourable or excessively harsh terms, France would retain the option to continue to fight. General <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Huntziger" title="Charles Huntziger">Charles Huntziger</a>, who headed the French armistice delegation, was told to break off negotiations if the Germans demanded the occupation of all metropolitan France, the French fleet, or any of the French overseas territories. The Germans did not.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404,_Frankreich,_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg" width="220" height="158" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="576"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404,_Frankreich,_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="French prisoners of war in World War II">French prisoners of war</a> are marched off under German guard, 1940</div> </div> </div> Prime Minister <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Reynaud" title="Paul Reynaud">Paul Reynaud</a> favored continuing the war; however, he was soon outvoted by those who advocated surrender. Facing an untenable situation, Reynaud resigned and, on his recommendation, President <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Lebrun" title="Albert Lebrun" class="mw-redirect">Albert Lebrun</a> appointed the 84-year-old Pétain as his replacement on 16 June 1940. The <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_with_France_(Second_Compi%C3%A8gne)" title="Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)" class="mw-redirect">Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)</a> agreement was signed on 22 June 1940. A separate French agreement was reached with Italy, which had entered the war against France on 10 June, well after the outcome of the battle was decided. <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217,_Henry_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg" class="new" title="File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H25217, Henry Philippe Pétain und Adolf Hitler.jpg">File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H25217, Henry Philippe Pétain und Adolf Hitler.jpg</a> <div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9tain" title="Pétain" class="mw-redirect">Pétain</a> meeting Hitler in October 1940.</div> </div> </div> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> had a number of reasons for agreeing to an armistice. He wanted to ensure that France did not continue to fight from North Africa, and he wanted to ensure that the French Navy was taken out of the war. In addition, leaving a French government in place would relieve Germany of the considerable burden of administering French territory, particularly as Hitler turned his attentions toward Britain. Finally, as Germany lacked a navy sufficient to occupy France's overseas territories, Hitler's only practical recourse to deny the British use of those territories was to maintain France's status as a de jure independent and neutral nation. However, Nazi espionage against France after its defeat intensified greatly, particularly in southern France. <a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <h3>Conditions of armistice and 10 July 1940 vote of full powers[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Conditions of armistice and 10 July 1940 vote of full powers">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_with_France_(Second_Compi%C3%A8gne)" title="Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)" class="mw-redirect">Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)</a></div> The armistice divided France into occupied and unoccupied zones: northern and western France, including the entire Atlantic coast, were occupied by Germany, and the remaining two-fifths of the country were under the control of the French government with the capital at Vichy under Pétain. Ostensibly, the French government administered the entire territory. <h4>Prisoners[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prisoners">edit</a>]</h4> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="French prisoners of war in World War II">French prisoners of war in World War II</a></div> Germany took two million French soldiers as prisoners of war and sent them to camps in Germany. About one-third were released on various terms by 1944. Of the remainder, the officers and NCOs (corporals and sergeants) were kept in camps but were exempt from forced labor. The privates were sent first to "Stalag" camps for processing and then were put out to work. About half of them worked in German agriculture, where food rations were adequate and controls were lenient. The others worked in factories or mines, where conditions were much harsher.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <h4>Army of the Armistice[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Army of the Armistice">edit</a>]</h4> <div class="hatnote boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_French_Air_Force" title="Vichy French Air Force">Vichy French Air Force</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417,_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg/180px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg" width="180" height="260" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg/270px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg/360px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="795"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417,_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> French colonial prisoner in German captivity, 1940. Black troops were treated worse than their white compatriots, and some of them were used for German anthropological and medical experiments.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></div> </div> </div> The Germans preferred to occupy northern France themselves. The French had to pay costs for the 300,000-strong German occupation army, amounting to 20 million Reichmarks per day, paid at the artificial rate of twenty francs to the Mark. This was 50 times the actual costs of the occupation garrison. The French government also had responsibility for preventing French citizens from escaping into exile. Article IV of the Armistice allowed for a small <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_France" title="Military of France" class="mw-redirect">French army</a>—the Army of the Armistice (Armée de l'Armistice)—stationed in the unoccupied zone, and for the military provision of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a> overseas. The function of these forces was to keep internal order and to defend French territories from <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> assault. The French forces were to remain under the overall direction of the German armed forces. The exact strength of the Vichy French Metropolitan Army was set at 3,768 officers, 15,072 non-commissioned officers, and 75,360 men. All members had to be volunteers. In addition to the army, the size of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a> was fixed at 60,000 men plus an anti-aircraft force of 10,000 men. Despite the influx of trained soldiers from the colonial forces (reduced in size in accordance with the Armistice), there was a shortage of volunteers. As a result, 30,000 men of the "class of 1939" were retained to fill the quota. At the beginning of 1942 these conscripts were released, but there was still an insufficient number of men. This shortage would remain until the dissolution, despite Vichy appeals to the Germans for a regular form of conscription. The Vichy French Metropolitan Army was deprived of tanks and other armored vehicles, and was desperately short of motorized transport, a particular problem for cavalry units. Surviving recruiting posters stress the opportunities for athletic activities, including horsemanship – which reflects both the general emphasis placed by the Vichy government on rural virtues and outdoor activities, and the realities of service in a small and technologically backward military force. Traditional features characteristic of the pre-1940 French Army, such as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepi" title="Kepi">kepis</a> and heavy capotes (buttoned-back greatcoats) were replaced by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beret" title="Beret">berets</a> and simplified uniforms. The Vichy authorities did not deploy the Army of the Armistice against resistance groups active in the south of France, reserving this role to the Vichy <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milice" title="Milice">Milice</a> (militia), a paramilitary force created on 30 January 1943 by the Vichy government to combat the Resistance.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Members of the regular army were therefore able to defect in significant numbers to the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquis_(World_War_II)" title="Maquis (World War II)">Maquis</a>, following the German occupation of southern France and the disbandment of the Army of the Armistice in November 1942. By contrast, the Milice continued to collaborate and its members became subject to reprisals after the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France" class="mw-redirect">Liberation</a>. Vichy French colonial forces were reduced in accordance with the terms of the Armistice; still, in the Mediterranean area alone, the Vichy French had nearly 150,000 men in arms. There were approximately 55,000 in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Morocco" title="French protectorate of Morocco" class="mw-redirect">French Morocco</a>, 50,000 in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">Algeria</a>, and almost 40,000 in the "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_the_Levant" title="Army of the Levant">Army of the Levant</a>" (Armée du Levant), in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_of_Lebanon" title="Mandate of Lebanon" class="mw-redirect">Lebanon</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_of_Syria" title="Mandate of Syria" class="mw-redirect">Syria</a>. Colonial forces were allowed to keep some armored vehicles, though these were mostly "vintage" tanks as old as the World War I-era <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FT-17" title="FT-17" class="mw-redirect">Renault FT</a>. <h4>German custody[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: German custody">edit</a>]</h4> The Armistice required France to turn over any German citizens within the country, upon German demand. The French regarded this as a "dishonourable" term, since it would require France to hand over persons who had entered France seeking refuge from Germany. Attempts to negotiate the point with Germany proved unsuccessful, and the French decided not to press the issue to the point of refusing the Armistice, although the French may have hoped[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research?</a>] to ameliorate the requirement in future negotiations with Germany after the signing. <h4>Vichy government[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vichy government">edit</a>]</h4> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laval-shot0038.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Laval-shot0038.png/220px-Laval-shot0038.png" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Laval-shot0038.png/330px-Laval-shot0038.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Laval-shot0038.png/440px-Laval-shot0038.png 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="425"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laval-shot0038.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Laval</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9tain" title="Pétain" class="mw-redirect">Pétain</a> in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Capra" title="Frank Capra">Frank Capra</a> documentary film <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divide_and_Conquer_(newsreel)" title="Divide and Conquer (newsreel)" class="mw-redirect">Divide and Conquer</a> (1943)</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png/220px-Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png" width="220" height="191" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png/330px-Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png/440px-Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png 2x" data-file-width="615" data-file-height="533"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> with the head of German police units in France, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Oberg" title="Carl Oberg">Carl Oberg</a></div> </div> </div> On 10 July 1940, the Parliament and the government gathered in the quiet <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spa_town" title="Spa town">spa town</a> of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy" title="Vichy">Vichy</a>, their provisional capital in central France. (Lyon, France's second-largest city, would have been a more logical choice but <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_(France)" title="Mayor (France)">mayor</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Herriot" title="Édouard Herriot">Édouard Herriot</a> was too associated with the Third Republic. Marseilles had a reputation as the dangerous "Chicago" of France. Toulouse was too remote and had a left-wing reputation. Vichy was centrally located and had many hotels for ministers to use.)<a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-9">[9]</a>:142 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapha%C3%ABl_Alibert" title="Raphaël Alibert">Raphaël Alibert</a> began their campaign to convince the assembled Senators and Deputies to vote <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_powers" title="Full powers" class="mw-redirect">full powers</a> to Pétain. They used every means available, promising ministerial posts to some, while threatening and intimidating others. They were aided by the absence of popular, charismatic figures who might have opposed them, such as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Mandel" title="Georges Mandel">Georges Mandel</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Daladier" title="Édouard Daladier">Édouard Daladier</a>, then aboard the ship Massilia on their way to North Africa and exile. On 10 July the National Assembly, comprising both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, voted by 569 votes to 80, with 20 voluntary <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstention" title="Abstention">abstentions</a>, to grant full and extraordinary powers to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshal_P%C3%A9tain" title="Marshal Pétain" class="mw-redirect">Marshal Pétain</a>. By the same vote, they also granted him the power to write a new constitution.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Most legislators believed that democracy would continue, albeit with a new constitution. Although <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> said on 6 July that "parliamentary democracy has lost the war; it must disappear, ceding its place to an authoritarian, hierarchical, national and social regime", the majority trusted in Pétain. Léon Blum, who voted no, wrote three months later that Laval's "obvious objective was to cut all the roots that bound France to its republican and revolutionary past. His 'national revolution' was to be a counter-revolution eliminating all the progress and human rights won in the last one hundred and fifty years".<a href="#cite_note-christofferson2006-16">[16]</a> The minority of mostly <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical-Socialist_Party" title="Radical-Socialist Party" class="mw-redirect">Radicals</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Section_of_the_Workers%27_International" title="French Section of the Workers' International">Socialists</a> who opposed Laval became known as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vichy_80" title="The Vichy 80">the Vichy 80</a>. Deputies and senators who voted to grant full powers to Pétain were condemned on an individual basis after the liberation. The majority of French historians and all post-war French governments contend this vote by the National Assembly was illegal. Three main arguments are put forward: <ul> <li>Abrogation of legal procedure</li> <li>The impossibility for parliament to delegate its constitutional powers without controlling its use a posteriori</li> <li>The 1884 constitutional amendment making it unconstitutional to put into question the "republican form" of the government</li> </ul> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_T._Jackson" title="Julian T. Jackson">Julian T. Jackson</a> wrote, however, that "There seems little doubt, therefore, that at the beginning Vichy was both legal and legitimate." He stated that if legitimacy comes from popular support, Pétain's massive popularity in France until 1942 made his government legitimate; if legitimacy comes from diplomatic recognition, over 40 countries including the United States, Canada, and China recognized the Vichy government. According to Jackson, de Gaulle's Free French acknowledged the weakness of its case against Vichy's legality by citing multiple dates (16 June, 23 June, and 10 July) for the start of Vichy's illegitimate rule, implying that at least for some period of time, Vichy was not yet illegitimate.<a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-9">[9]</a>:134 Countries recognized the Vichy government despite de Gaulle's attempts in London to dissuade them; only the German occupation of all of France in November 1942 ended diplomatic recognition. Partisans of Vichy point out that the grant of governmental powers was voted by the two chambers of the Third Republic (the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies), in conformity with the law. The argument concerning the abrogation of legal procedure is based on the absence and non-voluntary abstention of 176 representatives of the people – the 27 on board the Massilia, and an additional 92 deputies and 57 senators, some of whom were in Vichy, but not present for the vote. In total, the parliament was composed of 846 members, 544 Deputies and 302 Senators. One Senator and 26 Deputies were on the Massilia. One Senator did not vote; 8 Senators and 12 Deputies voluntarily abstained; 57 Senators and 92 Deputies involuntarily abstained. Thus, out of a total of 544 Deputies, only 414 voted; and out of a total of 302 Senators, only 235 voted. Of these, 357 Deputies voted in favor of Pétain and 57 against, while 212 Senators voted for Pétain, and 23 against. Thus, Pétain was approved by 65% of all Deputies and 70% of all Senators. Although Pétain could claim for himself legality – particularly in comparison with the essentially self-appointed leadership of Charles de Gaulle – the dubious circumstances of the vote explain why a majority of French historians do not consider Vichy a complete continuity of the French state.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The text voted by the Congress stated: <blockquote> The National Assembly gives full powers to the government of the Republic, under the authority and the signature of Marshall Pétain, to the effect of promulgating by one or several acts a new constitution of the French state. This constitution must guarantee the rights of labor, of family and of the fatherland. It will be ratified by the nation and applied by the assemblies which it has created.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> </blockquote> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG/250px-Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG" width="250" height="150" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG/375px-Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="250"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> 1943 1 Franc coin. Front: "French State". Back: "Work Family Homeland".</div> </div> </div> The Constitutional Acts of 11 and 12 July 1940<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> granted to Pétain all powers (legislative, judicial, administrative, executive – and diplomatic) and the title of "head of the French state" (chef de l'État français), as well as the right to nominate his successor. On 12 July Pétain designated Laval as Vice-President and his designated successor, and appointed <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_de_Brinon" title="Fernand de Brinon">Fernand de Brinon</a> as representative to the German High Command in Paris. Pétain remained the head of the Vichy regime until 20 August 1944. The French national motto, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_Egalit%C3%A9,_Fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité" class="mw-redirect">Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité</a> (Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood), was replaced by Travail, Famille, Patrie (Work, Family, Fatherland); it was noted at the time that TFP also stood for the criminal punishment of "travaux forcés à perpetuité" ("forced labor in perpetuity").<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Reynaud was arrested in September 1940 by the Vichy government and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1941 before the opening of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riom_Trial" title="Riom Trial">Riom Trial</a>. Pétain was reactionary by nature, his status as a hero of the Third Republic during WW I notwithstanding. Almost as soon as he was granted full powers, Pétain began blaming the Third Republic's democracy and endemic corruption for France's humiliating defeat by Germany. Accordingly, his government soon began taking on authoritarian characteristics. Democratic liberties and guarantees were immediately suspended.<a href="#cite_note-christofferson2006-16">[16]</a> The crime of "felony of opinion" (délit d'opinion) was re-established, effectively repealing <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">freedom of thought</a> and of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_expression" title="Freedom of expression" class="mw-redirect">expression</a>; critics were frequently arrested. Elective bodies were replaced by nominated ones. The "municipalities" and the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_departments" title="French departments" class="mw-redirect">departmental commissions</a> were thus placed under the authority of the administration and of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefectures_of_France" title="Prefectures of France" class="mw-redirect">prefects</a> (nominated by and dependent on the executive power). In January 1941 the National Council (Conseil National), composed of notables from the countryside and the provinces, was instituted under the same conditions. Despite the clear authoritarian cast of Pétain's government, he did not formally institute a one-party state, he maintained the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Tricolor</a> and other symbols of republican France, and unlike many far rightists, he was not an <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Dreyfusard" title="Anti-Dreyfusard" class="mw-redirect">anti-Dreyfusard</a>. <h2>Foreign relations of Vichy France[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Foreign relations of Vichy France">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Vichy_France" title="Foreign relations of Vichy France">Foreign relations of Vichy France</a></div> Vichy France was recognized by most Axis and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">neutral powers</a>, including the USA and the USSR. During the course of the war, Vichy France had to conduct military actions against armed incursions from both Axis and Allied belligerents, an example of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_neutrality" title="Armed neutrality">armed neutrality</a>. The most important such action was the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuttling_of_the_French_fleet_in_Toulon" title="Scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon">scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon</a> on 27 November 1942, preventing its capture by the Axis. <ul> <li>The <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> maintained full diplomatic relations with the Vichy goverment until 30 June 1941. These were broken after Vichy expressed support for <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, the German invasion of the Soviet Union.</li> </ul> <ul> <li>The United States granted Vichy full <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_recognition" title="Diplomatic recognition">diplomatic recognition</a>, sending Admiral <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_D._Leahy" title="William D. Leahy">William D. Leahy</a> to France as American ambassador. President <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> and Secretary of State <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a> hoped to use American influence to encourage those elements in the Vichy government opposed to military collaboration with Germany. The Americans also hoped to encourage Vichy to resist German war demands, such as for air bases in French-mandated Syria or to move war supplies through French territories in North Africa. The essential American position was that France should take no action not explicitly required by the Armistice terms that could adversely affect Allied efforts in the war. The US position towards Vichy France and De Gaulle was especially hesitant and inconsistent. President Roosevelt disliked Charles de Gaulle, whom he regarded as an "apprentice dictator."<a href="#cite_note-Lacroix-21">[21]</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Daniel_Murphy" title="Robert Daniel Murphy">Robert Murphy</a>, Roosevelt's representative in North Africa, started preparing the landing in North Africa from December 1940 (i.e. a year before the US entered the war). The US first tried to support General <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxime_Weygand" title="Maxime Weygand">Maxime Weygand</a>, general delegate of Vichy for Africa until December 1941. This first choice having failed, they turned to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a> shortly before the landing in North Africa on 8 November 1942. Finally, after <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a>'s turn towards the Free Forces – Darlan had been president of Council of Vichy from February 1941 to April 1942 – they played him against de Gaulle. US General <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_W._Clark" title="Mark W. Clark">Mark W. Clark</a> of the combined Allied command made Admiral Darlan sign on 22 November 1942 a treaty putting "North Africa at the disposition of the Americans" and making France "a vassal country."<a href="#cite_note-Lacroix-21">[21]</a> Washington then imagined, between 1941 and 1942, a protectorate status for France, which would be submitted after the Liberation to an <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Military_Government_of_Occupied_Territories" title="Allied Military Government of Occupied Territories" class="mw-redirect">Allied Military Government of Occupied Territories</a> (AMGOT) like Germany. After the assassination of Darlan on 24 December 1942, Washington turned again towards Henri Giraud, to whom had rallied <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Couve_de_Murville" title="Maurice Couve de Murville">Maurice Couve de Murville</a>, who had financial responsibilities in Vichy, and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lemaigre-Dubreuil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lemaigre-Dubreuil (page does not exist)">Lemaigre-Dubreuil</a>, a former member of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Cagoule" title="La Cagoule">La Cagoule</a> and entrepreneur, as well as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfred_Pose&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfred Pose (page does not exist)">Alfred Pose</a>, general director of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banque_nationale_pour_le_commerce_et_l%27industrie" title="Banque nationale pour le commerce et l'industrie">Banque nationale pour le commerce et l'industrie</a> (National Bank for Trade and Industry).<a href="#cite_note-Lacroix-21">[21]</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li>Due to British requests and the sensitivities of its French Canadian population, Canada maintained full diplomatic relations with the Vichy Regime until the beginning of November 1942 and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a> – the complete occupation of Vichy France by the Nazis.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li>The United Kingdom, shortly after the Armistice (22 June 1940), attacked a large French naval contingent in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_the_French_Fleet_at_Mers-el-Kebir" title="Destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir" class="mw-redirect">Mers-el-Kebir</a>, killing 1,297 French military personnel. Vichy severed diplomatic relations. Britain feared that the French naval fleet could wind up in German hands and be used against its own naval forces, which were so vital to maintaining north Atlantic shipping and communications. Under the armistice, France had been allowed to retain the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a>, the Marine Nationale, under strict conditions. Vichy pledged that the fleet would never fall into the hands of Germany, but refused to send the fleet beyond Germany's reach by sending it to Britain or to far away territories of the French empire such as the West Indies. This did not satisfy Winston Churchill, who ordered French ships in British ports to be seized by the Royal Navy. The French squadron at <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, under Admiral <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9-Emile_Godfroy" title="René-Emile Godfroy" class="mw-redirect">René-Emile Godfroy</a>, was effectively interned until 1943 after an agreement was reached with Admiral <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Browne_Cunningham" title="Andrew Browne Cunningham" class="mw-redirect">Andrew Browne Cunningham</a>, commander of the Mediterranean Fleet.</li> </ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon,_France.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg/220px-Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg" width="220" height="159" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg/330px-Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg/440px-Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1178"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon,_France.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Memorial to the 1,297 French seamen who died during the British bombardment of their ships at Mers El Kebir.</div> </div> </div> Relations between the United Kingdom and the Vichy government were difficult. The Vichy government broke off diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 5 July 1940, after the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> attacked the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Mers-el-Kebir" title="Attack on Mers-el-Kebir" class="mw-redirect">French fleet in port at Mers-el-Kebir</a>, Algeria in order to deny the possibility of their use by Germany. The destruction of the fleet followed a standoff during which the British insisted that the French either scuttle their vessels, sail to a neutral port or join them in the war against Germany. These options were refused and the fleet was attacked. This move by Britain hardened relations between the two former allies and caused more of the French population to side with Vichy against the British-supported Free French.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> However, there were still French naval ships under Vichy French control. A large squadron was in port at <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir" title="Mers El Kébir">Mers El Kébir</a> harbour near <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a>. Vice Admiral Somerville, with <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_H" title="Force H">Force H</a> under his command, was instructed to deal with the situation in July 1940. Various terms were offered to the French squadron, but all were rejected. Consequently, Force H <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_the_French_Fleet_at_Mers-el-Kebir" title="Destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir" class="mw-redirect">opened fire on the French ships</a>. Nearly 1,000 French sailors died when the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_battleship_Bretagne" title="French battleship Bretagne">Bretagne</a> blew up in the attack. Less than two weeks after the armistice, Britain had fired upon forces of its former ally. The result was shock and resentment towards the UK within the French Navy, and to a lesser extent in the general French public. After Mers el Kebir, the United Kingdom recognized <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> as the legitimate government of France. <h3>Japanese invasion of French Indochina and Franco-Thai War[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Japanese invasion of French Indochina and Franco-Thai War">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg/220px-Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg" width="220" height="157" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg/330px-Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg/440px-Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2709" data-file-height="1932"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Japanese troops entering <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saigon" title="Saigon" class="mw-redirect">Saigon</a> in 1941.</div> </div> </div> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Invasion of French Indochina" class="mw-redirect">Invasion of French Indochina</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French-Thai_War" title="French-Thai War" class="mw-redirect">French-Thai War</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_coup_de_main_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup de main in French Indochina" class="mw-redirect">Japanese coup de main in French Indochina</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina in World War II</a></div> In June 1940 the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_France" title="Fall of France" class="mw-redirect">Fall of France</a> made the French hold on Indochina tenuous. The isolated colonial administration was cut off from outside help and outside supplies. After negotiations with Japan the French allowed the Japanese to set up military bases in Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> This seemingly subservient behavior convinced the regime of Major-General <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaek_Pibulsonggram" title="Plaek Pibulsonggram" class="mw-redirect">Plaek Pibulsonggram</a>, the Prime Minister of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Thailand" title="Kingdom of Thailand" class="mw-redirect">Kingdom of Thailand</a>, that Vichy France would not seriously resist a confrontation with Thailand. In October 1940, the military forces of Thailand attacked across the border with <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina" title="Indochina" class="mw-redirect">Indochina</a> and launched the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War</a>. Though the French won an important <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Koh_Chang" title="Battle of Koh Chang" class="mw-redirect">naval victory</a> over the Thais, the Japanese forced the French to accept their mediation of a peace treaty that returned parts of Cambodia and Laos that had been taken from Thailand around the start of the 20th century to Thai control. The French were left in place to administer the rump colony until 9 March 1945, when the Japanese staged a <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_French_Indochina_Campaign" title="Second French Indochina Campaign" class="mw-redirect">coup d'état in French Indochina</a> and took control of Indochina establishing their own colony, the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Empire of Vietnam</a>, as a double <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a>. <h3>Colonial struggle with Free France[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Colonial struggle with Free France">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></div> To counter the Vichy regime, General Charles de Gaulle created the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces" title="Free French Forces" class="mw-redirect">Free French Forces</a> (FFL) after his <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_of_18_June" title="Appeal of 18 June">Appeal of 18 June</a> 1940 radio speech. Initially, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> was ambivalent about de Gaulle and he dropped ties with Vichy only when it became clear they would not fight. <h4>India and Oceania[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: India and Oceania">edit</a>]</h4> Until 1962, France possessed four small non-contiguous but politically united colonies across India, the largest being located in Southeast India, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puducherry" title="Puducherry">Pondicherry</a>. Immediately after the fall of France, the Governor General of French India, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Alexis_%C3%89tienne_Bonvin" title="Louis Alexis Étienne Bonvin">Louis Alexis Étienne Bonvin</a>, declared the French colonies in India would continue to fight with its British allies. Free French forces participated in the Western Desert campaign, although news of the death of French-Indian soldiers caused some disturbances in Pondicherry.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The French possessions in Oceania joined the Free French side in 1940, or in one case in 1942. They then served as bases for the Allied effort in the Pacific and contributed troops to the Free French Forces.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Following the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_of_18_June" title="Appeal of 18 June">Appeal of 18 June</a>, debate arose among the population of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a>. A <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Polynesian_referendum,_1940" title="French Polynesian referendum, 1940">referendum</a> was organized on 2 September 1940 in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorea" title="Moorea" class="mw-redirect">Moorea</a>, with outlying islands reporting agreement in following days. The vote was 5564 to 18 in favor of joining the Free French side.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Following the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a>, American forces identified French Polynesia as an ideal refuelling point between <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" title="Hawaiian Islands">Hawaii</a> and Australia and, with <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a>'s agreement, organized "Operation Bobcat" sending nine ships with 5,000 GIs who built a naval refuelling base and airstrip and set up coastal defense guns on <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bora_Bora" title="Bora Bora">Bora Bora</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> This first experience was valuable in later <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabee_(US_Navy)" title="Seabee (US Navy)" class="mw-redirect">Seabee</a> efforts in the Pacific, and the Bora Bora base <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabees_in_World_War_II#The_Pacific_theater" title="Seabees in World War II">supplied the Allied ships and planes</a> that fought the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Battle of the Coral Sea</a>. Troops from French Polynesia and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> formed a Bataillon du Pacifique in 1940; became part of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Free_French_Division" title="1st Free French Division">1st Free French Division</a> in 1942, distinguishing themselves during the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bir_Hakeim" title="Battle of Bir Hakeim">Battle of Bir Hakeim</a> and subsequently combining with another unit to form the Bataillon d'infanterie de marine et du Pacifique; fought in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a>, distinguishing itself at the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garigliano" title="Garigliano">Garigliano</a> during the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Battle of Monte Cassino</a> and on to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Tuscany</a>; and participated in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provence_landings" title="Provence landings" class="mw-redirect">Provence landings</a> and onwards to the liberation of France.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> In <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> Henri Sautot again led prompt allegiance to the Free French side, effective 19 September 1940.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Due to its location on the edge of the Coral Sea and on the flank of Australia, New Caledonia became strategically critical in the effort to combat the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_expansion_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Japanese expansion (1941–1942)" class="mw-redirect">Japanese advance in the Pacific in 1941–1942</a> and to protect the sea lanes between North America and Australia. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noum%C3%A9a" title="Nouméa">Nouméa</a> served as a headquarters of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> and Army in the South Pacific,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> and as a repair base for Allied vessels. New Caledonia contributed personnel both to the Bataillon du Pacifique and to the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Naval_Forces" title="Free French Naval Forces">Free French Naval Forces</a> that saw action in the Pacific and Indian Ocean. In the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a> (now <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a>), then a French-British <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condominium_(international_law)" title="Condominium (international law)">condominium</a>, Resident Commissioner Henri Sautot quickly led the French community to join the Free French side. The outcome was decided by a combination of patriotism and economic opportunism in the expectation independence would result.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallis_and_Futuna" title="Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a> the local administrator and bishop sided with Vichy, but faced opposition from some of the population and clergy; their attempts at naming a local king in 1941 (to buffer the territory from their opponents) backfired as the newly elected king refused to declare allegiance to Pétain. The situation stagnated for a long while, due to the great remoteness of the islands and the fact that no overseas ship visited the islands for 17 months after January 1941. An <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviso" title="Aviso">aviso</a> sent from <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noum%C3%A9a" title="Nouméa">Nouméa</a> took over Wallis on behalf of the Free French on 27 May 1942, and Futuna on 29 May 1942. This allowed American forces to build an airbase and seaplane base on Wallis (Navy 207) that served the Allied Pacific operations.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <h4>Equatorial and West Africa[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Equatorial and West Africa">edit</a>]</h4> In Central Africa, three of the four colonies in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a> went over to the Free French almost immediately, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a> on 26 August 1940, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">French Congo</a> on 29 August 1940, and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubangi-Shari" title="Ubangi-Shari">Ubangi-Shari</a> on 30 August 1940. They were joined by the separate colony of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> on 27 August 1940. The final colony in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>, had to be occupied by military force between 27 October and 12 November 1940.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In time, the majority of the colonies tended to switch to the Allied side peacefully in response to persuasion and to changing events. This did not, however, happen overnight: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>, as well as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> on the northern coast of South America, did not join the Free French until 1943. Meanwhile, France's Arab colonies (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Syria</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_French-era_Tunisia" title="History of French-era Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Morocco" title="French protectorate of Morocco" class="mw-redirect">Morocco</a>) generally remained under Vichy control until captured by Allied forces. This was chiefly because their proximity to Europe made them easier to maintain without Allied interference; this same proximity also gave them strategic importance for the European theater of the war. Conversely, more remote French possessions sided with the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces" title="Free French Forces" class="mw-redirect">Free French Forces</a> early, whether upon Free French action such as in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a> (despite U.S. wishes to the contrary) or spontaneously such as in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a>. On 23 September 1940, the British Royal Navy and Free French forces under General De Gaulle launched Operation Menace, an attempt to seize the strategic, Vichy-held port of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakar" title="Dakar">Dakar</a> in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a> (modern <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>). After attempts to encourage them to join the allies were rebuffed by the defenders, a sharp fight erupted between Vichy and Allied forces. HMS Resolution was heavily damaged by torpedoes, and Free French troops landing at a beach south of the port were driven off by heavy fire. Even worse from a strategic point of view, bombers of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_French_Air_Force" title="Vichy French Air Force">Vichy French Air Force</a> (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_de_l%27Air_de_Vichy" title="Armée de l'Air de Vichy" class="mw-redirect">Armée de l'Air de Vichy</a>) based in North Africa began bombing the British base at <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Gibraltar</a> in response to the attack on Dakar. Shaken by the resolute Vichy defense, and not wanting to further escalate the conflict, British and Free French forces withdrew on 25 September, bringing the battle to an end. On 8 November 1940, Free French forces under the command of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Koenig" title="Pierre Koenig">Pierre Koenig</a>, along with the assistance of the British Royal Navy, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gabon" title="Battle of Gabon">invaded Vichy held Gabon</a>. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>, which was the only territory of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a> that was unwilling to join the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces" title="Free French Forces" class="mw-redirect">Free French Forces</a>, fell into allied hands on 12 November 1940, after the capital <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libreville" title="Libreville">Libreville</a> was bombed and captured. The final Vichy troops in Gabon surrendered without any military confrontation with the allies at <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port-Gentil" title="Port-Gentil">Port-Gentil</a>. The capture of Gabon by the Allies was crucial for ensuring that the entire <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a> was out of Axis reach. <h4>French Somaliland[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: French Somaliland">edit</a>]</h4> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Somaliland_in_World_War_II" title="French Somaliland in World War II">French Somaliland in World War II</a></div> During the Italian invasion and occupation of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> in the mid-1930s and during the early stages of World War II, constant border skirmishes occurred between the forces in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Somaliland" title="French Somaliland">French Somaliland</a> and the forces in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a>. After the Fall of France in 1940, French Somaliland declared loyalty to Vichy France. The colony remained loyal to Vichy France during the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">East African Campaign</a> but stayed out of that conflict. This lasted until December 1942. By that time, the Italians had been defeated and the French colony was isolated by a British blockade. Free French and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> forces recaptured the colony's capital of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> at the end of 1942. A local battalion from Djibouti participated in the liberation of France in 1944.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <h4>Syria and Madagascar[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Syria and Madagascar">edit</a>]</h4> The next flashpoint between Britain and Vichy France came when a revolt in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> was put down by British forces in June 1941. German Air Force (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a>) and Italian Air Force (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regia_Aeronautica" title="Regia Aeronautica">Regia Aeronautica</a>) aircraft, staging through the French possession of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, intervened in the fighting in small numbers. That highlighted Syria as a threat to British interests in the Middle East. Consequently, on 8 June, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Armed Forces of the United Kingdom" class="mw-redirect">British</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> forces invaded Syria and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. This was known as the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria-Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria-Lebanon campaign" class="mw-redirect">Syria-Lebanon campaign</a> or Operation Exporter. The Syrian capital, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, was captured on 17 June and the five-week campaign ended with the fall of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a> and the Convention of Acre (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_Saint_Jean_d%27Acre" title="Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre">Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre</a>) on 14 July 1941. The additional participation of Free French forces in the Syrian operation was controversial within Allied circles. It raised the prospect of Frenchmen shooting at Frenchmen, raising fears of a civil war. Additionally, it was believed that the Free French were widely reviled within Vichy military circles, and that Vichy forces in Syria were less likely to resist the British if they were not accompanied by elements of the Free French. Nevertheless, de Gaulle convinced Churchill to allow his forces to participate, although de Gaulle was forced to agree to a joint British and Free French proclamation promising that Syria and Lebanon would become fully independent at the end of the war. From 5 May to 6 November 1942 British and Commonwealth forces conducted Operation Ironclad, known as the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a> the seizure of the large, Vichy French-controlled island of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, which the British feared Japanese forces might use as a base to disrupt trade and communications in the Indian Ocean. The initial landing at <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antsiranana" title="Antsiranana">Diégo-Suarez</a> was relatively quick, though it took British forces a further six months to gain control of the entire island. <h4>French North Africa[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: French North Africa">edit</a>]</h4> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="French Committee of National Liberation">French Committee of National Liberation</a></div> Operation Torch was the American and British invasion of French North Africa, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, Algeria, and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, started on 8 November 1942, with landings in Morocco and Algeria. The long-term goal was to clear Germany and Italy from North Africa, enhance naval control of the Mediterranean, and prepare an invasion of Italy in 1943. The Vichy forces initially resisted, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">killing 479 Allied forces and wounding 720</a>. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">Vichy Admiral Darlan</a> initiated cooperation with the Allies. The Allies recognized Darlan's self-nomination as High Commissioner of France (head of civil government) for North and West Africa. He ordered Vichy forces there to cease resisting and cooperate with the Allies, and they did so. By the time the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia_Campaign" title="Tunisia Campaign">Tunisia Campaign</a> was fought, the French forces in North Africa had gone over to the Allied side, joining the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces" title="Free French Forces" class="mw-redirect">Free French Forces</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Degaulle-freefrench.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Degaulle-freefrench.png/220px-Degaulle-freefrench.png" width="220" height="176" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Degaulle-freefrench.png/330px-Degaulle-freefrench.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Degaulle-freefrench.png/440px-Degaulle-freefrench.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="576"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Degaulle-freefrench.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a> and de Gaulle during the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca_Conference_(1943)" title="Casablanca Conference (1943)" class="mw-redirect">Casablanca Conference</a> in January 1943.</div> </div> </div> In North Africa, after 8 November 1942 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putsch" title="Putsch" class="mw-redirect">putsch</a> by the French resistance, most Vichy figures were arrested (including General <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_Juin" title="Alphonse Juin">Alphonse Juin</a>, chief commander in North Africa, and Admiral <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a>). However, Darlan was released and U.S. General <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> finally accepted his self-nomination as high commissioner of North Africa and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a> (Afrique occidentale française, AOF), a move that enraged de Gaulle, who refused to recognize Darlan's status. After Darlan signed an armistice with the Allies and took power in North Africa, Germany violated the 1940 armistice and invaded Vichy France on 10 November 1942 (operation code-named <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a>), triggering the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuttling_of_the_French_fleet_in_Toulon" title="Scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon">scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon</a>. Giraud arrived in Algiers on 10 November, and agreed to subordinate himself to Admiral Darlan as the French African army commander. Even though he was now in the Allied camp, Darlan maintained the repressive Vichy system in North Africa, including <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_camps_in_France" title="Concentration camps in France">concentration camps</a> in southern Algeria and racist laws. Detainees were also forced to work on the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transsaharien&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transsaharien (page does not exist)">Transsaharien</a> railroad. Jewish goods were "aryanized" (i.e., stolen), and a special Jewish Affair service was created, directed by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Gazagne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Gazagne (page does not exist)">Pierre Gazagne</a>. Numerous Jewish children were prohibited from going to school, something which not even Vichy had implemented in metropolitan France.<a href="#cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-38">[38]</a> The admiral was killed on 24 December 1942, in Algiers by the young monarchist <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnier_de_La_Chapelle" title="Bonnier de La Chapelle" class="mw-redirect">Bonnier de La Chapelle</a>. Although de la Chapelle had been a member of the resistance group led by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_d%27Astier_de_La_Vigerie" title="Henri d'Astier de La Vigerie" class="mw-redirect">Henri d'Astier de La Vigerie</a>, it is believed he was acting as an individual. After Admiral Darlan's assassination, Giraud became his de facto successor in French Africa with Allied support. This occurred through a series of consultations between Giraud and de Gaulle. The latter wanted to pursue a political position in France and agreed to have Giraud as commander in chief, as the more qualified military person of the two. It is questionable that he ordered that many French resistance leaders who had helped Eisenhower's troops be arrested, without any protest by Roosevelt's representative, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Daniel_Murphy" title="Robert Daniel Murphy">Robert Murphy</a>. Later, the Americans sent <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Monnet" title="Jean Monnet">Jean Monnet</a> to counsel Giraud and to press him into repeal the Vichy laws. After difficult negotiations, Giraud agreed to suppress the racist laws, and to liberate Vichy prisoners of the South Algerian concentration camps. The <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cremieux_decree" title="Cremieux decree" class="mw-redirect">Cremieux decree</a>, which granted French citizenship to Jews in Algeria and which had been repealed by Vichy, was immediately restored by General de Gaulle. Giraud took part in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca_Conference_(1943)" title="Casablanca Conference (1943)" class="mw-redirect">Casablanca conference</a>, with Roosevelt, Churchill and de Gaulle, in January 1943. The Allies discussed their general strategy for the war, and recognized joint leadership of North Africa by Giraud and de Gaulle. Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle then became co-presidents of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="French Committee of National Liberation">Comité français de la Libération Nationale</a>, which unified the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces" title="Free French Forces" class="mw-redirect">Free French Forces</a> and territories controlled by them and had been founded at the end of 1943. Democratic rule was restored in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_rule_in_Algeria" title="French rule in Algeria" class="mw-redirect">French Algeria</a>, and the Communists and Jews liberated from the concentration camps.<a href="#cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-38">[38]</a> At the end of April 1945 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Gazagne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Gazagne (page does not exist)">Pierre Gazagne</a>, secretary of the general government headed by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yves_Chataigneau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yves Chataigneau (page does not exist)">Yves Chataigneau</a>, took advantage of his absence to exile anti-imperialist leader <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messali_Hadj" title="Messali Hadj">Messali Hadj</a> and arrest the leaders of his party, the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_People%27s_Party" title="Algerian People's Party">Algerian People's Party</a> (PPA).<a href="#cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-38">[38]</a> On the day of the Liberation of France, the GPRF would harshly repress a rebellion in Algeria during the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_massacre" title="Sétif massacre" class="mw-redirect">Sétif massacre</a> of 8 May 1945, which has been qualified by some historians as the "real beginning of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a>".<a href="#cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-38">[38]</a> <h2>State collaboration with Germany[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: State collaboration with Germany">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37,_Marseille,_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="535"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37,_Marseille,_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> 23 January 1943: German-Vichy French meeting in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseilles" title="Marseilles" class="mw-redirect">Marseilles</a>. SS-Sturmbannführer <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bernhard_Griese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bernhard Griese (page does not exist)">Bernhard Griese</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcel_Lemoine_(pr%C3%A9fet)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marcel Lemoine (préfet) (page does not exist)">Marcel Lemoine</a> (regional <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9fet" title="Préfet" class="mw-redirect">préfet</a>), <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rolf_M%C3%BChler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rolf Mühler (page does not exist)">Rolf Mühler</a> (<a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolf_M%C3%BChler" class="extiw" title="de:Rolf Mühler">de</a>), (Commander of Marseilles <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicherheitspolizei" title="Sicherheitspolizei">Sicherheitspolizei</a>), -laughing- <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Bousquet" title="René Bousquet">René Bousquet</a> (General Secretary of the French National Police created in 1941) creator of the GMRs, -behind- <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Darquier_de_Pellepoix" title="Louis Darquier de Pellepoix">Louis Darquier de Pellepoix</a> (Commissioner for Jewish Affairs).</div> </div> </div> Historians distinguish between state collaboration followed by the Vichy regime, and "collaborationists", private French citizens eager to collaborate with Germany and who pushed towards a radicalization of the regime. "Pétainistes", on the other hand, refers to direct supporters of Marshal Pétain rather than Germany (although accepting Pétain's state collaboration). State collaboration was illustrated by the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montoire" title="Montoire" class="mw-redirect">Montoire</a> (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loir-et-Cher" title="Loir-et-Cher">Loir-et-Cher</a>) interview in Hitler's train on 24 October 1940, during which Pétain and Hitler shook hands and agreed on this cooperation between the two states. Organized by Laval, a strong proponent of collaboration, the interview and the handshake were photographed and exploited by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_propaganda" title="Nazi propaganda">Nazi propaganda</a> to gain support from the civilian population. On 30 October 1940, Pétain officialized state collaboration, declaring on the radio: "I enter today on the path of collaboration...."<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> On 22 June 1942 Laval declared that he was "hoping for the victory of Germany." The sincere desire to collaborate did not stop the Vichy government from organising the arrest and even sometimes the execution of German spies entering the Vichy zone, as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kitson" title="Simon Kitson">Simon Kitson</a>'s recent research has demonstrated.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The composition and policies of the Vichy cabinet were mixed. Many Vichy officials, such as Pétain, were <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionaries</a> who felt that France's unfortunate fate was a result of its republican character and the actions of its left-wing governments of the 1930s, in particular of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)" title="Popular Front (France)">Popular Front</a> (1936–1938) led by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Blum" title="Léon Blum">Léon Blum</a>. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Charles Maurras</a>, a monarchist writer and founder of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Action Française">Action Française</a> movement, judged that Pétain's accession to power was, in that respect, a "divine surprise", and many people of his persuasion believed it preferable to have an authoritarian government similar to that of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>'s Spain, even if under Germany's yoke, than to have a republican government. Others, like <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a>, were strong <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Semitism" title="Anti-Semitism" class="mw-redirect">anti-Semites</a> and overt <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> sympathizers. A number of these joined the units of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_des_Volontaires_Fran%C3%A7ais_contre_le_Bolch%C3%A9visme" title="Légion des Volontaires Français contre le Bolchévisme" class="mw-redirect">Légion des Volontaires Français contre le Bolchévisme</a> (Legion of French Volunteers Against <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik" title="Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect">Bolshevism</a>) fighting on the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>, later becoming the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/33rd_Waffen_Grenadier_Division_of_the_SS_Charlemagne_(1st_French)" title="33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French)">SS Charlemagne Division</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> On the other hand, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocracy_(bureaucratic)" title="Technocracy (bureaucratic)" class="mw-redirect">technocrats</a> such as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bichelonne" title="Jean Bichelonne">Jean Bichelonne</a> or engineers from the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupe_X-Crise" title="Groupe X-Crise">Groupe X-Crise</a> used their position to push various state, administrative and economic reforms. These reforms would be one of the strongest elements arguing in favor of the thesis of a continuity of the French administration before and after the war. Many of these civil servants and the reforms they advocated were retained after the war. Just as the necessities of a <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">war economy</a> during the First World War had pushed forward state measures to reorganize the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_France" title="Economy of France">economy of France</a> against the prevailing <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberal</a> theories – structures retained after the 1919 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> – reforms adopted during World War II were kept and extended. Along with 15 March 1944 Charter of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conseil_National_de_la_R%C3%A9sistance" title="Conseil National de la Résistance" class="mw-redirect">Conseil National de la Résistance</a> (CNR), which gathered all Resistance movements under one unified political body, these reforms were a primary instrument in the establishment of post-war <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">dirigisme</a>, a kind of semi-planned economy which led to France becoming the modern <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a> it is now. Examples of such continuities include the creation of the "French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems" by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a>, a renowned physician who also supported <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a>. This institution would be renamed <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_national_d%27%C3%A9tudes_d%C3%A9mographiques" title="Institut national d'études démographiques">National Institute of Demographic Studies</a> (INED) after the war, and exists to this day. Another example is the creation of the national statistics institute, renamed <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INSEE" title="INSEE" class="mw-redirect">INSEE</a> after the Liberation. The reorganization and unification of the French police by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Bousquet" title="René Bousquet">René Bousquet</a>, who created the groupes mobiles de réserve (GMR, Reserve Mobile Groups), is another example of Vichy policy reform and restructuring maintained by subsequent governments. A national paramilitary police force, the GMR was occasionally used in actions against the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a>, but its main purpose was to enforce Vichy authority through intimidation and repression of the civilian population. After Liberation, some of its units would be merged with the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces" title="Free French Forces" class="mw-redirect">Free French Army</a> to form the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compagnies_R%C3%A9publicaines_de_S%C3%A9curit%C3%A9" title="Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité">Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité</a> (CRS, Republican Security Companies), France's main anti-riot force. <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DrancyConcentrationCamp.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/DrancyConcentrationCamp.jpg/220px-DrancyConcentrationCamp.jpg" width="220" height="160" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/DrancyConcentrationCamp.jpg/330px-DrancyConcentrationCamp.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/DrancyConcentrationCamp.jpg/440px-DrancyConcentrationCamp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="755" data-file-height="550"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DrancyConcentrationCamp.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Created in 1941, the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy internment camp</a>, on the outskirts of Paris, was under control of the French police until 3 July 1943. The Nazis then took day-to-day control as part of the major stepping up at all facilities for the mass exterminations. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">SS</a>-<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauptsturmf%C3%BChrer" title="Hauptsturmführer">Hauptsturmführer</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Brunner" title="Alois Brunner">Alois Brunner</a> (born 1912) directed it until August 1944. He was condemned in absentia in France in 2001 on charges of crimes against humanity.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian-42">[42]</a></div> </div> </div> <h3>Vichy's racial policies and collaboration[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Vichy's racial policies and collaboration">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_nationale" title="Révolution nationale">Révolution nationale</a></div> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238,_Frankreich,_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg" width="220" height="157" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="572"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238,_Frankreich,_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> French Police registering new inmates at the Pithiviers camp.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36,_Frankreich,_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg" width="220" height="307" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="800"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36,_Frankreich,_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> French <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milice" title="Milice">Milice</a> guarding detainees.</div> </div> </div> Germany interfered little in internal French affairs for the first two years after the armistice, as long as public order was maintained.<a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-9">[9]</a>:139 As soon as it was established, Pétain's government voluntarily took measures against the undesirables: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">Jews</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metic" title="Metic">métèques</a> (immigrants from Mediterranean countries), <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasons</a>, Communists, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Gypsies</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany_and_the_Holocaust" title="Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust">homosexuals</a>,[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and left-wing activists. Inspired by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Charles Maurras</a>' conception of the "Anti-France" (which he defined as the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners"), Vichy persecuted these supposed enemies. In July 1940, Vichy set up a special Commission charged with reviewing <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalizations</a> granted since the 1927 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_nationality_law" title="French nationality law">reform of the nationality law</a>. Between June 1940 and August 1944, 15,000 persons, mostly Jews, were denaturalized.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> This bureaucratic decision was instrumental in their subsequent internment. The <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internment_camps_in_France" title="Internment camps in France" class="mw-redirect">internment camps already opened</a> by the Third Republic were immediately put to new use, ultimately becoming transit camps for the implementation of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> and the extermination of all "undesirables", including the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani people</a> (who refer to the extermination of Gypsies as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porrajmos" title="Porrajmos" class="mw-redirect">Porrajmos</a>). A law of 4 October 1940 authorized internments of foreign <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew" title="Jew" class="mw-redirect">Jews</a> on the sole basis of a <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_prefectures" title="French prefectures" class="mw-redirect">prefectoral order</a>,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> and the first raids took place in May 1941. Vichy imposed no restrictions on <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_people_in_France" title="Black people in France" class="mw-redirect">black people</a> in the Unoccupied Zone; the regime even had a mulatto cabinet minister, the Martinique-born lawyer <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Lemery" title="Henry Lemery" class="mw-redirect">Henry Lemery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The Third Republic had first opened concentration camps during World War I for the internment of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemy_alien" title="Enemy alien">enemy aliens</a>, and later used them for other purposes. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Gurs" title="Camp Gurs" class="mw-redirect">Camp Gurs</a>, for example, had been set up in southwestern France after the fall of Spanish <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, in the first months of 1939, during the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> (1936–1939), to receive the Republican refugees, including <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Brigades" title="International Brigades">Brigadists</a> from all nations, fleeing the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francist" title="Francist" class="mw-redirect">Francists</a>. After <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Daladier" title="Édouard Daladier">Édouard Daladier</a>'s government (April 1938 – March 1940) took the decision to outlaw the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a> (PCF) following the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molotov-Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact" class="mw-redirect">German-Soviet non-aggression pact</a> (aka Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) signed in August 1939, these camps were also used to intern French communists. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy internment camp</a> was founded in 1939 for this use; it later became the central transit camp through which all deportees passed on their way to concentration and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a> in the Third Reich and in Eastern Europe. When the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a> started with France's declaration of war against Germany on 3 September 1939, these camps were used to intern enemy aliens. These included German Jews and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-fascist" title="Anti-fascist" class="mw-redirect">anti-fascists</a>, but any German citizen (or Italian, Austrian, Polish, etc.) could also be interned in Camp Gurs and others. As the Wehrmacht advanced into Northern France, common prisoners evacuated from prisons were also interned in these camps. Camp Gurs received its first contingent of political prisoners in June 1940. It included left-wing activists (communists, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism_in_France" title="Anarchism in France">anarchists</a>, trade-unionists, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-militarist" title="Anti-militarist" class="mw-redirect">anti-militarists</a>, etc.) and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacifist" title="Pacifist" class="mw-redirect">pacifists</a>, but also <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fascism" title="French Fascism" class="mw-redirect">French fascists</a> who supported the victory of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" title="Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)" class="mw-redirect">Italy</a> and Germany. Finally, after Pétain's proclamation of the "French state" and the beginning of the implementation of the "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_nationale" title="Révolution nationale">Révolution nationale</a>" ("National Revolution"), the French administration opened up many concentration camps, to the point that, as historian Maurice Rajsfus wrote: "The quick opening of new camps created employment, and the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a> never ceased to hire during this period."<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Besides the political prisoners already detained there, Gurs was then used to intern foreign Jews, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateless_person" title="Stateless person" class="mw-redirect">stateless persons</a>, Gypsies, homosexuals, and prostitutes. Vichy opened its first internment camp in the northern zone on 5 October 1940, in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aincourt" title="Aincourt">Aincourt</a>, in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seine-et-Oise" title="Seine-et-Oise">Seine-et-Oise</a> department, which it quickly filled with PCF members.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Saltworks_at_Arc-et-Senans" title="Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans">Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans</a>, in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubs_(department)" title="Doubs (department)" class="mw-redirect">Doubs</a>, was used to intern Gypsies.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_des_Milles" title="Camp des Milles">Camp des Milles</a>, near <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aix-en-Provence" title="Aix-en-Provence">Aix-en-Provence</a>, was the largest internment camp in the Southeast of France; 2,500 Jews were deported from there following the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=August_1942_raids&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="August 1942 raids (page does not exist)">August 1942 raids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Exiled Republican, antifascist Spaniards who had sought refuge in France after the recent <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">victory in Spain</a> of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a>'s nationalist side, were then deported, and 5,000 of them died in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauthausen_concentration_camp" title="Mauthausen concentration camp" class="mw-redirect">Mauthausen concentration camp</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cite-50">[50]</a> In contrast, the French colonial soldiers were interned by the Germans on French territory instead of being deported.<a href="#cite_note-Cite-50">[50]</a> Besides the concentration camps opened by Vichy, the Germans also opened some <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilag" title="Ilag">Ilags</a> (Internierungslager), for the detainment of enemy aliens, on French territory; in Alsace, which was under the direct administration of the Reich, they opened the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natzweiler" title="Natzweiler" class="mw-redirect">Natzweiler camp</a>, which was the only concentration camp created by the Nazis on French territory. Natzweiler included a <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">gas chamber</a> which was used to exterminate at least 86 detainees (mostly Jewish) with the aim of obtaining a collection of undamaged skeletons (as this mode of execution did no damage to the skeletons themselves) for the use of Nazi professor <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Hirt" title="August Hirt">August Hirt</a>. The Vichy government enacted a number of racial laws. In August 1940, laws against antisemitism in the media (the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marchandeau_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marchandeau Act (page does not exist)">Marchandeau Act</a>) were repealed, while the decree n°1775 of September 5, 1943, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denaturalization" title="Denaturalization" class="mw-redirect">denaturalized</a> a number of French citizens, in particular Jews from Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Cite-50">[50]</a> Foreigners were rounded-up in "Foreign Workers Groups" (groupements de travailleurs étrangers) and, as with the colonial troops, used by the Germans as manpower.<a href="#cite_note-Cite-50">[50]</a> The <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_on_Jews" title="Statute on Jews" class="mw-redirect">Statute on Jews</a> excluded them from the civil administration. Vichy also enacted racial laws in its French territories in North Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). "The history of the Holocaust in France's three North African colonies (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia) is intrinsically tied to France's fate during this period."<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> With regard to economic contribution to the German economy it is estimated that France provided 42% of the total foreign aid.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <h4>Eugenics policies[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Eugenics policies">edit</a>]</h4> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width:52px"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" width="50" height="39" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="262" data-file-height="204"/></a></div> </td> <td class="mbox-text">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2012)</td> </tr> </table> In 1941, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize</a> winner <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a>, an early proponent of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">euthanasia</a>, and a member of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Doriot" title="Jacques Doriot">Jacques Doriot</a>'s <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Popular_Party" title="French Popular Party">French Popular Party</a> (PPF),[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] advocated for the creation of the Fondation Française pour l'Étude des Problèmes Humains (French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems), using connections to the Pétain cabinet. Charged with the "study, in all of its aspects, of measures aimed at safeguarding, improving and developing the French population in all of its activities", the Foundation was created by decree of the collaborationist Vichy regime in 1941, and Carrel appointed as 'regent'.<a href="#cite_note-Reggiani-57">[57]</a> The Foundation also had for some time as general secretary <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Perroux" title="François Perroux">François Perroux</a>.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Foundation was behind the 16 December 1942 Act mandating the "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prenuptial_certificate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prenuptial certificate (page does not exist)">prenuptial certificate</a>", which required all couples seeking marriage to submit to a biological examination, to ensure the "good health" of the spouses, in particular with regard to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_disease" title="Sexually transmitted disease" class="mw-redirect">sexually transmitted diseases</a> (STD) and "life hygiene".[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Carrel's institute also conceived the "scholar booklet" ("livret scolaire"), which could be used to record students' grades in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">French secondary schools</a>, and thus classify and select them according to scholastic performance.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Besides these eugenic activities aimed at classifying the population and improving its health, the Foundation also supported an 11 October 1946 law instituting <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">occupational medicine</a>, enacted by the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> (GPRF) after the Liberation.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Foundation initiated studies on demographics (Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois), nutrition (Jean Sutter), and housing (Jean Merlet), as well as the first polls (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Stoetzel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Stoetzel (page does not exist)">Jean Stoetzel</a>). The foundation, which after the war became the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INED" title="INED" class="mw-redirect">INED</a> demographics institute, employed 300 researchers from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] of 1944.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> "The foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs, roughly one franc per inhabitant: a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation's resources. By way of comparison, the whole <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_National_de_la_Recherche_Scientifique" title="Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique" class="mw-redirect">Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique</a> (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs."<a href="#cite_note-Reggiani-57">[57]</a> Alexis Carrel had previously published in 1935 the best-selling book L'Homme, cet inconnu ("Man, This Unknown"). Since the early 1930s, Carrel had advocated the use of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_chambers" title="Gas chambers" class="mw-redirect">gas chambers</a> to rid humanity of its "inferior stock"[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>], endorsing the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> discourse[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. One of the founders of these <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscientifical</a> theories had been <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Arthur de Gobineau</a> in his 1853–1855 essay titled <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Inequality_of_the_Human_Races" title="An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races">An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races</a>.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the 1936 preface to the German edition of his book, Alexis Carrel had added a praise to the eugenics policies of the Third Reich, writing that: <blockquote> (t)he German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> </blockquote> Carrel also wrote in his book that: <blockquote> (t)he conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to ensure order. Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses. A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> </blockquote> Alexis Carrel had also taken an active part to a symposium in Pontigny organized by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Coutrot" title="Jean Coutrot">Jean Coutrot</a>, the "Entretiens de Pontigny".[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Scholars such as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucien_Bonnaf%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lucien Bonnafé (page does not exist)">Lucien Bonnafé</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Patrick_Tort&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patrick Tort (page does not exist)">Patrick Tort</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_Lafont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Max Lafont (page does not exist)">Max Lafont</a> have accused Carrel of responsibility for the execution of thousands of mentally ill or impaired patients under Vichy.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <h4>Statute on Jews[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Statute on Jews">edit</a>]</h4> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07,_Paris,_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg" width="220" height="324" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="800"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07,_Paris,_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Poster above the entrance of an anti-semitic exposition called "The Jew and France".</div> </div> </div> A Nazi ordinance dated 21 September 1940, forced Jews of the "occupied zone" to declare themselves as such at a police station or <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefectures_of_France" title="Prefectures of France" class="mw-redirect">sub-prefectures</a> (sous-préfectures). Under the responsibility of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Tulard" title="André Tulard">André Tulard</a>, head of the Service on Foreign Persons and Jewish Questions at the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefecture_of_Police" title="Prefecture of Police">Prefecture of Police</a> of Paris, a filing system registering Jewish people was created. Tulard had previously created such a filing system under the Third Republic, registering members of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">Communist Party</a> (PCF). In the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seine_(department)" title="Seine (department)">department of the Seine</a>, encompassing Paris and its immediate suburbs, nearly 150,000 persons, unaware of the upcoming danger and assisted by the police, presented themselves at police stations in accordance with the military order. The registered information was then centralized by the French police, who constructed, under the direction of inspector Tulard, a central filing system. According to the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Dannecker" title="Theodor Dannecker">Dannecker report</a>, "this filing system is subdivided into files alphabetically classed, Jewish with French nationality and foreign Jewish having files of different colours, and the files were also classed, according to profession, nationality and street [of residency]"<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a>). These files were then handed over to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Dannecker" title="Theodor Dannecker">Theodor Dannecker</a>, head of the Gestapo in France, under the orders of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Adolf Eichmann</a>, head of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSHA" title="RSHA" class="mw-redirect">RSHA</a> IV-D. They were used by the Gestapo on various raids, among them the August 1941 raid in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_arrondissement_of_Paris" title="11th arrondissement of Paris">11th arrondissement</a> of Paris, which resulted in 3,200 foreign and 1,000 French Jews being interned in various camps, including <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy</a>. On 3 October 1940, the Vichy government voluntarily promulgated the first <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_on_Jews" title="Statute on Jews" class="mw-redirect">Statute on Jews</a>, which created a special <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underclass" title="Underclass">underclass</a> of French Jewish citizens, and enforced, for the first time in France, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The October 1940 Statute excluded Jews from the administration, the armed forces, entertainment, arts, media, and certain professions, such as teaching, law, and medicine. A <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commissariat-General_for_Jewish_Affairs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs (page does not exist)">Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs</a> (CGQJ, Commissariat Général aux Questions Juives) was created on 29 March 1941. It was directed by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Vallat" title="Xavier Vallat">Xavier Vallat</a> until May 1942, and then by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darquier_de_Pellepoix" title="Darquier de Pellepoix" class="mw-redirect">Darquier de Pellepoix</a> until February 1944. Mirroring the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reich_Association_of_Jews" title="Reich Association of Jews" class="mw-redirect">Reich Association of Jews</a>, the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Union_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_des_Isra%C3%A9lites_de_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Union Générale des Israélites de France (page does not exist)">Union Générale des Israélites de France</a> was founded. The police oversaw the confiscation of telephones and radios from Jewish homes and enforced a curfew on Jews starting in February 1942. They also enforced requirements that Jews not appear in public places, and ride only on the last car of the Parisian metro. Along with many French police officials, André Tulard was present on the day of the inauguration of Drancy internment camp in 1941, which was used largely by French police as the central transit camp for detainees captured in France. All Jews and others "undesirables" passed through Drancy before heading to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auschwitz" title="Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect">Auschwitz</a> and other <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">camps</a>. <h3>July 1942 Vel' d'Hiv Roundup[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: July 1942 Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506,_Paris,_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg" width="220" height="330" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg 2x" data-file-width="534" data-file-height="800"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506,_Paris,_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Two Jewish women in occupied Paris wearing <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge">Yellow badges</a> before the mass arrests</div> </div> </div> In July 1942, under German orders, the French police organized the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup (Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv) under orders by René Bousquet and his second in Paris, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Leguay" title="Jean Leguay">Jean Leguay</a> with cooperation from authorities of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNCF" title="SNCF">SNCF</a>, the state railway company. The police arrested 13,152 Jews, including 4,051 children—which the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> had not asked for—and 5,082 women on 16 and 17 July, and imprisoned them in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Velodrome" title="Winter Velodrome" class="mw-redirect">Winter Velodrome</a> in unhygienic conditions. They were led to Drancy internment camp (run by Nazi <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Brunner" title="Alois Brunner">Alois Brunner</a>, who remained free until his probable death in Syria around 2010, or four years earlier (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30275358">BBC News: Nazi war criminal Alois Brunner 'died in Syria'</a>), and French constabulary police), then crammed into <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_car" title="Box car" class="mw-redirect">box cars</a> and shipped by rail to Auschwitz. Most of the victims died en route due to lack of food or water. The remaining survivors were sent to the gas chambers. This action alone represented more than a quarter of the 42,000 French Jews sent to concentration camps in 1942, of which only 811 would return after the end of the war. Although the Nazi VT (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verf%C3%BCgungstruppe" title="Verfügungstruppe" class="mw-redirect">Verfügungstruppe</a>) had initially directed the action, French police authorities vigorously participated. On 16 July 1995, President <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a> officially apologized for the participation of French police forces in the July 1942 raid. "There was no effective police resistance until the end of Spring of 1944", wrote historians <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Luc_Einaudi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Luc Einaudi (page does not exist)">Jean-Luc Einaudi</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Rajsfus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice Rajsfus (page does not exist)">Maurice Rajsfus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Einaudi_2001_p.-63">[63]</a> <h3>August 1942 and January 1943 raids[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: August 1942 and January 1943 raids">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Marseille" title="Battle of Marseille" class="mw-redirect">Battle of Marseille</a></div> The French police, headed by Bousquet, arrested 7,000 Jews in the southern zone in August 1942. 2,500 of them transited through the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_des_Milles" title="Camp des Milles">Camp des Milles</a> near Aix-en-Provence before joining Drancy. Then, on 22, 23 and 24 January 1943, assisted by Bousquet's police force, the Germans organized a raid in Marseilles. During the Battle of Marseilles, the French police checked the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_document" title="Identity document">identity documents</a> of 40,000 people, and the operation succeeded in sending 2,000 Marseillese people in the death trains, leading to the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a>. The operation also encompassed the expulsion of an entire neighborhood (30,000 persons) in the Old Port before its destruction. For this occasion, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS-Gruppenf%C3%BChrer" title="SS-Gruppenführer" class="mw-redirect">SS-Gruppenführer</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Oberg" title="Karl Oberg" class="mw-redirect">Karl Oberg</a>, in charge of the German Police in France, made the trip from Paris, and transmitted to Bousquet orders directly received from <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a>. It is another notable case of the French police's willful collaboration with the Nazis.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <h3>Jewish death toll[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Jewish death toll">edit</a>]</h3> In 1940 approximately 350,000 Jews lived in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">metropolitan France</a>, less than half of them with French citizenship (and the others foreigners, mostly exiles from Germany during the 1930s).<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> About 200,000 of them, and the large majority of foreign Jews, resided in Paris and its outskirts. Among the 150,000 French Jews, about 30,000, generally native from Central Europe, had been <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalized</a> French during the 1930s. Of the total, approximately 25,000 French Jews and 50,000 foreign Jews were deported.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> According to historian <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a>, 76,000 Jews were deported and died in concentration and extermination camps. Including the Jews who died in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_camps_in_France" title="Concentration camps in France">concentration camps in France</a>, this would have made for a total figure of 90,000 Jewish deaths (a quarter of the total Jewish population before the war, by his estimate).<a href="#cite_note-Paxtonnotes-67">[67]</a> Paxton's numbers imply that 14,000 Jews died in French concentration camps. However, the systematic census of Jewish deportees from France (citizens or not) drawn under <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_Klarsfeld" title="Serge Klarsfeld" class="mw-redirect">Serge Klarsfeld</a> concluded that 3,000 had died in French concentration camps and 1,000 more had been shot. Of the approximately 76,000 deported, 2,566 survived. The total thus reported is slightly below 77,500 dead (somewhat less than a quarter of the Jewish population in France in 1940).<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Proportionally, either number makes for a lower death toll than in some other countries (in the Netherlands, 75% of the Jewish population was murdered).<a href="#cite_note-Paxtonnotes-67">[67]</a> This fact has been used as arguments by supporters of Vichy. However, according to Paxton, the figure would have been greatly lower if the "French state" had not willfully collaborated with Germany, which lacked staff for police activities. During the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a> of July 1942, Laval ordered the deportation of the children, against explicit German orders. Paxton pointed out that if the total number of victims had not been higher, it was due to the shortage in wagons, the resistance of the civilian population and deportation in other countries (notably in Italy).<a href="#cite_note-Paxtonnotes-67">[67]</a> <h2>French collaborationnistes and collaborators[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: French collaborationnistes and collaborators">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milice" title="Milice">Milice</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_French_Volunteers_Against_Bolshevism" title="Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism">Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_imp%C3%A9riale" title="Légion impériale">Légion impériale</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/33rd_Waffen_Grenadier_Division_of_the_SS_Charlemagne_(1st_French)" title="33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French)">33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French)</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Brigades" title="Special Brigades">Special Brigades</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlingue" title="Carlingue">Carlingue</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15,_Russland-Mitte,_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion,_Fahne.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg" width="220" height="142" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="511"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15,_Russland-Mitte,_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion,_Fahne.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_French_Volunteers_Against_Bolshevism" title="Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism">Légion des Volontaires</a> fighting with the Axis on the Russian front.</div> </div> </div> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Hoffmann" title="Stanley Hoffmann">Stanley Hoffmann</a> in 1974,<a href="#cite_note-S_H-69">[69]</a> and after him, other historians such as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Az%C3%A9ma" title="Jean-Pierre Azéma">Jean-Pierre Azéma</a> have used the term collaborationnistes to refer to fascists and Nazi sympathisers who, for ideological reasons, wished a reinforced collaboration with Hitler's Germany. Examples of these are <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parti_Populaire_Fran%C3%A7ais" title="Parti Populaire Français" class="mw-redirect">Parti Populaire Français</a> (PPF) leader <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Doriot" title="Jacques Doriot">Jacques Doriot</a>, writer <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brasillach" title="Robert Brasillach">Robert Brasillach</a> or <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_D%C3%A9at" title="Marcel Déat">Marcel Déat</a>. A principal motivation and ideological foundation among collaborationnistes was anticommunism.<a href="#cite_note-S_H-69">[69]</a> Organizations such as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Cagoule" title="La Cagoule">La Cagoule</a> opposed the Third Republic, particularly when the left-wing <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)" title="Popular Front (France)">Popular Front</a> was in power. Collaborationists may have influenced the Vichy government's policies, but ultra-collaborationists never comprised the majority of the government before 1944.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> In order to enforce the régime's will, some paramilitary organizations were created. A notable example was the "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L%C3%A9gion_Fran%C3%A7aise_des_Combattants&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Légion Française des Combattants (page does not exist)">Légion Française des Combattants</a>" (LFC) (French Legion of Fighters), including at first only former combatants, but quickly adding "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amis_de_la_L%C3%A9gion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amis de la Légion (page does not exist)">Amis de la Légion</a>" and cadets of the Légion, who had never seen battle, but who supported Pétain's régime. The name was then quickly changed to "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L%C3%A9gion_Fran%C3%A7aise_des_Combattants_et_des_volontaires_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_Nationale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Légion Française des Combattants et des volontaires de la Révolution Nationale (page does not exist)">Légion Française des Combattants et des volontaires de la Révolution Nationale</a>" (French Legion of Fighters and Volunteers of the National Revolution). <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a> created a "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_d%27Ordre_L%C3%A9gionnaire" title="Service d'Ordre Légionnaire" class="mw-redirect">Service d'Ordre Légionnaire</a>" (SOL), which consisted mostly of French supporters of the Nazis, of which Pétain fully approved. <h2>Social and economic history[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Social and economic history">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg/200px-French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg" width="200" height="113" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg/300px-French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg/400px-French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1111" data-file-height="627"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Vichy French <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> and aluminum coins made during the war. These coins circulated in both Vichy France and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of France during World War II" class="mw-redirect">German-occupied France</a>.</div> </div> </div> Vichy authorities were strongly opposed to "modern" social trends and tried through "national regeneration" to restore behavior more in line with traditional Catholicism. Philip Manow argues that, "Vichy represents the authoritarian, antidemocratic solution that the French political right, in coalition with the national Church hierarchy, had sought repeatedly during the interwar period and almost put in place in 1934."<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Calling for "National Regeneration," Vichy reversed many liberal policies and began tight supervision of the economy with central planning a key feature.<a href="#cite_note-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013-2">[2]</a> Labor unions came under tight government control. There were no elections. The independence of women was reversed, with an emphasis put on motherhood. Government agencies had to fire married women employees. Conservative Catholics became prominent. Paris lost its avant-garde status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and stressed virulent anti-Semitism, and, after June 1941, anti-Bolshevism. Hans Petter Graver says Vichy, "is notorious for its enactment of anti-Semitic laws and decrees, and these were all loyally enforced by the judiciary."<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <h3>Economy[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a>]</h3> Vichy rhetoric exalted the skilled laborer and small businessman. In practice, however, the needs of artisans for raw materials was neglected in favor of large businesses.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The General Committee for the Organization of Commerce (CGOC) was a national program to modernize and professionalize small business.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> In 1940 the government took direct control of all production, which was synchronized with the demands of the Germans. It replaced free trade unions with compulsory state unions that dictated labor policy without regard to the voice or needs of the workers. The centralized, bureaucratic control of the French economy was not a success, as German demands grew heavier and more unrealistic, passive resistance and inefficiencies multiplied, and Allied bombers hit the rail yards; however, Vichy made the first comprehensive long-range plans for the French economy. The government had never before attempted a comprehensive overview. De Gaulle's Provisional Government in 1944–45, quietly used the Vichy plans as a base for its own reconstruction program. The <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monnet_Plan" title="Monnet Plan">Monnet Plan</a> of 1946 was closely based on Vichy plans.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Thus both teams of wartime and early postwar planners repudiated prewar laissez-faire practices and embraced the cause of drastic economic overhaul and a planned economy.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <h4>Forced labour[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Forced labour">edit</a>]</h4> Nazi Germany kept the French POWs as forced labourers throughout the war. They added compulsory (and volunteer) workers from occupied nations, especially in metal factories. The shortage of volunteers led the Vichy government to pass a law in September 1942 that effectively deported workers to Germany, where, they constituted 15% of the labor force by August 1944. The largest number worked in the giant <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a> steel works in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essen" title="Essen">Essen</a>. Low pay, long hours, frequent bombings, and crowded air raid shelters added to the unpleasantness of poor housing, inadequate heating, limited food, and poor medical care, all compounded by harsh Nazi discipline. They finally returned home in the summer of 1945.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> The forced labour draft encouraged the French Resistance and undermined the Vichy government.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <h4>Food shortages[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Food shortages">edit</a>]</h4> Civilians suffered shortages of all varieties of consumer goods.<a href="#cite_note-Diamond1999-79">[79]</a> The rationing system was stringent but badly mismanaged, leading to produced malnourishment, black markets, and hostility to state management of the food supply. The Germans seized about 20% of the French food production, which caused severe disruption to the household economy of the French people.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> French farm production fell by half because of lack of fuel, fertilizer and workers; even so the Germans seized half the meat, 20 percent of the produce, and 2 percent of the champagne.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Supply problems quickly affected French stores which lacked most items. The government answered by rationing, but German officials set the policies and hunger prevailed, especially affecting youth in urban areas. The queues lengthened in front of shops. Some people—including German soldiers—benefited from the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a>, where food was sold without tickets at very high prices. Farmers especially diverted meat to the black market, which meant that much less for the open market. Counterfeit food tickets were also in circulation. Direct buying from farmers in the countryside and barter against cigarettes became common. These activities were strictly forbidden, however, and thus carried out at the risk of confiscation and fines. Food shortages were most acute in the large cities. In the more remote country villages, however, clandestine slaughtering, vegetable gardens and the availability of milk products permitted better survival. The official ration provided starvation level diets of 1300 or fewer calories a day, supplemented by home gardens and, especially, black market purchases.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <h3>Women[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Women">edit</a>]</h3> The 2 million French soldiers held as POWs and forced laborers in Germany throughout the war were not at risk of death in combat but the anxieties of separation for their 800,000 wives were high. The government provided a modest allowance, but one in ten became prostitutes to support their families.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Meanwhile the Vichy regime promoted a highly traditional model of female roles.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The Révolution Nationale official ideology fostered the patriarchal family, headed by a man with a subservient wife who was devoted to her many children. It gave women a key symbolic role to carry out the national regeneration. It used propaganda, women's organizations, and legislation to promote maternity, patriotic duty, and female submission to marriage, home, and children's education.<a href="#cite_note-Diamond1999-79">[79]</a> The falling birthrate appeared to be a grave problem to Vichy. It introduced family allowances and opposed birth control and abortion. Conditions were very difficult for housewives, as food was short as well as most necessities.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Mother's Day became a major date in the Vichy calendar, with festivities in the towns and schools featuring the award of medals to mothers of numerous children. Divorce laws were made much more stringent, and restrictions were placed on the employment of married women. Family allowances that had begun in the 1930s were continued, and became a vital lifeline for many families; it was a monthly cash bonus for having more children. In 1942 the birth rate started to rise, and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_France#After_World_War_II" title="Demographics of France">by 1945 it was higher than it had been for a century</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-9">[9]</a>:331–332 On the other side women of the Resistance, many of whom were associated with combat groups linked to the French Communist Party (PCF), broke the gender barrier by fighting side by side with men. After the war, their services were ignored, but France did give women the vote in 1944.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <h2>German invasion, November 1942[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: German invasion, November 1942">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Attila_(World_War_II)" title="Operation Attila (World War II)">Operation Attila (World War II)</a></div> Hitler ordered Case Anton to occupy Corsica and then the rest of the unoccupied southern zone in immediate reaction to the landing of the Allies in North Africa (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a>) on 8 November 1942. Following the conclusion of the operation on 12 November, Vichy's remaining military forces were disbanded. Vichy continued to exercise its remaining jurisdiction over almost all of metropolitan France, with the residual power devolved into the hands of Laval, until the gradual collapse of the regime following the Allied invasion in June 1944. On 7 September 1944, following the Allied invasion of France, the remainders of the Vichy government cabinet fled to Germany and established a <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet government</a> in exile in the so-called <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" title="Sigmaringen enclave" class="mw-redirect">Sigmaringen enclave</a>. That rump government finally fell when the city was taken by the Allied French army in April 1945. Part of the residual legitimacy of the Vichy regime resulted from the continued ambivalence of U.S. and British leaders. President Roosevelt continued to cultivate Vichy, and promoted General <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a> as a preferable alternative to de Gaulle, despite the poor performance of Vichy forces in North Africa—Admiral <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a> had landed in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> the day before Operation Torch. Algiers was headquarters of the Vichy French XIX Army Corps, which controlled Vichy military units in North Africa. Darlan was neutralized within 15 hours by a 400-strong French resistance force. Roosevelt and Churchill accepted Darlan, rather than de Gaulle, as the French leader in North Africa. De Gaulle had not even been informed of the landing in North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-38">[38]</a> The United States also resented the Free French taking control of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="St Pierre and Miquelon" class="mw-redirect">St Pierre and Miquelon</a> on 24 December 1941, because, Secretary of State <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Hull</a> believed, it interfered with a U.S.-Vichy agreement to maintain the status quo with respect to French territorial possessions in the western hemisphere. Following the invasion of France via Normandy and Provence (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Dragoon</a>) and the departure of the Vichy leaders, the U.S., Britain and the Soviet Union finally recognized the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> (GPRF), headed by de Gaulle, as the legitimate government of France on 23 October 1944. Before that, the first return of democracy to mainland France since 1940 had occurred with the declaration of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquis_du_Vercors" title="Maquis du Vercors">Free Republic of Vercors</a> on 3 July 1944, at the behest of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French" title="Free French" class="mw-redirect">Free French government</a>—but that act of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">resistance</a> was quashed by an overwhelming German attack by the end of July. <h2>Decline of the Vichy regime and exile[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Decline of the Vichy regime and exile">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Milice_poster.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Milice_poster.jpg/150px-Milice_poster.jpg" width="150" height="203" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Milice_poster.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Milice_poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="271"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Milice_poster.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> A recruitment poster for the Milice. The text says "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Communism" title="Anti-Communism" class="mw-redirect">Against Communism</a> / French Militia / <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary-General" title="Secretary-General">Secretary-General</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a>".</div> </div> </div> <h3>Independence of the SOL[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Independence of the SOL">edit</a>]</h3> In 1943 the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_d%27ordre_l%C3%A9gionnaire" title="Service d'ordre légionnaire">Service d'ordre légionnaire</a> (SOL) collaborationist militia, headed by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a>, became independent and was transformed into the "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milice_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Milice française" class="mw-redirect">Milice française</a>" (French Militia). Officially directed by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> himself, the SOL was led by Darnand, who held an <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS" title="SS" class="mw-redirect">SS</a> rank and pledged an oath of loyalty to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>. Under Darnand and his sub-commanders, such as <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Touvier" title="Paul Touvier">Paul Touvier</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Bernonville" title="Jacques de Bernonville">Jacques de Bernonville</a>, the Milice was responsible for helping the German forces and police in the repression of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquis_(World_War_II)" title="Maquis (World War II)">Maquis</a>. <h3>Sigmaringen commission[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sigmaringen commission">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="hatnote boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" title="Sigmaringen enclave" class="mw-redirect">Sigmaringen enclave</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg/220px-Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg" width="220" height="163" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg/330px-Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg/440px-Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3530" data-file-height="2621"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> The Sigmaringen operation was based in the city's ancient castle.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg/220px-Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg" width="220" height="182" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg/330px-Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg/440px-Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2994" data-file-height="2480"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Liberation of France, 1944.</div> </div> </div> Following the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a> on 25 August 1944, Pétain and his ministers were taken to Germany by the German forces. There, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_de_Brinon" title="Fernand de Brinon">Fernand de Brinon</a> established a pseudo-government in exile at <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen" title="Sigmaringen">Sigmaringen</a>. Pétain refused to participate and the Sigmaringen operation had little or no authority. The offices used the official title French Delegation (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Délégation française) or the French Government Commission for the Protection of National Interests (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Commission gouvernementale française pour la défense des intérêts nationaux). Sigmaringen had its own radio (Radio-patrie, Ici la France), press (La France, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Petit_Parisien" title="Le Petit Parisien">Le Petit Parisien</a>) and hosted the embassies of the Axis powers, Germany, Italy and Japan. The population of the enclave was about 6,000 citizens including known collaborationist journalists, writers (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line" title="Louis-Ferdinand Céline">Louis-Ferdinand Céline</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucien_Rebatet" title="Lucien Rebatet">Lucien Rebatet</a>), actors (Le Vigan) and their families plus 500 soldiers, 700 French SS, POWs and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_du_travail_obligatoire" title="Service du travail obligatoire">French civilian forced laborers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-9">[9]</a>:567–568 <h3>Actions of the French provisional government[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Actions of the French provisional government">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a></div> The Free French, fearing that the Allies could decide to put France under the rule of AMGOT, strove to establish quickly the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a>. The first action of that government was to re-establish republican legality throughout metropolitan France. The provisional government considered that the Vichy government had been unconstitutional and thus that all its actions had been illegal. All statutes, laws, regulations and decisions by the Vichy government were thus made null and devoid of effects. However, since mass cancellation of all decisions taken by Vichy, including many that could have been taken as well by Republican governments, was impractical, it was decided that cancellation was to be expressly acknowledged by the government. A number of laws and acts were however explicitly repealed, including all constitutional acts, all laws discriminating against Jews, all acts against "secret societies" (e.g., <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemason" title="Freemason" class="mw-redirect">Freemasons</a>), and all acts creating special tribunals.<a href="#cite_note-Ord_1944-08-09-87">[87]</a> Collaborationist paramilitary and political organizations, such as the Milice and the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_d%27ordre_l%C3%A9gionnaire" title="Service d'ordre légionnaire">Service d'ordre légionnaire</a>, were also disbanded.<a href="#cite_note-Ord_1944-08-09-87">[87]</a> The provisional government also took steps to replace local governments, including governments that had been suppressed by the Vichy regime, through new elections or by extending the terms of those who had been elected no later than 1939.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <h3>Purges[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Purges">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pursuit_of_Nazi_collaborators" title="Pursuit of Nazi collaborators">Pursuit of Nazi collaborators</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">Épuration légale</a></div> After the liberation, France was swept for a short period with a wave of executions of Collaborationists. Collaborationists were brought to the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9lodrome_d%27hiver" title="Vélodrome d'hiver">Vélodrome d'hiver</a>, Fresnes prison or the Drancy internment camp. Women who were suspected of having romantic liaisons with Germans, or more often[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] of being prostitutes who had entertained German customers, were publicly humiliated by having their heads shaved. Those who had engaged in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a> were also stigmatized as "war profiteers" (profiteurs de guerre), and popularly called "BOF" (Beurre Oeuf Fromage, or Butter Eggs Cheese, because of the products sold at outrageous prices during the Occupation). However, the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> (GPRF, 1944–46) quickly reestablished order, and brought Collaborationists before the courts. Many convicted Collaborationists were then given amnesty under the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a> (1946–54). Four different periods are distinguished by historians: <ul> <li>the first phase of popular convictions (épuration sauvage – wild purge): executions without judgments and shaving of women's heads. Estimations by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9fecture_de_police" title="Préfecture de police" class="mw-redirect">police prefects</a> made in 1948 and 1952 counted as many as 6,000 executions before the Liberation, and 4,000 afterward.</li> <li>the second phase (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">épuration légale</a> or legal purge), which began with Charles de Gaulle's 26 and 27 June 1944 purge <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordonnance" title="Ordonnance">ordonnances</a> (de Gaulle's first ordonnance instituting purge Commissions was enacted on 18 August 1943) : judgments of Collaborationists by the Commissions d'épuration, who condemned approximately 120,000 persons (e.g.! <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Charles Maurras</a>, leader of the royalist <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Action Française">Action Française</a>, was thus condemned to a life sentence on 25 January 1945), including 1,500 death sentences (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a>, head of the Milice, and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a>, head of the French state, were executed after trial on 4 October 1945, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brasillach" title="Robert Brasillach">Robert Brasillach</a>, executed on 6 February 1945, etc.)—many of those who survived this phase were later given amnesty.</li> <li>the third phase, more lenient towards Collaborationists (the trial of Philippe Pétain or of writer <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line" title="Louis-Ferdinand Céline">Louis-Ferdinand Céline</a>).</li> <li>finally came the period for amnesty and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graces" title="Graces" class="mw-redirect">graces</a> (e.g.,. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Pierre_Esteva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Pierre Esteva (page does not exist)">Jean-Pierre Esteva</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Vallat" title="Xavier Vallat">Xavier Vallat</a>, creator of the General Commission for Jewish Affairs, René Bousquet, head of French police, etc.)</li> </ul> Other historians have distinguished the purges against intellectuals (Brasillach, Céline, etc.), industrialists, fighters (LVF, etc.) and civil servants (Papon, etc.). <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10,_Paris,_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="529"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10,_Paris,_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Paris 1944: Women accused of collaboration with Nazis are paraded through the streets; they often had their hair cut off as a form of humiliation.</div> </div> </div> Philippe Pétain was charged with treason in July 1945. He was convicted and sentenced to death by firing squad, but Charles de Gaulle commuted the sentence to life imprisonment. In the police, some collaborators soon resumed official responsibilities. This continuity of the administration was pointed out,[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] in particular concerning the events of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_massacre_of_1961" title="Paris massacre of 1961">Paris massacre of 1961</a>, executed under the orders of head of the Parisian police <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a> when Charles de Gaulle was head of state. Papon was tried and convicted for crimes against humanity in 1998. The French members of the Waffen-SS <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Division_Charlemagne" title="SS Division Charlemagne" class="mw-redirect">Charlemagne Division</a> who survived the war were regarded as traitors. Some of the more prominent officers were executed, while the rank-and-file were given prison terms; some of them were given the option of doing time in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina_War" title="Indochina War" class="mw-redirect">Indochina</a> (1946–54) with the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_%C3%A9trang%C3%A8re" title="Légion étrangère" class="mw-redirect">Foreign Legion</a> instead of prison.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Among artists, singer <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tino_Rossi" title="Tino Rossi">Tino Rossi</a> was detained in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnes_prison" title="Fresnes prison" class="mw-redirect">Fresnes prison</a>, where, according to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_(newspaper)" title="Combat (newspaper)">Combat</a> newspaper, prison guards asked him for autographs. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Beno%C3%AEt_(novelist)" title="Pierre Benoît (novelist)" class="mw-redirect">Pierre Benoit</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arletty" title="Arletty">Arletty</a> were also detained. Executions without trials and other forms of "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Popular_justice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Popular justice (page does not exist)">popular justice</a>" were harshly criticized immediately after the war, with circles close to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P%C3%A9tainism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pétainism (page does not exist)">Pétainists</a> advancing the figures of 100,000, and denouncing the "<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a>", "anarchy", or "blind vengeance". The writer and Jewish internee <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Aron" title="Robert Aron">Robert Aron</a> estimated the popular executions to a number of 40,000 in 1960. This surprised de Gaulle, who estimated the number to be around 10,000, which is also the figure accepted today by mainstream historians. Approximately 9,000 of these 10,000 refer to summary executions in the whole of the country, which occurred during battle.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some imply that France did too little to deal with collaborators at this stage, by selectively pointing out that in absolute value (numbers), there were fewer legal executions in France than in its smaller neighbor Belgium, and fewer internments than in Norway or the Netherlands.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] However, the situation in Belgium was not comparable as it mixed collaboration with elements of a war of secession: The 1940 invasion prompted the Flemish population to generally side with the Germans in the hope of gaining national recognition, and relative to national population a much higher proportion of Belgians than French thus ended up collaborating with the Nazis or volunteering to fight alongside them;<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> the Walloon population in turn led massive anti-Flemish retribution after the war, some of which, such as the execution of <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irma_Laplasse" class="extiw" title="nl:Irma Laplasse">Irma Swertvaeger Laplasse</a>, remained controversial.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The proportion of collaborators was also higher in Norway, and collaboration occurred on a larger scale in the Netherlands (as in Flanders) based partly on linguistic and cultural commonality with Germany. The internments in Norway and Netherlands, meanwhile, were <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_purge_in_Norway_after_World_War_II#Process" title="Legal purge in Norway after World War II">highly temporary</a> and were rather indiscriminate; there was a brief internment peak in these countries as internment was used partly for the purpose of separating Collaborationists from non-Collaborationists.<a href="#cite_note-Anden.C3.A6s-92">[92]</a> Norway ended up <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_purge_in_Norway_after_World_War_II#People_executed_as_part_of_the_legal_purge" title="Legal purge in Norway after World War II">executing only 37 Collaborationists</a>. <h3>1980s trials[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: 1980s trials">edit</a>]</h3> Some accused war criminals were judged, some for a second time, from the 1980s onwards: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Touvier" title="Paul Touvier">Paul Touvier</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_Barbie" title="Klaus Barbie">Klaus Barbie</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a>, René Bousquet (the head of the French police during the war) and his deputy <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Leguay" title="Jean Leguay">Jean Leguay</a>. Bousquet and Leguay were both convicted for their responsibilities in the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a> of July 1942. Among others, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_hunter" title="Nazi hunter">Nazi hunters</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_and_Beate_Klarsfeld" title="Serge and Beate Klarsfeld">Serge and Beate Klarsfeld</a> spent part of their post-war effort trying to bring them before the courts. A fair number of collaborationists then joined the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_de_l%27arm%C3%A9e_secr%C3%A8te" title="Organisation de l'armée secrète">OAS</a> terrorist movement during the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a> (1954–62). <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Bernonville" title="Jacques de Bernonville">Jacques de Bernonville</a> escaped to Quebec, then Brazil. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Ploncard_d%27Assac" title="Jacques Ploncard d'Assac">Jacques Ploncard d'Assac</a> became counsellor to the dictator <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">António de Oliveira Salazar</a> in Portugal.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> In 1993, former Vichy official René Bousquet was assassinated while he awaited prosecution in Paris following a 1991 inculpation for <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>; he had been prosecuted but partially acquitted and immediately amnestied in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> In 1994 former Vichy official <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Touvier" title="Paul Touvier">Paul Touvier</a> (1915–1996) was convicted of crimes against humanity. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a> was likewise convicted in 1998, released three years later due to ill health, and died in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <h2>Historiographical debates and France's responsibility: the "Vichy Syndrome"[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Historiographical debates and France's responsibility: the "Vichy Syndrome"">edit</a>]</h2> Up to <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a>'s presidency, the official point of view of the French government was that the Vichy regime was an illegal government distinct from the French Republic, established by traitors under foreign influence. Indeed, Vichy France eschewed the formal name of France ("French Republic") and styled itself the "French State", replacing the Republican motto of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_Egalit%C3%A9,_Fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité" class="mw-redirect">Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité</a> (liberty, equality, fraternity) inherited from the 1789 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, with the reactionary motto <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travail,_Famille,_Patrie" title="Travail, Famille, Patrie" class="mw-redirect">Travail, Famille, Patrie</a> (work, family, fatherland). While the criminal behavior of Vichy France was consistently acknowledged, this point of view denied any responsibility of the state of France, alleging that acts committed between 1940 and 1944 were unconstitutional acts devoid of legitimacy.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The main proponent of this view was <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> himself, who insisted, as did other historians afterwards, on the unclear conditions of the June 1940 vote granting full powers to Pétain, which was refused by the minority of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_80" title="Vichy 80" class="mw-redirect">Vichy 80</a>. In particular, coercive measures used by Pierre Laval have been denounced by those historians who hold that the vote did not, therefore, have Constitutional legality (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_France#Conditions_of_armistice_and_10_July_1940_vote_of_full_powers" title="Vichy France">See subsection: Conditions of armistice and 10 July 1940 vote of full powers</a>). Nevertheless, on 16 July 1995, President Jacques Chirac, in a speech, recognized the responsibility of the French State for seconding the "criminal folly of the occupying country", in particular the help of the French police, headed by René Bousquet, which assisted the Nazis in the enactment of the so-called "Final Solution". The July 1942 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a> is a tragic example of how the French police did the Nazi work, going even further than what military orders demanded (by sending children to Drancy internment camp, last stop before the extermination camps).<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> As historian Henry Rousso has put it in The Vichy Syndrome (1987), Vichy and the state collaboration of France remains a "past that doesn't pass." Historiographical debates are still, today, passionate, opposing conflictual views on the nature and legitimacy of Vichy's collaborationism with Germany in the implementation of the Holocaust. Three main periods have been distinguished in the historiography of Vichy: first the Gaullist period, which aimed at national reconciliation and unity under the figure of Charles de Gaulle, who conceived himself above political parties and divisions; then the 1960s, with <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Oph%C3%BCls" title="Marcel Ophüls">Marcel Ophüls</a>'s film <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sorrow_and_the_Pity" title="The Sorrow and the Pity">The Sorrow and the Pity</a> (1971); finally the 1990s, with the trial of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a>, civil servant in Bordeaux in charge of the "Jewish Questions" during the war, who was convicted after a very long trial (1981–1998) for crimes against humanity. The trial of Papon did not only concern an individual itinerary, but the French administration's collective responsibility in the deportation of the Jews. Furthermore, his career after the war, which led him to be successively prefect of the Paris police during the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a> (1954–1962) and then treasurer of the Gaullist <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_des_D%C3%A9mocrates_pour_la_R%C3%A9publique" title="Union des Démocrates pour la République" class="mw-redirect">Union des Démocrates pour la République</a> party from 1968 to 1971, and finally Budget Minister under president <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giscard_d%27Estaing" title="Valéry Giscard d'Estaing">Valéry Giscard d'Estaing</a> and prime minister <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Barre" title="Raymond Barre">Raymond Barre</a> from 1978 to 1981, was symptomatic of the quick rehabilitation of former Collaborationists after the war. Critics contend that this itinerary, shared by others (although few had such public roles), demonstrates France's collective amnesia, while others point out that the perception of the war and of the state collaboration has evolved during these years. Papon's career was considered more scandalous as he had been responsible, during his function as prefect of police of Paris, for the 1961 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_massacre" title="Paris massacre" class="mw-redirect">Paris massacre</a> of Algerians during the war, and was forced to resign from this position after the "disappearance", in Paris in 1965, of the Moroccan anti-colonialist leader <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehdi_Ben_Barka" title="Mehdi Ben Barka">Mehdi Ben Barka</a>. While it is certain that the Vichy government and a large number of its high administration collaborated in the implementation of the Holocaust, the exact level of such cooperation is still debated. Compared with the Jewish communities established in other countries invaded by Germany, French Jews suffered proportionately lighter losses (see Jewish death toll section above); although, starting in 1942, repression and deportations struck French Jews as well as foreign Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Cite-50">[50]</a> Former Vichy officials later claimed that they did as much as they could to minimize the impact of the Nazi policies, although mainstream French historians contend that the Vichy regime went beyond the Nazi expectations. The regional newspaper <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_Matin" title="Nice Matin" class="mw-redirect">Nice Matin</a> revealed on 28 February 2007, that in more than 1,000 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condominium" title="Condominium">condominium</a> properties on the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Azur" title="Côte d'Azur" class="mw-redirect">Côte d'Azur</a>, rules dating to Vichy were still "in force", or at least existed on paper. One of these rules, for example, stated that: <blockquote> The contractors shall make the following statements: they are of French nationality, are not Jewish, nor married to Jewish in the sense of the laws and ordinances in force [under Vichy, NDLR] </blockquote> The president of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conseil_Repr%C3%A9sentatif_des_Institutions_juives_de_France" title="Conseil Représentatif des Institutions juives de France">Conseil Représentatif des Institutions juives de France</a>-Côte d'Azur, a Jewish association group, issued a strong condemnation labeling it "the utmost horror" when one of the inhabitants of such a condominium qualified this as an "anachronism" with "no consequences."<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Jewish inhabitants were able and willing to live in the buildings, and to explain this the Nice Matin reporter surmised that some tenants may have not read the condominium contracts in detail, while others deemed the rules obsolete.<a href="#cite_note-lefigaro.fr-99">[99]</a> A reason for the latter is that any racially discriminatory condominium or other local rule that may have existed "on paper", Vichy-era or otherwise, was invalidated by the constitutions of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">French Fourth Republic</a> (1946) and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">French Fifth Republic</a> (1958) and was inapplicable under French <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidiscrimination_law" title="Antidiscrimination law" class="mw-redirect">antidiscrimination law</a>. Thus, even if the tenants or coowners had signed or otherwise agreed to these rules after 1946, any such agreement would be null and void (caduque) under French law, as were the rules. Rewriting or eliminating the obsolete rules would have had to be done at the occupants' expense, including notary fees of 900 to 7000 EUR per building.<a href="#cite_note-lefigaro.fr-99">[99]</a> <h3>"Sword and shield" argument[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: "Sword and shield" argument">edit</a>]</h3> Today, the few Vichy supporters continue to maintain the official argument advanced by Pétain and Laval: the state collaboration was supposed to protect the French civilian population from the hardships of the Occupation. After the war, former Collaborationists and "pétainistes" (supporters of Pétain) claimed that while Charles de Gaulle had represented the "sword" of France, Pétain had been the "shield" which protected France. <h3>Moralism[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Moralism">edit</a>]</h3> Munholland reports a widespread consensus among historians regarding the authoritarian character of the Vichy regime and its: <dl> <dd>broadly stated desire to regenerate a "decadent" state and society that had become corrupted by an ambient lassitude, secularism, and hedonism under the Third Republic by returning to earlier and purer values and imposing a greater discipline and dynamism upon the industrial order.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></dd> </dl> <h3>"French Jews vs. foreign Jews": myth or reality?[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: "French Jews vs. foreign Jews": myth or reality?">edit</a>]</h3> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width:52px"><img alt="Unbalanced scales.svg" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" width="45" height="40" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354"/></div> </td> <td class="mbox-text">This section's representation of one or more viewpoints about a controversial issue may be unbalanced or inaccurate. Please <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit">improve the article</a> or discuss the issue on the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Vichy_France" title="Talk:Vichy France">talk page</a>. (October 2014)</td> </tr> </table> Although this claim is rejected the rest of the French population and by the state itself, another myth remains more widespread than this one. This other myth refers to the alleged "protection" by Vichy of French Jews by "accepting" to collaborate in the deportation—and, ultimately, in the extermination—of foreign Jews. However, this argument has been rejected by several historians who are specialists of the subject, among them US historian <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a>, who is widely recognized, and historian of the French police <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Rajsfus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice Rajsfus (page does not exist)">Maurice Rajsfus</a>. Both were called on as experts during the Papon trial in the 1990s. Robert Paxton thus declared, before the court, on 31 October 1997, that "Vichy took initiatives... The armistice let it a breathing space."<a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-101">[101]</a> Henceforth, on its own Vichy decided, on the domestic plan, to implement the "National Revolution" ("Révolution nationale"). After having designated the alleged responsibles of the defeat ("democracy, parliamentarism, cosmopolitanism, left-wing, foreigners, Jews...") Vichy put in place, as soon as 3 October 1940, the first "Statute on Jews." From then on, Jewish people were considered "second-zone citizens<a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-101">[101]</a> ". On the international plan, France "believed the war to be finished". Thus, as soon as July 1940, Vichy eagerly negotiated with the German authorities in an attempt to gain a place for France in the Third Reich's "New Order". But "Hitler never forgot the 1918 defeat. He always said no." Vichy's ambition was doomed from the start.<a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-101">[101]</a> "Antisemitism was a constant theme", recalled Robert Paxton. It even opposed itself, at first, to German plans. "At this period, the Nazis had not yet decided to exterminate the Jews, but to expel them. Their idea was not to make of France an antisemitic country. To the contrary, they wanted to send there the Jews that they expelled" from the Reich.<a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-101">[101]</a> The historical turn took place in 1941–1942, with the pending German defeat on the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>. The war then became "total", and in August 1941, Hitler decided on the "global extermination of all European Jews." This new policy was officially formulated during the January 1942 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a>, and implemented in all European occupied countries as soon as spring[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] 1942. France, which praised itself for having remained an independent state (as opposed to other occupied countries) "decided to cooperate. This is the second Vichy."<a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-101">[101]</a> The first train of deportees left Drancy on 27 March 1942, for Poland—the first in a long series. "The Nazis needed the French administration... They always complained about the lack of staff." recalled Paxton,<a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-101">[101]</a> something which Maurice Rajsfus has also underlined. Although the American historian recognized during the trial that the "civil behavior of certain individuals" had permitted many Jews to escape deportation, he stated that: <blockquote> The French state, itself, has participated to the policy of extermination of the Jews... How can one pretend the reverse when such technical and administrative means have been put to this aim?<a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-101">[101]</a> </blockquote> Evoking the French police's registering of the Jews, as well as Laval's decision, taken in August 1942 in all independence, to deport children along with their parents, Paxton added: <blockquote> Contrary to preconceived ideas, Vichy did not sacrifice foreign Jews in the hope of protecting French Jews. At the summit of the hierarchy, it knew, from the start, that the departure of these last ones was unavoidable.<a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-101">[101]</a> </blockquote> Despite Paxton's assertion about Vichy knowledge "from the start", deportations from France did not start until summer 1942, several months after mass deportation from other countries started. Part of the population housed at the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau concentration camp</a>, which had been opened since 1933, was Jewish, and major death camps in Poland and Germany were opened in 1941 and early 1942. Paxton then evoked the case of Italy, where deportation of Jewish people had only started after the German occupation—Italy surrendered to the Allies in mid-1943 but was then invaded by Germany and fighting there continued through 1944. In particular, in Nice, "Italians had protected the Jews. And the French authorities complained about it to the Germans."<a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-101">[101]</a> In this instance, deportations from Italy started immediately upon its invasion by Germany. In fact, the rise of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_fascism" title="Italian fascism" class="mw-redirect">Italian fascism</a> had drastically curtailed Jewish immigration during the inter-war period, and Italy had passed drastic anti-Semitic laws in 1938 that stripped Jews of their citizenship. Ultimately, a similar proportion of Jews from Italy as from France were deported. More recent work by the historian Susan Zuccotti finds that the Vichy government facilitated the deportation of foreign Jews rather than French ones, all else equal, until at least 1943: <blockquote> Vichy officials [had] hoped to deport foreign Jews throughout France in order to ease pressure on native Jews. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> himself expressed the official Vichy position... In the early months of 1943, the terror [Adam] Munz and [Alfred] Feldman described in German-occupied France still was experienced by foreign Jews like themselves. It is difficult to know exactly how many French Jews were arrested, usually for specific or alleged offenses, but on 21 January 1943, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Knochen" title="Helmut Knochen">Helmut Knochen</a> informed <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eichmann" title="Eichmann" class="mw-redirect">Eichmann</a> in Berlin that there were 2,159 French citizens among the 3,811 prisoners at Drancy. Many had been at Drancy for several months. They had not been deported because, until January 1943, there had usually been enough foreigners and their children to fill the forty-three trains that had carried about 41,591 people to the east... By January 1943, however, foreign Jews were increasingly aware of the danger and difficult to find. Nazi pressure for the arrest of French Jews and the deportation of those already at Drancy increased accordingly. Thus, when Knochen reported that there were 2,159 French citizens among the 3,811 prisoners at Drancy on 21 January 1943, he also asked Eichmann for permission to deport them. There had been no convoy from Drancy in December and January, and [SS Lieutenant Heinz] <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_R%C3%B6thke" title="Heinz Röthke">Röthke</a> was pressuring Knochen to resume them. Röthke also wanted to empty Drancy in order to refill it. Despite Vichy officials' past disapproval and Eichmann's own prior discouragement of such a step, permission for the deportation of the French Jews at Drancy, except for those in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws#Nazi_Germany" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">mixed marriages</a>, was granted from Berlin on 25 January.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> </blockquote> Whatever the Vichy government's intent initially or subsequently, the numerical outcome was that less than 15% of French Jews, vs. nearly twice that proportion of non-citizen Jews residing in France, died. More Jews lived in France at the end of the Vichy regime than had approximately ten years earlier.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <h2>Notable figures in the Vichy regime[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Notable figures in the Vichy regime">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:French_collaborators_with_Nazi_Germany" title="Category:French collaborators with Nazi Germany">Category:French collaborators with Nazi Germany</a></div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a>, Head of State.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a>, Prime Minister (1940, 1942–1944).</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-%C3%89tienne_Flandin" title="Pierre-Étienne Flandin">Pierre-Étienne Flandin</a>, Prime Minister (1940–1941).</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a>, Prime Minister (1941–1942).</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Pucheu" title="Pierre Pucheu">Pierre Pucheu</a>, Minister of the Interior.</li> </ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pucheu,_Pierre.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg/220px-Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg" width="220" height="276" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg/330px-Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg/440px-Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="716"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pucheu,_Pierre.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Pucheu" title="Pierre Pucheu">Pierre Pucheu</a> in 1941, who was executed in 1944.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xavier_Vallat.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Xavier_Vallat.jpg/220px-Xavier_Vallat.jpg" width="220" height="293" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Xavier_Vallat.jpg/330px-Xavier_Vallat.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Xavier_Vallat.jpg/440px-Xavier_Vallat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xavier_Vallat.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Vallat" title="Xavier Vallat">Xavier Vallat</a></div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxime_Weygand" title="Maxime Weygand">Maxime Weygand</a>, Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces and Minister of Defense.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Huntziger" title="Charles Huntziger">Charles Huntziger</a>, general and Minister of Defense.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Bousquet" title="René Bousquet">René Bousquet</a>, head of the French police.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Leguay" title="Jean Leguay">Jean Leguay</a>, delegate of Bousquet in the "free zone", charged with crimes against humanity for his role in the July 1942 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a>.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Darquier_de_Pellepoix" title="Louis Darquier de Pellepoix">Louis Darquier de Pellepoix</a>, Commissionner for Jewish Affairs.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Henriot" title="Philippe Henriot">Philippe Henriot</a>, State Secretary of Information and Propaganda.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a>, head of the Jewish Questions Service in the prefecture of Bordeaux. Condemned for crimes against humanity in 1998.[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Sabiani" title="Simon Sabiani">Simon Sabiani</a>, head of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parti_Populaire_Fran%C3%A7ais" title="Parti Populaire Français" class="mw-redirect">Parti Populaire Français</a> in Marseille.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Touvier" title="Paul Touvier">Paul Touvier</a>, condemned in 1995 for crimes against humanity for his role as head of the Milice in Lyon.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Vallat" title="Xavier Vallat">Xavier Vallat</a>, Commissionner General for Jewish Questions.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_D%C3%A9at" title="Marcel Déat">Marcel Déat</a>, founder of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rassemblement_national_populaire" title="Rassemblement national populaire" class="mw-redirect">Rassemblement national populaire</a> (RNP) in 1941. Joined the government in the last months of the Occupation.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston_Henry-Haye" title="Gaston Henry-Haye">Gaston Henry-Haye</a>, Vichy ambassador to the United States of America.</li> </ul> <h2>Notable collaborationists or pétainists not linked to the Vichy regime[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Notable collaborationists or pétainists not linked to the Vichy regime">edit</a>]</h2> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Bucard" title="Marcel Bucard">Marcel Bucard</a>, founder of the far-right <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouvement_franciste" title="Mouvement franciste" class="mw-redirect">Mouvement franciste</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_des_volontaires_francais_contre_le_bolchevisme" title="Legion des volontaires francais contre le bolchevisme" class="mw-redirect">Legion des volontaires francais contre le bolchevisme</a> (LVF).</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Deloncle" title="Eugène Deloncle">Eugène Deloncle</a>, co-founder of the right-wing terrorist group <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Cagoule" title="La Cagoule">La Cagoule</a> in 1935 and fascist <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouvement_social_r%C3%A9volutionnaire" title="Mouvement social révolutionnaire" class="mw-redirect">Mouvement social révolutionnaire</a> in 1940.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Doriot" title="Jacques Doriot">Jacques Doriot</a>, founder of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parti_Populaire_Fran%C3%A7ais" title="Parti Populaire Français" class="mw-redirect">Parti Populaire Français</a> (PPF) and member of the LVF.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Leandri" title="Étienne Leandri" class="mw-redirect">Étienne Leandri</a>, wore the Gestapo uniform during the war and participated in the creation of the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaullist" title="Gaullist" class="mw-redirect">Gaullist</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_d%27Action_Civique" title="Service d'Action Civique">Service d'Action Civique</a> (SAC) in the 1960s.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brasillach" title="Robert Brasillach">Robert Brasillach</a>, writer, executed for collaboration after the war.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line" title="Louis-Ferdinand Céline">Louis-Ferdinand Céline</a>, writer.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Drieu_La_Rochelle" title="Pierre Drieu La Rochelle">Pierre Drieu La Rochelle</a>, writer.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Le_Vigan" title="Robert Le Vigan">Robert Le Vigan</a>, actor.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucien_Rebatet" title="Lucien Rebatet">Lucien Rebatet</a>, writer.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Charles Maurras</a>, writer and founder of royalist movement <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Action Française">Action Française</a>.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Taittinger" title="Pierre Taittinger">Pierre Taittinger</a>, chairman of the municipal council of Paris 1943–1944.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Lafont" title="Henri Lafont">Henri Lafont</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Bonny" title="Pierre Bonny">Pierre Bonny</a>, also known as Pierre Bony.</li> </ul> <h2>See also[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</h2> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboration_with_the_Axis_Powers_during_World_War_II" title="Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II">Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pursuit_of_Nazi_collaborators" title="Pursuit of Nazi collaborators">Pursuit of Nazi collaborators</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Vichy_France" title="Foreign relations of Vichy France">Foreign relations of Vichy France</a></li> <li>1942–43 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riom_Trial" title="Riom Trial">Riom Trial</a> and <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vichy_80" title="The Vichy 80">The Vichy 80</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of France during World War II">Military history of France during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of France during World War II" class="mw-redirect">German occupation of France during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="Italian occupation of France during World War II">Italian occupation of France during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_Todt" title="Organisation Todt">Organisation Todt</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadix" title="Cadix">Cadix</a>, Allied intelligence center in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uz%C3%A8s" title="Uzès">Uzès</a>.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Front_(Frankreich)_Area_(Luftflotte_3,_France)" title="Western Front (Frankreich) Area (Luftflotte 3, France)" class="mw-redirect">Western Front (Frankreich) Area (Luftflotte 3, France)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-German_cooperation" title="Franco-German cooperation" class="mw-redirect">Franco-German cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oradour-sur-Glane" title="Oradour-sur-Glane">Oradour-sur-Glane</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordre_Nouveau_(1940s)" title="Ordre Nouveau (1940s)" class="mw-redirect">Ordre Nouveau</a>, French translation of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Order_(political_system)" title="New Order (political system)" class="mw-redirect">Nationsozialistische Neue Ordnung</a>, Hitler's planned Nazi hegemony in Europe.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Elizabeth_Thorpe" title="Amy Elizabeth Thorpe">Amy Elizabeth Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies" title="List of French possessions and colonies">List of French possessions and colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Colonial_Empire" title="French Colonial Empire" class="mw-redirect">French Colonial Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">Military Administration in France</a></li> </ul> <h2>References[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NDompnier-1"><a href="#cite_ref-NDompnier_1-0">^</a> Dompnier, Nathalie (2001). "Entre La Marseillaise et Maréchal, nous voilà ! quel hymne pour le régime de Vichy ?". In Chimènes, Myriam. La vie musicale sous Vichy. Histoire du temps présent (in French). Bruxelles: Éditions Complexe – IRPMF-CNRS, coll. p. 71. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2870278640" title="Special:BookSources/2870278640">2870278640</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.atitle=Entre+La+Marseillaise+et+Mar%C3%A9chal%2C+nous+voil%C3%A0+%21+quel+hymne+pour+le+r%C3%A9gime+de+Vichy+%3F&rft.au=Dompnier%2C+Nathalie&rft.aufirst=Nathalie&rft.aulast=Dompnier&rft.btitle=La+vie+musicale+sous+Vichy&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=2870278640&rft.pages=71&rft.place=Bruxelles&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+Complexe+%E2%80%93+IRPMF-CNRS%2C+coll.&rft.series=Histoire+du+temps+pr%C3%A9sent&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013_2-1">b</a> Debbie Lackerstein, National Regeneration in Vichy France: Ideas and Policies, 1930–1944 (2013)</li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/vichy/occupiers.htm#trust">http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/vichy/occupiers.htm#trust</a> vichy</li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Philip G. Nord (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://books.google.com/books?id=oyC7tl0ny40C&pg=PA12">France's New Deal: From the Thirties to the Postwar Era</a>. Princeton U.P. p. 12. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691142975" title="Special:BookSources/9780691142975">9780691142975</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aulast=Philip+G.+Nord&rft.au=Philip+G.+Nord&rft.btitle=France%27s+New+Deal%3A+From+the+Thirties+to+the+Postwar+Era&rft.date=2010&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoyC7tl0ny40C%26pg%3DPA12&rft.isbn=9780691142975&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Princeton+U.P.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Stanley G. Payne (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://books.google.com/books?id=HvqRDWVyIcEC&pg=PA137">Fascism: A Comparative Approach Toward a Definition</a>. U. of Wisconsin Press. p. 137. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299080648" title="Special:BookSources/9780299080648">9780299080648</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aulast=Stanley+G.+Payne&rft.au=Stanley+G.+Payne&rft.btitle=Fascism%3A+A+Comparative+Approach+Toward+a+Definition&rft.date=1983&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHvqRDWVyIcEC%26pg%3DPA137&rft.isbn=9780299080648&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=U.+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Walter Laqueur (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://books.google.com/books?id=2s8OaLD7y_oC&pg=PA298">Fascism: A Reader's Guide</a>. U. of California Press. p. 298. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520036420" title="Special:BookSources/9780520036420">9780520036420</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aulast=Walter+Laqueur&rft.au=Walter+Laqueur&rft.btitle=Fascism%3A+A+Reader%27s+Guide&rft.date=1978&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2s8OaLD7y_oC%26pg%3DPA298&rft.isbn=9780520036420&rft.pages=298&rft.pub=U.+of+California+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-karlsgodt-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-karlsgodt_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-karlsgodt_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-karlsgodt_7-2">c</a> Elizabeth Karlsgodt (2011). Defending National Treasures: French Art and Heritage Under Vichy. Stanford University Press. pp. 126–128. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804770182" title="Special:BookSources/0804770182">0804770182</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Elizabeth+Karlsgodt&rft.aulast=Elizabeth+Karlsgodt&rft.btitle=Defending+National+Treasures%3A+French+Art+and+Heritage+Under+Vichy&rft.date=2011&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0804770182&rft.pages=126-128&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Robert A. Doughty, The Breaking Point: Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940 (1990)</li> <li id="cite_note-jackson2001-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_9-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_9-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_9-5">f</a> Jackson, Julian (2001). France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944. Oxford University Press. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820706-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820706-9">0-19-820706-9</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Julian&rft.aulast=Jackson%2C+Julian&rft.btitle=France%3A+The+Dark+Years%2C+1940%E2%80%931944&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-19-820706-9&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Barnett Singer (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://books.google.com/books?id=0VZeIHEv3FkC&pg=PA111">Maxime Weygand: A Biography of the French General in Two World Wars</a>. McFarland. p. 111. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786435715" title="Special:BookSources/9780786435715">9780786435715</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Barnett+Singer&rft.aulast=Barnett+Singer&rft.btitle=Maxime+Weygand%3A+A+Biography+of+the+French+General+in+Two+World+Wars&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0VZeIHEv3FkC%26pg%3DPA111&rft.isbn=9780786435715&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=McFarland&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> http://<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://web.b.ebscohost.com.libezp.lib.lsu.edu/ehost/detail/detail?sid=7b437e44-ef8b-4a6c-929a-c2fa8e5c3a15%40sessionmgr110&vid=0&hid=123&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=khh&AN=19409261">Spying for Germany in Vichy France.</a></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Richard Vinen, The Unfree French: Life under the Occupation (2006) pp 183–214</li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> French Colonial Soldiers in German Prisoner-of-War Camps (1940–1945), Raffael Scheck, 2010, French History, p421</li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Richard Joseph Golsan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://books.google.com/books?id=3g6pUzgXeQsC&pg=PA14">The Papon Affair: Memory and Justice on Trial</a>. Psychology Press. p. 14. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415923651" title="Special:BookSources/9780415923651">9780415923651</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aulast=Richard+Joseph+Golsan&rft.au=Richard+Joseph+Golsan&rft.btitle=The+Papon+Affair%3A+Memory+and+Justice+on+Trial&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3g6pUzgXeQsC%26pg%3DPA14&rft.isbn=9780415923651&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Jean-Pierre Maury. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1940lc.htm">"Loi constitutionnelle du 10 juillet 1940"</a>. Mjp.univ-perp.fr. Retrieved 31 May 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft.aulast=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft.btitle=Loi+constitutionnelle+du+10+juillet+1940&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Ffrance%2Fco1940lc.htm&rft.pub=Mjp.univ-perp.fr&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-christofferson2006-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-christofferson2006_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-christofferson2006_16-1">b</a> Christofferson, Thomas R.; Christofferson, Michael S. (2006). France during World War II: From Defeat to Liberation. Fordham University Press. pp. 37–40. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8232-2562-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8232-2562-3">0-8232-2562-3</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Christofferson%2C+Thomas+R.%3B+Christofferson%2C+Michael+S.&rft.aulast=Christofferson%2C+Thomas+R.%3B+Christofferson%2C+Michael+S.&rft.btitle=France+during+World+War+II%3A+From+Defeat+to+Liberation&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-8232-2562-3&rft.pages=37-40&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Jean-Pierre Azéma, De Munich à la Libération, Le Seuil, 1979, p.82 <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2020052156" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 2-02-005215-6</a></li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> French: L'Assemblée Nationale donne les plein pouvoirs au gouvernement de la République, sous l'autorité et la signature du maréchal Pétain, à l'effet de promulguer par un ou plusieurs actes une nouvelle Constitution de l'État français. Cette Constitution doit garantir les droits du travail, de la famille et de la patrie. Elle sera ratifiée par la nation et appliquée par les Assemblées qu'elle aura créées.</li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Jean-Pierre Maury. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1940.htm">"Actes constitutionnels du Gouvernement de Vichy, 1940–1944, France, MJP, université de Perpignan"</a>. Mjp.univ-perp.fr. Retrieved 31 May 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft.aulast=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft.btitle=Actes+constitutionnels+du+Gouvernement+de+Vichy%2C+1940%E2%80%931944%2C+France%2C+MJP%2C+universit%C3%A9+de+Perpignan&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Ffrance%2Fco1940.htm&rft.pub=Mjp.univ-perp.fr&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> John F. Sweets, Choices in Vichy France: The French Under Nazi Occupation (New York, 1986), p. 33</li> <li id="cite_note-Lacroix-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lacroix_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lacroix_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lacroix_21-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://mondediplo.com/2003/05/05lacroix">When the US wanted to take over France</a>, Annie Lacroix-Riz, in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Monde_diplomatique" title="Le Monde diplomatique">Le Monde diplomatique</a>, May 2003 (English, French, etc.)</li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.international.gc.ca/history-histoire/world-monde/1939-1945.aspx?lang=eng#junior">"Canada and the World: A History"</a>. International.gc.ca. 31 January 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.btitle=Canada+and+the+World%3A+A+History&rft.date=31+January+2011&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.international.gc.ca%2Fhistory-histoire%2Fworld-monde%2F1939-1945.aspx%3Flang%3Deng%23junior&rft.pub=International.gc.ca&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Burrin, Philippe (1997). La France à l'heure allemande 1940–1944. Paris: Seuil. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2020314770" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 2-02-031477-0</a></li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Toland_(author)" title="John Toland (author)">Toland</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rising_Sun" title="The Rising Sun">The Rising Sun</a></li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Yves Jouin, "La Nouvellecaledonie et la Polynesie Francaise dans la Guerre du Pacifique," Revue Historique des Armées (1965) 21#3 pp 155–164.</li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://histoire.itereva.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=114&Itemid=67&limit=1&limitstart=3">"Les ÉFO dans la Seconde Guerre Mondiale : la question du ralliement et ses conséquences"</a>. Itereva Histoire-Géographie. 5 November 2006. Retrieved 16 March 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.btitle=Les+%C3%89FO+dans+la+Seconde+Guerre+Mondiale+%3A+la+question+du+ralliement+et+ses+cons%C3%A9quences&rft.date=5+November+2006&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistoire.itereva.net%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D114%26Itemid%3D67%26limit%3D1%26limitstart%3D3&rft.pub=Itereva+Histoire-G%C3%A9ographie&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Triest, Willard G. (2003). Mason, John T., ed. Gearing up for Operation Bobcat. Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute Press. pp. 41–51. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-478-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-478-6">978-1-59114-478-6</a><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aufirst=Willard+G.&rft.aulast=Triest&rft.au=Triest%2C+Willard+G.&rft.btitle=Gearing+up+for+Operation+Bobcat&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-59114-478-6&rft.pages=41-51&rft.place=Annapolis&rft.pub=U.S.+Naval+Institute+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://deuxiemeguerremondia.forumactif.com/t8009-la-polynesie-francaise-pendant-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale">"Citation of the bataillon d'infanterie de marine et du Pacifique for valor during the fourth battle of Monte Cassino"</a>. 22 July 1944. Retrieved 16 March 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.btitle=Citation+of+the+bataillon+d%27infanterie+de+marine+et+du+Pacifique+for+valor+during+the+fourth+battle+of+Monte+Cassino&rft.date=22+July+1944&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeuxiemeguerremondia.forumactif.com%2Ft8009-la-polynesie-francaise-pendant-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.france-libre.net/1ere-dfl/unites/bimp.php">"Le Bataillon d'infanterie de marine et du Pacifique (BIMP)"</a>. Retrieved 16 March 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.btitle=Le+Bataillon+d%27infanterie+de+marine+et+du+Pacifique+%28BIMP%29&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.france-libre.net%2F1ere-dfl%2Funites%2Fbimp.php&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Yves Jouin, "La Nouvellecaledonie et la Polynesie Francaise dans la Guerre du Pacifique," Revue Historique des Armées (1965) 21#3 pp 155–164</li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&pg=PA71">World War II Pacific Island Guide, p. 71</a>, Gordon L. Rottman, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002</li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.ac-noumea.nc/histoire-geo/spip/spip.php?article129&lang=fr">"Document 3: le choix des Nouvelles-Hébrides"</a>. 17 July 2010. Retrieved 16 March 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.btitle=Document+3%3A+le+choix+des+Nouvelles-H%C3%A9brides&rft.date=17+July+2010&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ac-noumea.nc%2Fhistoire-geo%2Fspip%2Fspip.php%3Farticle129%26lang%3Dfr&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Jean-Marc Regnault, and Ismet Kurtovitch, "Les Ralliements du Pacifique en 1940: Entre Legende Gaulliste, Enjeux Strategiques Mondiaux et Rivalites Londres/Vichy," Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine (2002) 49#4 pp 71–90.</li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Lestrade, Claude (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/jso_0300-953x_1997_num_105_2_2029">"Le ralliement de Wallis à la " France libre " (1942)"</a>. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_de_la_Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Oc%C3%A9anistes" title="Journal de la Société des Océanistes" class="mw-redirect">Journal de la Société des Océanistes</a> 105 (105): 199–203. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://dx.doi.org/10.3406%2Fjso.1997.2029">10.3406/jso.1997.2029</a>. Retrieved 16 March 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.atitle=Le+ralliement+de+Wallis+%C3%A0+la+%22+France+libre+%22+%281942%29&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft.aulast=Lestrade&rft.au=Lestrade%2C+Claude&rft.date=1997&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fweb%2Frevues%2Fhome%2Fprescript%2Farticle%2Fjso_0300-953x_1997_num_105_2_2029&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fjso.1997.2029&rft.issue=105&rft.jtitle=Journal+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+des+Oc%C3%A9anistes&rft.pages=199-203&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=105" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/page/affichecitoyennete.php?idLang=en&idCitoyen=25">http://www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/page/affichecitoyennete.php?idLang=en&idCitoyen=25</a></li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Arthur L. Funk, "Negotiating the 'Deal with Darlan,'" Journal of Contemporary History (1973) 8#2 pp 81–117 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.jstor.org/stable/259995">in JSTOR</a></li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Arthur L. Funk, The Politics of Torch (1974)</li> <li id="cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_38-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_38-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_38-4">e</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article285">Extraits de l'entretien d'Annie Rey-Goldzeiguer [1, avec Christian Makarian et Dominique Simonnet, publié dans l'Express du 14 mars 2002</a>, on the <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligue_des_droits_de_l%27homme" title="Ligue des droits de l'homme" class="mw-redirect">LDH</a> website (French)</li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> French: Pétain: "J'entre aujourd'hui dans la voie de la collaboration...."</li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Simon Kitson, The Hunt for Nazi Spies, Fighting Espionage in Vichy France (2008); the French edition appeared in 2005</li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> J.Lee Ready (1995), World War Two. Nation by Nation, London, Cassell, page 86. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1854092901" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 1-85409-290-1</a></li> <li id="cite_note-Guardian-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_42-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.guardian.co.uk/nazis/article/0,2763,445717,00.html">French court strikes blow against fugitive Nazi</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>, 3 March 2001</li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> François Masure, "État et identité nationale. Un rapport ambigu à propos des naturalisés", in Journal des anthropologues, hors-série 2007, pp. 39–49 (see p. 48) (French)</li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Dominique Rémy, Les Lois de Vichy, Romillat, 2004, p.91, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2878940261" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 2-87894-026-1</a></li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7ORlIpHKLEC&pg=PA368&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Vichy France and the Jews</a>". Michael Robert Marrus, Robert O. Paxton (1995). <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. pp. 367–368. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804724997" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8047-2499-7</a></li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Rajsfus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice Rajsfus (page does not exist)">Maurice Rajsfus</a>, Drancy, un camp de concentration très ordinaire, Cherche Midi éditeur (2005).</li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.aloufok.net/article.php3?id_article=551">Aincourt, camp d'internement et centre de tri</a>[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>]</li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/page/affichelieu.php?idLang=fr&idLieu=1207">"Saline royale d'Arc et Senans (25) – L'internement des Tsiganes"</a>. 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Also quoted in French by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didier_Daeninckx" title="Didier Daeninckx">Didier Daeninckx</a> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.amnistia.net/news/enquetes/negauniv/carrel/carrel.htm">Quand le négationnisme s'invite à l'université.</a>, on <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amnistia.net&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amnistia.net (page does not exist)">Amnistia.net</a> website, URL consulted on 28 January 2007</li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Quoted in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Szasz, Thomas</a>. The Theology of Medicine New York: Syracuse University Press, 1977.</li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> French: « ce fichier se subdivise en fichier simplement alphabétique, les Juifs de nationalité française et étrangère ayant respectivement des fiches de couleur différentes, et des fichiers professionnels par nationalité et par rue. »</li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/oct/03/marshal-petain-nazi-zealous-anti-semitism">The Guardian: Disclosed: the zealous way Marshal Pétain enforced Nazi anti-Semitic laws</a>, 3 October 2010, last accessed 3 October 2010</li> <li id="cite_note-Einaudi_2001_p.-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Einaudi_2001_p._63-0">^</a> Einaudi (2001). Les silences de la police : 16 juillet 1942-17 octobre 1961 (in French). Paris: L'Esprit frappeur. p. 17. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-84405-173-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-84405-173-8">978-2-84405-173-8</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Einaudi&rft.aulast=Einaudi&rft.btitle=Les+silences+de+la+police+%3A+16+juillet+1942-17+octobre+1961&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-2-84405-173-8&rft.pages=17&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=L%27Esprit+frappeur&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Rajsfus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice Rajsfus (page does not exist)">Maurice Rajsfus</a>, La Police de Vichy. 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(1992). Jean Monnet: The Path to European Unity. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 87. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0312047738" title="Special:BookSources/0312047738">0312047738</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Brinkley%2C+Douglas&rft.au=et+al.&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft.aulast=Brinkley&rft.btitle=Jean+Monnet%3A+The+Path+to+European+Unity&rft.date=1992&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0312047738&rft.pages=87&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Lynch, Frances M. B. (1997). France and the international economy: from Vichy to the Treaty of Rome. London: Routledge. p. 185. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415142199" title="Special:BookSources/0415142199">0415142199</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aufirst=Frances+M.+B.&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.au=Lynch%2C+Frances+M.+B.&rft.btitle=France+and+the+international+economy%3A+from+Vichy+to+the+Treaty+of+Rome&rft.date=1997&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0415142199&rft.pages=185&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Berger, Françoise (2003). "L'exploitation de la Main-d'oeuvre Française dans l'industrie Siderurgique Allemande pendant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale" [The Exploitation of French Labor in the German Iron and Steel Industry During World War II]. Revue D'histoire Moderne et Contemporaine 50 (3): 148–181. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20530987">20530987</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.atitle=L%27exploitation+de+la+Main-d%27oeuvre+Fran%C3%A7aise+dans+l%27industrie+Siderurgique+Allemande+pendant+la+Seconde+Guerre+Mondiale&rft.au=Berger%2C+Fran%C3%A7oise&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7oise&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=3&rft.jstor=20530987&rft.jtitle=Revue+D%27histoire+Moderne+et+Contemporaine&rft.pages=148-181&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=50" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Kitson, Simon (2009). "The Marseille Police and the German Forced Labour Draft (1943–1944)". French History 23 (2): 241–260. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Ffh%2Fcrp006">10.1093/fh/crp006</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.atitle=The+Marseille+Police+and+the+German+Forced+Labour+Draft+%281943%E2%80%931944%29&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Kitson%2C+Simon&rft.aulast=Kitson&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ffh%2Fcrp006&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=French+History&rft.pages=241-260&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=23" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Diamond1999-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Diamond1999_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diamond1999_79-1">b</a> Diamond, Hanna (1999). Women and the Second World War in France, 1939–1948: Choices and Constraints. New York: Longman. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0582299098" title="Special:BookSources/0582299098">0582299098</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Diamond%2C+Hanna&rft.aufirst=Hanna&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.btitle=Women+and+the+Second+World+War+in+France%2C+1939%E2%80%931948%3A+Choices+and+Constraints&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0582299098&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Longman&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Collingham, E. M. (2011). The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food. London: Allen Lane. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780713999648" title="Special:BookSources/9780713999648">9780713999648</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Collingham%2C+E.+M.&rft.aufirst=E.+M.&rft.aulast=Collingham&rft.btitle=The+Taste+of+War%3A+World+War+Two+and+the+Battle+for+Food&rft.date=2011&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9780713999648&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Mouré, Kenneth (2010). "Food Rationing and the Black Market in France (1940–1944)". French History 24 (2): 262–282 [pp. 272–273]. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Ffh%2Fcrq025">10.1093/fh/crq025</a>. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier" class="mw-redirect">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20672479">20672479</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.atitle=Food+Rationing+and+the+Black+Market+in+France+%281940%E2%80%931944%29&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft.aulast=Mour%C3%A9&rft.au=Mour%C3%A9%2C+Kenneth&rft.date=2010&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ffh%2Fcrq025&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20672479&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=French+History&rft.pages=262-282+pp.+272-273&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=24" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Mouré, Kenneth (2010). "Food Rationing and the Black Market in France (1940–1944)". French History 24 (2): 262–282. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Ffh%2Fcrq025">10.1093/fh/crq025</a>. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier" class="mw-redirect">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20672479">20672479</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.atitle=Food+Rationing+and+the+Black+Market+in+France+%281940%E2%80%931944%29&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft.aulast=Mour%C3%A9&rft.au=Mour%C3%A9%2C+Kenneth&rft.date=2010&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ffh%2Fcrq025&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20672479&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=French+History&rft.pages=262-282&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=24" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Fishman, Sarah (1991). We Will Wait: Wives of French Prisoners of War, 1940–1945. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300047746" title="Special:BookSources/0300047746">0300047746</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft.au=Fishman%2C+Sarah&rft.aulast=Fishman&rft.btitle=We+Will+Wait%3A+Wives+of+French+Prisoners+of+War%2C+1940%E2%80%931945&rft.date=1991&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0300047746&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Pollard, Miranda (1998). Reign of Virtue: Mobilizing Gender in Vichy France. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226673499" title="Special:BookSources/0226673499">0226673499</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aufirst=Miranda&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.au=Pollard%2C+Miranda&rft.btitle=Reign+of+Virtue%3A+Mobilizing+Gender+in+Vichy+France&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0226673499&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Muel-Dreyfus, Francine; Johnson, Kathleen A. (2001). Vichy and the Eternal Feminine: A Contribution to a Political-Sociology of Gender. Durham: Duke University Press. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0822327775" title="Special:BookSources/0822327775">0822327775</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aufirst=Francine&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Kathleen+A.&rft.aulast=Muel-Dreyfus&rft.au=Muel-Dreyfus%2C+Francine&rft.btitle=Vichy+and+the+Eternal+Feminine%3A+A+Contribution+to+a+Political-Sociology+of+Gender&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0822327775&rft.place=Durham&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Schwartz, Paula (1989). "Partisianes and Gender Politics in Vichy France". French Historical Studies 16 (1): 126–151. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F286436">10.2307/286436</a>. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://www.jstor.org/stable/286436">286436</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.atitle=Partisianes+and+Gender+Politics+in+Vichy+France&rft.aufirst=Paula&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+Paula&rft.date=1989&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F286436&rft.issue=1&rft.jstor=286436&rft.jtitle=French+Historical+Studies&rft.pages=126-151&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=16" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ord_1944-08-09-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ord_1944-08-09_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ord_1944-08-09_87-1">b</a> Jean-Pierre Maury. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm">"Ordonnance du 9 août 1944 relative au rétablissement de la légalité républicaine sur le territoire continental"</a>. Mjp.univ-perp.fr. Retrieved 31 May 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft.aulast=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft.btitle=Ordonnance+du+9+ao%C3%BBt+1944+relative+au+r%C3%A9tablissement+de+la+l%C3%A9galit%C3%A9+r%C3%A9publicaine+sur+le+territoire+continental&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Ffrance%2Fco1944-1.htm&rft.pub=Mjp.univ-perp.fr&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Jean-Pierre Maury. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-2.htm">"Ordonnance du 21 avril 1944 relative à l'organisation des pouvoirs publics en France après la Libération"</a>. Mjp.univ-perp.fr. Retrieved 31 May 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft.aulast=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft.btitle=Ordonnance+du+21+avril+1944+relative+%C3%A0+l%27organisation+des+pouvoirs+publics+en+France+apr%C3%A8s+la+Lib%C3%A9ration&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Ffrance%2Fco1944-2.htm&rft.pub=Mjp.univ-perp.fr&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://axis101.bizland.com/FlemishFeldpost.htm">"Flemish Legion Military and Feldpost History"</a>. Axis and Foreign Volunteer Legion Military Awards & Postal History. Retrieved 23 May 2009.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.btitle=Flemish+Legion+Military+and+Feldpost+History&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faxis101.bizland.com%2FFlemishFeldpost.htm&rft.pub=Axis+and+Foreign+Volunteer+Legion+Military+Awards+%26+Postal+History&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.german-foreign-policy.com/en/fulltext/56118/print?PHPSESSID=8vchae88fotkvc6tbv2ngjb717">"Accession Plans"</a>. german-foreign-policy.com. 11 December 2007. Retrieved 23 May 2009.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.btitle=Accession+Plans&rft.date=11+December+2007&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.german-foreign-policy.com%2Fen%2Ffulltext%2F56118%2Fprint%3FPHPSESSID%3D8vchae88fotkvc6tbv2ngjb717&rft.pub=german-foreign-policy.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Helm, Sarah (16 February 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/war-memories-widen-belgiums-communal-rift-1319199.html">"War memories widen Belgium's communal rift"</a>. The Independent on Sunday. Retrieved 23 May 2009.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft.au=Helm%2C+Sarah&rft.aulast=Helm&rft.btitle=War+memories+widen+Belgium%27s+communal+rift&rft.date=16+February+1996&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fwar-memories-widen-belgiums-communal-rift-1319199.html&rft.pub=The+Independent+on+Sunday&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anden.C3.A6s-92"><a href="#cite_ref-Anden.C3.A6s_92-0">^</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johs._Anden%C3%A6s" title="Johs. Andenæs" class="mw-redirect">Andenæs, Johs</a> (1980) [1979]. Det vanskelige oppgjøret (in Norwegian) (2nd ed.). Oslo: Tanum-Norli. p. 59. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/82-518-0917-7" title="Special:BookSources/82-518-0917-7">82-518-0917-7</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Anden%C3%A6s%2C+Johs&rft.aufirst=Johs&rft.aulast=Anden%C3%A6s&rft.btitle=Det+vanskelige+oppgj%C3%B8ret&rft.date=1980&rft.edition=2nd&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=82-518-0917-7&rft.pages=59&rft.place=Oslo&rft.pub=Tanum-Norli&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.worldwar2facts.org/vichy-france-facts.html">"Vichy France Facts"</a>. World War 2 Facts. Retrieved 12 January 2014.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.atitle=Vichy+France+Facts&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwar2facts.org%2Fvichy-france-facts.html&rft.jtitle=World+War+2+Facts&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://crdp.ac-reims.fr/memoire/enseigner/rene_bousquet/05_proces.htm">René Bousquet devant la Haute Cour de Justice</a> (French)</li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Kitson, Simon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter8/interviews/filetodownload,27676,en.pdf">"Bousquet, Touvier and Papon: Three Vichy personalities"</a>. Retrieved 30 March 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Kitson%2C+Simon&rft.aulast=Kitson&rft.btitle=Bousquet%2C+Touvier+and+Papon%3A+Three+Vichy+personalities&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.port.ac.uk%2Fspecial%2Ffrance1815to2003%2Fchapter8%2Finterviews%2Ffiletodownload%2C27676%2Cen.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> One of the first legal acts of the provisional government was to pass an ordinance reestablishing the rule of law: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm">Ordonnance du 9 août 1944</a> relative au rétablissement de la légalité républicaine sur le territoire continental, article 1: "The form of government of France is and stays the Republic. In law, the Republic never ceased to exist." article 2: "Thus, all constitutional acts, statutes and regulations, and decisions taken for the execution thereof, taken after 16 June 1940 up to the reestablishment of the provisional government of the French Republic, are null and devoid of effects."</li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.lemonde.fr/web/article/0,1-0@2-3224,36-395520,0.html">En 1995, la reconnaissance des « fautes commises par l'État »</a> in <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a>, 26 January 2005 (French)</li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_Matin" title="Nice Matin" class="mw-redirect">Nice Matin</a>, 28 February 2007 (subscription only) – The news is taken up by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Humanit%C3%A9" title="L'Humanité">L'Humanité</a> on 1 March 2007, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2007-03-01/2007-03-01-846877">Des immeubles niçois à l'heure de Vichy</a> (French)</li> <li id="cite_note-lefigaro.fr-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lefigaro.fr_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lefigaro.fr_99-1">b</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Figaro" title="Le Figaro">Le Figaro</a>, 15 October 2007, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.lefigaro.fr/france/20070228.WWW000000332_a_vendre_appartement_pour_francais_non_juif.html">A vendre appartement pour Français non juif</a> (French)</li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Kim Munholland, "Wartime France: Remembering Vichy." French Historical Studies (1994) 18#3 pp. 801–820 quoting p. 809</li> <li id="cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_101-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_101-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_101-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_101-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_101-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_101-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_101-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_101-8">i</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Humanit%C3%A9" title="L'Humanité">L'Humanité</a>, 1 November 1997, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.humanite.fr/journal/1997-11-01/1997-11-01-790819">Robert Paxton donne une accablante leçon d'histoire</a> (Robert Paxton gives a damning lesson of history) (French)</li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Susan Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews. University of Nebraska Press, 1999, pp. 168–169. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0803299141" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8032-9914-1</a></li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> François Delpech, Historiens et Géographes, no 273, mai–juin 1979, issn 00 46 75 x</li> </ol> </div> <h2>Bibliography[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</h2> <h3>English[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: English">edit</a>]</h3> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Atkin" title="Nicholas Atkin">Atkin, Nicholas</a>, Pétain, (Longman, 1997)</li> <li>Azema, Jean-Pierre. From Munich to Liberation 1938–1944 (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1985)</li> <li>Azema, Jean-Pierre, ed. Collaboration and Resistance: Images of Life in Vichy France 1940–1944 (2000) 220pp; photographs</li> <li>Boyd, Douglas. Voices from the Dark Years: The Truth About Occupied France 1940-1945 (The History Press, 2015)</li> <li>Burrin, Philippe. France Under the Germans: Collaboration and Compromise (1998)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen_Callil" title="Carmen Callil">Carmen Callil</a> Bad Faith. A Forgotten History of Family, Fatherland and Vichy France. New York: Knopf. 2006. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0375411313" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-375-41131-3</a>; Biography of Louis Darquier de Pellepoix, the Commissioner for Jewish Affairs</li> <li>Christofferson, Thomas R., and Michael S. Christofferson. France during World War II: From Defeat to Liberation (2nd ed. 2006) 206pp; brief introduction <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.questia.com/read/117259687/france-during-world-war-ii-from-defeat-to-liberation">online edition</a></li> <li>Davies, Peter. France and the Second World War: Resistance, Occupation and Liberation (Introduction to History) (2000) 128pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.amazon.com/France-Second-World-War-Introduction/dp/0415238978/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Diamond, Hanna. Women and the Second World War in France, 1939–1948: Choices and Constraints (1999)</li> <li>Diamond, Hanna, and Simon Kitson, eds. Vichy, Resistance, Liberation: New Perspectives on Wartime France (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.questia.com/read/118215376/vichy-resistance-liberation-new-perspectives-on">online edition</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/148">online review</a></li> <li>Fogg, Shannon Lee. The Politics of Everyday Life in Vichy France: Foreigners, Undesirables, and Strangers (2009), 226pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.amazon.com/Politics-Everyday-Life-Vichy-France/dp/0521269504/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Gildea, Robert. Marianne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart of France During the German Occupation (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.amazon.com/Marianne-Chains-France-During-Occupation/dp/0312423594/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glass" title="Charles Glass">Glass, Charles</a>, Americans in Paris: Life and Death Under Nazi Occupation (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.amazon.com/Americans-Paris-Death-Occupation-1940-1944/dp/0007228538/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Gordon, B. Historical Dictionary of World War Two France: The Occupation, Vichy and the Resistance, 1938–1946 (Westport, Conn., 1998)</li> <li>Halls, W. D. Politics, Society and Christianity in Vichy France (1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.questia.com/read/77437072/politics-society-and-christianity-in-vichy-france">online edition</a></li> <li>Jackson, Julian. France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.amazon.com/France-Years-1940-1944-Julian-Jackson/dp/0199254575/">excerpt and text search</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.questia.com/read/117421133/france-the-dark-years-1940-1944">online edition</a></li> <li>Kedward, H. R. Occupied France: Collaboration and Resistance (Oxford, 1985), short survey</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kitson" title="Simon Kitson">Kitson, Simon</a>, The Hunt for Nazi Spies: Fighting Espionage in Vichy France, (University of Chicago Press, 2008). <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226438931" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-226-43893-1</a>.</li> <li>Kooreman, Megan. The Expectation of Justice: France, 1944–1946. (Duke University Press. 1999)</li> <li>Lackerstein, Debbie. National Regeneration in Vichy France: Ideas and Policies, 1930–1944 (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.amazon.com/National-Regeneration-Vichy-France-1930-1944/dp/0754667219/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Langer" title="William Langer">Langer, William</a>, Our Vichy gamble, (1947); U.S. policy 1940–42</li> <li>Larkin, Maurice. France since the Popular Front: Government and People 1936–1996 (Oxford U P 1997). <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198731515" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-873151-5</a></li> <li>Lemmes, Fabian. "Collaboration in wartime France, 1940–1944," European Review of History (2008), 15#2 pp 157–177</li> <li>Manow, Philip. "Workers, farmers and Catholicism: A history of political class coalitions and the south-European welfare state regime." Journal of European Social Policy (2015) 25#1 pp: 32-49.</li> <li>Marrus, Michael R. and Robert Paxton. Vichy France and the Jews. (Stanford University Press, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.questia.com/read/100397037/vichy-france-and-the-jews">online 1981 edition</a></li> <li>Melton, George E. Darlan: Admiral and Statesman of France, 1881–1942. (Praeger, 1998). <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0275959732" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-275-95973-2</a>.</li> <li>Nord, Philip. France's New Deal: From the Thirties to the Postwar Era (Princeton U.P., 2010) 457 pages</li> <li>Paxton, Robert O. Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944 (2nd ed. 2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.amazon.com/Vichy-France-Guard-Order-1940-1944/dp/0231124694/">excerpt and text search</a>; influential survey</li> <li>Pollard, Miranda. Reign of virtue: mobilizing gender in Vichy France (University of Chicago Press, 2012)</li> <li>Smith, Colin. England's Last War Against France: Fighting Vichy, 1940–1942, London, Weidenfeld, 2009. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780297852186" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-297-85218-6</a></li> <li>Sutherland, Jonathan, and Diane Canwell. Vichy Air Force at War: The French Air Force that Fought the Allies in World War II (Pen & Sword Aviation, 2011)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Sweets" title="John F. Sweets">Sweets, John F.</a>, Choices in Vichy France: The French Under Nazi Occupation (New York, 1986) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.amazon.com/Choices-Vichy-France-French-Occupation/dp/0195090527/">excerpt and text search</a>, focus on city of <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clermont-Ferrand" title="Clermont-Ferrand">Clermont-Ferrand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Thomas_(historian)" title="Martin Thomas (historian)">Thomas, Martin</a>, The French Empire at War, 1940–45, Manchester University Press, 1998, paperback 2007.</li> <li>Vinen, Richard. The Unfree French: Life Under the Occupation (2007)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_H._Weisberg" title="Richard H. Weisberg">Weisberg, Richard H.</a>. Vichy Law and the Holocaust in France. New York University Press. 1998. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814793363" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8147-9336-3</a></li> </ul> <h3>Historiography[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</h3> <ul> <li>Conan, Eric, and Henry Rousso. Vichy: An ever-present past (UP of New England, 1998)</li> <li>Fishman, Sarah, et al. France at War: Vichy and the Historians (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.questia.com/read/102314051/france-at-war-vichy-and-the-historians">online edition</a></li> <li>Golsan, Richard J. Vichy's Afterlife: History & Counterhistory in Postwar France (2000)</li> <li>Gordon, Bertram M. "The 'Vichy Syndrome' problem in history," French Historical Studies (1995) 19#2 pp 495–518, on the denial of the realities of Vichy <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.jstor.org/stable/286785">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Munholland, Kim. "Wartime France: Remembering Vichy," French Historical Studies (1994) 18#3 pp. 801–820 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.jstor.org/stable/286693">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Poznanski, Renée. "Rescue of the Jews and the Resistance in France: From History to Historiography," French Politics, Culture and Society (2012) 30#2 pp 8–32.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Rousso" title="Henry Rousso">Rousso, Henry</a>. The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944. (2nd ed. 2006). <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/067493539X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-674-93539-X</a></li> <li>Singer, Barnett. "The Changing Image of Vichy in France," Contemporary Review Summer 2009 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.questia.com/read/1G1-205755180/the-changing-image-of-vichy-in-france">online edition</a></li> </ul> <h3>French[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: French">edit</a>]</h3> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Amouroux" title="Henri Amouroux">Henri Amouroux</a>, La grande histoire des Français sous l'Occupation, 8 volumes, Laffont, 1976</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Az%C3%A9ma" title="Jean-Pierre Azéma">Jean-Pierre Azéma</a> & François Bedarida, Vichy et les Français, Paris, Fayard, 1996. <ul> <li>Le régime de Vichy et les Français (dir. Jean-Pierre Azéma & François Bédarida, Institut d'histoire du temps présent), Fayard, 1992, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2213026831" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 2-213-02683-1</a></li> </ul> </li> <li>Michèle Cointet. Dictionnaire historique de la France sous l'Occupation (2nd ed. 2000) 732pp</li> <li>Michèle Cointet. L'Eglise sous Vichy. 1940–1945. La repentance en question., Perrin, Paris, 1998. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2262012318" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 2-262-01231-8</a></li> <li>Eric Conan et <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Rousso" title="Henry Rousso">Henry Rousso</a>. Vichy, un passé qui ne passe pas, Fayard, Paris, 1994, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2213592373" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 2-213-59237-3</a></li> <li>Yves Maxime Danan, La vie politique à Alger, de 1940 à 1944, L.G.D.J., Paris 1963.</li> <li>Jean-Luc Einaudi (2001). Les silences de la police : 16 juillet 1942-17 octobre 1961 (in French). Paris: L'Esprit frappeur. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-84405-173-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-84405-173-8">978-2-84405-173-8</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.au=Jean-Luc+Einaudi&rft.aulast=Jean-Luc+Einaudi&rft.btitle=Les+silences+de+la+police+%3A+16+juillet+1942-17+octobre+1961&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-2-84405-173-8&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=L%27Esprit+frappeur&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>André Kaspi. Les Juifs pendant l'Occupation, Seuil, Paris, 1991, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2020135094" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 2-02-013509-4</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_Klarsfeld" title="Serge Klarsfeld" class="mw-redirect">Serge Klarsfeld</a>. Vichy-Auschwitz. Le rôle de Vichy dans la solution finale de la question juive en France. 1943–1944., Fayard, Paris, 1985, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2213015732" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 2-213-01573-2</a></li> <li>Launay, Jacques de. Le Dossier de Vichy, in series, Collection Archives, [Éditions] Julliard, [Paris], 1967. N.B.: A documentary history.</li> <li>Herbert R. Lottman. Pétain. Seuil, 1984, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2020067633" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 2-02-006763-3</a></li> <li>Jacques Sabille. "Les Juifs de Tunisie sous Vichy et l'Occupation". Paris: Edition du Centre de Documentation Juive Contemporaine, 1954</li> <li>Sémelin, Jacques (2013). Persécutions et entraides dans la France occupée : comment 75 % des juifs de France ont échappé à la mort (in French). Paris: Seuil Arènes. <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-35204-235-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-35204-235-8">978-2-35204-235-8</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft.aulast=S%C3%A9melin&rft.au=S%C3%A9melin%2C+Jacques&rft.btitle=Pers%C3%A9cutions+et+entraides+dans+la+France+occup%C3%A9e+%3A+comment+75+%25+des+juifs+de+France+ont+%C3%A9chapp%C3%A9+%C3%A0+la+mort&rft.date=2013&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-2-35204-235-8&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Seuil+Ar%C3%A8nes&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> </ul> <h3>German[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: German">edit</a>]</h3> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eberhard_J%C3%A4ckel" title="Eberhard Jäckel">Eberhard Jäckel</a>: Frankreich in Hitlers Europa: die deutsche Frankreichpolitik im 2. Weltkrieg, Stuttgart 1966.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martin_Jungius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Jungius (page does not exist)">Martin Jungius</a>: Der verwaltete Raub. Die "Arisierung" der Wirtschaft in Frankreich 1940–1944. Thorbecke, Ostfildern 2008, Beiheft der Francia Nr. 67, hrsg. von Deutschen Historischen Institut Paris.</li> <li>Henry Rousso, Vichy. Frankreich unter deutscher Besatzung 1940–1944 (München, C.H.Beck, 2009) (beck'sche reihe; 1910).</li> <li><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Mayer_(Historiker)" class="extiw" title="de:Michael Mayer (Historiker)">Michael Mayer</a> Staaten als Täter. Ministerialbürokratie und 'Judenpolitik' in NS-Deutschland und Vichy-Frankreich. Ein Vergleich. Preface by Horst Möller and Georges-Henri Soutou München, Oldenbourg, 2010 (Studien zur Zeitgeschichte; 80). <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783486589450" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-3-486-58945-0</a>. (Comparative study of anti-Jewish policy implemented by the government in Nazi-Germany, by German occupational forces in France and by the semi-autonomic French government in Vichy)</li> </ul> <h3>Films[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Films">edit</a>]</h3> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Oph%C3%BCls" title="Marcel Ophüls">Marcel Ophüls</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sorrow_and_the_Pity" title="The Sorrow and the Pity">The Sorrow and the Pity</a> (1969).</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Chabrol" title="Claude Chabrol">Claude Chabrol</a>, <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Eye_of_Vichy" title="The Eye of Vichy">The Eye of Vichy</a> (1993).</li> </ul> <h2>External links[<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</h2> <table class="mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"/></td> <td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Vichy_France" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Vichy France">Vichy France</a>.</td> </tr> </table> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kitson" title="Simon Kitson">Simon Kitson</a>'s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/vichy/">Vichy web-page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1940/400710a.html">Original "Establishment of the Vichy government" constitutional act</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.hist-geo.com/Carte/France/1940-1942/Armistice-22-Juin-1940-11.png">Map of the "free" and "occupied" French zones</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.hist-geo.com/Carte/France/1940-1942/Armistice-22-Juin-1940-Analyse.php">National Geographic coverage of the armistice</a> (French)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764199,00.html">Obituary of a Republic</a> Time Magazine, 22 July 1940</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/vica/">Vica Nazi Propaganda Comics – Duke University Libraries Digital Collections</a>—Pro-Nazi comics produced in Vichy France</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://histclo.com/essay/war/ww2/camp/eur/ger/dip/nd40m.html">NAZI diplomacy: Vichy, 1940</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/france/deportations.asp">The Holocaust in France</a>, at <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a> website</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%202026.pdf">Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, But Not for All: France and the "Alien" Jews, 1933–1942</a></li> </ul> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#B0C4DE"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_II" title="Template talk:World War II">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:World_War_II&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_African_Campaign" title="North African Campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Asia and the Pacific</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South-West</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" title="American Theater (World War II)">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America_during_World_War_II" title="Latin America during World War II">South America</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">Casualties</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_World_War_II" title="List of military engagements of World War II">Military engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of World War II conferences">Conferences</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commanders_of_World_War_II" title="Commanders of World War II">Commanders</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#DCDCDC"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participants_in_World_War_II" title="Participants in World War II" class="mw-redirect">Participants</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Allied leaders of World War II">leaders</a>)</div> </div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Brazil#World_War_II" title="Military history of Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Canada_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Canada during World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" title="German occupation of Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_during_the_Second_World_War" title="France during the Second World War" class="mw-redirect">France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> (from June 1940)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Co-Belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-Belligerent Army" class="mw-redirect">Italy</a> (from September 1943) <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Campaign</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_in_World_War_II#The_Resistance" title="German occupation of Luxembourg in World War II" class="mw-redirect">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Mexico#World_War_II" title="Military history of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Netherlands during World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Campaign" title="Norwegian Campaign">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a> (Commonwealth)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%9345)" title="History of Poland (1939–45)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslavia_in_World_War_II" title="Yugoslavia in World War II" class="mw-redirect">Yugoslavia</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"> <div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis and Axis-aligned</a> (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Axis leaders of World War II">leaders</a>)</div> </div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_Kingdom_(1939%E2%80%9343)" title="Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reorganized_National_Government_of_China" title="Reorganized National Government of China" class="mw-redirect">Reorganized National Government of China</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Finland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Finland during World War II">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Army" title="Indian National Army">Free India</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a> (until September 1943)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan#Late_Sh.C5.8Dwa_.281937.E2.80.931947.29_.E2.80.93_Expansionism" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Philippines</a> (Second Republic)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%9345)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–45)">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a> </li> <li>Vichy France <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_neutrality" title="Armed neutrality">armed neutrality</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance during World War II">Resistance</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Albanian resistance during World War II">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_resistance" title="Austrian resistance" class="mw-redirect">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_resistance_to_Nazi_occupation" title="Czech resistance to Nazi occupation">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_anti-German_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%9344" title="Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–44">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)#Ethiopian_irregular_forces" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Resistance_to_Nazism" title="German Resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Resistance" title="Greek Resistance">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong#Anti-Japanese_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_dissidence_during_the_Sh%C5%8Dwa_period" title="Japanese dissidence during the Shōwa period">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_resistance_under_Nazi_rule" title="Jewish resistance under Nazi rule">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army" title="Korean Liberation Army">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%9345" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–45">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_resistance_against_Japan" title="Philippine resistance against Japan">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Anti-communist</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chetniks" title="Chetniks">Monarchists</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#DCDCDC"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II" title="Timeline of World War II">Timeline</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Prelude</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Europe</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)" title="Timeline of World War II (1939)">1939</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939%E2%80%9340_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–40 Winter Offensive">China</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)" title="Timeline of World War II (1940)">1940</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Weser%C3%BCbung" title="Operation Weserübung">Weserübung</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Netherlands" title="Battle of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Belgium" title="Battle of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">France</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Armistice_at_Compiegne" title="Second Armistice at Compiegne" class="mw-redirect">Second Armistice at Compiegne</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign" title="Western Desert Campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_conquest_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian conquest of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic States</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco%E2%80%93Italian_War" title="Greco–Italian War" class="mw-redirect">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Compass</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)" title="Timeline of World War II (1941)">1941</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Greece" title="Battle of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Soviet Union (Barbarossa)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_Uprising_in_Lithuania" title="June Uprising in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_Campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon Campaign">Syria and Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Leningrad</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%9342)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–42)">Sevastopol</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_Campaign_(1941%E2%80%9342)" title="Philippines Campaign (1941–42)">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan_Campaign" title="Malayan Campaign">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%9342)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–42)">Borneo (1941–42)</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)" title="Timeline of World War II (1942)">1942</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_conquest_of_Burma" title="Japanese conquest of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1942)">Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea" title="Battle of the Java Sea">Java Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Coral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Gazala</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Midway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Blue" title="Case Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Stalingrad</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign" title="Guadalcanal Campaign">Guadalcanal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Torch</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)" title="Timeline of World War II (1943)">1943</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia_Campaign" title="Tunisia Campaign">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Kursk</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Smolensk_(1943)" title="Battle of Smolensk (1943)">Smolensk</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">Lower Dnieper</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Italy</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert and Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)" title="Timeline of World War II (1944)">1944</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> / <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Shingle" title="Operation Shingle" class="mw-redirect">Shingle</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Narva</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Korsun%E2%80%93Cherkassy_Pocket" title="Battle of the Korsun–Cherkassy Pocket">Korsun–Cherkassy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Tempest</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Ichi-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Overlord</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy" title="Invasion of Normandy">Normandy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Mariana and Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration">Bagration</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_Offensive" title="Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg_Line" title="Battle of Tannenberg Line">Tannenberg Line</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_Offensive" title="Jassy–Kishinev Offensive">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Offensive" title="Belgrade Offensive">Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Dragoon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Market Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallinn_Offensive" title="Tallinn Offensive">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive" title="Combined Bomber Offensive">Pointblank</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest_Offensive" title="Budapest Offensive">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Leyte</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bodenplatte" title="Operation Bodenplatte">Bodenplatte</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_Campaign_(1944%E2%80%9345)" title="Philippines Campaign (1944–45)">Philippines (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Campaign_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Burma Campaign 1944–1945" class="mw-redirect">Burma (1944–1945)</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945)" title="Timeline of World War II (1945)">1945</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_Offensive" title="Vistula–Oder Offensive">Vistula–Oder</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Iwo Jima</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Western invasion of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Okinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">Italy (Spring 1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague_Offensive" title="Prague Offensive">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest" title="Siege of Budapest">Budapest</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Surrender of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo_campaign_(1945)" title="Borneo campaign (1945)">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#DCDCDC">Aspects</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">General</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_officer_ranks_of_World_War_II" title="Comparative officer ranks of World War II">Comparative military ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_cryptography" title="World War II cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Australian home front during World War II">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_awards_of_World_War_II" title="Military awards of World War II">Military awards</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_equipment" title="List of World War II military equipment">Military equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Category:Opposition to World War II">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_war#World_War_II" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942-43" title="Chinese famine of 1942-43" class="mw-redirect">Chinese famine of 1942-43</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_puppet_states" title="List of World War II puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%9350)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)">Expulsion of Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Operation Paperclip</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul">Operation Keelhaul</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Territorial changes of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Poland" title="People's Republic of Poland" class="mw-redirect">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Hungary" title="Soviet occupation of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic States</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_in_popular_culture" title="World War II in popular culture">Popular culture</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crimes</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied war crimes</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="British war crimes">British war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="United States war crimes">United States war crimes</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="German war crimes">German</a> (<a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Forced labour</a>) / <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht war crimes</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">Response</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials" title="Nuremberg Trials" class="mw-redirect">Prosecution</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Prosecution</a></li> </ul> </li> <li>Croatian war crimes <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_persecution_of_Serbs#Usta.C5.A1e_persecution_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="World War II persecution of Serbs">against the Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">against the Jews</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chetniks#Terror_tactics_and_cleansing_actions" title="Chetniks">Serbian war crimes</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_rape" title="War rape" class="mw-redirect">War rape</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_military_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German military brothels in World War II">German military brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Japan" title="Rape during the occupation of Japan">Rape during the occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanking_Massacre" title="Nanking Massacre">Rape of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">Rape during the liberation of France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_Poland" title="Rape during the liberation of Poland">Rape during the liberation of Poland</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">Prisoners</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">German prisoners of war in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoners of war in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_mistreatment_of_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war">German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_prisoners-of-war_in_the_Soviet_Union_after_1939" title="Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939">Polish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC"> <div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:World_War_II" title="Category:World War II">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:World_War_II" title="Portal:World War II">Portal</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><img alt="Wiktionary page" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" title="Wiktionary page" width="16" height="15" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350"/> <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/World_War_II" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/World War II">definition</a></li> <li><img alt="Wikibooks page" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/16px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" title="Wikibooks page" width="16" height="16" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/24px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/32px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300"/> <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/World_War_II" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/World War II">textbooks</a></li> <li><img alt="Wikiquote page" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" title="Wikiquote page" width="13" height="16" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"/> <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/World_War_II" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/World War II">quotes</a></li> <li><img alt="Wikisource page" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" title="Wikisource page" width="15" height="16" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"/> <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/World_War_II" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/World War II">source texts</a></li> <li><img alt="Commons page" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"/> <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/World_War_II" class="extiw" title="commons:Special:Search/World War II">media</a></li> <li><img alt="Wikinews page" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/16px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" title="Wikinews page" width="16" height="9" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/24px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415"/> <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/World_War_II" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/World War II">news stories</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:France_topics" title="Template:France topics">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:France_topics" title="Template talk:France topics">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:France_topics&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_France-related_topics" title="List of France-related topics" class="mw-redirect">topics</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;;background:transparent;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Periods</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_French_history" title="Timeline of French history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France" title="Prehistory of France">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_France" title="Early modern France">Early modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="France in the long nineteenth century">Long nineteenth century</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_twentieth_century" title="France in the twentieth century">Twentieth century</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Regimes</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">Kingdom of the French</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration" title="Bourbon Restoration">Bourbon Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France during the Second World War</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li>Vichy France</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Republic</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_France" title="Geography of France">Geography</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_France" title="Administrative divisions of France">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_communes_in_France_with_over_20,000_inhabitants_(2010_census)" title="List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants (2010 census)" class="mw-redirect">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_France" title="Climate of France" class="mw-redirect">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_points_of_France" title="Extreme points of France" class="mw-redirect">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_of_France" title="List of islands of France">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_France" title="List of lakes of France">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_French_mountains_by_prominence" title="List of French mountains by prominence">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_France" title="List of rivers of France">Rivers</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Politics</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_France" title="Constitution of France">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_France" title="Elections in France">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_France" title="Foreign relations of France">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_system_of_France" title="Political system of France" class="mw-redirect">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_France" title="Human rights in France">Human rights</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_France" title="LGBT rights in France">LGBT</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_France" title="Judiciary of France">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_France" title="Law of France">Law</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_France" title="Law enforcement in France">enforcement</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Armed_Forces" title="French Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Parliament" title="French Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_France" title="List of political parties in France">Political parties</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_France" title="Economy of France">Economy</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_France" title="Agriculture in France" class="mw-redirect">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banking_in_France" title="Banking in France">Banking</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banque_de_France" title="Banque de France">Central bank</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_in_France" title="Energy in France">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">Euro</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">Franc (former currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_French_regions_and_overseas_collectivities_by_GDP" title="List of French regions and overseas collectivities by GDP">French subdivisions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euronext_Paris" title="Euronext Paris">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation_in_France" title="Taxation in France">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in France">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_France" title="Tourism in France">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_France" title="List of trade unions in France">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_France" title="Transport in France">Transport</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:French_society" title="Category:French society">Society</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_in_France" title="Crime in France">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_France" title="Demographics of France">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_care_in_France" title="Health care in France">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_people" title="French people">People</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_in_France" title="Poverty in France">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_protection_in_France" title="Social protection in France">Welfare</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_France" title="Culture of France">Culture</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_architecture" title="French architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_art" title="French art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_France" title="Cinema of France">Cinema</a> ( <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_comedy_films" title="French comedy films">comedy</a> )</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_cuisine" title="French cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_fashion" title="French fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remarkable_Gardens_of_France" title="Remarkable Gardens of France">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" title="French language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_of_France" title="Media of France">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_France" title="Music of France">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_holidays_in_France" title="Public holidays in France">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_France" title="Sport in France">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_France" title="Symbols of France">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_France" title="Theatre of France">Theatre</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="padding:0.25em;"> <div> <div style="margin-top:0;line-height:1.4em;margin-bottom:-0.2em;"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_France" title="Outline of France">Outline</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="margin-top:-0.2em;line-height:1.4em;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:0;"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book:France" title="Book:France">Book</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:France" title="Category:France">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_France" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject France">WikiProject</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#d7d7d7;;background:#c3c3c3;"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Nazi_Germany_occupations" title="Template:Nazi Germany occupations">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Nazi_Germany_occupations" title="Template talk:Nazi Germany occupations">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Nazi_Germany_occupations&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German-occupied_Europe" title="German-occupied Europe">Countries occupied</a> by <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> during <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Albania_during_World_War_II#German_occupation" title="Military history of Albania during World War II" class="mw-redirect">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Austria</a> (Anschluss)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Belarus_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Belarus during World War II">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Belgium_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Belgium during World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Channel_Islands" title="Occupation of the Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" title="German occupation of Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Estonia_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Estonia during World War II">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_occupation_of_Greece" title="Axis occupation of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary_during_World_War_II#Outbreak_of_war" title="Hungary during World War II" class="mw-redirect">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Latvia_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Latvia during World War II">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Monaco#Sovereignty" title="History of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II#German_occupation" title="Netherlands in World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Norway" title="German occupation of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%9345)" title="Occupation of Poland (1939–45)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_San_Marino#World_War_II" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ukraine" title="Reichskommissariat Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> <td class="navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:0%;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"> <div><a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Reichsadler_der_Deutsches_Reich_(1933%E2%80%931945).svg" class="image" title="Emblem of Germany"><img alt="Emblem of Germany" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Reichsadler_der_Deutsches_Reich_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg/60px-Reichsadler_der_Deutsches_Reich_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" width="60" height="39" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Reichsadler_der_Deutsches_Reich_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg/90px-Reichsadler_der_Deutsches_Reich_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150321003705im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Reichsadler_der_Deutsches_Reich_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg/120px-Reichsadler_der_Deutsches_Reich_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="846"/></a></div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#d7d7d7;"> <div>See also: <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areas_annexed_by_Nazi_Germany" title="Areas annexed by Nazi Germany">Areas annexed by Nazi Germany</a> • <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat" title="Reichskommissariat">Reichskommissariat</a> • <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Administration_(Nazi_Germany)" title="Military Administration (Nazi Germany)">Military administrations</a> •</div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <a href="/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Vichy_France&params=46_10_N_3_24_E_type:country_source:kolossus-ptwiki">46°10′N 3°24′E / 46.167°N 3.400°E / 46.167; 3.400</a>    <noscript><img 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href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8" title="Режим на Виши – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Български</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renad_Vichy" title="Renad Vichy – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Govern_de_Vichy" title="Govern de Vichy – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC%C4%95" title="Виши режимĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv">Чӑвашла</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichystick%C3%A1_Francie" title="Vichystická Francie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llywodraeth_Vichy" title="Llywodraeth Vichy – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-regeringen" title="Vichy-regeringen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-Regime" title="Vichy-Regime – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%92%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%8D" title="Γαλλία του Βισύ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia_de_Vichy" title="Francia de Vichy – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C4%9Dimo_de_Vichy" title="Reĝimo de Vichy – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichyko_gobernua" title="Vichyko gobernua – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a 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href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-stj%C3%B3rnin" title="Vichy-stjórnin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">Íslenska</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governo_di_Vichy" title="Governo di Vichy – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%99" title="צרפת של וישי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9F%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ვიშის რეჟიმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქართული</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serikali_ya_V%C3%ADchy" title="Serikali ya Víchy – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regimen_Vippiacense" title="Regimen Vippiacense – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C5%A1%C4%AB_Francija" title="Višī Francija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C5%A1i_re%C5%BEimas" title="Viši režimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-korm%C3%A1ny" title="Vichy-kormány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Вишиевска Франција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македонски</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="വിഷി ഫ്രാൻസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="विशी फ्रान्स – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7_%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%89" title="فرنسا فيشى – Egyptian Spoken Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perancis_Vichy" title="Perancis Vichy – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-Frankrijk" title="Vichy-Frankrijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A3%E3%82%B7%E3%83%BC%E6%94%BF%E6%A8%A9" title="ヴィシー政権 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-regimet" title="Vichy-regimet – Norwegian (bokmål)" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-regimet" title="Vichy-regimet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regim_de_P%C3%A9tain" title="Regim de Pétain – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="وشی فرانس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francja_Vichy" title="Francja Vichy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7a_de_Vichy" title="França de Vichy – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regimul_de_la_Vichy" title="Regimul de la Vichy – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8" title="Режим Виши – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Русский</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frantza_de_Vichy" title="Frantza de Vichy – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc">Sardu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franc%C3%BAzsky_%C5%A1t%C3%A1t" title="Francúzsky štát – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Slovenčina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%DA%95%DB%95%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%A4%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="فەڕەنسای ڤیشی – Sorani Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Вишијевска Француска – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Српски / srpski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C5%A1ijevska_Francuska" title="Višijevska Francuska – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichyn_Ranska" title="Vichyn Ranska – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichyregimen" title="Vichyregimen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pransiyang_Vichy" title="Pransiyang Vichy – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9D%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5" title="ฝรั่งเศสเขตวีชี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_Fransas%C4%B1" title="Vichy Fransası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%92%D1%96%D1%88%D1%96" title="Режим Віші – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Українська</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%86%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="ویچی فرانس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ADnh_ph%E1%BB%A7_Vichy" title="Chính phủ Vichy – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redjime_di_Vichy" title="Redjime di Vichy – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa">Walon</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%99_%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92" title="ווישי רעגירונג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E5%B8%8C%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" title="維希法國 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li> <li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a action="edit" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q69808#sitelinks-wikipedia" text="Edit links" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="footer" role="contentinfo"> <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last modified on 20 March 2015, at 22:47.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a rel="license" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150321003705/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License</a><a rel="license" 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