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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Design</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Design-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Design subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Engines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Propellant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propellant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Propellant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propellant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pendulum_rocket_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pendulum_rocket_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Pendulum rocket fallacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pendulum_rocket_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Uses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Science and research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_and_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spaceflight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spaceflight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Spaceflight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spaceflight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rescue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rescue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Rescue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rescue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hobby,_sport,_and_entertainment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hobby,_sport,_and_entertainment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Hobby, sport, and entertainment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hobby,_sport,_and_entertainment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Flight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Noise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Physics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Operation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forces_on_a_rocket_in_flight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forces_on_a_rocket_in_flight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Forces on a rocket in flight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forces_on_a_rocket_in_flight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drag" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drag"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Drag</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drag-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Net_thrust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Net_thrust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Net thrust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Net_thrust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Total_impulse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Total_impulse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Total impulse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Total_impulse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specific_impulse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specific_impulse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Specific impulse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specific_impulse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Delta-v_(rocket_equation)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delta-v_(rocket_equation)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Delta-v (rocket equation)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delta-v_(rocket_equation)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass_ratios" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_ratios"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Mass ratios</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_ratios-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Staging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Staging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Staging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Staging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acceleration_and_thrust-to-weight_ratio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acceleration_and_thrust-to-weight_ratio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Acceleration and thrust-to-weight ratio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acceleration_and_thrust-to-weight_ratio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.9</span> <span>Energy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Energy_efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.9.1</span> <span>Energy efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oberth_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oberth_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.9.2</span> <span>Oberth effect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oberth_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety,_reliability_and_accidents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety,_reliability_and_accidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Safety, reliability and accidents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety,_reliability_and_accidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Costs_and_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs_and_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Costs and economics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Costs_and_economics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Costs and economics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Costs_and_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-2010s_emerging_private_competition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2010s_emerging_private_competition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>2010s emerging private competition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2010s_emerging_private_competition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Rocket</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 110 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-110" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">110 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuurpyl" title="Vuurpyl – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Vuurpyl" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakete" title="Rakete – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Rakete" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE" title="صاروخ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صاروخ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codete" title="Codete – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Codete" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohete" title="Cohete – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cohete" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raket" title="Raket – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Raket" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA" title="راکت – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="راکت" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F" title="রকেট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রকেট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B3e-ch%C3%AC%E2%81%BF" title="Hóe-chìⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hóe-chìⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ракета – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ракета" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ракета – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ракета" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ракета – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ракета" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ракета – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ракета" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketa" title="Raketa – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Raketa" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzeenn" title="Fuzeenn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Fuzeenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coet" title="Coet – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Coet" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketa" title="Raketa – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Raketa" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roced" title="Roced – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Roced" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raket" title="Raket – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Raket" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE" title="صاروخ – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="صاروخ" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakete" title="Rakete – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rakete" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakett" title="Rakett – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rakett" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Πύραυλος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πύραυλος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohete" title="Cohete – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cohete" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketo" title="Raketo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Raketo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suziri" title="Suziri – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Suziri" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA" title="راکت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="راکت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fus%C3%A9e_(astronautique)" title="Fusée (astronautique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fusée (astronautique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roic%C3%A9ad" title="Roicéad – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Roicéad" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foguete_espacial" title="Foguete espacial – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Foguete espacial" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E7%AE%AD" title="火箭 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="火箭" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EC%BC%93" title="로켓 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로켓" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D6%80%D5%A9%D5%AB%D5%BC" title="Հրթիռ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հրթիռ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F" title="रॉकेट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रॉकेट" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketa" title="Raketa – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Raketa" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzeo" title="Fuzeo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Fuzeo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roket" title="Roket – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Roket" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IsiCibazulu" title="IsiCibazulu – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IsiCibazulu" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razzo" title="Razzo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Razzo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%94" title="רקטה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רקטה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rok%C3%A8t" title="Rokèt – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Rokèt" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B6_%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A3_(%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D_)" title="ಆಕಾಶ ಬಾಣ (ರಾಕೆಟ್ ) – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಕಾಶ ಬಾಣ (ರಾಕೆಟ್ )" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90" title="რაკეტა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რაკეტა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ракета – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ракета" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roketi" title="Roketi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Roketi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fize" title="Fize – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Fize" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafiz%C3%A9_(astronotik)" title="Lafizé (astronotik) – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lafizé (astronotik)" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roket" title="Roket – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Roket" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ракета – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ракета" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocheta" title="Rocheta – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Rocheta" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%B7ete" title="Raķete – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Raķete" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rak%C3%A9it" title="Rakéit – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Rakéit" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketa" title="Raketa – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Raketa" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rak%C3%A9ta" title="Rakéta – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rakéta" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ракета – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ракета" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="റോക്കറ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റോക്കറ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3" title="अग्निबाण – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अग्निबाण" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE" title="صاروخ – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="صاروخ" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roket" title="Roket – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Roket" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fogueton" title="Fogueton – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Fogueton" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%92%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B6" title="ဒုံးပျံ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဒုံးပျံ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raket" title="Raket – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Raket" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F" title="रकेट – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रकेट" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4" title="रकेत – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="रकेत" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B1%E3%83%83%E3%83%88" title="ロケット – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ロケット" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakett" title="Rakett – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rakett" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakett" title="Rakett – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Rakett" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusada" title="Fusada – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fusada" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rookeetii(furgaatuu)" title="Rookeetii(furgaatuu) – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Rookeetii(furgaatuu)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketa" title="Raketa – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Raketa" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%9F" title="ਰਾਕਟ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰਾਕਟ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%B9" title="راکٹ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="راکٹ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rak%C3%A8t" title="Rakèt – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Rakèt" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakit" title="Rakit – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Rakit" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakieta" title="Rakieta – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rakieta" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foguete_espacial" title="Foguete espacial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Foguete espacial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketa" title="Raketa – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Raketa" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachet%C4%83" title="Rachetă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rachetă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antachuki" title="Antachuki – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Antachuki" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ракета – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ракета" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqic_puniq" title="Raqic puniq – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Raqic puniq" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seediq</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketa" title="Raketa – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Raketa" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razzu" title="Razzu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Razzu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="රොකට් යානය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="රොකට් යානය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Rocket" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketa" title="Raketa – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Raketa" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketa" title="Raketa – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Raketa" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ракета – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ракета" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketa" title="Raketa – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Raketa" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rok%C3%A9t" title="Rokét – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Rokét" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketti" title="Raketti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Raketti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raket" title="Raket – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Raket" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roketa" title="Roketa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Roketa" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8F%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF" title="ஏவூர்தி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஏவூர்தி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ракета – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ракета" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D" title="రాకెట్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="రాకెట్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%94" title="จรวด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จรวด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D" title="ರಾಕೆಟ್ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ರಾಕೆಟ್" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roket" title="Roket – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Roket" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raketa" title="Raketa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Raketa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roket" title="Roket – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Roket" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ракета – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ракета" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%B9" title="راکٹ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="راکٹ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%83%DB%90%D8%AA%D8%A7" title="راكېتا – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="راكېتا" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%AAn_l%E1%BB%ADa" title="Tên lửa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tên lửa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Rocket" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jum" title="Jum – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Jum" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rockets&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockets">Rockets</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Vehicle propelled by a reaction gas engine</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Rocket_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Rocket (disambiguation)">Rocket (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soyuz_TMA-9_launch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Soyuz_TMA-9_launch.jpg/170px-Soyuz_TMA-9_launch.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Soyuz_TMA-9_launch.jpg/255px-Soyuz_TMA-9_launch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Soyuz_TMA-9_launch.jpg/340px-Soyuz_TMA-9_launch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2136" data-file-height="3216" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Soyuz-FG" title="Soyuz-FG">Soyuz-FG</a> rocket launches from "<a href="/wiki/Gagarin%27s_Start" title="Gagarin's Start">Gagarin's Start</a>" (Site 1/5), <a href="/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>rocket</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">rocchetto</i>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>''bobbin/spool'', and so named for its shape)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bernhard_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernhard-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">vehicle</a> that uses <a href="/wiki/Jet_propulsion" title="Jet propulsion">jet propulsion</a> to <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">accelerate</a> without using any surrounding <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">air</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket engine</a> produces thrust by <a href="/wiki/Reaction_(physics)" title="Reaction (physics)">reaction</a> to exhaust expelled at high speed.<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rocket engines work entirely from <a href="/wiki/Rocket_propellant" title="Rocket propellant">propellant</a> carried within the vehicle; therefore a rocket can fly in the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> of space. Rockets work more efficiently in a vacuum and incur a loss of thrust due to the opposing pressure of the atmosphere. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Multistage_rocket" title="Multistage rocket">Multistage rockets</a> are capable of attaining <a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">escape velocity</a> from Earth and therefore can achieve unlimited maximum altitude. Compared with <a href="/wiki/Airbreathing_jet_engine" title="Airbreathing jet engine">airbreathing engines</a>, rockets are lightweight and powerful and capable of generating large <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">accelerations</a>. To control their flight, rockets rely on <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airfoils" class="mw-redirect" title="Airfoils">airfoils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reaction_control_system" title="Reaction control system">auxiliary reaction engines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gimballed_thrust" class="mw-redirect" title="Gimballed thrust">gimballed thrust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reaction_wheel" title="Reaction wheel">momentum wheels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrust_vectoring" title="Thrust vectoring">deflection of the exhaust stream</a>, propellant flow, <a href="/wiki/Spin-stabilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin-stabilisation">spin</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>. </p><p>Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th-century <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NASAEARLY_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASAEARLY-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the <a href="/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">setting foot on the Moon</a>. Rockets are now used for <a href="/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">fireworks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">missiles</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">weaponry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">ejection seats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicles</a> for <a href="/wiki/Artificial_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial satellite">artificial satellites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">human spaceflight</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chemical_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical rocket">Chemical rockets</a> are the most common type of high power rocket, typically creating a high speed exhaust by the <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rocket_propellant" title="Rocket propellant">fuel</a> with an <a href="/wiki/Oxidizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizer">oxidizer</a>. The stored propellant can be a simple pressurized gas or a single <a href="/wiki/Liquid_fuel" title="Liquid fuel">liquid fuel</a> that disassociates in the presence of a catalyst (<a href="/wiki/Monopropellant_rocket" title="Monopropellant rocket">monopropellant</a>), two liquids that spontaneously react on contact (<a href="/wiki/Hypergolic_propellant" title="Hypergolic propellant">hypergolic propellants</a>), two liquids that must be ignited to react (like kerosene (RP1) and liquid oxygen, used in most <a href="/wiki/Liquid-propellant_rocket" title="Liquid-propellant rocket">liquid-propellant rockets</a>), a solid combination of fuel with oxidizer (<a href="/wiki/Solid-fuel_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-fuel rocket">solid fuel</a>), or solid fuel with liquid or gaseous oxidizer (<a href="/wiki/Hybrid_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybrid rocket">hybrid propellant system</a>). Chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_rockets" title="History of rockets">History of rockets</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology" title="Timeline of rocket and missile technology">Timeline of rocket and missile technology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oldest_depiction_of_rocket_arrows.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Oldest_depiction_of_rocket_arrows.jpg/170px-Oldest_depiction_of_rocket_arrows.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Oldest_depiction_of_rocket_arrows.jpg/255px-Oldest_depiction_of_rocket_arrows.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Oldest_depiction_of_rocket_arrows.jpg/340px-Oldest_depiction_of_rocket_arrows.jpg 2x" data-file-width="465" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption>Rocket arrows depicted in the <i><a href="/wiki/Huolongjing" title="Huolongjing">Huolongjing</a></i>: "fire arrow", "dragon-shaped arrow frame", and a "complete fire arrow"</figcaption></figure><p> In China, <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>-powered rockets evolved in medieval China under the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> by the 13th century. They also developed an early form of <a href="/wiki/Multiple_rocket_launcher" title="Multiple rocket launcher">multiple rocket launcher</a> during this time. The Mongols adopted Chinese rocket technology and the invention spread via the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasions">Mongol invasions</a> to the Middle East and to Europe in the mid-13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Joseph Needham, the Song navy used rockets in a <a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">military exercise</a> dated to 1245. Internal-combustion rocket propulsion is mentioned in a reference to 1264, recording that the "ground-rat", a type of <a href="/wiki/Firework" class="mw-redirect" title="Firework">firework</a>, had frightened the Empress-Mother <a href="/wiki/Gongsheng" class="mw-redirect" title="Gongsheng">Gongsheng</a> at a feast held in her honor by her son the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Lizong" title="Emperor Lizong">Emperor Lizong</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, rockets are included in the military treatise <i><a href="/wiki/Huolongjing" title="Huolongjing">Huolongjing</a></i>, also known as the Fire Drake Manual, written by the Chinese artillery officer <a href="/wiki/Jiao_Yu" title="Jiao Yu">Jiao Yu</a> in the mid-14th century. This text mentions the first known <a href="/wiki/Multistage_rocket" title="Multistage rocket">multistage rocket</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Huolongchushui" title="Huolongchushui">'fire-dragon issuing from the water'</a> (Huo long chu shui), thought to have been used by the Chinese navy.<sup id="cite_ref-Needham_volume_5_part_7_510_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needham_volume_5_part_7_510-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medieval and early modern rockets were used militarily as <a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">incendiary weapons</a> in <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">sieges</a>. Between 1270 and 1280, Hasan al-Rammah wrote <i>al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al-harbiyya</i> (<i>The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices</i>), which included 107 gunpowder recipes, 22 of them for rockets.<sup id="cite_ref-Gunpowder_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunpowder-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Europe, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> mentioned firecrackers made in various parts of the world in the <i><a href="/wiki/Opus_Majus" title="Opus Majus">Opus Majus</a></i> of 1267. Between 1280 and 1300, the <a href="/wiki/Liber_Ignium" title="Liber Ignium">Liber Ignium</a> gave instructions for constructing devices that are similar to firecrackers based on second hand accounts.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Kyeser" title="Konrad Kyeser">Konrad Kyeser</a> described rockets in his military treatise <i><a href="/wiki/Bellifortis" title="Bellifortis">Bellifortis</a></i> around 1405.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Fontana_(engineer)" title="Giovanni Fontana (engineer)">Giovanni Fontana</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Paduan</a> engineer in 1420, created rocket-propelled animal figures.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name "rocket" comes from the <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <i>rocchetta</i>, meaning "bobbin" or "little spindle", given due to the similarity in shape to the bobbin or spool used to hold the thread from a spinning wheel. <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Fronsperger" title="Leonhard Fronsperger">Leonhard Fronsperger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Haas" title="Conrad Haas">Conrad Haas</a> adopted the Italian term into German in the mid-16th century; "rocket" appears in English by the early 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernhard_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernhard-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima</i>, an important early modern work on <a href="/wiki/Rocket_artillery" title="Rocket artillery">rocket artillery</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Casimir_Siemienowicz" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimir Siemienowicz">Casimir Siemienowicz</a>, was first printed in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> in 1650. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rocket_warfare.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Rocket_warfare.jpg/220px-Rocket_warfare.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Rocket_warfare.jpg/330px-Rocket_warfare.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Rocket_warfare.jpg/440px-Rocket_warfare.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="722" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mysorean_rockets" title="Mysorean rockets">Mysorean rockets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rocket_artillery" title="Rocket artillery">rocket artillery</a> used to defeat an East India Company battalion during the Battle of Guntur</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mysorean_rockets" title="Mysorean rockets">Mysorean rockets</a> were the first successful iron-cased rockets, developed in the late 18th century in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</a> (part of present-day India) under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Hyder_Ali" title="Hyder Ali">Hyder Ali</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Congreve_at_Copenhagen_1807.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/William_Congreve_at_Copenhagen_1807.jpg/170px-William_Congreve_at_Copenhagen_1807.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/William_Congreve_at_Copenhagen_1807.jpg/255px-William_Congreve_at_Copenhagen_1807.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/William_Congreve_at_Copenhagen_1807.jpg 2x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="344" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Congreve,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet">William Congreve</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Copenhagen_(1807)" title="Battle of Copenhagen (1807)">bombardment of Copenhagen</a> (1807) during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Congreve_rocket" title="Congreve rocket">Congreve rocket</a> was a British weapon designed and developed by <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Congreve,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet">Sir William Congreve</a> in 1804. This rocket was based directly on the Mysorean rockets, used compressed powder and was fielded in the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>. It was Congreve rockets to which <a href="/wiki/Francis_Scott_Key" title="Francis Scott Key">Francis Scott Key</a> was referring, when he wrote of the "rockets' red glare" while held captive on a British ship that was laying siege to <a href="/wiki/Fort_McHenry" title="Fort McHenry">Fort McHenry</a> in 1814.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together, the Mysorean and British innovations increased the effective range of military rockets from 100 to 2,000 yards (91 to 1,829 m). </p><p>The first mathematical treatment of the dynamics of rocket propulsion is due to <a href="/wiki/William_Moore_(British_mathematician)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Moore (British mathematician)">William Moore</a> (1813). In 1814, Congreve published a book in which he discussed the use of multiple rocket launching apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1815 <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dmitrievich_Zasyadko" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Dmitrievich Zasyadko">Alexander Dmitrievich Zasyadko</a> constructed rocket-launching platforms, which allowed rockets to be fired in <a href="/wiki/Salvo" title="Salvo">salvos</a> (6 rockets at a time), and gun-laying devices. <a href="/wiki/William_Hale_(British_inventor)" title="William Hale (British inventor)">William Hale</a> in 1844 greatly increased the accuracy of rocket artillery. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mounier_Boxer" title="Edward Mounier Boxer">Edward Mounier Boxer</a> further improved the Congreve rocket in 1865. </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Leitch_(scientist)" title="William Leitch (scientist)">William Leitch</a> first proposed the concept of using rockets to enable human spaceflight in 1861. Leitch's rocket spaceflight description was first provided in his 1861 essay "A Journey Through Space", which was later published in his book <i>God's Glory in the Heavens</i> (1862).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky" title="Konstantin Tsiolkovsky">Konstantin Tsiolkovsky</a> later (in 1903) also conceived this idea, and extensively developed a body of theory that has provided the foundation for subsequent spaceflight development. </p><p>The British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps" title="Royal Flying Corps">Royal Flying Corps</a> designed a guided rocket during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Low" title="Archibald Low">Archibald Low</a> stated "...in 1917 the <a href="/wiki/British_unmanned_aerial_vehicles_of_World_War_I" title="British unmanned aerial vehicles of World War I">Experimental Works</a> designed an electrically steered rocket… Rocket experiments were conducted under my own patents with the help of <a href="/wiki/Frank_Arthur_Brock" title="Frank Arthur Brock">Cdr. Brock</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The patent "Improvements in Rockets" was raised in July 1918 but not published until February 1923 for security reasons. Firing and guidance controls could be either wire or wireless. The propulsion and guidance rocket eflux emerged from the deflecting cowl at the nose. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goddard_and_Rocket.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Goddard_and_Rocket.jpg/170px-Goddard_and_Rocket.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Goddard_and_Rocket.jpg/255px-Goddard_and_Rocket.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Goddard_and_Rocket.jpg/340px-Goddard_and_Rocket.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2946" /></a><figcaption>Robert Goddard with a liquid oxygen-gasoline rocket (1926)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1920, Professor <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Goddard" title="Robert H. Goddard">Robert Goddard</a> of <a href="/wiki/Clark_University" title="Clark University">Clark University</a> published proposed improvements to rocket technology in <i><a href="/wiki/A_Method_of_Reaching_Extreme_Altitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes">A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-goddard_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goddard-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1923, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Oberth" title="Hermann Oberth">Hermann Oberth</a> (1894–1989) published <i><a href="/wiki/Die_Rakete_zu_den_Planetenr%C3%A4umen" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen">Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen</a></i> (<i>The Rocket into Planetary Space</i>). Modern rockets originated in 1926 when Goddard attached a <a href="/wiki/Supersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersonic">supersonic</a> (<a href="/wiki/De_Laval_nozzle" title="De Laval nozzle">de Laval</a>) nozzle to a high pressure <a href="/wiki/Combustion_chamber" title="Combustion chamber">combustion chamber</a>. These nozzles turn the hot gas from the combustion chamber into a cooler, <a href="/wiki/Hypersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypersonic">hypersonic</a>, highly directed jet of gas, more than doubling the thrust and raising the engine efficiency from 2% to 64%.<sup id="cite_ref-goddard_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goddard-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His use of <a href="/wiki/Liquid_propellant" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid propellant">liquid propellants</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> greatly lowered the weight and increased the effectiveness of rockets. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_303890_A_battery_of_Katyusha_during_the_1941-1945_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/RIAN_archive_303890_A_battery_of_Katyusha_during_the_1941-1945_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_303890_A_battery_of_Katyusha_during_the_1941-1945_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/RIAN_archive_303890_A_battery_of_Katyusha_during_the_1941-1945_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_303890_A_battery_of_Katyusha_during_the_1941-1945_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/RIAN_archive_303890_A_battery_of_Katyusha_during_the_1941-1945_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_303890_A_battery_of_Katyusha_during_the_1941-1945_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3547" data-file-height="2362" /></a><figcaption>A battery of Soviet <a href="/wiki/Katyusha_rocket_launchers" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyusha rocket launchers">Katyusha rocket launchers</a> fires at German forces during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, 6 October 1942</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1921, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet">Soviet</a> research and development laboratory <a href="/wiki/Gas_Dynamics_Laboratory" title="Gas Dynamics Laboratory">Gas Dynamics Laboratory</a> began developing <a href="/wiki/Solid-propellant_rocket" title="Solid-propellant rocket">solid-propellant rockets</a>, which resulted in the first launch in 1928, which flew for approximately 1,300 metres.<sup id="cite_ref-RSB_GDL_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RSB_GDL-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These rockets were used in 1931 for the world's first successful use of rockets for <a href="/wiki/Jet-assisted_takeoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet-assisted takeoff">jet-assisted takeoff</a> of aircraft<sup id="cite_ref-Glushko_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glushko-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and became the prototypes for the <a href="/wiki/Katyusha_rocket_launcher" title="Katyusha rocket launcher">Katyusha rocket launcher</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ezo_Katyusha_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezo_Katyusha-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which were used during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. </p><p>In 1929, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Lang" title="Fritz Lang">Fritz Lang</a>'s German science fiction film <i><a href="/wiki/Woman_in_the_Moon" title="Woman in the Moon">Woman in the Moon</a></i> was released. It showcased the use of a <a href="/wiki/Multi-stage_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-stage rocket">multi-stage rocket</a>, and also pioneered the concept of a rocket <a href="/wiki/Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">launch pad</a> (a rocket standing upright against a tall building before launch having been slowly rolled into place) and the rocket-launch <a href="/wiki/Countdown" title="Countdown">countdown</a> clock.<sup id="cite_ref-Lang_profile_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lang_profile-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i> film critic Stephen Armstrong states Lang "created the rocket industry".<sup id="cite_ref-Lang_profile_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lang_profile-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lang was inspired by the 1923 book <i>The Rocket into Interplanetary Space</i> by Hermann Oberth, who became the film's scientific adviser and later an important figure in the team that developed the V-2 rocket.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The film was thought to be so realistic that it was banned by the Nazis when they came to power for fear it would reveal secrets about the V-2 rockets.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_141-1880,_Peenem%C3%BCnde,_Start_einer_V2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_141-1880%2C_Peenem%C3%BCnde%2C_Start_einer_V2.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_141-1880%2C_Peenem%C3%BCnde%2C_Start_einer_V2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_141-1880%2C_Peenem%C3%BCnde%2C_Start_einer_V2.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_141-1880%2C_Peenem%C3%BCnde%2C_Start_einer_V2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_141-1880%2C_Peenem%C3%BCnde%2C_Start_einer_V2.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_141-1880%2C_Peenem%C3%BCnde%2C_Start_einer_V2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/V-2_rocket" title="V-2 rocket">V-2 rocket</a> launched from <a href="/wiki/Test_Stand_VII" title="Test Stand VII">Test Stand VII</a>, summer of 1943</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1943 production of the <a href="/wiki/V-2_rocket" title="V-2 rocket">V-2 rocket</a> began in Germany. It was designed by the <a href="/wiki/Peenem%C3%BCnde_Army_Research_Center" title="Peenemünde Army Research Center">Peenemünde Army Research Center</a> with <a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a> serving as the technical director.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The V-2 became the first artificial object to travel into space by crossing the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line" title="Kármán line">Kármán line</a> with the vertical launch of <a href="/wiki/MW_18014" title="MW 18014">MW 18014</a> on 20 June 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Doug Millard, space historian and curator of space technology at the <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum,_London" title="Science Museum, London">Science Museum, London</a>, where a V-2 is exhibited in the main exhibition hall, states: "The V-2 was a quantum leap of technological change. We got to the Moon using V-2 technology but this was technology that was developed with massive resources, including some particularly grim ones. The V-2 programme was hugely expensive in terms of lives, with the Nazis using slave labour to manufacture these rockets".<sup id="cite_ref-Space_age_launch_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Space_age_launch-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In parallel with the German <a href="/wiki/Guided-missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Guided-missile">guided-missile</a> programme, rockets were also used on <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, either for assisting horizontal take-off (<a href="/wiki/JATO" title="JATO">RATO</a>), vertical take-off (<a href="/wiki/Bachem_Ba_349" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachem Ba 349">Bachem Ba 349</a> "Natter") or for powering them (<a href="/wiki/Me_163" class="mw-redirect" title="Me 163">Me 163</a>, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_guided_missiles_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="List of World War II guided missiles of Germany">list of World War II guided missiles of Germany</a>). The Allies' rocket programs were less technological, relying mostly on unguided missiles like the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Katyusha_rocket_launcher" title="Katyusha rocket launcher">Katyusha rocket</a> in the artillery role, and the American anti tank <a href="/wiki/Bazooka" title="Bazooka">bazooka</a> projectile. These used solid chemical propellants. </p><p>The Americans captured a large number of German <a href="/wiki/Rocket_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket scientist">rocket scientists</a>, including Wernher von Braun, in 1945, and brought them to the United States as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Operation Paperclip</a>. After World War II scientists used rockets to study high-altitude conditions, by radio <a href="/wiki/Telemetry" title="Telemetry">telemetry</a> of temperature and pressure of the atmosphere, detection of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a>, and further techniques; note too the <a href="/wiki/Bell_X-1" title="Bell X-1">Bell X-1</a>, the first crewed vehicle to break the <a href="/wiki/Sound_barrier" title="Sound barrier">sound barrier</a> (1947). Independently, in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet Union's space program</a> research continued under the <a href="/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership">leadership</a> of the chief designer <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Korolev" title="Sergei Korolev">Sergei Korolev</a> (1907–1966). </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> rockets became extremely important militarily with the development of modern <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Intercontinental ballistic missiles">intercontinental ballistic missiles</a> (ICBMs). The 1960s saw rapid development of rocket technology, particularly in the Soviet Union (<a href="/wiki/Vostok_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok rocket">Vostok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)" title="Soyuz (rocket family)">Soyuz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proton_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton rocket">Proton</a>) and in the United States (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/X-15" class="mw-redirect" title="X-15">X-15</a>). Rockets came into use for <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a>. American crewed programs (<a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollo programme">Apollo programme</a>) culminated in 1969 with the first crewed <a href="/wiki/Moon_landing" title="Moon landing">landing on the Moon</a> – using equipment launched by the <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> rocket. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <dl><dt>Vehicle configurations</dt></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Apollo_15_launch.ogv/220px--Apollo_15_launch.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="74" data-mwtitle="Apollo_15_launch.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Apollo_15_launch.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/06/Apollo_15_launch.ogv/Apollo_15_launch.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Apollo_15_launch.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/06/Apollo_15_launch.ogv/Apollo_15_launch.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/06/Apollo_15_launch.ogv/Apollo_15_launch.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>Launch of <a href="/wiki/Apollo_15" title="Apollo 15">Apollo 15</a> <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> rocket: <i>T</i> − 30 s through <i>T</i> + 40 s</figcaption></figure> <p>Rocket vehicles are often constructed in the archetypal tall thin "rocket" shape that takes off vertically, but there are actually many different types of rockets including:<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>tiny models such as <a href="/wiki/Balloon_rocket" title="Balloon rocket">balloon rockets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_rocket" title="Water rocket">water rockets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skyrocket" title="Skyrocket">skyrockets</a> or <a href="/wiki/Model_rocket" title="Model rocket">small solid rockets</a> that can be purchased at a <a href="/wiki/Hobby_store" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobby store">hobby store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">missiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">space rockets</a> such as the enormous <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> used for the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_car" title="Rocket car">rocket cars</a></li> <li>rocket bike<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket-powered_aircraft" title="Rocket-powered aircraft">rocket-powered aircraft</a> (including rocket-assisted takeoff of conventional aircraft – <a href="/wiki/JATO" title="JATO">RATO</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_sled" title="Rocket sled">rocket sleds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opel-RAK" title="Opel-RAK">rocket trains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VA-111_Shkval" title="VA-111 Shkval">rocket torpedoes</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>rocket-powered <a href="/wiki/Jet_pack" title="Jet pack">jet packs</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>rapid escape systems such as <a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">ejection seats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Launch_escape_system" title="Launch escape system">launch escape systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">space probes</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design">Design</h2></div> <p>A rocket design can be as simple as a cardboard tube filled with <a href="/wiki/Black_powder" class="mw-redirect" title="Black powder">black powder</a>, but to make an efficient, accurate rocket or missile involves overcoming a number of difficult problems. The main difficulties include cooling the combustion chamber, pumping the fuel (in the case of a liquid fuel), and controlling and correcting the direction of motion.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Components">Components</h3></div> <p>Rockets consist of a <a href="/wiki/Rocket_propellant" title="Rocket propellant">propellant</a>, a place to put propellant (such as a <a href="/wiki/Propellant_tank" title="Propellant tank">propellant tank</a>), and a <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine_nozzle" title="Rocket engine nozzle">nozzle</a>. They may also have one or more <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket engines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_attitude_control" title="Spacecraft attitude control">directional stabilization device(s)</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Fins">fins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vernier_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernier engine">vernier engines</a> or engine <a href="/wiki/Gimbal" title="Gimbal">gimbals</a> for <a href="/wiki/Thrust_vectoring" title="Thrust vectoring">thrust vectoring</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gyroscope" title="Gyroscope">gyroscopes</a>) and a structure (typically <a href="/wiki/Monocoque" title="Monocoque">monocoque</a>) to hold these components together. Rockets intended for high speed atmospheric use also have an <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic">aerodynamic</a> fairing such as a <a href="/wiki/Nose_cone" title="Nose cone">nose cone</a>, which usually holds the payload.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As well as these components, rockets can have any number of other components, such as wings (<a href="/wiki/Rocketplane" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocketplane">rocketplanes</a>), <a href="/wiki/Parachute" title="Parachute">parachutes</a>, wheels (<a href="/wiki/Rocket_car" title="Rocket car">rocket cars</a>), even, in a sense, a person (<a href="/wiki/Rocket_belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket belt">rocket belt</a>). Vehicles frequently possess <a href="/wiki/Automotive_navigation_system" title="Automotive navigation system">navigation systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guidance_system" title="Guidance system">guidance systems</a> that typically use <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">satellite navigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system" title="Inertial navigation system">inertial navigation systems</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Engines">Engines</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viking_5C_rocketengine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Viking_5C_rocketengine.jpg/170px-Viking_5C_rocketengine.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Viking_5C_rocketengine.jpg/255px-Viking_5C_rocketengine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Viking_5C_rocketengine.jpg/340px-Viking_5C_rocketengine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="3504" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Viking_(rocket_engine)" title="Viking (rocket engine)">Viking 5C</a> rocket engine</figcaption></figure> <p>Rocket engines employ the principle of <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet propulsion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rocket engines powering rockets come in a great variety of different types; a comprehensive list can be found in the main article, <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a>. Most current rockets are chemically powered rockets (usually <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal combustion engines">internal combustion engines</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but some employ a decomposing <a href="/wiki/Monopropellant" title="Monopropellant">monopropellant</a>) that emit a hot <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust gas</a>. A rocket engine can use gas propellants, <a href="/wiki/Solid-fuel_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-fuel rocket">solid propellant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid-propellant_rocket" title="Liquid-propellant rocket">liquid propellant</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybrid rocket">hybrid mixture of both solid and liquid</a>. Some rockets use heat or pressure that is supplied from a source other than the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a> of propellant(s), such as <a href="/wiki/Steam_rocket" title="Steam rocket">steam rockets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_rocket" title="Solar thermal rocket">solar thermal rockets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">nuclear thermal rocket</a> engines or simple pressurized rockets such as <a href="/wiki/Water_rocket" title="Water rocket">water rocket</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cold_gas_thruster" title="Cold gas thruster">cold gas thrusters</a>. With combustive propellants a chemical reaction is initiated between the <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Oxidizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizer">oxidizer</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> chamber, and the resultant hot gases accelerate out of a <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine_nozzle" title="Rocket engine nozzle">rocket engine nozzle</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Nozzle" title="Nozzle">nozzles</a>) at the rearward-facing end of the rocket. The <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">acceleration</a> of these gases through the engine exerts force ("thrust") on the combustion chamber and nozzle, propelling the vehicle (according to <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_Third_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's Third Law">Newton's Third Law</a>). This actually happens because the force (pressure times area) on the combustion chamber wall is unbalanced by the nozzle opening; this is not the case in any other direction. The shape of the nozzle also generates force by directing the exhaust gas along the axis of the rocket.<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propellant">Propellant</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rocket_propellant" title="Rocket propellant">Rocket propellant</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gas_Core_light_bulb.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gas_Core_light_bulb.png/220px-Gas_Core_light_bulb.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gas_Core_light_bulb.png/330px-Gas_Core_light_bulb.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gas_Core_light_bulb.png/440px-Gas_Core_light_bulb.png 2x" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="852" /></a><figcaption>Gas Core light bulb</figcaption></figure> <p>Rocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of <a href="/wiki/Propellant" title="Propellant">propellant</a> tank or casing, prior to being used as the propulsive mass that is ejected from a <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket engine</a> in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a> <a href="/wiki/Jet_(fluid)" title="Jet (fluid)">jet</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For chemical rockets often the propellants are a fuel such as <a href="/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen" title="Liquid hydrogen">liquid hydrogen</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a> burned with an oxidizer such as <a href="/wiki/Liquid_oxygen" title="Liquid oxygen">liquid oxygen</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> to produce large volumes of very hot gas. The oxidiser is either kept separate and mixed in the combustion chamber, or comes premixed, as with solid rockets. </p><p>Sometimes the propellant is not burned but still undergoes a chemical reaction, and can be a 'monopropellant' such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrazine" title="Hydrazine">hydrazine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a> that can be <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalytically</a> decomposed to hot gas. </p><p>Alternatively, an inert propellant can be used that can be externally heated, such as in <a href="/wiki/Steam_rocket" title="Steam rocket">steam rocket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_rocket" title="Solar thermal rocket">solar thermal rocket</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">nuclear thermal rockets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For smaller, low performance rockets such as <a href="/wiki/Attitude_control_thruster" class="mw-redirect" title="Attitude control thruster">attitude control thrusters</a> where high performance is less necessary, a pressurised fluid is used as propellant that simply escapes the spacecraft through a propelling nozzle.<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pendulum_rocket_fallacy">Pendulum rocket fallacy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pendulum_rocket_fallacy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Pendulum_rocket_fallacy.png/220px-Pendulum_rocket_fallacy.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Pendulum_rocket_fallacy.png/330px-Pendulum_rocket_fallacy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Pendulum_rocket_fallacy.png/440px-Pendulum_rocket_fallacy.png 2x" data-file-width="571" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the pendulum rocket fallacy. Whether the motor is mounted at the bottom (left) or top (right) of the vehicle, the thrust vector (T) points along an axis that is fixed to the vehicle (top), rather than pointing vertically (bottom) independent of vehicle attitude, which would lead the vehicle to rotate.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first <a href="/wiki/Liquid-fuel_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid-fuel rocket">liquid-fuel rocket</a>, constructed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Goddard" title="Robert H. Goddard">Robert H. Goddard</a>, differed significantly from modern rockets. The <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket engine</a> was at the top and the fuel tank at the bottom of the rocket,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on Goddard's belief that the rocket would achieve stability by "hanging" from the engine like a <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulum</a> in flight.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the rocket veered off course and crashed 184 feet (56 m) away from the <a href="/wiki/Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">launch site</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> indicating that the rocket was no more stable than one with the rocket engine at the base.<sup id="cite_ref-Sutton_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sutton-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2></div> <p>Rockets or other similar <a href="/wiki/Reaction_engine" title="Reaction engine">reaction devices</a> carrying their own propellant must be used when there is no other substance (land, water, or air) or force (<a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>) that a <a href="/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">vehicle</a> may usefully employ for propulsion, such as in space. In these circumstances, it is necessary to carry all the <a href="/wiki/Propellant" title="Propellant">propellant</a> to be used. </p><p>However, they are also useful in other situations: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Rocket_artillery" title="Rocket artillery">Rocket artillery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">Missile</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trident_II_missile_image.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Trident_II_missile_image.jpg/170px-Trident_II_missile_image.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Trident_II_missile_image.jpg/255px-Trident_II_missile_image.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Trident_II_missile_image.jpg/340px-Trident_II_missile_image.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2486" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Trident_(missile)" title="Trident (missile)">Trident II missile</a> launched from sea</figcaption></figure> <p>Some military weapons use rockets to propel <a href="/wiki/Warhead" title="Warhead">warheads</a> to their targets. A rocket and its payload together are generally referred to as a <i><a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">missile</a></i> when the weapon has a <a href="/wiki/Guidance_system" title="Guidance system">guidance system</a> (not all missiles use rocket engines, some use other engines such as <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jets</a>) or as a <i><a href="/wiki/Rocket_(weapon)" title="Rocket (weapon)">rocket</a></i> if it is unguided. Anti-tank and <a href="/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile" title="Surface-to-air missile">anti-aircraft missiles</a> use rocket engines to engage targets at high speed at a range of several miles, while <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Intercontinental ballistic missiles">intercontinental ballistic missiles</a> can be used to deliver multiple <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warheads" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear warheads">nuclear warheads</a> from thousands of miles, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile" title="Anti-ballistic missile">anti-ballistic missiles</a> try to stop them. Rockets have also been tested for <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ping-Pong_(rocket)" title="Ping-Pong (rocket)">Ping-Pong rocket</a>, which was launched to surveil enemy targets, however, recon rockets have never come into wide use in the military. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_research">Science and research</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bumper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bumper.jpg/170px-Bumper.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bumper.jpg/255px-Bumper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bumper.jpg/340px-Bumper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="755" data-file-height="1257" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Bumper_(rocket)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bumper (rocket)">Bumper</a> sounding rocket</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sounding_rocket" title="Sounding rocket">Sounding rockets</a> are commonly used to carry instruments that take readings from 50 kilometers (31 mi) to 1,500 kilometers (930 mi) above the surface of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/First_images_of_Earth_from_space" class="mw-redirect" title="First images of Earth from space">first images of Earth from space</a> were obtained from a <a href="/wiki/V-2" class="mw-redirect" title="V-2">V-2</a> rocket in 1946 (<a href="/wiki/V-2_No._13" title="V-2 No. 13">flight #13</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-APL_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APL-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rocket engines are also used to propel <a href="/wiki/Rocket_sled" title="Rocket sled">rocket sleds</a> along a rail at extremely high speed. The world record for this is Mach 8.5.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></div> <p>Larger rockets are normally launched from a <a href="/wiki/Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">launch pad</a> that provides stable support until a few seconds after ignition. Due to their high exhaust velocity—2,500 to 4,500 m/s (9,000 to 16,200 km/h; 5,600 to 10,100 mph)—rockets are particularly useful when very high speeds are required, such as orbital speed at approximately 7,800 m/s (28,000 km/h; 17,000 mph). Spacecraft delivered into orbital trajectories become <a href="/wiki/Artificial_satellites" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial satellites">artificial satellites</a>, which are used for many commercial purposes. Indeed, rockets remain the only way to launch <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> into orbit and beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are also used to rapidly accelerate spacecraft when they change orbits or de-orbit for <a href="/wiki/Landing" title="Landing">landing</a>. Also, a rocket may be used to soften a hard parachute landing immediately before touchdown (see <a href="/wiki/Retrorocket" title="Retrorocket">retrorocket</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rescue">Rescue</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apollo_Pad_Abort_Test_-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Apollo_Pad_Abort_Test_-2.jpg/170px-Apollo_Pad_Abort_Test_-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Apollo_Pad_Abort_Test_-2.jpg/255px-Apollo_Pad_Abort_Test_-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Apollo_Pad_Abort_Test_-2.jpg/340px-Apollo_Pad_Abort_Test_-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Apollo LES <a href="/wiki/Pad_abort_test" title="Pad abort test">pad abort test</a> with <a href="/wiki/Boilerplate_(spaceflight)" title="Boilerplate (spaceflight)">boilerplate</a> crew module</figcaption></figure> <p>Rockets were used to propel a line to a stricken ship so that a <a href="/wiki/Breeches_buoy" title="Breeches buoy">Breeches buoy</a> can be used to <a href="/wiki/Rescue" title="Rescue">rescue</a> those on board. Rockets are also used to launch <a href="/wiki/Flare" title="Flare">emergency flares</a>. </p><p>Some crewed rockets, notably the <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket)" title="Soyuz (rocket)">Soyuz</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-soyuzt_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-soyuzt-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have <a href="/wiki/Launch_escape_system" title="Launch escape system">launch escape systems</a>. This is a small, usually solid rocket that is capable of pulling the crewed capsule away from the main vehicle towards safety at a moments notice. These types of systems have been operated several times, both in testing and in flight, and operated correctly each time. </p><p>This was the case when the <a href="/wiki/Launch_escape_system" title="Launch escape system">Safety Assurance System</a> (Soviet nomenclature) successfully pulled away the L3 capsule during three of the four failed launches of the Soviet Moon rocket, <a href="/wiki/N1_(rocket)" title="N1 (rocket)">N1</a> vehicles <a href="/wiki/N1_(rocket)#Launch_history" title="N1 (rocket)">3L, 5L and 7L</a>. In all three cases the capsule, albeit uncrewed, was saved from destruction. Only the three aforementioned N1 rockets had functional Safety Assurance Systems. The outstanding vehicle, <a href="/wiki/N1_(rocket)#Launch_history" title="N1 (rocket)">6L</a>, had dummy upper stages and therefore no escape system giving the N1 booster a 100% success rate for egress from a failed launch.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A successful escape of a crewed capsule occurred when <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_7K-ST_No._16L" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyuz 7K-ST No. 16L">Soyuz T-10</a>, on a mission to the <a href="/wiki/Salyut_7" title="Salyut 7">Salyut 7</a> <a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">space station</a>, exploded on the pad.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Solid rocket propelled <a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">ejection seats</a> are used in many military aircraft to propel crew away to safety from a vehicle when flight control is lost.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hobby,_sport,_and_entertainment"><span id="Hobby.2C_sport.2C_and_entertainment"></span>Hobby, sport, and entertainment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Model_rocket" title="Model rocket">model rocket</a></div> <p>A model rocket is a small rocket designed to reach low altitudes (e.g., 100–500 m (330–1,640 ft) for 30 g (1.1 oz) model) and <a href="/wiki/Model_rocket#Model_rocket_recovery_methods" title="Model rocket">be recovered</a> by a variety of means. </p><p>According to the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Rocketry" title="National Association of Rocketry">National Association of Rocketry</a> (nar) Safety Code,<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> model rockets are constructed of paper, wood, plastic and other lightweight materials. The code also provides guidelines for motor use, launch site selection, launch methods, launcher placement, recovery system design and deployment and more. Since the early 1960s, a copy of the Model Rocket Safety Code has been provided with most model rocket kits and motors. Despite its inherent association with extremely flammable substances and objects with a pointed tip traveling at high speeds, model rocketry historically has proven<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to be a very safe hobby and has been credited as a significant source of inspiration for children who eventually become <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hobbyists build and fly a wide variety of model rockets. Many companies produce model rocket kits and parts but due to their inherent simplicity some hobbyists have been known to make rockets out of almost anything. Rockets are also used in some types of consumer and professional <a href="/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">fireworks</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Water_rocket" title="Water rocket">water rocket</a> is a type of model rocket using water as its reaction mass. The pressure vessel (the engine of the rocket) is usually a used plastic soft drink bottle. The water is forced out by a pressurized gas, typically compressed air. It is an example of Newton's third law of motion. </p><p>The scale of amateur rocketry can range from a small rocket launched in one's own backyard to a rocket that reached space.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amateur rocketry is split into three categories according to total engine <a href="/wiki/Impulse_(physics)" title="Impulse (physics)">impulse</a>: low-power, mid-power, and <a href="/wiki/High-power_rocketry" title="High-power rocketry">high-power</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">Hydrogen peroxide</a> rockets are used to power <a href="/wiki/Jet_packs" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet packs">jet packs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and have been used to power <a href="/wiki/Rocket_car" title="Rocket car">cars</a> and a rocket car holds the all time (albeit unofficial) <a href="/wiki/Drag_racing" title="Drag racing">drag racing</a> record.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Corpulent Stump is the most powerful non-commercial rocket ever launched on an Aerotech engine in the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flight">Flight</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/STS-134_launch_2.ogv/220px--STS-134_launch_2.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="22" data-mwtitle="STS-134_launch_2.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:STS-134_launch_2.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/STS-134_launch_2.ogv/STS-134_launch_2.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/STS-134_launch_2.ogv/STS-134_launch_2.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/STS-134_launch_2.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/STS-134_launch_2.ogv/STS-134_launch_2.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/STS-134_launch_2.ogv/STS-134_launch_2.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/STS-134_launch_2.ogv/STS-134_launch_2.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Video of the launch of <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Endeavour" title="Space Shuttle Endeavour"><i>Endeavour</i></a> on <a href="/wiki/STS-134" title="STS-134">STS-134</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Launches for <a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">orbital spaceflights</a>, or into <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary space">interplanetary space</a>, are usually from a fixed location on the ground, but would also be possible from an aircraft or ship. </p><p>Rocket launch technologies include the entire set of systems needed to successfully launch a vehicle, not just the vehicle itself, but also the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Firing_control_system&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Firing control system (page does not exist)">firing control systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mission_control_center" title="Mission control center">mission control center</a>, <a href="/wiki/Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">launch pad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ground_station" title="Ground station">ground stations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tracking_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracking station">tracking stations</a> needed for a successful launch or recovery or both. These are often collectively referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Ground_segment" title="Ground segment">ground segment</a>". </p><p>Orbital <a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicles</a> commonly take off vertically, and then begin to progressively lean over, usually following a <a href="/wiki/Gravity_turn" title="Gravity turn">gravity turn</a> trajectory. </p><p>Once above the majority of the atmosphere, the vehicle then angles the rocket jet, pointing it largely horizontally but somewhat downwards, which permits the vehicle to gain and then maintain altitude while increasing horizontal speed. As the speed grows, the vehicle will become more and more horizontal until at orbital speed, the engine will cut off. </p><p>All current vehicles <i>stage</i>, that is, jettison hardware on the way to orbit. Although <a href="/wiki/Single-stage-to-orbit" title="Single-stage-to-orbit">vehicles have been proposed</a> which would be able to reach orbit without staging, none have ever been constructed, and, if powered only by rockets, the <a href="/wiki/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation" title="Tsiolkovsky rocket equation">exponentially increasing fuel requirements</a> of such a vehicle would make its useful payload tiny or nonexistent. Most current and historical launch vehicles "expend" their jettisoned hardware, typically by allowing it to crash into the ocean, but some have recovered and reused jettisoned hardware, either by parachute or by propulsive landing. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSLV_XL_C40_Cartosat-2F_hazard_zones_for_falling_stage_debris_based_on_NOTAM.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/PSLV_XL_C40_Cartosat-2F_hazard_zones_for_falling_stage_debris_based_on_NOTAM.svg/220px-PSLV_XL_C40_Cartosat-2F_hazard_zones_for_falling_stage_debris_based_on_NOTAM.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/PSLV_XL_C40_Cartosat-2F_hazard_zones_for_falling_stage_debris_based_on_NOTAM.svg/330px-PSLV_XL_C40_Cartosat-2F_hazard_zones_for_falling_stage_debris_based_on_NOTAM.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/PSLV_XL_C40_Cartosat-2F_hazard_zones_for_falling_stage_debris_based_on_NOTAM.svg/440px-PSLV_XL_C40_Cartosat-2F_hazard_zones_for_falling_stage_debris_based_on_NOTAM.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption>Doglegged flight path of a PSLV launch to polar inclinations avoiding <span class="nowrap">Sri Lankan</span> landmass</figcaption></figure> <p>When launching a spacecraft to orbit, a "<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="dogleg"></span><span class="vanchor-text">dogleg</span></span>" is a guided, powered turn during ascent phase that causes a rocket's flight path to deviate from a "straight" path. A dogleg is necessary if the desired launch azimuth, to reach a desired orbital inclination, would take the <a href="/wiki/Ground_track" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground track">ground track</a> over land (or over a populated area, e.g. Russia usually does launch over land, but over unpopulated areas), or if the rocket is trying to reach an orbital plane that does not reach the <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> of the launch site. Doglegs are undesirable due to extra onboard fuel required, causing heavier load, and a reduction of vehicle performance.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Noise">Noise</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sound_suppression_water_system_test_at_KSC_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sound_suppression_water_system_test_at_KSC_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg/220px-Sound_suppression_water_system_test_at_KSC_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sound_suppression_water_system_test_at_KSC_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg/330px-Sound_suppression_water_system_test_at_KSC_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sound_suppression_water_system_test_at_KSC_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg/440px-Sound_suppression_water_system_test_at_KSC_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Workers and media witness the Sound Suppression Water System test at <a href="/wiki/Launch_Pad_39A" class="mw-redirect" title="Launch Pad 39A">Launch Pad 39A</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Rocket exhaust generates a significant amount of acoustic energy. As the <a href="/wiki/Supersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersonic">supersonic</a> exhaust collides with the ambient air, <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock waves</a> are formed. The <a href="/wiki/Sound_intensity" title="Sound intensity">sound intensity</a> from these shock waves depends on the size of the rocket as well as the exhaust velocity. The sound intensity of large, high performance rockets could potentially kill at close range.<sup id="cite_ref-CR566-3_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CR566-3-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> generated 180 dB of noise around its base.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To combat this, NASA developed a sound suppression system which can flow water at rates up to 900,000 gallons per minute (57 m<sup>3</sup>/s) onto the launch pad. The water reduces the noise level from 180 dB down to 142 dB (the design requirement is 145 dB).<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without the sound suppression system, acoustic waves would reflect off of the launch pad towards the rocket, vibrating the sensitive payload and crew. These acoustic waves can be so severe as to damage or destroy the rocket. </p><p>Noise is generally most intense when a rocket is close to the ground, since the noise from the engines radiates up away from the jet, as well as reflecting off the ground. This noise can be reduced somewhat by flame trenches with roofs, by water injection around the jet and by deflecting the jet at an angle.<sup id="cite_ref-CR566-3_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CR566-3-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For crewed rockets various methods are used to reduce the sound intensity for the passengers, and typically the placement of the astronauts far away from the rocket engines helps significantly. For the passengers and crew, when a vehicle goes <a href="/wiki/Supersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersonic">supersonic</a> the sound cuts off as the sound waves are no longer able to keep up with the vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-CR566-3_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CR566-3-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physics">Physics</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operation">Operation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_balloon_with_a_tapering_nozzle.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/A_balloon_with_a_tapering_nozzle.png/170px-A_balloon_with_a_tapering_nozzle.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/A_balloon_with_a_tapering_nozzle.png/255px-A_balloon_with_a_tapering_nozzle.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/A_balloon_with_a_tapering_nozzle.png 2x" data-file-width="312" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>A balloon with a tapering nozzle. The balloon is pushed by the higher pressure at the top than found around the inside of the nozzle.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Reaction_(physics)" title="Reaction (physics)">effect</a> of the combustion of propellant in the rocket engine is to increase the internal energy of the resulting gases, utilizing the stored chemical energy in the fuel.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As the internal energy increases, pressure increases, and a nozzle is used to convert this energy into a directed kinetic energy. This produces thrust against the ambient environment to which these gases are released.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The ideal direction of motion of the exhaust is in the direction so as to cause thrust. At the top end of the combustion chamber the hot, energetic gas fluid cannot move forward, and so, it pushes upward against the top of the rocket engine's <a href="/wiki/Combustion_chamber" title="Combustion chamber">combustion chamber</a>. As the combustion gases approach the exit of the combustion chamber, they increase in speed. The effect of the <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine_nozzle" title="Rocket engine nozzle">convergent</a> part of the rocket engine nozzle on the high pressure fluid of combustion gases, is to cause the gases to accelerate to high speed. The higher the speed of the gases, the lower the pressure of the gas (<a href="/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle" title="Bernoulli's principle">Bernoulli's principle</a> or <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a>) acting on that part of the combustion chamber. In a properly designed engine, the flow will reach Mach 1 at the throat of the nozzle. At which point the speed of the flow increases. Beyond the throat of the nozzle, a bell shaped expansion part of the engine allows the gases that are expanding to push against that part of the rocket engine. Thus, the bell part of the nozzle gives additional thrust. Simply expressed, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, according to <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_third_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's third law">Newton's third law</a> with the result that the exiting gases produce the reaction of a force on the rocket causing it to accelerate the rocket.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rocket_thrust.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Rocket_thrust.svg/220px-Rocket_thrust.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Rocket_thrust.svg/330px-Rocket_thrust.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Rocket_thrust.svg/440px-Rocket_thrust.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="247" /></a><figcaption>Rocket thrust is caused by pressures acting on both the combustion chamber and nozzle</figcaption></figure> <p>In a closed chamber, the pressures are equal in each direction and no acceleration occurs. If an opening is provided in the bottom of the chamber then the pressure is no longer acting on the missing section. This opening permits the exhaust to escape. The remaining pressures give a resultant thrust on the side opposite the opening, and these pressures are what push the rocket along. </p><p>The shape of the nozzle is important. Consider a balloon propelled by air coming out of a tapering nozzle. In such a case the combination of air pressure and viscous friction is such that the nozzle does not push the balloon but is <i>pulled</i> by it.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using a convergent/divergent nozzle gives more force since the exhaust also presses on it as it expands outwards, roughly doubling the total force. If propellant gas is continuously added to the chamber then these pressures can be maintained for as long as propellant remains. Note that in the case of liquid propellant engines, the pumps moving the propellant into the combustion chamber must maintain a pressure larger than the combustion chamber—typically on the order of 100 atmospheres.<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a side effect, these pressures on the rocket also act on the exhaust in the opposite direction and accelerate this exhaust to very high speeds (according to <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_Third_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's Third Law">Newton's Third Law</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the principle of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of momentum">conservation of momentum</a> the speed of the exhaust of a rocket determines how much momentum increase is created for a given amount of propellant. This is called the rocket's <i><a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse">specific impulse</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because a rocket, propellant and exhaust in flight, without any external perturbations, may be considered as a closed system, the total momentum is always constant. Therefore, the faster the net speed of the exhaust in one direction, the greater the speed of the rocket can achieve in the opposite direction. This is especially true since the rocket body's mass is typically far lower than the final total exhaust mass. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forces_on_a_rocket_in_flight">Forces on a rocket in flight</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rktfor.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Rktfor.gif/170px-Rktfor.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Rktfor.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="228" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Forces on a rocket in flight</figcaption></figure> <p>The general study of the <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">forces</a> on a rocket is part of the field of <a href="/wiki/Ballistics" title="Ballistics">ballistics</a>. Spacecraft are further studied in the subfield of <a href="/wiki/Astrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrodynamics">astrodynamics</a>. </p><p>Flying rockets are primarily affected by the following:<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">Thrust</a> from the engine(s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravity</a> from <a href="/wiki/Celestial_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial bodies">celestial bodies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">Drag</a> if moving in atmosphere</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_(force)" title="Lift (force)">Lift</a>; usually relatively small effect except for <a href="/wiki/Rocket-powered_aircraft" title="Rocket-powered aircraft">rocket-powered aircraft</a></li></ul> <p>In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_force_(fictitious)" class="mw-redirect" title="Centrifugal force (fictitious)">inertia and centrifugal pseudo-force</a> can be significant due to the path of the rocket around the center of a celestial body; when high enough speeds in the right direction and altitude are achieved a stable <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a> or <a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">escape velocity</a> is obtained. </p><p>These forces, with a stabilizing tail (the <i><a href="/wiki/Empennage" title="Empennage">empennage</a></i>) present will, unless deliberate control efforts are made, naturally cause the vehicle to follow a roughly <a href="/wiki/Parabola" title="Parabola">parabolic</a> trajectory termed a <a href="/wiki/Gravity_turn" title="Gravity turn">gravity turn</a>, and this trajectory is often used at least during the initial part of a launch. (This is true even if the rocket engine is mounted at the nose.) Vehicles can thus maintain low or even zero <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_attack" title="Angle of attack">angle of attack</a>, which minimizes transverse <a href="/wiki/Stress_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physics)">stress</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicle</a>, permitting a weaker, and hence lighter, launch vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-space-sourcebook_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-space-sourcebook-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-thesis_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thesis-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drag">Drag</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">Drag (physics)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravity_drag" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity drag">Gravity drag</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_drag" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic drag">Aerodynamic drag</a></div> <p>Drag is a force opposite to the direction of the rocket's motion relative to any air it is moving through. This slows the speed of the vehicle and produces structural loads. The deceleration forces for fast-moving rockets are calculated using the <a href="/wiki/Drag_equation" title="Drag equation">drag equation</a>. </p><p>Drag can be minimised by an aerodynamic <a href="/wiki/Nose_cone" title="Nose cone">nose cone</a> and by using a shape with a high <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_coefficient" title="Ballistic coefficient">ballistic coefficient</a> (the "classic" rocket shape—long and thin), and by keeping the rocket's <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_attack" title="Angle of attack">angle of attack</a> as low as possible. </p><p>During a launch, as the vehicle speed increases, and the atmosphere thins, there is a point of maximum aerodynamic drag called <a href="/wiki/Max_Q" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Q">max Q</a>. This determines the minimum aerodynamic strength of the vehicle, as the rocket must avoid <a href="/wiki/Buckling" title="Buckling">buckling</a> under these forces.<sup id="cite_ref-maxq_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maxq-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Net_thrust">Net thrust</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more detailed model of the net thrust of a rocket engine that includes the effect of atmospheric pressure, see <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine#Net_thrust" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine § Net thrust</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rocket_nozzle_expansion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Rocket_nozzle_expansion.svg/170px-Rocket_nozzle_expansion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Rocket_nozzle_expansion.svg/255px-Rocket_nozzle_expansion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Rocket_nozzle_expansion.svg/340px-Rocket_nozzle_expansion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="1132" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine#Nozzle" title="Rocket engine">A rocket jet shape</a> varies based on external air pressure. From top to bottom:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Underexpanded</li><li>Ideally expanded</li><li>Overexpanded</li><li>Grossly overexpanded</li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <p>A typical rocket engine can handle a significant fraction of its own mass in propellant each second, with the propellant leaving the nozzle at several kilometres per second. This means that the <a href="/wiki/Thrust-to-weight_ratio" title="Thrust-to-weight ratio">thrust-to-weight ratio</a> of a rocket engine, and often the entire vehicle can be very high, in extreme cases over 100. This compares with other jet propulsion engines that can exceed 5 for some of the better<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> engines.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The net thrust of a rocket is </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{n}={\dot {m}}\;v_{e},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>m</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{n}={\dot {m}}\;v_{e},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d2df026f84ef463cbca46f7702f5adb23bdc391e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.27ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{n}={\dot {m}}\;v_{e},}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2–14">: 2–14 </span></sup></div> <p>where </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}=\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>m</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}=\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7bbc4a205ce3291c66e35a27c989df8a1966378f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.881ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}=\,}"></span>propellant flow (kg/s or lb/s)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{e}=\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{e}=\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e974768081cde621c046e0cebdbbf4855226a23e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.966ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v_{e}=\,}"></span>the <a href="/wiki/Effective_exhaust_velocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Effective exhaust velocity">effective exhaust velocity</a> (m/s or ft/s).</div> <p>The effective exhaust velocity <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{e}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{e}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3271a14c35fc1b6cb549d4d462e8d3255185cc9d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.126ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v_{e}}"></span> is more or less the speed the exhaust leaves the vehicle, and in the vacuum of space, the effective exhaust velocity is often equal to the actual average exhaust speed along the thrust axis. However, the effective exhaust velocity allows for various losses, and notably, is reduced when operated within an atmosphere. </p><p>The rate of propellant flow through a rocket engine is often deliberately varied over a flight, to provide a way to control the thrust and thus the airspeed of the vehicle. This, for example, allows minimization of aerodynamic losses<sup id="cite_ref-maxq_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maxq-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and can limit the increase of <a href="/wiki/G-force" title="G-force"><i>g</i>-forces</a> due to the reduction in propellant load. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Total_impulse">Total impulse</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Impulse_(physics)" title="Impulse (physics)">Impulse (physics)</a></div> <p>Impulse is defined as a force acting on an object over time, which in the absence of opposing forces (gravity and aerodynamic drag), changes the <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> (integral of mass and velocity) of the object. As such, it is the best performance class (payload mass and terminal velocity capability) indicator of a rocket, rather than takeoff thrust, mass, or "power". The total impulse of a rocket (stage) burning its propellant is:<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I=\int Fdt}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>∫</mo> <mi>F</mi> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I=\int Fdt}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d6df19be2b796596545d3a71aa5808f2f1979757" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:10.647ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I=\int Fdt}"></span></div> <p>When there is fixed thrust, this is simply: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I=Ft\;}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>F</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I=Ft\;}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/673bad4cf01c5a93ce9b49806503a17b5308ddae" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.496ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I=Ft\;}"></span></div> <p>The total impulse of a multi-stage rocket is the sum of the impulses of the individual stages. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specific_impulse">Specific impulse</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse">specific impulse</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; clear:right; margin-left:1em"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse"><i>I</i><sub>sp</sub></a> in vacuum of various rockets </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Rocket </th> <th>Propellants </th> <th><i>I</i><sub>sp</sub>, vacuum (s) </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_main_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Shuttle main engine">Space Shuttle<br />liquid engines</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Liquid_oxygen" title="Liquid oxygen">LOX</a>/<a href="/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen" title="Liquid hydrogen">LH<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td>453<sup id="cite_ref-spec_impulse_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spec_impulse-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster" title="Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster">Space Shuttle<br />solid motors</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Ammonium_perchlorate_composite_propellant" title="Ammonium perchlorate composite propellant">APCP</a> </td> <td>268<sup id="cite_ref-spec_impulse_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spec_impulse-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Orbital_Maneuvering_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System">Space Shuttle<br />OMS</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_tetroxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen tetroxide">NTO</a>/<a href="/wiki/Monomethylhydrazine" title="Monomethylhydrazine">MMH</a> </td> <td>313<sup id="cite_ref-spec_impulse_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spec_impulse-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/S-IC" title="S-IC">Saturn V<br />stage 1</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Liquid_oxygen" title="Liquid oxygen">LOX</a>/<a href="/wiki/Rocket_propellant-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket propellant-1">RP-1</a> </td> <td>304<sup id="cite_ref-spec_impulse_80-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spec_impulse-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As can be seen from the thrust equation, the effective speed of the exhaust controls the amount of thrust produced from a particular quantity of fuel burnt per second. </p><p>An equivalent measure, the net impulse per weight unit of propellant expelled, is called <a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse">specific Impulse</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{sp}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{sp}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1a1690436c8acf9d7a116f907128ad186af65815" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.853ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{sp}}"></span>, and this is one of the most important figures that describes a rocket's performance. It is defined such that it is related to the effective exhaust velocity by: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{e}=I_{sp}\cdot g_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{e}=I_{sp}\cdot g_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c8af4163151b12401f251a35d6bd457dfcb84ea9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:11.92ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v_{e}=I_{sp}\cdot g_{0}}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 29">: 29 </span></sup></div> <p>where: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{sp}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{sp}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1a1690436c8acf9d7a116f907128ad186af65815" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.853ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{sp}}"></span> has units of seconds</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32d13273b9af4564fa2c421c96d039c414db8628" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.163ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g_{0}}"></span> is the acceleration at the surface of the Earth</div> <p>Thus, the greater the specific impulse, the greater the net thrust and performance of the engine. <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{sp}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{sp}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1a1690436c8acf9d7a116f907128ad186af65815" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.853ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{sp}}"></span> is determined by measurement while testing the engine. In practice the effective exhaust velocities of rockets varies but can be extremely high, ~4500 m/s, about 15 times the sea level speed of sound in air. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delta-v_(rocket_equation)"><span id="Delta-v_.28rocket_equation.29"></span>Delta-v (rocket equation)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation" title="Tsiolkovsky rocket equation">Tsiolkovsky rocket equation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Delta-Vs_for_inner_Solar_System.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Delta-Vs_for_inner_Solar_System.svg/170px-Delta-Vs_for_inner_Solar_System.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Delta-Vs_for_inner_Solar_System.svg/255px-Delta-Vs_for_inner_Solar_System.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Delta-Vs_for_inner_Solar_System.svg/340px-Delta-Vs_for_inner_Solar_System.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>A map of approximate <a href="/wiki/Delta-v" title="Delta-v">Delta-v</a>'s around the Solar System between Earth and <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Delta-v" title="Delta-v">delta-v</a> capacity of a rocket is the theoretical total change in velocity that a rocket can achieve without any external interference (without air drag or gravity or other forces). </p><p>When <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{e}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{e}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3271a14c35fc1b6cb549d4d462e8d3255185cc9d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.126ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v_{e}}"></span> is constant, the delta-v that a rocket vehicle can provide can be calculated from the <a href="/wiki/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation" title="Tsiolkovsky rocket equation">Tsiolkovsky rocket equation</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta v\ =v_{e}\ln {\frac {m_{0}}{m_{1}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta v\ =v_{e}\ln {\frac {m_{0}}{m_{1}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6a221403cff7ab0301cbdf46f9390f91017ced47" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:15.513ex; height:5.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta v\ =v_{e}\ln {\frac {m_{0}}{m_{1}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3a6ff51ee949104fe6fae553cfbdfba29d5fac1e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.095ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{0}}"></span> is the initial total mass, including propellant, in kg (or lb)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/31aafa60e48d39ccce922404c0b80340b2cc777a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.095ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{1}}"></span> is the final total mass in kg (or lb)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{e}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{e}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3271a14c35fc1b6cb549d4d462e8d3255185cc9d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.126ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v_{e}}"></span> is the effective exhaust velocity in m/s (or ft/s)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta v\ }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mtext> </mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta v\ }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/28563b5d468baab12a7d33b49cac197c2c1ed885" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.644ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta v\ }"></span> is the delta-v in m/s (or ft/s)</div> <p>When launched from the Earth practical delta-vs for a single rockets carrying payloads can be a few km/s. Some theoretical designs have rockets with delta-vs over 9 km/s. </p><p>The required delta-v can also be calculated for a particular manoeuvre; for example the delta-v to launch from the surface of the Earth to <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a> is about 9.7 km/s, which leaves the vehicle with a sideways speed of about 7.8 km/s at an altitude of around 200 km. In this manoeuvre about 1.9 km/s is lost in <a href="/wiki/Air_drag" class="mw-redirect" title="Air drag">air drag</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravity_drag" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity drag">gravity drag</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">gaining altitude</a>. </p><p>The ratio <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {m_{0}}{m_{1}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {m_{0}}{m_{1}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/702a579eb1f9e3fc591e833bfe8f0adcf247506f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:3.931ex; height:5.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {m_{0}}{m_{1}}}}"></span> is sometimes called the <i>mass ratio</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass_ratios">Mass ratios</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mass_ratio" title="Mass ratio">Mass ratio</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation.svg/220px-Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation.svg/330px-Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation.svg/440px-Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation gives a relationship between the mass ratio and the final velocity in multiples of the exhaust speed</figcaption></figure> <p>Almost all of a launch vehicle's mass consists of propellant.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mass ratio is, for any 'burn', the ratio between the rocket's initial mass and its final mass.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Everything else being equal, a high mass ratio is desirable for good performance, since it indicates that the rocket is lightweight and hence performs better, for essentially the same reasons that low weight is desirable in sports cars. </p><p>Rockets as a group have the highest <a href="/wiki/Thrust-to-weight_ratio" title="Thrust-to-weight ratio">thrust-to-weight ratio</a> of any type of engine; and this helps vehicles achieve high <a href="/wiki/Mass_ratio" title="Mass ratio">mass ratios</a>, which improves the performance of flights. The higher the ratio, the less engine mass is needed to be carried. This permits the carrying of even more propellant, enormously improving the delta-v. Alternatively, some rockets such as for rescue scenarios or racing carry relatively little propellant and payload and thus need only a lightweight structure and instead achieve high accelerations. For example, the Soyuz escape system can produce 20 <i>g</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-soyuzt_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-soyuzt-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Achievable mass ratios are highly dependent on many factors such as propellant type, the design of engine the vehicle uses, structural safety margins and construction techniques. </p><p>The highest mass ratios are generally achieved with liquid rockets, and these types are usually used for <a href="/wiki/Orbital_launch_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital launch vehicle">orbital launch vehicles</a>, a situation which calls for a high delta-v. Liquid propellants generally have densities similar to water (with the notable exceptions of <a href="/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen" title="Liquid hydrogen">liquid hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liquid_methane_rocket_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid methane rocket fuel">liquid methane</a>), and these types are able to use lightweight, low pressure tanks and typically run high-performance <a href="/wiki/Turbopumps" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbopumps">turbopumps</a> to force the propellant into the combustion chamber. </p><p>Some notable mass fractions are found in the following table (some aircraft are included for comparison purposes): </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Vehicle </th> <th>Takeoff mass </th> <th>Final mass </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mass_ratio" title="Mass ratio">Mass ratio</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Propellant_mass_fraction" title="Propellant mass fraction">Mass fraction</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ariane_5" title="Ariane 5">Ariane 5</a> (vehicle + payload) </td> <td>746,000 kg <sup id="cite_ref-ariane_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ariane-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (~1,645,000 lb) </td> <td>2,700 kg + 16,000 kg<sup id="cite_ref-ariane_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ariane-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (~6,000 lb + ~35,300 lb) </td> <td>39.9 </td> <td>0.975 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Titan_23G" title="Titan 23G">Titan 23G</a> first stage </td> <td>117,020 kg (258,000 lb) </td> <td>4,760 kg (10,500 lb) </td> <td>24.6 </td> <td>0.959 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> </td> <td>3,038,500 kg<sup id="cite_ref-saturnv_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saturnv-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (~6,700,000 lb) </td> <td>13,300 kg + 118,000 kg<sup id="cite_ref-saturnv_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saturnv-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (~29,320 lb + ~260,150 lb) </td> <td>23.1 </td> <td>0.957 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> (vehicle + payload) </td> <td>2,040,000 kg (~4,500,000 lb) </td> <td>104,000 kg + 28,800 kg (~230,000 lb + ~63,500 lb) </td> <td>15.4 </td> <td>0.935 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saturn_1B" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturn 1B">Saturn 1B</a> (stage only) </td> <td>448,648 kg<sup id="cite_ref-saturn_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saturn-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (989,100 lb) </td> <td>41,594 kg<sup id="cite_ref-saturn_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saturn-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (91,700 lb) </td> <td>10.7 </td> <td>0.907 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Atlantic_GlobalFlyer" title="Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer">Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer</a> </td> <td>10,024.39 kg (22,100 lb) </td> <td>1,678.3 kg (3,700 lb) </td> <td>6.0 </td> <td>0.83 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/V-2_rocket" title="V-2 rocket">V-2</a> </td> <td>13,000 kg (~28,660 lb) (12.8 ton) </td> <td> </td> <td>3.85 </td> <td>0.74 <sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/X-15" class="mw-redirect" title="X-15">X-15</a> </td> <td>15,420 kg (34,000 lb) </td> <td>6,620 kg (14,600 lb) </td> <td>2.3 </td> <td>0.57<sup id="cite_ref-rlv_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rlv-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Concorde" title="Concorde">Concorde</a> </td> <td>~181,000 kg (400,000 lb <sup id="cite_ref-rlv_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rlv-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </td> <td> </td> <td>2 </td> <td>0.5<sup id="cite_ref-rlv_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rlv-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_747" title="Boeing 747">Boeing 747</a> </td> <td>~363,000 kg (800,000 lb<sup id="cite_ref-rlv_90-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rlv-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </td> <td> </td> <td>2 </td> <td>0.5<sup id="cite_ref-rlv_90-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rlv-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Staging">Staging</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Multistage_rocket" title="Multistage rocket">Multistage rocket</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artistsconcept_separation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Artistsconcept_separation.jpg/220px-Artistsconcept_separation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Artistsconcept_separation.jpg/330px-Artistsconcept_separation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Artistsconcept_separation.jpg/440px-Artistsconcept_separation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="351" /></a><figcaption>Spacecraft staging involves dropping off unnecessary parts of the rocket to reduce mass</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ap6-68-HC-191.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ap6-68-HC-191.jpg/220px-Ap6-68-HC-191.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ap6-68-HC-191.jpg/330px-Ap6-68-HC-191.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ap6-68-HC-191.jpg/440px-Ap6-68-HC-191.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1452" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Apollo_6" title="Apollo 6">Apollo 6</a> while dropping the interstage ring</figcaption></figure> <p>Thus far, the required velocity (delta-v) to achieve orbit has been unattained by any single rocket because the <a href="/wiki/Propellant" title="Propellant">propellant</a>, tankage, structure, <a href="/wiki/Guidance_system" title="Guidance system">guidance</a>, valves and engines and so on, take a particular minimum percentage of take-off mass that is too great for the propellant it carries to achieve that delta-v carrying reasonable payloads. Since <a href="/wiki/Single-stage-to-orbit" title="Single-stage-to-orbit">Single-stage-to-orbit</a> has so far not been achievable, orbital rockets always have more than one stage. </p><p>For example, the first stage of the Saturn V, carrying the weight of the upper stages, was able to achieve a <a href="/wiki/Mass_ratio" title="Mass ratio">mass ratio</a> of about 10, and achieved a specific impulse of 263 seconds. This gives a delta-v of around 5.9 km/s whereas around 9.4 km/s delta-v is needed to achieve orbit with all losses allowed for. </p><p>This problem is frequently solved by <a href="/wiki/Staging_(rocketry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Staging (rocketry)">staging</a>—the rocket sheds excess weight (usually empty tankage and associated engines) during launch. Staging is either <i>serial</i> where the rockets light after the previous stage has fallen away, or <i>parallel</i>, where rockets are burning together and then detach when they burn out.<sup id="cite_ref-NASAstaging_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASAstaging-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The maximum speeds that can be achieved with staging is theoretically limited only by the speed of light. However the payload that can be carried goes down geometrically with each extra stage needed, while the additional delta-v for each stage is simply additive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acceleration_and_thrust-to-weight_ratio">Acceleration and thrust-to-weight ratio</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thrust-to-weight_ratio" title="Thrust-to-weight ratio">thrust-to-weight ratio</a></div> <p>From Newton's second law, the acceleration, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}"></span>, of a vehicle is simply: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a={\frac {F_{n}}{m}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>m</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a={\frac {F_{n}}{m}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9a3100053e2069f2f14731622d6cf83867e8543d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:7.877ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a={\frac {F_{n}}{m}}}"></span></div> <p>where <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">m</span> is the instantaneous mass of the vehicle and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{n}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{n}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/76cdf519c21deec43f984815e57e15d2dd3575d7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.713ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{n}}"></span> is the net force acting on the rocket (mostly thrust, but air drag and other forces can play a part). </p><p>As the remaining propellant decreases, rocket vehicles become lighter and their acceleration tends to increase until the propellant is exhausted. This means that much of the speed change occurs towards the end of the burn when the vehicle is much lighter.<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the thrust can be throttled to offset or vary this if needed. Discontinuities in acceleration also occur when stages burn out, often starting at a lower acceleration with each new stage firing. </p><p>Peak accelerations can be increased by designing the vehicle with a reduced mass, usually achieved by a reduction in the fuel load and tankage and associated structures, but obviously this reduces range, delta-v and burn time. Still, for some applications that rockets are used for, a high peak acceleration applied for just a short time is highly desirable. </p><p>The minimal mass of vehicle consists of a rocket engine with minimal fuel and structure to carry it. In that case the <a href="/wiki/Thrust-to-weight_ratio" title="Thrust-to-weight ratio">thrust-to-weight ratio</a><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the rocket engine limits the maximum acceleration that can be designed. It turns out that rocket engines generally have truly excellent thrust to weight ratios (137 for the <a href="/wiki/NK-33" title="NK-33">NK-33</a> engine;<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some solid rockets are over 1000<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 442">: 442 </span></sup>), and nearly all really <a href="/wiki/G-force" title="G-force">high-g</a> vehicles employ or have employed rockets. </p><p>The high accelerations that rockets naturally possess means that rocket vehicles are often capable of <a href="/wiki/Vertical_takeoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertical takeoff">vertical takeoff</a>, and in some cases, with suitable guidance and control of the engines, also <a href="/wiki/VTVL" title="VTVL">vertical landing</a>. For these operations to be done it is necessary for a vehicle's engines to provide more than the local <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration" title="Gravitational acceleration">gravitational acceleration</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy">Energy</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Energy_efficiency">Energy efficiency</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Propulsive_efficiency" title="Propulsive efficiency">propulsive efficiency</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlantis_taking_off_on_STS-27.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Atlantis_taking_off_on_STS-27.jpg/220px-Atlantis_taking_off_on_STS-27.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Atlantis_taking_off_on_STS-27.jpg/330px-Atlantis_taking_off_on_STS-27.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Atlantis_taking_off_on_STS-27.jpg/440px-Atlantis_taking_off_on_STS-27.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1929" /></a><figcaption><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Atlantis" title="Space Shuttle Atlantis"><i>Atlantis</i></a> during launch phase</figcaption></figure> <p>The energy density of a typical rocket propellant is often around one-third that of conventional hydrocarbon fuels; the bulk of the mass is (often relatively inexpensive) oxidizer. Nevertheless, at take-off the rocket has a great deal of energy in the fuel and oxidizer stored within the vehicle. It is of course desirable that as much of the energy of the propellant end up as <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential energy</a> of the body of the rocket as possible. </p><p>Energy from the fuel is lost in air drag and <a href="/wiki/Gravity_drag" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity drag">gravity drag</a> and is used for the rocket to gain altitude and speed. However, much of the lost energy ends up in the exhaust.<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37–38">: 37–38 </span></sup> </p><p>In a chemical propulsion device, the engine efficiency is simply the ratio of the kinetic power of the exhaust gases and the power available from the chemical reaction:<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37–38">: 37–38 </span></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{c}={\frac {{\frac {1}{2}}{\dot {m}}v_{e}^{2}}{\eta _{combustion}P_{chem}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>m</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <msubsup> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>s</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{c}={\frac {{\frac {1}{2}}{\dot {m}}v_{e}^{2}}{\eta _{combustion}P_{chem}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/be294d9861db9eec952629ed6dd3406f91b2314f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:21.328ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{c}={\frac {{\frac {1}{2}}{\dot {m}}v_{e}^{2}}{\eta _{combustion}P_{chem}}}}"></span></div> <p>100% efficiency within the engine (<a href="/wiki/Heat_engine#Efficiency" title="Heat engine">engine efficiency</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{c}=100\%}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>100</mn> <mi mathvariant="normal">%</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{c}=100\%}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/553baae1be249adba9a582ebb5eebf4509a63b5e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.621ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{c}=100\%}"></span>) would mean that all the heat energy of the combustion products is converted into kinetic energy of the jet. This is not possible, but the near-adiabatic <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine_nozzle" title="Rocket engine nozzle">high expansion ratio nozzles</a> that can be used with rockets come surprisingly close: when the nozzle expands the gas, the gas is cooled and accelerated, and an energy efficiency of up to 70% can be achieved. Most of the rest is heat energy in the exhaust that is not recovered.<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37–38">: 37–38 </span></sup> The high efficiency is a consequence of the fact that rocket combustion can be performed at very high temperatures and the gas is finally released at much lower temperatures, and so giving good <a href="/wiki/Carnot_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnot efficiency">Carnot efficiency</a>. </p><p>However, engine efficiency is not the whole story. In common with the other <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet-based engines</a>, but particularly in rockets due to their high and typically fixed exhaust speeds, rocket vehicles are extremely inefficient at low speeds irrespective of the engine efficiency. The problem is that at low speeds, the exhaust carries away a huge amount of <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> rearward. This phenomenon is termed <a href="/wiki/Propulsive_efficiency" title="Propulsive efficiency">propulsive efficiency</a> (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5fa9e6a31c6475e4434cee3491e52b788a9e4895" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.215ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}"></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37–38">: 37–38 </span></sup> </p><p>However, as speeds rise, the resultant exhaust speed goes down, and the overall vehicle energetic efficiency rises, reaching a peak of around 100% of the engine efficiency when the vehicle is travelling exactly at the same speed that the exhaust is emitted. In this case the exhaust would ideally stop dead in space behind the moving vehicle, taking away zero energy, and from conservation of energy, all the energy would end up in the vehicle. The efficiency then drops off again at even higher speeds as the exhaust ends up traveling forwards – trailing behind the vehicle. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Average_propulsive_efficiency_of_rockets.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Average_propulsive_efficiency_of_rockets.png/220px-Average_propulsive_efficiency_of_rockets.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Average_propulsive_efficiency_of_rockets.png/330px-Average_propulsive_efficiency_of_rockets.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Average_propulsive_efficiency_of_rockets.png/440px-Average_propulsive_efficiency_of_rockets.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Plot of instantaneous propulsive efficiency (blue) and overall efficiency for a rocket accelerating from rest (red) as percentages of the engine efficiency</figcaption></figure><p>From these principles it can be shown that the propulsive efficiency <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5fa9e6a31c6475e4434cee3491e52b788a9e4895" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.215ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}"></span> for a rocket moving at speed <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>u</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3e6bb763d22c20916ed4f0bb6bd49d7470cffd8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u}"></span> with an exhaust velocity <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86a67b81c2de995bd608d5b2df50cd8cd7d92455" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.007ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c}"></span> is: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"></p><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}={\frac {2{\frac {u}{c}}}{1+({\frac {u}{c}})^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>u</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>u</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{p}={\frac {2{\frac {u}{c}}}{1+({\frac {u}{c}})^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/36aa9d00832aee98d6abcc3bdc7050feb2f7b569" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:14.792ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}={\frac {2{\frac {u}{c}}}{1+({\frac {u}{c}})^{2}}}}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37–38">: 37–38 </span></sup></div> <p>And the overall (instantaneous) energy efficiency <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>η</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e4d701857cf5fbec133eebaf94deadf722537f64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.169ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta }"></span> is: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta =\eta _{p}\eta _{c}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>η</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta =\eta _{p}\eta _{c}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/837dfaf2b39ee6eb2ed4edfb56edfb9eb5713dfe" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.582ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta =\eta _{p}\eta _{c}}"></span></div> <p>For example, from the equation, with an <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{c}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{c}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9cf6da182347dff3657dba35cc4add274134e352" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.1ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{c}}"></span> of 0.7, a rocket flying at Mach 0.85 (which most aircraft cruise at) with an exhaust velocity of Mach 10, would have a predicted overall energy efficiency of 5.9%, whereas a conventional, modern, air-breathing jet engine achieves closer to 35% efficiency. Thus a rocket would need about 6x more energy; and allowing for the specific energy of rocket propellant being around one third that of conventional air fuel, roughly 18x more mass of propellant would need to be carried for the same journey. This is why rockets are rarely if ever used for general aviation. </p><p>Since the energy ultimately comes from fuel, these considerations mean that rockets are mainly useful when a very high speed is required, such as <a href="/wiki/ICBM" class="mw-redirect" title="ICBM">ICBMs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">orbital launch</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> fired its engines for around 8.5 minutes, consuming 1,000 tonnes of solid propellant (containing 16% aluminium) and an additional 2,000,000 litres of liquid propellant (106,261 kg of <a href="/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen" title="Liquid hydrogen">liquid hydrogen</a> fuel) to lift the 100,000 kg vehicle (including the 25,000 kg payload) to an altitude of 111 km and an orbital <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a> of 30,000 km/h. At this altitude and velocity, the vehicle had a kinetic energy of about 3 TJ and a potential energy of roughly 200 GJ. Given the initial energy of 20 TJ,<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Space Shuttle was about 16% energy efficient at launching the orbiter. </p><p>Thus jet engines, with a better match between speed and jet exhaust speed (such as <a href="/wiki/Turbofans" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbofans">turbofans</a>—in spite of their worse <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{c}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{c}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9cf6da182347dff3657dba35cc4add274134e352" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.1ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{c}}"></span>)—dominate for subsonic and supersonic atmospheric use, while rockets work best at hypersonic speeds. On the other hand, rockets serve in many short-range <i>relatively</i> low speed military applications where their low-speed inefficiency is outweighed by their extremely high thrust and hence high accelerations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oberth_effect">Oberth effect</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oberth_effect" title="Oberth effect">Oberth effect</a></div> <p>One subtle feature of rockets relates to energy. A rocket stage, while carrying a given load, is capable of giving a particular <a href="/wiki/Delta-v" title="Delta-v">delta-v</a>. This delta-v means that the speed increases (or decreases) by a particular amount, independent of the initial speed. However, because <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> is a square law on speed, this means that the faster the rocket is travelling before the burn the more <a href="/wiki/Orbital_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital energy">orbital energy</a> it gains or loses. </p><p>This fact is used in interplanetary travel. It means that the amount of delta-v to reach other planets, over and above that to reach escape velocity can be much less if the delta-v is applied when the rocket is travelling at high speeds, close to the Earth or other planetary surface; whereas waiting until the rocket has slowed at altitude multiplies up the effort required to achieve the desired trajectory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety,_reliability_and_accidents"><span id="Safety.2C_reliability_and_accidents"></span>Safety, reliability and accidents</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <span class="anonymous-show"><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3ARocket&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+28+November+2024&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=Rocket">making an edit request</a></span></span><span class="user-show"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rocket&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> </span>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2016</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Challenger_explosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Challenger_explosion.jpg/220px-Challenger_explosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Challenger_explosion.jpg/330px-Challenger_explosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Challenger_explosion.jpg/440px-Challenger_explosion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3555" data-file-height="2879" /></a><figcaption><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger" title="Space Shuttle Challenger"><i>Challenger</i></a> torn apart T+73 seconds after hot gases escaped the <a href="/wiki/Solid_rocket_booster" title="Solid rocket booster">SRBs</a>, causing the breakup of the Shuttle stack</figcaption></figure> <p>The reliability of rockets, as for all physical systems, is dependent on the quality of engineering design and construction. </p><p>Because of the enormous chemical energy in <a href="/wiki/Rocket_propellant" title="Rocket propellant">rocket propellants</a> (greater energy by weight than explosives, but lower than <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>), consequences of accidents can be severe. Most space missions have some problems.<sup id="cite_ref-Janes_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janes-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1986, following the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i> disaster</a>, American physicist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>, having served on the <a href="/wiki/Rogers_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Rogers Commission">Rogers Commission</a>, estimated that the chance of an unsafe condition for a launch of the Shuttle was very roughly 1%;<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> more recently the historical per person-flight risk in orbital spaceflight has been calculated to be around 2%<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or 4%.<sup id="cite_ref-SpaceReview_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SpaceReview-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 2003 the astronaut office made clear its position on the need and feasibility of improving crew safety for future NASA crewed missions indicating their "consensus that an order of magnitude reduction in the risk of human life during ascent, compared to the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a>, is both achievable with current technology and consistent with NASA's focus on steadily improving rocket reliability".<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Costs_and_economics">Costs and economics</h2></div> <p>The costs of rockets can be roughly divided into propellant costs, the costs of obtaining and/or producing the 'dry mass' of the rocket, and the costs of any required support equipment and facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-aday_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aday-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the takeoff mass of a rocket is normally propellant. However propellant is seldom more than a few times more expensive than gasoline per kilogram (as of 2009 gasoline was about $1/kg [$0.45/lb] or less), and although substantial amounts are needed, for all but the very cheapest rockets, it turns out that the propellant costs are usually comparatively small, although not completely negligible.<sup id="cite_ref-aday_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aday-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With liquid oxygen costing $0.15 per kilogram ($0.068/lb) and liquid hydrogen $2.20/kg ($1.00/lb), the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> in 2009 had a liquid propellant expense of approximately $1.4 million for each launch that cost $450 million from other expenses (with 40% of the mass of propellants used by it being liquids in the <a href="/wiki/External_fuel_tank" class="mw-redirect" title="External fuel tank">external fuel tank</a>, 60% solids in the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster" title="Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster">SRBs</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even though a rocket's non-propellant, dry mass is often only between 5–20% of total mass,<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nevertheless this cost dominates. For hardware with the performance used in orbital <a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicles</a>, expenses of $2000–$10,000+ per kilogram of <a href="/wiki/Dry_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Dry weight">dry weight</a> are common, primarily from engineering, fabrication, and testing; raw materials amount to typically around 2% of total expense.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CheapRockets_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CheapRockets-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For most rockets except reusable ones (shuttle engines) the engines need not function more than a few minutes, which simplifies design. </p><p>Extreme performance requirements for rockets reaching orbit correlate with high cost, including intensive quality control to ensure reliability despite the limited <a href="/wiki/Safety_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety factor">safety factors</a> allowable for weight reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-CheapRockets_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CheapRockets-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Components produced in small numbers if not individually machined can prevent amortization of R&D and facility costs over mass production to the degree seen in more pedestrian manufacturing.<sup id="cite_ref-CheapRockets_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CheapRockets-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amongst liquid-fueled rockets, complexity can be influenced by how much hardware must be lightweight, like pressure-fed engines can have two orders of magnitude lesser part count than pump-fed engines but lead to more weight by needing greater tank pressure, most often used in just small maneuvering thrusters as a consequence.<sup id="cite_ref-CheapRockets_106-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CheapRockets-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To change the preceding factors for orbital launch vehicles, proposed methods have included mass-producing simple rockets in large quantities or on large scale,<sup id="cite_ref-aday_100-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aday-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or developing <a href="/wiki/Reusable_launch_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Reusable launch system">reusable rockets</a> meant to fly very frequently to amortize their up-front expense over many payloads, or reducing rocket performance requirements by constructing a <a href="/wiki/Non-rocket_spacelaunch" title="Non-rocket spacelaunch">non-rocket spacelaunch</a> system for part of the velocity to orbit (or all of it but with most methods involving some rocket use). </p><p>The costs of support equipment, range costs and launch pads generally scale up with the size of the rocket, but vary less with launch rate, and so may be considered to be approximately a fixed cost.<sup id="cite_ref-aday_100-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aday-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rockets in applications other than launch to orbit (such as military rockets and <a href="/wiki/JATO" title="JATO">rocket-assisted take off</a>), commonly not needing comparable performance and sometimes mass-produced, are often relatively inexpensive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2010s_emerging_private_competition">2010s emerging private competition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Space_launch_market_competition#2010s:_Competition_and_pricing_pressure" title="Space launch market competition">Space launch market competition § 2010s: Competition and pricing pressure</a></div> <p>Since the early 2010s, new <a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">private options</a> for obtaining spaceflight services emerged, bringing substantial <a href="/wiki/Market_competition" class="mw-redirect" title="Market competition">price pressure</a> into the existing market.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc20141203_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc20141203-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fp20131209_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fp20131209-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wsj20150917_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wsj20150917-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wapo20160819_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wapo20160819-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/28px-Aviacionavion.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/42px-Aviacionavion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/56px-Aviacionavion.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Aviation" title="Portal:Aviation">Aviation portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Rocktet_icon201001.svg/32px-Rocktet_icon201001.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Rocktet_icon201001.svg/47px-Rocktet_icon201001.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Rocktet_icon201001.svg/63px-Rocktet_icon201001.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="160" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Rocketry" title="Portal:Rocketry">Rocketry portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/28px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/42px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/56px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <p><b>Lists</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rockets" title="Lists of rockets">Lists of rockets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology" title="Timeline of rocket and missile technology">Timeline of rocket and missile technology</a></li></ul> <p><b>General rocketry</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a> – Branch of engineering</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battleship_(rocketry)" title="Battleship (rocketry)">Battleship (rocketry)</a> – Non-functional rocket or rocket stage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_garden" title="Rocket garden">Rocket garden</a> – Outdoor museum of rocketry</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_structure" title="Service structure">Service structure</a> – Structure built on a rocket launch pad to service launch vehicles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">Spaceport</a> – Location used to launch and receive spacecraft</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable-mass_system" title="Variable-mass system">Variable-mass system</a> – Collection of matter whose mass varies with time</li></ul> <p><b>Rocket propulsion</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonium_perchlorate_composite_propellant" title="Ammonium perchlorate composite propellant">Ammonium perchlorate composite propellant</a> – Solid-rocket propellant</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsed_rocket_motor" title="Pulsed rocket motor">Pulsed rocket motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_rocket" title="Steam rocket">Steam rocket</a> – Thermal rocket that uses superheated water held in a pressure vessel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripropellant_rocket" title="Tripropellant rocket">Tripropellant rocket</a> – Rocket that burns 3 propellants at once or 2 fuels with an oxidizer, sequentially</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">Nuclear thermal rocket</a></li></ul> <p><b>Recreational rocketry</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-power_rocketry" title="High-power rocketry">High-power rocketry</a> – Hobby<span style="display:none" class="category-spaceless-annotation">Pages displaying short descriptions with no spaces</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Rocketry" title="National Association of Rocketry">National Association of Rocketry</a> – U.S. nonprofit organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripoli_Rocketry_Association" title="Tripoli Rocketry Association">Tripoli Rocketry Association</a> – U.S. model rocketry association</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyrocket" title="Skyrocket">Skyrocket</a> – Type of firework</li></ul> <p><b>Weaponry</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire_Arrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire Arrow">Fire Arrow</a> – Chinese gunpowder projectile<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyusha_rocket_launcher" title="Katyusha rocket launcher">Katyusha rocket launcher</a> – Soviet/Russian multiple launch rocket system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket-propelled_grenade" title="Rocket-propelled grenade">Rocket-propelled grenade</a> – Shoulder-launched anti-tank weapon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singijeon" title="Singijeon">Singijeon</a> – Korean fire arrow rocket</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VA-111_Shkval" title="VA-111 Shkval">VA-111 Shkval</a> – Soviet supercavitating torpedo<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li></ul> <p><b>Rockets for research</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_sled" title="Rocket sled">Rocket sled</a> – Test platform pushed by rockets along a track</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sounding_rocket" title="Sounding rocket">Sounding rocket</a> – Rocket designed to take measurements during its flight</li></ul> <p><b>Miscellaneous</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">Aircraft</a> – Vehicle or machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalence_principle" title="Equivalence principle">Equivalence principle</a> – Hypothesis that inertial and gravitational masses are equivalent</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_Pad_(card_game)" title="Launch Pad (card game)">Launch Pad (card game)</a> – strategy card game<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_Festival" title="Rocket Festival">Rocket Festival</a> – Traditional festival of Laos and Thailand</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_mail" title="Rocket mail">Rocket mail</a> – Mail delivery by rockets or missiles</li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:right;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">English <i>rocket</i>, first attested in 1566 (OED), adopted from the Italian term, given due to the similarity in shape to the bobbin or spool used to hold the thread from a spinning wheel. The modern Italian term is <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/razzo" class="extiw" title="wikt:razzo">razzo</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"If you have ever seen a big fire hose spraying water, you may have noticed that it takes a lot of strength to hold the hose (sometimes you will see two or three firefighters holding the hose). The hose is acting like a rocket engine. The hose is throwing water in one direction, and the firefighters are using their strength and weight to counteract the reaction. If they were to let go of the hose, it would thrash around with tremendous force. If the firefighters were all standing on skateboards, the hose would propel them backward at great speed!"<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"thrust-to-weight ratio <span class="texhtml"><var style="padding-right: 1px;">F</var>/<var style="padding-right: 1px;">W</var><sub><var style="padding-right: 1px;">g</var></sub></span> is a dimensionless parameter that is identical to the acceleration of the rocket propulsion system (expressed in multiples of <span class="texhtml"><var style="padding-right: 1px;">g</var><sub>0</sub></span>) ... in a gravity-free vacuum"<sup id="cite_ref-RPE7_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 442">: 442 </span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The energy density is 31MJ per kg for aluminum and 143 MJ/kg for liquid hydrogen, this means that the vehicle consumed around 5 TJ of solid propellant and 15 TJ of hydrogen fuel.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Bernhard-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bernhard_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bernhard_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBernhard2007" class="citation book cs1">Bernhard, Jim (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/porcupinepicayun00bern_0"><i>Porcupine, Picayune, & Post: How Newspapers Get Their Names</i></a></span>. University of Missouri Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/porcupinepicayun00bern_0/page/126">126</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8262-6601-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8262-6601-9"><bdi>978-0-8262-6601-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Porcupine%2C+Picayune%2C+%26+Post%3A+How+Newspapers+Get+Their+Names&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8262-6601-9&rft.aulast=Bernhard&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fporcupinepicayun00bern_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RPE7-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RPE7_3-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuttonBiblarz2001" class="citation book cs1">Sutton, George P.; Biblarz, Oscar (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LQbDOxg3XZcC"><i>Rocket Propulsion Elements</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-32642-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-32642-7"><bdi>978-0-471-32642-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140112033956/http://books.google.com/books?id=LQbDOxg3XZcC">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rocket+Propulsion+Elements&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-471-32642-7&rft.aulast=Sutton&rft.aufirst=George+P.&rft.au=Biblarz%2C+Oscar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLQbDOxg3XZcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASAEARLY-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NASAEARLY_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMSFC_History_Office" class="citation web cs1">MSFC History Office. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090709042712/http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocketry/tl1.html">"Rockets in Ancient Times (100 B.C. to 17th Century)"</a>. <i>A Timeline of Rocket History</i>. NASA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocketry/tl1.html">the original</a> on 2009-07-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=A+Timeline+of+Rocket+History&rft.atitle=Rockets+in+Ancient+Times+%28100+B.C.+to+17th+Century%29&rft.au=MSFC+History+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.msfc.nasa.gov%2Frocketry%2Ftl1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060805203537/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rocket-history.txt">"A brief history of rocketry"</a>. <i>NASA Spacelink</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ezoteriker&rft.atitle=Katyusha+rocket+launcher.+Weapon+of+Victory%3A+multiple+launch+rocket+system+%27Katyusha%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fezoteriker.ru%2Fen%2Freaktivnyi-minomet-katyusha-oruzhie-pobedy-reaktivnaya-sistema-zalpovogo-ognya%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lang_profile-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lang_profile_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lang_profile_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sky.com/watch/title/series/299ce04f-6462-482a-8973-02d22bacc3d3/the-directors/episodes/season-1/episode-6">"The Directors (Fritz Lang)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sky_Arts" title="Sky Arts">Sky Arts</a>. Season 1, episode 6. 2018</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeide2012" class="citation journal cs1">Weide, Robert (Summer 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dga.org/Craft/DGAQ/All-Articles/1203-Summer-2012/Photo-Essay-Outer-Limits.aspx">"The Outer Limits"</a>. <i>DGA Quarterly</i>. 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(1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780029228951"><i>The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era</i></a></span>. New York: The Free Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780029228951/page/158">158</a>, 160–162, 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780029228951" title="Special:BookSources/9780029228951"><bdi>9780029228951</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191028112702/https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780029228951">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-12-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Soyuz+T-10-1+%27Launch+vehicle+blew+up+on+pad+at+Tyuratam%3B+crew+saved+by+abort+system%27&rft.pub=Astronautix.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astronautix.com%2Fflights%2Fsoyzt101.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade" class="citation web cs1">Wade, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120221044312/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/n1.htm">"N1 Manned Lunar Launch Vehicle"</a>. <i>astronautix.com</i>. Encyclopedia Astronautica. 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Berlin: Springer. p. 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-73976-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-73976-2"><bdi>978-0-387-73976-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+and+Russian+lunar+exploration&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-387-73976-2&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnVeY7vMCtOkC%26pg%3DPA226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AyoBHBOnscY&noredirect=1">"N1 (vehicle 5L) moon rocket Test – launch abort system activated"</a>. <i>YouTube</i>. 2015 YouTube, LLC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150517160815/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AyoBHBOnscY&noredirect=1">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evening+Times&rft.atitle=Rocket+men%27s+quest+for+command+of+the+Ayr&rft.date=2007-08-27&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Marianne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eveningtimes.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fdisplay.var.1645304.0.rocket_mens_quest_for_command_of_the_ayr.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200925195412/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch1-2.html">"Moonport, CH1-2"</a>. <i>www.hq.nasa.gov</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hq.nasa.gov&rft.atitle=Moonport%2C+CH1-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hq.nasa.gov%2Foffice%2Fpao%2FHistory%2FSP-4204%2Fch1-2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/another-task-for-the-pslv/article2123861.ece">"Another task for the PSLV"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. 2011-06-22. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X">0971-751X</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Another+task+for+the+PSLV&rft.date=2011-06-22&rft.issn=0971-751X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fopinion%2Feditorial%2Fanother-task-for-the-pslv%2Farticle2123861.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CR566-3-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CR566-3_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CR566-3_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CR566-3_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotterCrocker1966" class="citation cs2">Potter, R.C; Crocker, M.J (1966), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19660030602_1966030602.pdf"><i>Acoustic Prediction Methods for Rocket Engines, Including the Effects of Clustered Engines and Deflected Exhaust Flow, CR-566</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Washington, D.C.: NASA, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37049198">37049198</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131206122446/http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19660030602_1966030602.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2013-12-06</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Acoustic+Prediction+Methods+for+Rocket+Engines%2C+Including+the+Effects+of+Clustered+Engines+and+Deflected+Exhaust+Flow%2C+CR-566&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F37049198&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=R.C&rft.au=Crocker%2C+M.J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fntrs.nasa.gov%2Farchive%2Fnasa%2Fcasi.ntrs.nasa.gov%2F19660030602_1966030602.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2010)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170302233823/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20020094348.pdf">"Launch Pad Vibroacoustics Research at NASA/KSC"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20020094348.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-03-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Launch+Pad+Vibroacoustics+Research+at+NASA%2FKSC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fntrs.nasa.gov%2Farchive%2Fnasa%2Fcasi.ntrs.nasa.gov%2F20020094348.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629143632/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/sound-suppression-system.html">"Sound Suppression System"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/sound-suppression-system.html">the original</a> on 2011-06-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sound+Suppression+System&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fmission_pages%2Fshuttle%2Flaunch%2Fsound-suppression-system.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren1979" class="citation book cs1">Warren, J. W. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingfor0000warr/page/37"><i>Understanding force: an account of some aspects of teaching the idea of force in school, college and university courses in engineering, mathematics and science</i></a>. London: Murray. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingfor0000warr/page/37">37–38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-3564-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-3564-2"><bdi>978-0-7195-3564-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+force%3A+an+account+of+some+aspects+of+teaching+the+idea+of+force+in+school%2C+college+and+university+courses+in+engineering%2C+mathematics+and+science&rft.place=London&rft.pages=37-38&rft.pub=Murray&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-7195-3564-2&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=J.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funderstandingfor0000warr%2Fpage%2F37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The confusion is illustrated in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrain2000" class="citation web cs1">Brain, Marshall (April 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.howstuffworks.com/rocket.htm">"How Rocket Engines Work"</a>. <i>Howstuffworks.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Howstuffworks.com&rft.atitle=How+Rocket+Engines+Work&rft.date=2000-04&rft.aulast=Brain&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.howstuffworks.com%2Frocket.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren1979" class="citation book cs1">Warren, J. W. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingfor0000warr/page/28"><i>Understanding force: an account of some aspects of teaching the idea of force in school, college and university courses in engineering, mathematics and science</i></a>. London: Murray. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingfor0000warr/page/28">28</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-3564-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-3564-2"><bdi>978-0-7195-3564-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+force%3A+an+account+of+some+aspects+of+teaching+the+idea+of+force+in+school%2C+college+and+university+courses+in+engineering%2C+mathematics+and+science&rft.place=London&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Murray&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-7195-3564-2&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=J.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funderstandingfor0000warr%2Fpage%2F28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121129204215/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/rktfor.html">"Four forces on a model rocket"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-12-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rocket+Mass+Ratios&rft.pub=Exploration.grc.nasa.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fexploration.grc.nasa.gov%2Feducation%2Frocket%2Frktwtp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ariane-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ariane_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ariane_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031225090030/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/ariane5g.htm">"Astronautix – Ariane 5g"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-10-14</span></span>. <q>The aerospace giants [Boeing Co. and Lockheed Martin Corp.] shared almost $500 million in equity profits from the rocket-making venture last year, when it still had a monopoly on the business of blasting the Pentagon's most important satellites into orbit. But since then, 'They've had us on a very short leash,' Tory Bruno, United Launch's chief executive, said.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=U.S.+Rocket+Supplier+Looks+to+Break+%27Short+Leash%27&rft.date=2015-09-17&rft.aulast=Pasztor&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fu-s-rocket-supplier-looks-to-break-short-leash-1437339519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wapo20160819-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wapo20160819_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavenport2016" class="citation news cs1">Davenport, Christian (2016-08-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/the-billionaire-space-barons-and-the-next-giant-leap/2016/08/19/795a4012-6307-11e6-8b27-bb8ba39497a2_story.html">"The inside story of how billionaires are racing to take you to outer space"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-08-20</span></span>. <q>the government's monopoly on space travel is over</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+inside+story+of+how+billionaires+are+racing+to+take+you+to+outer+space&rft.date=2016-08-19&rft.aulast=Davenport&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Fthe-billionaire-space-barons-and-the-next-giant-leap%2F2016%2F08%2F19%2F795a4012-6307-11e6-8b27-bb8ba39497a2_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARocket" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rockets" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Rockets">Rockets</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/rocket" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/rocket">rocket</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <p><b>Governing agencies</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ast.faa.gov/">FAA Office of Commercial Space Transportation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/">National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nar.org/">National Association of Rocketry (US)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tripoli.org/">Tripoli Rocketry Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acema.com.ar/">Asoc. Coheteria Experimental y Modelista de Argentina</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201027001020/http://acema.com.ar/">Archived</a> 2020-10-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ukra.org.uk/">United Kingdom Rocketry Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.modellraketen.org/">IMR – German/Austrian/Swiss Rocketry Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canadianrocketry.org/">Canadian Association of Rocketry</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isro.gov.in/">Indian Space Research Organisation</a></li></ul> <p><b>Information sites</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Astronautica" title="Encyclopedia Astronautica">Encyclopedia Astronautica</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040514103554/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/">Rocket and Missile Alphabetical Index</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.braeunig.us/space/index.htm">Rocket and Space Technology</a></li> <li>Gunter's Space Page – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://space.skyrocket.de/">Complete Rocket and Missile Lists</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070521025308/http://www.pwrengineering.com/data.htm">Rocketdyne Technical Articles</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080820201246/http://www.relativitycalculator.com/rocket_equations.shtml">Relativity Calculator – Learn Tsiolkovsky's rocket equations</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/rgoddardsite">Robert Goddard – America's Space Pioneer</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090205053231/http://sites.google.com/site/rgoddardsite/">Archived</a> 2009-02-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy" title="Space policy">Space policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Space_programme_of_Australia" title="Category:Space programme of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency_Science_Programme" title="European Space Agency Science Programme">European Space Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Space_Programme" title="European Union Space Programme">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_space_program" title="Japanese space program">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_Agreement" title="Rescue Agreement">Rescue Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Liability_Convention" title="Space Liability Convention">Space Liability Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Registration_Convention" title="Registration Convention">Registration Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_Treaty" title="Moon Treaty">Moon Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_command" title="Space command">Space command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militarisation_of_space" title="Militarisation of space">Militarisation of space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">Private spaceflight</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Billionaire_space_race" title="Billionaire space race">Billionaire space race</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_science" title="Outline of space science">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite" title="Earth observation satellite">Earth observation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">Imagery and mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Reconnaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">Weather and environment monitoring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access" title="Satellite Internet access">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">Television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_use_of_space" title="Commercial use of space">Commercial use of space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_launch_market_competition" title="Space launch market competition">Space launch market competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Space architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_research" title="Space research">Space research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">Space technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">Astronaut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_astronaut" title="Commercial astronaut">commercial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">Life-support system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioastronautics" title="Bioastronautics">Bioastronautics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_suit" title="Space suit">Space suit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">Extravehicular activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overview_effect" title="Overview effect">Overview effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_toilet" title="Space toilet">Space toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Space tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_diving" title="Space diving">Space diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle–Mir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Manned_Space_Program" title="China Manned Space Program">Shenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_program" title="Tiangong program">Tiangong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Health issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">Space adaptation syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_and_survival" title="Space and survival">Space and survival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_nursing" title="Space nursing">Space nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_sexology" title="Space sexology">Space sexology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">Launch vehicle</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">Space capsule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_module" title="Orbital module">Orbital module</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reentry_capsule" title="Reentry capsule">Reentry capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_module" title="Service module">Service module</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">Spaceplane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic spacecraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lander_(spacecraft)" title="Lander (spacecraft)">Lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rover_(space_exploration)" title="Rover (space exploration)">Rover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-replicating_spacecraft" title="Self-replicating spacecraft">Self-replicating spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion" title="Spacecraft propulsion">Spacecraft propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion" title="Spacecraft electric propulsion">Electric propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">Solar sail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_assist" title="Gravity assist">Gravity assist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Destinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">Sub-orbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">Orbital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Geocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_orbit" title="Geosynchronous orbit">Geosynchronous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_spaceflight" title="Interplanetary spaceflight">Interplanetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_travel" title="Interstellar travel">Interstellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_travel" title="Intergalactic travel">Intergalactic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_ascent" title="Direct ascent">Direct ascent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">Escape velocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expendable_launch_system" title="Expendable launch system">Expendable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reusable_launch_vehicle" title="Reusable launch vehicle">reusable launch systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">Launch pad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-rocket_spacelaunch" title="Non-rocket spacelaunch">Non-rocket spacelaunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">Spaceport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ground_segment" title="Ground segment">Ground segment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_controller" title="Flight controller">Flight controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_station" title="Ground station">Ground station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_pass" title="Orbital pass">Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_control_center" title="Mission control center">Mission control center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Spaceflight" title="Category:Spaceflight">Category</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41291#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41291#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41291#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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(aéronautique)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119314929">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569642">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007541220005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10644823">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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