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id="toc-Seizures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alcohol_withdrawal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcohol_withdrawal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Alcohol withdrawal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcohol_withdrawal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_indications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_indications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Other indications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_indications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contraindications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contraindications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Contraindications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contraindications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contraindications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contraindications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pregnancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pregnancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Pregnancy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pregnancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elderly" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elderly"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Elderly </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elderly-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverse_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverse_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Adverse effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Adverse_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Adverse effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Adverse_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cognitive_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Cognitive effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paradoxical_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paradoxical_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Paradoxical effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paradoxical_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_worsening_of_psychiatric_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_worsening_of_psychiatric_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Long-term worsening of psychiatric symptoms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_worsening_of_psychiatric_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_dependence,_withdrawal_and_post-withdrawal_syndromes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_dependence,_withdrawal_and_post-withdrawal_syndromes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Physical dependence, withdrawal and post-withdrawal syndromes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_dependence,_withdrawal_and_post-withdrawal_syndromes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tolerance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tolerance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Tolerance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tolerance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Withdrawal_symptoms_and_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Withdrawal_symptoms_and_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Withdrawal symptoms and management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Withdrawal_symptoms_and_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversial_associations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversial_associations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Controversial associations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversial_associations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dementia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dementia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.1 Dementia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dementia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.2 Infections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.3 Cancer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pancreatitis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pancreatitis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.4 Pancreatitis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pancreatitis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overdose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overdose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Overdose </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overdose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Interactions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharmacology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmacology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Pharmacology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pharmacology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pharmacology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pharmacology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pharmacodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmacodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Pharmacodynamics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pharmacodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharmacokinetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmacokinetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Pharmacokinetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pharmacokinetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Chemistry </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chemistry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Chemistry subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Types </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Legal status </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recreational_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recreational_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Recreational use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recreational_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Veterinary_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Veterinary_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Veterinary use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Veterinary_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Benzodiazepine</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" > 51 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bensodiasepien" title="Bensodiasepien – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bensodiasepien" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86" title="بنزوديازيبين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بنزوديازيبين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="বেঞ্জোডায়াজেপিন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বেঞ্জোডায়াজেপিন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бензодиазепин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бензодиазепин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepini" title="Benzodiazepini – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Benzodiazepini" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepina" title="Benzodiazepina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Benzodiazepina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepiny" title="Benzodiazepiny – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Benzodiazepiny" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepin" title="Benzodiazepin – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Benzodiazepin" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Benzodiazepine" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B6%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%B6%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B7" title="Βενζοδιαζεπίνη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βενζοδιαζεπίνη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepina" title="Benzodiazepina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Benzodiazepina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepinoj" title="Benzodiazepinoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Benzodiazepinoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentzodiazepina" title="Bentzodiazepina – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bentzodiazepina" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بنزودیازپین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بنزودیازپین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiaz%C3%A9pine" title="Benzodiazépine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Benzodiazépine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beinsidh%C3%A9-asaip%C3%ADn%C3%AD" title="Beinsidhé-asaipíní – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Beinsidhé-asaipíní" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiacepina" title="Benzodiacepina – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Benzodiacepina" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A4%EC%A1%B0%EB%94%94%EC%95%84%EC%A0%9C%ED%95%80" title="벤조디아제핀 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="벤조디아제핀" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A6%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%A5%D5%BA%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Բենզոդիազեպիններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բենզոդիազեպիններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8" title="बेंज़ोडाइज़ेपाइन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बेंज़ोडाइज़ेपाइन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepini" title="Benzodiazepini – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Benzodiazepini" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepina" title="Benzodiazepina – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Benzodiazepina" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Benzodiazepine" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%96%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%90%D7%96%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D" title="בנזודיאזפינים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בנזודיאזפינים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiyazep%C3%AEn" title="Benzodiyazepîn – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Benzodiyazepîn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepinum" title="Benzodiazepinum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Benzodiazepinum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazep%C4%ABni" title="Benzodiazepīni – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Benzodiazepīni" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepinek" title="Benzodiazepinek – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Benzodiazepinek" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86" title="بنزوديازيبين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بنزوديازيبين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Benzodiazepine" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%B3%E3%82%BE%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A2%E3%82%BC%E3%83%94%E3%83%B3" title="ベンゾジアゼピン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベンゾジアゼピン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepin" title="Benzodiazepin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Benzodiazepin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepin" title="Benzodiazepin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Benzodiazepin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepin" title="Benzodiazepin – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Benzodiazepin" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepiny_(leki)" title="Benzodiazepiny (leki) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Benzodiazepiny (leki)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepina" title="Benzodiazepina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Benzodiazepina" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepin%C4%83" title="Benzodiazepină – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Benzodiazepină" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Бензодиазепины – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бензодиазепины" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Benzodiazepine" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Benzodiazepine" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepin" title="Benzodiazepin – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Benzodiazepin" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бензодиазепин – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Бензодиазепин" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepin" title="Benzodiazepin – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Benzodiazepin" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentsodiatsepiinit" title="Bentsodiatsepiinit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bentsodiatsepiinit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bensodiazepiner" title="Bensodiazepiner – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bensodiazepiner" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="பென்சொடயசெபின் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பென்சொடயசெபின்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99" title="เบ็นโซไดอาเซพีน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เบ็นโซไดอาเซพีน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepin" title="Benzodiazepin – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Benzodiazepin" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Бензодіазепіни – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бензодіазепіни" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Benzodiazepine" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Class of depressant drugs</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Benzo" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Benzo_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Benzo (disambiguation)">Benzo (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #ddbbee">Benzodiazepines</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><a href="/wiki/Drug_class" title="Drug class">Drug class</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Benzodiazepine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Benzodiazepine.svg/280px-Benzodiazepine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Benzodiazepine.svg/420px-Benzodiazepine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Benzodiazepine.svg/560px-Benzodiazepine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="237" data-file-height="267" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Structural formula of benzodiazepines.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Class identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Use</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">Anxiety disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscle_spasms" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle spasms">muscle spasms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panic_disorder" title="Panic disorder">panic disorder</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System" title="Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System">ATC code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ATC_code_N05BA" class="mw-redirect" title="ATC code N05BA">N05BA</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Mode_of_action" title="Mode of action">Mode of action</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABAA receptor</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Clinical data</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/WebMD" title="WebMD">WebMD</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medicinenet.com/benzodiazepines-oral/article.htm">MedicineNet</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rxlist.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=94661">RxList</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">External links</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001569">D001569</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Legal status</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="background: #e8e8e8; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83871" class="extiw" title="d:Q83871">In Wikidata</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Benzodiazepines (BZD, BDZ, BZs), colloquially known as "benzos", are a class of <a href="/wiki/Depressant" title="Depressant">depressant drugs</a> whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a> ring and a <a href="/wiki/Diazepine" title="Diazepine">diazepine</a> ring. They are prescribed to treat conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a>. The first benzodiazepine, <a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">chlordiazepoxide</a> (Librium), was discovered accidentally by <a href="/wiki/Leo_Sternbach" title="Leo Sternbach">Leo Sternbach</a> in 1955, and was made available in 1960 by <a href="/wiki/Roche" title="Roche">Hoffmann–La Roche</a>, which followed with the development of <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a> (Valium) three years later, in 1963.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-19-517668-5-1">[1]</a> By 1977, benzodiazepines were the most prescribed medications globally; the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors">selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors</a> (SSRIs), among other factors, decreased rates of prescription, but they remain frequently used worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Benzodiazepines are <a href="/wiki/Depressant" title="Depressant">depressants</a> that enhance the effect of the <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> <a href="/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">gamma-aminobutyric acid</a> (GABA) at the <a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABAA receptor</a>, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Sedative" title="Sedative">sedative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">hypnotic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sleep_induction" title="Sleep induction">sleep-inducing</a>), <a href="/wiki/Anxiolytic" title="Anxiolytic">anxiolytic</a> (anti-anxiety), <a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant">anticonvulsant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muscle_relaxant" title="Muscle relaxant">muscle relaxant</a> properties. High doses of many shorter-acting benzodiazepines may also cause <a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde amnesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)" title="Dissociation (psychology)">dissociation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ip2002-4">[4]</a> These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panic_disorder" title="Panic disorder">panic disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation" title="Psychomotor agitation">agitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizure">seizures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spasm" title="Spasm">muscle spasms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_withdrawal" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol withdrawal">alcohol withdrawal</a> and as a <a href="/wiki/Premedication" title="Premedication">premedication</a> for medical or dental procedures.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18175099-5">[5]</a> Benzodiazepines are categorized as short, intermediate, or long-acting. Short- and intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia; longer-acting benzodiazepines are recommended for the treatment of anxiety.<a href="#cite_note-sddat-6">[6]</a> Benzodiazepines are generally viewed as safe and effective for short-term use of two to four weeks,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> although <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_impairment" title="Cognitive impairment">cognitive impairment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paradoxical_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradoxical effect">paradoxical effects</a> such as aggression or behavioral <a href="/wiki/Disinhibition" title="Disinhibition">disinhibition</a> can occur.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18922233-8">[8]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Victoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Victoria">Government of Victoria</a>'s (Australia) <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health_(Victoria)" title="Department of Health (Victoria)">Department of Health</a>, long-term use can cause "impaired thinking or memory loss, anxiety and depression, irritability, paranoia, aggression, etc."<a href="#cite_note-Better_Health_Channel_2000_i441-9">[9]</a> A minority of people have <a href="/wiki/Paradoxical_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradoxical reactions">paradoxical reactions</a> after taking benzodiazepines such as worsened agitation or panic.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18922233-8">[8]</a> Benzodiazepines are associated with an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> due to aggression, impulsivity, and negative withdrawal effects.<a href="#cite_note-Dodds_2017-10">[10]</a> Long-term use is controversial because of concerns about <a href="/wiki/Drug_tolerance" title="Drug tolerance">decreasing effectiveness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">physical dependence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_withdrawal_syndrome" title="Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome">benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome</a>, and an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18671662-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid19062773-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid29926372-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The elderly are at an increased risk of both short- and <a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_benzodiazepines" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-term effects of benzodiazepines">long-term adverse effects</a>,<a href="#cite_note-tdamobd2004-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-ohop-16">[16]</a> and as a result, all benzodiazepines are listed in the <a href="/wiki/Beers_Criteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Beers Criteria">Beers List</a> of inappropriate medications for older adults.<a href="#cite_note-agsubc2015-17">[17]</a> There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy. While they are not major <a href="/wiki/Teratogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratogens">teratogens</a>, uncertainty remains as to whether they cause <a href="/wiki/Cleft_palate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft palate">cleft palate</a> in a small number of babies and whether neurobehavioural effects occur as a result of prenatal exposure;<a href="#cite_note-ACOG-18">[18]</a> they are known to cause <a href="/wiki/Neonatal_withdrawal" title="Neonatal withdrawal">withdrawal symptoms in the newborn</a>. In an overdose, benzodiazepines can cause dangerous <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">deep unconsciousness</a>, but are less toxic than their predecessors, the <a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">barbiturates</a>, and death rarely results when a benzodiazepine is the only drug taken. Combined with other <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (CNS) <a href="/wiki/Depressant" title="Depressant">depressants</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a>, the potential for toxicity and fatal overdose increases significantly.<a href="#cite_note-pmid9780123-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Benzodiazepines are commonly <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">used recreationally</a> and also often taken <a href="/wiki/Poly_drug_use" class="mw-redirect" title="Poly drug use">in combination</a> with other addictive substances, and are <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition of drugs">controlled</a> in most countries.<a href="#cite_note-Charlson_2009-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid10707430-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid10622686-23">[23]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_uses">Medical uses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Medical uses">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_benzodiazepines" title="List of benzodiazepines">List of benzodiazepines</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Midazolam.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two 10 mL bottles labeled Midazolam. The bottle on the left has a label in red and says 1 mg/mL; the one on the right is in green and says 5 mg/mL. Both bottles have much fine print." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Midazolam.JPG/220px-Midazolam.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Midazolam.JPG/330px-Midazolam.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Midazolam.JPG/440px-Midazolam.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">Midazolam</a> 1 & 5 mg/mL <a href="/wiki/Drug_injection" title="Drug injection">injections</a> (Canada)</figcaption></figure> Benzodiazepines possess <a href="/wiki/Psycholeptic" title="Psycholeptic">psycholeptic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sedative" title="Sedative">sedative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">hypnotic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiolytic" title="Anxiolytic">anxiolytic</a>, anticonvulsant, <a href="/wiki/Muscle_relaxant" title="Muscle relaxant">muscle relaxant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">amnesic</a> actions,<a href="#cite_note-ip2002-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18175099-5">[5]</a> which are useful in a variety of indications such as <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_dependence" title="Alcohol dependence">alcohol dependence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiety disorders">anxiety disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panic" title="Panic">panic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation" title="Psychomotor agitation">agitation</a>, and insomnia. Most are administered orally; however, they can also be given <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy" title="Intravenous therapy">intravenously</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intramuscular_injection" title="Intramuscular injection">intramuscularly</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Rectal_administration" title="Rectal administration">rectally</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BNF_2009-24">[24]</a>: 189  In general, benzodiazepines are well tolerated and are safe and effective drugs in the short term for a wide range of conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Perugi-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tesar-26">[26]</a> Tolerance can develop to their effects and there is also a risk of <a href="/wiki/Drug_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug dependence">dependence</a>, and upon discontinuation a withdrawal syndrome may occur. These factors, combined with other possible secondary effects after prolonged use such as psychomotor, cognitive, or memory impairments, limit their long-term applicability.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_benzodiazepines" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-term effects of benzodiazepines">The effects of long-term use</a> or misuse include the tendency to cause or worsen <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive deficit">cognitive deficits</a>, depression, and anxiety.<a href="#cite_note-tdamobd2004-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-ohop-16">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/College_of_Physicians_and_Surgeons_of_British_Columbia" title="College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia">College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia</a> recommends discontinuing the usage of benzodiazepines in those on opioids and those who have used them long term.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Benzodiazepines can have serious adverse health outcomes, and these findings support clinical and regulatory efforts to reduce usage, especially in combination with non-benzodiazepine receptor agonists.<a href="#cite_note-:0-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Panic_disorder">Panic disorder</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Panic disorder">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Panic_disorder" title="Panic disorder">Panic disorder</a></div> Because of their effectiveness, tolerability, and rapid onset of <a href="/wiki/Anxiolytic" title="Anxiolytic">anxiolytic</a> action, benzodiazepines are frequently used for the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Panic_disorder" title="Panic disorder">panic disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15762816-31">[31]</a> However, there is disagreement among expert bodies regarding the long-term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder. The views range from those holding benzodiazepines are not effective long-term <a href="#cite_note-cgftmamoa2004-32">[32]</a> and should be reserved for treatment-resistant cases<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> to those holding they are as effective in the long term as <a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors">selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors</a> (SSRIs).<a href="#cite_note-APA-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a> (APA) guidelines, published in January 2009,<a href="#cite_note-APA-34">[34]</a> note that, in general, benzodiazepines are well tolerated, and their use for the initial treatment for panic disorder is strongly supported by numerous controlled trials. APA states that there is insufficient evidence to recommend any of the established panic disorder treatments over another. The choice of treatment between benzodiazepines, SSRIs, <a href="/wiki/Serotonin%E2%80%93norepinephrine_reuptake_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors">serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors</a> (SNRIs), <a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant" title="Tricyclic antidepressant">tricyclic antidepressants</a>, and psychotherapy should be based on the patient's history, preference, and other individual characteristics. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are likely to be the best choice of pharmacotherapy for many patients with panic disorder, but benzodiazepines are also often used, and some studies suggest that these medications are still used with greater frequency than the SSRIs. One advantage of benzodiazepines is that they alleviate the anxiety symptoms much faster than antidepressants, and therefore may be preferred in patients for whom rapid symptom control is critical. However, this advantage is offset by the possibility of developing <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_dependence" title="Benzodiazepine dependence">benzodiazepine dependence</a>. APA does not recommend benzodiazepines for persons with depressive symptoms or a recent history of <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">substance use disorder</a>. APA guidelines state that, in general, pharmacotherapy of panic disorder should be continued for at least a year, and that clinical experience supports continuing benzodiazepine treatment to prevent recurrence. Although major concerns about benzodiazepine tolerance and withdrawal have been raised, there is no evidence for significant dose escalation in patients using benzodiazepines long-term. For many such patients, stable doses of benzodiazepines retain their efficacy over several years.<a href="#cite_note-APA-34">[34]</a> Guidelines issued by the UK-based <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Clinical_Excellence" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence">National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence</a> (NICE), carried out a systematic review using different methodology and came to a different conclusion. They questioned the accuracy of studies that were not placebo-controlled. And, based on the findings of <a href="/wiki/Placebo-controlled_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Placebo-controlled studies">placebo-controlled studies</a>, they do not recommend use of benzodiazepines beyond two to four weeks, as tolerance and <a href="/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">physical dependence</a> develop rapidly, with withdrawal symptoms including <a href="/wiki/Rebound_anxiety" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebound anxiety">rebound anxiety</a> occurring after six weeks or more of use.<a href="#cite_note-cgftmamoa2004-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Nevertheless, benzodiazepines are still prescribed for long-term treatment of <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiety disorders">anxiety disorders</a>, although specific <a href="/wiki/Antidepressants" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidepressants">antidepressants</a> and psychological therapies are recommended as the <a href="/wiki/First-line_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="First-line treatment">first-line treatment</a> options with the <a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant">anticonvulsant</a> drug <a href="/wiki/Pregabalin" title="Pregabalin">pregabalin</a> indicated as a second- or third-line treatment and suitable for long-term use.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> NICE stated that long-term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder with or without <a href="/wiki/Agoraphobia" title="Agoraphobia">agoraphobia</a> is an unlicensed indication, does not have long-term efficacy, and is, therefore, not recommended by clinical guidelines. Psychological therapies such as <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioural_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive behavioural therapy">cognitive behavioural therapy</a> are recommended as a first-line therapy for panic disorder; benzodiazepine use has been found to interfere with therapeutic gains from these therapies.<a href="#cite_note-cgftmamoa2004-32">[32]</a> Benzodiazepines are usually administered orally; however, very occasionally lorazepam or diazepam may be given intravenously for the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Panic_attack" title="Panic attack">panic attacks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BNF_2009-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Generalized_anxiety_disorder">Generalized anxiety disorder</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Generalized anxiety disorder">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Generalized_anxiety_disorder" title="Generalized anxiety disorder">Generalized anxiety disorder</a></div> Benzodiazepines have robust efficacy in the short-term management of <a href="/wiki/Generalized_anxiety_disorder" title="Generalized anxiety disorder">generalized anxiety disorder</a> (GAD), but were not shown effective in producing long-term improvement overall.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17881433-37">[37]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Clinical_Excellence" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence">National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence</a> (NICE), benzodiazepines can be used in the immediate management of GAD, if necessary. However, they should not usually be given for longer than 2–4 weeks. The only medications NICE recommends for the longer term management of GAD are antidepressants.<a href="#cite_note-NICECG022-38">[38]</a> Likewise, Canadian Psychiatric Association (CPA) recommends benzodiazepines <a href="/wiki/Alprazolam" title="Alprazolam">alprazolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bromazepam" title="Bromazepam">bromazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">lorazepam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a> only as a second-line choice, if the treatment with two different antidepressants was unsuccessful. Although they are second-line agents, benzodiazepines can be used for a limited time to relieve severe anxiety and agitation. CPA guidelines note that after 4–6 weeks the effect of benzodiazepines may decrease to the level of placebo, and that benzodiazepines are less effective than antidepressants in alleviating <a href="/wiki/Rumination_(psychology)" title="Rumination (psychology)">ruminative worry</a>, the core symptom of GAD. However, in some cases, a prolonged treatment with benzodiazepines as the add-on to an antidepressant may be justified.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16933543-39">[39]</a> A 2015 review found a larger effect with medications than talk therapy.<a href="#cite_note-Band2015-40">[40]</a> Medications with benefit include <a href="/wiki/Serotonin-noradrenaline_reuptake_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors">serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors</a>, benzodiazepines, and <a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors">selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Band2015-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anxiety">Anxiety</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Anxiety">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Panic_attack" title="Panic attack">Panic attack</a></div> Benzodiazepines are sometimes used in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Panic_attack" title="Panic attack">acute anxiety</a>, since they result in rapid and marked relief of symptoms in most individuals;<a href="#cite_note-cgftmamoa2004-32">[32]</a> however, they are not recommended beyond 2–4 weeks of use due to risks of tolerance and dependence and a lack of long-term effectiveness. As for insomnia, they may also be used on an irregular/"as-needed" basis, such as in cases where said anxiety is at its worst. Compared to other pharmacological treatments, benzodiazepines are twice as likely to lead to a relapse of the underlying condition upon discontinuation. Psychological therapies and other pharmacological therapies are recommended for the long-term treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Antidepressants have higher remission rates and are, in general, safe and effective in the short and long term.<a href="#cite_note-cgftmamoa2004-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insomnia">Insomnia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Insomnia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">Insomnia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Normison.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Normison.jpg/220px-Normison.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Normison.jpg/330px-Normison.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Normison.jpg/440px-Normison.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2499" data-file-height="1429" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">Temazepam</a> (Normison) 10 mg tablets</figcaption></figure> Benzodiazepines can be useful for short-term treatment of <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>. Their use beyond 2 to 4 weeks is not recommended due to the risk of dependence. The Committee on Safety of Medicines report recommended that where long-term use of benzodiazepines for insomnia is indicated then treatment should be intermittent wherever possible.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> It is preferred that benzodiazepines be taken intermittently and at the lowest effective dose. They improve sleep-related problems by shortening the time spent in bed before falling asleep, prolonging the sleep time, and, in general, reducing wakefulness.<a href="#cite_note-nice-hypnotics-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17853625-43">[43]</a> However, they worsen sleep quality by increasing light sleep and decreasing deep sleep. Other drawbacks of hypnotics, including benzodiazepines, are possible tolerance to their effects, <a href="/wiki/Rebound_insomnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebound insomnia">rebound insomnia</a>, and reduced slow-wave sleep and a withdrawal period typified by rebound insomnia and a prolonged period of anxiety and agitation.<a href="#cite_note-handbook_of_integrative-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-ahrq-45">[45]</a> The list of benzodiazepines approved for the treatment of insomnia is fairly similar among most countries, but which benzodiazepines are officially designated as first-line hypnotics prescribed for the treatment of insomnia varies between countries.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17853625-43">[43]</a> Longer-acting benzodiazepines such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrazepam" title="Nitrazepam">nitrazepam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a> have residual effects that may persist into the next day and are, in general, not recommended.<a href="#cite_note-nice-hypnotics-42">[42]</a> Since the release of <a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepines" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonbenzodiazepines">nonbenzodiazepines</a>, also known as z-drugs, in 1992 in response to safety concerns, individuals with insomnia and other sleep disorders have increasingly been prescribed nonbenzodiazepines (2.3% in 1993 to 13.7% of Americans in 2010), less often prescribed benzodiazepines (23.5% in 1993 to 10.8% in 2010).<a href="#cite_note-Kaufmann_2016-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> It is not clear as to whether the new <a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">non benzodiazepine</a> hypnotics (Z-drugs) are better than the short-acting benzodiazepines. The efficacy of these two groups of medications is similar.<a href="#cite_note-nice-hypnotics-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-ahrq-45">[45]</a> According to the US <a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Healthcare_Research_and_Quality" title="Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality">Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality</a>, indirect comparison indicates that side-effects from benzodiazepines may be about twice as frequent as from nonbenzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-ahrq-45">[45]</a> Some experts suggest using nonbenzodiazepines preferentially as a first-line long-term treatment of insomnia.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17853625-43">[43]</a> However, the UK <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Clinical_Excellence" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence">National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence</a> did not find any convincing evidence in favor of Z-drugs. NICE review pointed out that short-acting Z-drugs were inappropriately compared in clinical trials with long-acting benzodiazepines. There have been no trials comparing short-acting Z-drugs with appropriate doses of short-acting benzodiazepines. Based on this, NICE recommended choosing the hypnotic based on cost and the patient's preference.<a href="#cite_note-nice-hypnotics-42">[42]</a> Older adults should not use benzodiazepines to treat insomnia unless other treatments have failed.<a href="#cite_note-AGSfive-48">[48]</a> When benzodiazepines are used, patients, their caretakers, and their physician should discuss the increased risk of harms, including evidence that shows twice the incidence of <a href="/wiki/Traffic_collisions" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic collisions">traffic collisions</a> among driving patients, and falls and hip fracture for older patients.<a href="#cite_note-AGSfive-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid16156679-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seizures">Seizures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Seizures">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">Seizure</a></div> Prolonged convulsive <a href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizure">epileptic seizures</a> are a <a href="/wiki/Medical_emergency" title="Medical emergency">medical emergency</a> that can usually be dealt with effectively by administering fast-acting benzodiazepines, which are potent <a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsants" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticonvulsants">anticonvulsants</a>. In a hospital environment, <a href="/wiki/Intravenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous">intravenous</a> <a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">clonazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">lorazepam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a> are first-line choices. In the community, intravenous administration is not practical and so <a href="/wiki/Rectal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rectal">rectal</a> diazepam or <a href="/wiki/Buccal_mucosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Buccal mucosa">buccal</a> <a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">midazolam</a> are used, with a preference for midazolam as its administration is easier and more socially acceptable.<a href="#cite_note-SIGN70-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-NICECG020-52">[52]</a> When benzodiazepines were first introduced, they were enthusiastically adopted for treating all forms of <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>. However, drowsiness and <a href="/wiki/Drug_tolerance" title="Drug tolerance">tolerance</a> become problems with continued use and none are now considered <a href="/wiki/First-line_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="First-line treatment">first-line</a> choices for long-term epilepsy therapy.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19298435-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clobazam" title="Clobazam">Clobazam</a> is widely used by specialist epilepsy clinics worldwide and clonazepam is popular in the Netherlands, Belgium and France.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19298435-53">[53]</a> Clobazam was approved for use in the United States in 2011. In the UK, both clobazam and clonazepam are second-line choices for treating many forms of epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-NICECG020b-54">[54]</a> Clobazam also has a useful role for very short-term seizure <a href="/wiki/Prophylaxis" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophylaxis">prophylaxis</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Catamenial_epilepsy" title="Catamenial epilepsy">catamenial epilepsy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19298435-53">[53]</a> Discontinuation after long-term use in epilepsy requires additional caution because of the risks of rebound seizures. Therefore, the dose is slowly tapered over a period of up to six months or longer.<a href="#cite_note-NICECG020-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alcohol_withdrawal">Alcohol withdrawal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Alcohol withdrawal">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_detoxification" title="Alcohol detoxification">Alcohol detoxification</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">Chlordiazepoxide</a> is the most commonly used benzodiazepine for <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_detoxification" title="Alcohol detoxification">alcohol detoxification</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid9270461-55">[55]</a> but <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a> may be used as an alternative. Both are used in the detoxification of individuals who are motivated to stop drinking, and are prescribed for a short period of time to reduce the risks of developing tolerance and dependence to the benzodiazepine medication itself.<a href="#cite_note-BNF_2009-24">[24]</a>: 275  The benzodiazepines with a longer half-life make detoxification more tolerable, and dangerous (and potentially lethal) alcohol withdrawal effects are less likely to occur. On the other hand, short-acting benzodiazepines may lead to <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_seizures#Breakthrough_seizure" title="Causes of seizures">breakthrough seizures</a>, and are, therefore, not recommended for detoxification in an outpatient setting. <a href="/wiki/Oxazepam" title="Oxazepam">Oxazepam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">lorazepam</a> are often used in patients at risk of drug accumulation, in particular, the elderly and those with <a href="/wiki/Cirrhosis" title="Cirrhosis">cirrhosis</a>, because they are metabolized differently from other benzodiazepines, through <a href="/wiki/Glucuronidation" title="Glucuronidation">conjugation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Benzodiazepines are the preferred choice in the management of <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_withdrawal_syndrome" title="Alcohol withdrawal syndrome">alcohol withdrawal syndrome</a>, in particular, for the prevention and treatment of the dangerous complication of seizures and in subduing severe <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Lorazepam is the only benzodiazepine with predictable intramuscular absorption and it is the most effective in preventing and controlling acute seizures.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_indications">Other indications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other indications">edit</a>]</div> Benzodiazepines are often prescribed for a wide range of conditions: <ul><li>They can sedate patients receiving <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_ventilation" title="Mechanical ventilation">mechanical ventilation</a> or those in extreme distress. Caution is exercised in this situation due to the risk of <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory depression">respiratory depression</a>, and it is recommended that <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_overdose" title="Benzodiazepine overdose">benzodiazepine overdose</a> treatment facilities should be available.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> They have also been found to increase the likelihood of later PTSD after people have been removed from ventilators.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></li> <li>Benzodiazepines are indicated in the management of breathlessness (shortness of breath) in advanced diseases, in particular where other treatments have failed to adequately control symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></li> <li>Benzodiazepines are effective as medication given a couple of hours before surgery to relieve anxiety. They also produce <a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">amnesia</a>, which can be useful, as patients may not remember unpleasantness from the procedure.<a href="#cite_note-Broscheit-2008-63">[63]</a> They are also used in patients with <a href="/wiki/Dental_phobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental phobia">dental phobia</a> as well as some ophthalmic procedures like refractive surgery; although such use is controversial and only recommended for those who are very anxious.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Midazolam is the most commonly prescribed for this use because of its strong sedative actions and fast recovery time, as well as its water solubility, which reduces pain upon injection. Diazepam and lorazepam are sometimes used. Lorazepam has particularly marked amnesic properties that may make it more effective when amnesia is the desired effect.<a href="#cite_note-BNF_2009-24">[24]</a>: 693 </li> <li>Benzodiazepines are well known for their strong muscle-relaxing properties and can be useful in the treatment of muscle spasms,<a href="#cite_note-BNF_2009-24">[24]</a>: 577–578  although tolerance often develops to their muscle relaxant effects.<a href="#cite_note-tdamobd2004-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Baclofen" title="Baclofen">Baclofen</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tizanidine" title="Tizanidine">tizanidine</a> are sometimes used as an alternative to benzodiazepines. Tizanidine has been found to have superior tolerability compared to diazepam and baclofen.<a href="#cite_note-Kamen-2008-66">[66]</a></li> <li>Benzodiazepines are also used to treat the acute panic caused by <a href="/wiki/Hallucinogen" title="Hallucinogen">hallucinogen</a> intoxication.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Benzodiazepines are also used to calm the acutely agitated individual and can, if required, be given via an intramuscular injection.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> They can sometimes be effective in the short-term treatment of psychiatric emergencies such as acute <a href="/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">psychosis</a> as in <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">mania</a>, bringing about rapid tranquillization and sedation until the effects of <a href="/wiki/Lithium_pharmacology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium pharmacology">lithium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neuroleptics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroleptics">neuroleptics</a> (antipsychotics) take effect. <a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">Lorazepam</a> is most commonly used but <a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">clonazepam</a> is sometimes prescribed for acute psychosis or mania;<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> their long-term use is not recommended due to risks of dependence.<a href="#cite_note-BNF_2009-24">[24]</a>: 204  Further research investigating the use of benzodiazepines alone and in combination with antipsychotic medications for treating acute psychosis is warranted.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">Clonazepam</a>, a benzodiazepine is used to treat many forms of <a href="/wiki/Parasomnia" title="Parasomnia">parasomnia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_behavior_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Rapid eye movement behavior disorder">Rapid eye movement behavior disorder</a> responds well to low doses of clonazepam.<a href="#cite_note-pmid10996567-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Restless_legs_syndrome" title="Restless legs syndrome">Restless legs syndrome</a> can be treated using clonazepam as a third line treatment option as the use of clonazepam is still investigational.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></li> <li>Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for <a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">obsessive–compulsive disorder</a> (OCD), although they are generally believed ineffective for this indication. Effectiveness was, however, found in one small study.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Benzodiazepines can be considered as a treatment option in treatment resistant cases.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipsychotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipsychotics">Antipsychotics</a> are generally a first-line treatment for delirium; however, when <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a> is caused by alcohol or sedative hypnotic <a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">withdrawal</a>, benzodiazepines are a first-line treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Attard-2008-78">[78]</a></li> <li>There is some evidence that low doses of benzodiazepines reduce adverse effects of <a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy" title="Electroconvulsive therapy">electroconvulsive therapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22531198-79">[79]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contraindications">Contraindications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Contraindications">edit</a>]</div> Benzodiazepines require special precaution if used in the elderly, during pregnancy, in children, <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcohol</a> or drug-dependent individuals and individuals with <a href="/wiki/Comorbid" class="mw-redirect" title="Comorbid">comorbid</a> <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric disorders">psychiatric disorders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Because of their muscle relaxant action, benzodiazepines may cause <a href="/wiki/Hypoventilation" title="Hypoventilation">respiratory depression</a> in susceptible individuals. For that reason, they are contraindicated in people with <a href="/wiki/Myasthenia_gravis" title="Myasthenia gravis">myasthenia gravis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sleep_apnea" title="Sleep apnea">sleep apnea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronchitis" title="Bronchitis">bronchitis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">COPD</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-683-30128-4-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-444-50998-4-82">[82]</a> Caution is required when benzodiazepines are used in people with <a href="/wiki/Personality_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality disorders">personality disorders</a> or <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a> because of frequent <a href="/wiki/Paradoxical_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradoxical reactions">paradoxical reactions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-683-30128-4-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-444-50998-4-82">[82]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">major depression</a>, they may precipitate <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicidal tendencies</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> and are sometimes used for suicidal overdoses.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-444-50998-4-82">[82]</a> Individuals with a history of excessive alcohol use or non-medical use of <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a> or <a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">barbiturates</a> should avoid benzodiazepines, as there is a risk of life-threatening interactions with these drugs.<a href="#cite_note-isbn1-58829-211-8-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pregnancy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_benzodiazepines#Neonatal_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-term effects of benzodiazepines">Effects of benzodiazepines on newborns</a></div> In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Food and Drug Administration (United States)">Food and Drug Administration</a> has categorized benzodiazepines into either <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_category" title="Pregnancy category">category D or X</a> meaning potential for harm in the unborn has been demonstrated.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Exposure to benzodiazepines during pregnancy has been associated with a slightly increased (from 0.06 to 0.07%) risk of <a href="/wiki/Cleft_lip_and_palate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft lip and palate">cleft palate</a> in newborns, a controversial conclusion as some studies find no association between benzodiazepines and cleft palate. Their use by expectant mothers shortly before the delivery may result in a <a href="/wiki/Floppy_infant_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Floppy infant syndrome">floppy infant syndrome</a>. Newborns with this condition tend to have <a href="/wiki/Hypotonia" title="Hypotonia">hypotonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">hypothermia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lethargy" title="Lethargy">lethargy</a>, and breathing and feeding difficulties.<a href="#cite_note-ACOG-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid9748174-86">[86]</a> Cases of <a href="/wiki/Neonatal_withdrawal_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Neonatal withdrawal syndrome">neonatal withdrawal syndrome</a> have been described in infants chronically exposed to benzodiazepines <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">in utero</a>. This syndrome may be hard to recognize, as it starts several days after delivery, for example, as late as 21 days for chlordiazepoxide. The symptoms include <a href="/wiki/Tremor" title="Tremor">tremors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypertonia" title="Hypertonia">hypertonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyperreflexia" title="Hyperreflexia">hyperreflexia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyperactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperactivity">hyperactivity</a>, and vomiting and may last for up to three to six months.<a href="#cite_note-ACOG-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid9614425-87">[87]</a> Tapering down the dose during pregnancy may lessen its severity. If used in pregnancy, those benzodiazepines with a better and longer safety record, such as <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">chlordiazepoxide</a>, are recommended over potentially more harmful benzodiazepines, such as <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">triazolam</a>. Using the lowest effective dose for the shortest period of time minimizes the risks to the unborn child.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elderly">Elderly</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Elderly">edit</a>]</div> The benefits of benzodiazepines are least and the risks are greatest in the elderly.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18035234-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> They are listed as a potentially inappropriate medication for older adults by the <a href="/wiki/American_Geriatrics_Society" title="American Geriatrics Society">American Geriatrics Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The elderly are at an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Drug_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug dependence">dependence</a> and are more sensitive to the adverse effects such as memory problems, daytime sedation, impaired motor coordination, and increased risk of motor vehicle accidents and falls,<a href="#cite_note-pmid16156679-49">[49]</a> and an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Hip_fractures" class="mw-redirect" title="Hip fractures">hip fractures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22566242-93">[93]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_benzodiazepines" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-term effects of benzodiazepines">long-term effects of benzodiazepines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_dependence" title="Benzodiazepine dependence">benzodiazepine dependence</a> in the elderly can resemble <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>, depression, or <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_syndromes" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiety syndromes">anxiety syndromes</a>, and progressively worsens over time. Adverse effects on cognition can be mistaken for the effects of old age. The benefits of withdrawal include improved cognition, alertness, mobility, reduced risk of incontinence, and a reduced risk of falls and fractures. The success of gradual-tapering benzodiazepines is as great in the elderly as in younger people. Benzodiazepines should be prescribed to the elderly only with caution and only for a short period at low doses.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15001721-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-prescribing_for_elderly_patients-95">[95]</a> Short to intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred in the elderly such as <a href="/wiki/Oxazepam" title="Oxazepam">oxazepam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a>. The high potency benzodiazepines <a href="/wiki/Alprazolam" title="Alprazolam">alprazolam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">triazolam</a> and long-acting benzodiazepines are not recommended in the elderly due to increased adverse effects. <a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepines" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonbenzodiazepines">Nonbenzodiazepines</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Zaleplon" title="Zaleplon">zaleplon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zolpidem" title="Zolpidem">zolpidem</a> and low doses of sedating antidepressants are sometimes used as alternatives to benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-prescribing_for_elderly_patients-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Long-term use of benzodiazepines is associated with increased risk of cognitive impairment and dementia, and reduction in prescribing levels is likely to reduce dementia risk.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29926372-13">[13]</a> The association of a history of benzodiazepine use and cognitive decline is unclear, with some studies reporting a lower risk of cognitive decline in former users, some finding no association and some indicating an increased risk of cognitive decline.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Benzodiazepines are sometimes prescribed to treat behavioral symptoms of dementia. However, like <a href="/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">antidepressants</a>, they have little evidence of effectiveness, although <a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">antipsychotics</a> have shown some benefit.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Cognitive impairing effects of benzodiazepines that occur frequently in the elderly can also worsen dementia.<a href="#cite_note-pmid10779253-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adverse_effects">Adverse effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Adverse effects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg/300px-HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg/450px-HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg/600px-HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="765" /></a><figcaption>Table from the 2010 ISCD study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. Benzodiazepines were found to be the 10th most dangerous drug overall.<a href="#cite_note-Nutt_2010-101">[101]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_benzodiazepines" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-term effects of benzodiazepines">Long-term effects of benzodiazepines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paradoxical_reaction#Benzodiazepines" title="Paradoxical reaction">Paradoxical reaction § Benzodiazepines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_withdrawal_syndrome" title="Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome">benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome</a></div> The most common side-effects of benzodiazepines are related to their sedating and muscle-relaxing action. They include <a href="/wiki/Drowsiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Drowsiness">drowsiness</a>, dizziness, and decreased alertness and concentration. Lack of <a href="/wiki/Motor_coordination" title="Motor coordination">coordination</a> may result in falls and injuries particularly in the elderly.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-683-30128-4-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-470-02821-1-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18929314-103">[103]</a> Another result is impairment of driving skills and increased likelihood of road traffic accidents.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Decreased libido and erection problems are a common side effect. Depression and <a href="/wiki/Disinhibition" title="Disinhibition">disinhibition</a> may emerge. <a href="/wiki/Hypotension" title="Hypotension">Hypotension</a> and suppressed breathing (<a href="/wiki/Hypoventilation" title="Hypoventilation">hypoventilation</a>) may be encountered with intravenous use.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-683-30128-4-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-470-02821-1-102">[102]</a> Less common side effects include nausea and changes in appetite, blurred vision, confusion, <a href="/wiki/Euphoria_(emotion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphoria (emotion)">euphoria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Depersonalization" title="Depersonalization">depersonalization</a> and nightmares. Cases of <a href="/wiki/Liver_toxicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Liver toxicity">liver toxicity</a> have been described but are very rare.<a href="#cite_note-BNF_2009-24">[24]</a>: 183–189 <a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_benzodiazepine" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-term effects of benzodiazepine">long-term effects of benzodiazepine</a> use can include <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_impairment" title="Cognitive impairment">cognitive impairment</a> as well as affective and behavioural problems. Feelings of turmoil, difficulty in thinking constructively, loss of sex-drive, <a href="/wiki/Agoraphobia" title="Agoraphobia">agoraphobia</a> and social phobia, increasing anxiety and depression, loss of interest in leisure pursuits and interests, and an inability to experience or express feelings can also occur. Not everyone, however, experiences problems with long-term use.<a href="#cite_note-asapdacg-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Additionally, an altered perception of self, environment and relationships may occur.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15762814-109">[109]</a> A study published in 2020 found that long-term use of prescription benzodiazepines is associated with an increase in all-cause mortality among those age 65 or younger, but not those older than 65. The study also found that all-cause mortality was increased further in cases in which benzodiazepines are co-prescribed with opioids, relative to cases in which benzodiazepines are prescribed without opioids, but again only in those age 65 or younger.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Compared to other sedative-hypnotics, visits to the hospital involving benzodiazepines had a 66% greater odds of a serious adverse health outcome. This included hospitalization, patient transfer, or death, and visits involving a combination of benzodiazepines and non-benzodiapine receptor agonists had almost four-times increased odds of a serious health outcome.<a href="#cite_note-:0-30">[30]</a> In September 2020, the US <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) required the <a href="/wiki/Boxed_warning" title="Boxed warning">boxed warning</a> be updated for all benzodiazepine medicines to describe the risks of abuse, misuse, addiction, physical dependence, and withdrawal reactions consistently across all the medicines in the class.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_effects">Cognitive effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cognitive effects">edit</a>]</div> The short-term use of benzodiazepines adversely affects multiple areas of cognition, the most notable one being that it interferes with the formation and consolidation of memories of new material and may induce complete <a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde amnesia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-683-30128-4-81">[81]</a> However, researchers hold contrary opinions regarding the effects of long-term administration. One view is that many of the short-term effects continue into the long-term and may even worsen, and are not resolved after stopping benzodiazepine usage. Another view maintains that cognitive deficits in chronic benzodiazepine users occur only for a short period after the dose, or that the anxiety disorder is the cause of these deficits. While the definitive studies are lacking, the former view received support from a 2004 meta-analysis of 13 small studies.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15762814-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid14731058-112">[112]</a> This meta-analysis found that long-term use of benzodiazepines was associated with moderate to large adverse effects on all areas of cognition, with <a href="/wiki/Spatial_visualization_ability" title="Spatial visualization ability">visuospatial</a> memory being the most commonly detected impairment. Some of the other impairments reported were decreased IQ, visiomotor coordination, information processing, verbal learning and concentration. The authors of the meta-analysis<a href="#cite_note-pmid14731058-112">[112]</a> and a later reviewer<a href="#cite_note-pmid15762814-109">[109]</a> noted that the applicability of this meta-analysis is limited because the subjects were taken mostly from withdrawal clinics; the coexisting drug, alcohol use, and psychiatric disorders were not defined; and several of the included studies conducted the cognitive measurements during the withdrawal period. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paradoxical_effects">Paradoxical effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Paradoxical effects">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Paradoxical_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradoxical reactions">Paradoxical reactions</a>, such as increased seizures in epileptics,<a href="#cite_note-Riss-2008-113">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">aggression</a>, violence, <a href="/wiki/Impulsivity" title="Impulsivity">impulsivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irritability" title="Irritability">irritability</a> and suicidal behavior sometimes occur.<a href="#cite_note-Dodds_2017-10">[10]</a> These reactions have been explained as consequences of disinhibition and the subsequent loss of control over socially unacceptable behavior. Paradoxical reactions are rare in the general population, with an incidence rate below 1% and similar to placebo.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18922233-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-badar2002-114">[114]</a> However, they occur with greater frequency in recreational abusers, individuals with <a href="/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder" title="Borderline personality disorder">borderline personality disorder</a>, children, and patients on high-dosage regimes.<a href="#cite_note-Bond_1998-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Drummer_2002-116">[116]</a> In these groups, <a href="/wiki/Impulse_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Impulse control">impulse control</a> problems are perhaps the most important risk factor for disinhibition; learning disabilities and neurological disorders are also significant risks. Most reports of disinhibition involve high doses of high-potency benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-badar2002-114">[114]</a> Paradoxical effects may also appear after chronic use of benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-cbpham-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term_worsening_of_psychiatric_symptoms">Long-term worsening of psychiatric symptoms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Long-term worsening of psychiatric symptoms">edit</a>]</div> While benzodiazepines may have short-term benefits for anxiety, sleep and agitation in some patients, long-term (i.e., greater than 2–4 weeks) use can result in a worsening of the very symptoms the medications are meant to treat. Potential explanations include exacerbating cognitive problems that are already common in anxiety disorders, causing or worsening <a href="/wiki/Mood_disorder#Substance-induced" title="Mood disorder">depression</a> and suicidality,<a href="#cite_note-Michelini_1996-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lydiard_1996-119">[119]</a> disrupting sleep architecture by inhibiting deep stage sleep,<a href="#cite_note-Psychiatry_2008-120">[120]</a> withdrawal symptoms or rebound symptoms in between doses mimicking or exacerbating underlying anxiety or sleep disorders,<a href="#cite_note-Michelini_1996-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lydiard_1996-119">[119]</a> inhibiting the benefits of psychotherapy by inhibiting memory consolidation and reducing fear extinction,<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> and reducing coping with trauma/stress and increasing vulnerability to future stress.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The latter two explanations may be why benzodiazepines are ineffective and/or potentially harmful in <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">PTSD</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phobia" title="Phobia">phobias</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Anxiety, insomnia and irritability may be temporarily exacerbated during withdrawal, but psychiatric symptoms after discontinuation are usually less than even while taking benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-Michelini_1996-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Functioning significantly improves within 1 year of discontinuation.<a href="#cite_note-Michelini_1996-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_dependence,_withdrawal_and_post-withdrawal_syndromes">Physical dependence, withdrawal and post-withdrawal syndromes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Physical dependence, withdrawal and post-withdrawal syndromes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_dependence" title="Benzodiazepine dependence">Benzodiazepine dependence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_withdrawal_syndrome" title="Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome">Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Post-acute_withdrawal_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-acute withdrawal syndrome">post-acute withdrawal syndrome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diazepam2mgand5mgtablets.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="White bottle with red and black labels on a blue pad atop a desk. Also on the pad are seven small pills." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Diazepam2mgand5mgtablets.JPG/220px-Diazepam2mgand5mgtablets.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Diazepam2mgand5mgtablets.JPG/330px-Diazepam2mgand5mgtablets.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Diazepam2mgand5mgtablets.JPG/440px-Diazepam2mgand5mgtablets.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a> 2 mg and 5 mg diazepam tablets, which are commonly used in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_withdrawal" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzodiazepine withdrawal">benzodiazepine withdrawal</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tolerance">Tolerance</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tolerance">edit</a>]</div> The main problem of the chronic use of benzodiazepines is the development of <a href="/wiki/Drug_tolerance" title="Drug tolerance">tolerance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">dependence</a>. Tolerance manifests itself as diminished pharmacological effect and develops relatively quickly to the sedative, hypnotic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant actions of benzodiazepines. Tolerance to anti-anxiety effects develops more slowly with little evidence of continued effectiveness beyond four to six months of continued use.<a href="#cite_note-tdamobd2004-15">[15]</a> In general, tolerance to the amnesic effects does not occur.<a href="#cite_note-pmid10779253-100">[100]</a> However, controversy exists as to tolerance to the anxiolytic effects with some evidence that benzodiazepines retain efficacy<a href="#cite_note-pmid16528135-128">[128]</a> and opposing evidence from a systematic review of the literature that tolerance frequently occurs<a href="#cite_note-Perugi-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-cgftmamoa2004-32">[32]</a> and some evidence that anxiety may worsen with long-term use.<a href="#cite_note-tdamobd2004-15">[15]</a> The question of tolerance to the amnesic effects of benzodiazepines is, likewise, unclear.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15762818-129">[129]</a> Some evidence suggests that partial tolerance does develop, and that, "memory impairment is limited to a narrow window within 90 minutes after each dose".<a href="#cite_note-pmid15078112-130">[130]</a> A major disadvantage of benzodiazepines is that tolerance to therapeutic effects develops relatively quickly while many adverse effects persist. Tolerance develops to hypnotic and myorelaxant effects within days to weeks, and to anticonvulsant and anxiolytic effects within weeks to months.<a href="#cite_note-Michelini_1996-118">[118]</a> Therefore, benzodiazepines are unlikely to be effective long-term treatments for sleep and anxiety. While BZD therapeutic effects disappear with tolerance, depression and impulsivity with high suicidal risk commonly persist.<a href="#cite_note-Michelini_1996-118">[118]</a> Several studies have confirmed that long-term benzodiazepines are not significantly different from placebo for sleep<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> or anxiety.<a href="#cite_note-Michelini_1996-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> This may explain why patients commonly increase doses over time and many eventually take more than one type of benzodiazepine after the first loses effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-Psychiatry_2008-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Additionally, because tolerance to benzodiazepine sedating effects develops more quickly than does tolerance to brainstem depressant effects, those taking more benzodiazepines to achieve desired effects may experience sudden respiratory depression, hypotension or death.<a href="#cite_note-DSM-5-139">[139]</a> Most patients with anxiety disorders and PTSD have symptoms that persist for at least several months,<a href="#cite_note-DSM-5-139">[139]</a> making tolerance to therapeutic effects a distinct problem for them and necessitating the need for more effective long-term treatment (e.g., psychotherapy, serotonergic antidepressants). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Withdrawal_symptoms_and_management">Withdrawal symptoms and management</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Withdrawal symptoms and management">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chlordiazepoxidetabletsgeneric.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="White bottle on blue pad atop a desk. The bottle cap is off, and is upside down on the pad in front of the bottle. In the cap are a dozen black-and-yellow capsules." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chlordiazepoxidetabletsgeneric.JPG/220px-Chlordiazepoxidetabletsgeneric.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chlordiazepoxidetabletsgeneric.JPG/330px-Chlordiazepoxidetabletsgeneric.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chlordiazepoxidetabletsgeneric.JPG/440px-Chlordiazepoxidetabletsgeneric.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">Chlordiazepoxide</a> 5 mg capsules, which are sometimes used as an alternative to <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a> for <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_withdrawal" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzodiazepine withdrawal">benzodiazepine withdrawal</a>. Like diazepam it has a long <a href="/wiki/Elimination_half-life" class="mw-redirect" title="Elimination half-life">elimination half-life</a> and long-acting <a href="/wiki/Active_metabolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Active metabolites">active metabolites</a>.</figcaption></figure> Discontinuation of benzodiazepines or abrupt reduction of the dose, even after a relatively short course of treatment (two to four weeks), may result in two groups of symptoms, <a href="/wiki/Rebound_effect" title="Rebound effect">rebound</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_withdrawal_syndrome" title="Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome">withdrawal</a>. Rebound symptoms are the return of the symptoms for which the patient was treated but worse than before. Withdrawal symptoms are the new symptoms that occur when the benzodiazepine is stopped. They are the main sign of <a href="/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">physical dependence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15078112-130">[130]</a> The most frequent symptoms of withdrawal from benzodiazepines are insomnia, gastric problems, <a href="/wiki/Tremor" title="Tremor">tremors</a>, agitation, fearfulness, and <a href="/wiki/Spasm" title="Spasm">muscle spasms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15078112-130">[130]</a> The less frequent effects are irritability, sweating, <a href="/wiki/Depersonalization" title="Depersonalization">depersonalization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Derealization" title="Derealization">derealization</a>, hypersensitivity to stimuli, depression, <a href="/wiki/Suicidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Suicidal">suicidal</a> behavior, <a href="/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">psychosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Delirium_tremens" title="Delirium tremens">delirium tremens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-19-856667-0-140">[140]</a> Severe symptoms usually occur as a result of abrupt or over-rapid withdrawal. Abrupt withdrawal can be dangerous and lead to <a href="/wiki/Excitotoxicity" title="Excitotoxicity">excitotoxicity</a>, causing damage and even death to nerve cells as a result of excessive levels of the excitatory neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Glutamate_(neurotransmitter)" title="Glutamate (neurotransmitter)">glutamate</a>. Increased glutamatergic activity is thought to be part of a compensatory mechanism to chronic GABAergic inhibition from benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-gaba-glutamate-adapt-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-gabaa-dependence-142">[142]</a> Therefore, a gradual reduction regimen is recommended.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19062773-12">[12]</a> Symptoms may also occur during a gradual dosage reduction, but are typically less severe and may persist as part of a protracted <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_withdrawal_syndrome" title="Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome">withdrawal syndrome</a> for months after cessation of benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-19-852518-4-143">[143]</a> Approximately 10% of patients experience a notable protracted withdrawal syndrome, which can persist for many months or in some cases a year or longer. Protracted symptoms tend to resemble those seen during the first couple of months of withdrawal but usually are of a sub-acute level of severity. Such symptoms do gradually lessen over time, eventually disappearing altogether.<a href="#cite_note-pmid1675688-144">[144]</a> Benzodiazepines have a reputation with patients and doctors for causing a severe and traumatic withdrawal; however, this is in large part due to the withdrawal process being poorly managed. Over-rapid withdrawal from benzodiazepines increases the severity of the withdrawal syndrome and increases the failure rate. A slow and gradual <a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">withdrawal</a> customised to the individual and, if indicated, psychological support is the most effective way of managing the withdrawal. Opinion as to the time needed to complete withdrawal ranges from four weeks to several years. A goal of less than six months has been suggested,<a href="#cite_note-pmid19062773-12">[12]</a> but due to factors such as dosage and type of benzodiazepine, reasons for prescription, lifestyle, personality, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_stresses" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental stresses">environmental stresses</a>, and amount of available support, a year or more may be needed to withdraw.<a href="#cite_note-tdamobd2004-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-BNF_2009-24">[24]</a>: 183–184  Withdrawal is best managed by transferring the physically dependent patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam because it has the longest half-life of all of the benzodiazepines, is metabolised into long-acting active metabolites and is available in low-potency tablets, which can be quartered for smaller doses.<a href="#cite_note-manual-145">[145]</a> A further benefit is that it is available in liquid form, which allows for even smaller reductions.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19062773-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">Chlordiazepoxide</a>, which also has a long half-life and long-acting <a href="/wiki/Active_metabolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Active metabolites">active metabolites</a>, can be used as an alternative.<a href="#cite_note-manual-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">Nonbenzodiazepines</a> are contraindicated during benzodiazepine withdrawal as they are <a href="/wiki/Cross_tolerant" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross tolerant">cross tolerant</a> with benzodiazepines and can induce dependence.<a href="#cite_note-tdamobd2004-15">[15]</a> Alcohol is also cross tolerant with benzodiazepines and more toxic and thus caution is needed to avoid replacing one dependence with another.<a href="#cite_note-manual-145">[145]</a> During withdrawal, <a href="/wiki/Fluoroquinolone" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluoroquinolone">fluoroquinolone</a>-based antibiotics are best avoided if possible; they displace benzodiazepines from their binding site and reduce GABA function and, thus, may aggravate withdrawal symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Antipsychotics are not recommended for benzodiazepine withdrawal (or other CNS depressant withdrawal states) especially <a href="/wiki/Clozapine" title="Clozapine">clozapine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olanzapine" title="Olanzapine">olanzapine</a> or low potency <a href="/wiki/Phenothiazines" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenothiazines">phenothiazines</a>, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">chlorpromazine</a> as they lower the seizure threshold and can worsen withdrawal effects; if used extreme caution is required.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Withdrawal from long term benzodiazepines is beneficial for most individuals.<a href="#cite_note-cbpham-117">[117]</a> Withdrawal of benzodiazepines from long-term users, in general, leads to improved physical and <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a> particularly in the elderly; although some long term users report continued benefit from taking benzodiazepines, this may be the result of suppression of withdrawal effects.<a href="#cite_note-tdamobd2004-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-asapdacg-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controversial_associations">Controversial associations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Controversial associations">edit</a>]</div> Beyond the well established link between benzodiazepines and psychomotor impairment resulting in motor vehicle accidents and falls leading to fracture; research in the 2000s and 2010s has raised the association between benzodiazepines (and <a href="/wiki/Z-drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Z-drugs">Z-drugs</a>) and other, as of yet unproven, adverse effects including dementia, cancer, infections, pancreatitis and respiratory disease exacerbations.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dementia">Dementia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Dementia">edit</a>]</div> A number of studies have drawn an association between long-term benzodiazepine use and neuro-degenerative disease, particularly Alzheimer's disease.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> It has been determined that long-term use of benzodiazepines is associated with increased dementia risk, even after controlling for <a href="/wiki/Protopathic_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Protopathic bias">protopathic bias</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29926372-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infections">Infections</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Infections">edit</a>]</div> Some observational studies have detected significant associations between benzodiazepines and respiratory infections such as pneumonia<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> where others have not.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> A large meta-analysis of pre-marketing randomized controlled trials on the pharmacologically related Z-Drugs suggest a small increase in infection risk as well.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> An immunodeficiency effect from the action of benzodiazepines on GABA-A receptors has been postulated from animal studies.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cancer">Cancer</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Cancer">edit</a>]</div> A meta-analysis of observational studies has determined an association between benzodiazepine use and cancer, though the risk across different agents and different cancers varied significantly.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> In terms of experimental basic science evidence, an analysis of carcinogenetic and genotoxicity data for various benzodiazepines has suggested a small possibility of carcinogenesis for a small number of benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pancreatitis">Pancreatitis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Pancreatitis">edit</a>]</div> The evidence suggesting a link between benzodiazepines (and Z-Drugs) and pancreatic inflammation is very sparse and limited to a few observational studies from <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> A criticism of confounding can be applied to these findings as with the other controversial associations above. Further well-designed research from other populations as well as a biologically plausible mechanism is required to confirm this association. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overdose">Overdose</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Overdose">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_overdose" title="Benzodiazepine overdose">Benzodiazepine overdose</a></div> Although benzodiazepines are much safer in overdose than their predecessors, the <a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">barbiturates</a>, they can still cause problems in overdose.<a href="#cite_note-pmid9780123-19">[19]</a> Taken alone, they rarely cause severe complications in <a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">overdose</a>;<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> statistics in England showed that benzodiazepines were responsible for 3.8% of all deaths by poisoning from a single drug.<a href="#cite_note-Charlson_2009-21">[21]</a> However, combining these drugs with <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opiates" class="mw-redirect" title="Opiates">opiates</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressants" class="mw-redirect" title="Tricyclic antidepressants">tricyclic antidepressants</a> markedly raises the toxicity.<a href="#cite_note-pmid10707430-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-ohoam-163">[163]</a> The elderly are more sensitive to the side effects of benzodiazepines, and poisoning may even occur from their long-term use.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> The various benzodiazepines differ in their toxicity; <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a> appears most toxic in overdose and when used with other drugs.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The symptoms of a benzodiazepine overdose may include; <a href="/wiki/Drowsiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Drowsiness">drowsiness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slurred_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Slurred speech">slurred speech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus">nystagmus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypotension" title="Hypotension">hypotension</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ataxia" title="Ataxia">ataxia</a>, coma, <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory depression">respiratory depression</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cardiorespiratory_arrest" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiorespiratory arrest">cardiorespiratory arrest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ohoam-163">[163]</a> A reversal agent for benzodiazepines exists, <a href="/wiki/Flumazenil" title="Flumazenil">flumazenil</a> (Anexate). Its use as an <a href="/wiki/Antidote" title="Antidote">antidote</a> is not routinely recommended because of the high risk of resedation and seizures.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> In a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 326 people, 4 people had serious adverse events and 61% became resedated following the use of flumazenil.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Numerous contraindications to its use exist. It is contraindicated in people with a history of long-term use of benzodiazepines, those having ingested a substance that lowers the seizure threshold or may cause an <a href="/wiki/Heart_arrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart arrhythmia">arrhythmia</a>, and in those with abnormal vital signs.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> One study found that only 10% of the people presenting with a <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_overdose" title="Benzodiazepine overdose">benzodiazepine overdose</a> are suitable candidates for treatment with flumazenil.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-07-136001-8-170">[170]</a> <div class="skin-invert-image"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:912px;max-width:912px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:US_timeline._Benzodiazepine_deaths.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/US_timeline._Benzodiazepine_deaths.jpg/300px-US_timeline._Benzodiazepine_deaths.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/US_timeline._Benzodiazepine_deaths.jpg/450px-US_timeline._Benzodiazepine_deaths.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/US_timeline._Benzodiazepine_deaths.jpg/600px-US_timeline._Benzodiazepine_deaths.jpg 2x" data-file-width="811" data-file-height="573" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:US_timeline._Opioid_involvement_in_benzodiazepine_overdose.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/US_timeline._Opioid_involvement_in_benzodiazepine_overdose.jpg/300px-US_timeline._Opioid_involvement_in_benzodiazepine_overdose.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/US_timeline._Opioid_involvement_in_benzodiazepine_overdose.jpg/450px-US_timeline._Opioid_involvement_in_benzodiazepine_overdose.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/US_timeline._Opioid_involvement_in_benzodiazepine_overdose.jpg/600px-US_timeline._Opioid_involvement_in_benzodiazepine_overdose.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Flumazenil.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flumazenil.svg/300px-Flumazenil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flumazenil.svg/450px-Flumazenil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flumazenil.svg/600px-Flumazenil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="344" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left: US yearly overdose deaths involving benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-NIDA-deaths-171">[171]</a> Center: The top line represents the number of benzodiazepine deaths that also involved opioids in the US. The bottom line represents benzodiazepine deaths that did not involve <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIDA-deaths-171">[171]</a> Right: Chemical structure of the benzodiazepine <a href="/wiki/Flumazenil" title="Flumazenil">flumazenil</a>, whose use is controversial following benzodiazepine overdose.</div></div></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interactions">Interactions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Interactions">edit</a>]</div> Individual benzodiazepines may have different <a href="/wiki/Drug_interaction" title="Drug interaction">interactions</a> with certain drugs. Depending on their <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> pathway, benzodiazepines can be divided roughly into two groups. The largest group consists of those that are metabolized by <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_P450" title="Cytochrome P450">cytochrome P450</a> (CYP450) enzymes and possess significant potential for interactions with other drugs. The other group comprises those that are metabolized through <a href="/wiki/Glucuronidation" title="Glucuronidation">glucuronidation</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">lorazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxazepam" title="Oxazepam">oxazepam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a>, and, in general, have few drug interactions.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-444-50998-4-82">[82]</a> Many drugs, including <a href="/wiki/Combined_oral_contraceptive_pill" title="Combined oral contraceptive pill">oral contraceptives</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">antidepressants</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antifungal_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Antifungal medication">antifungal</a> agents, inhibit cytochrome enzymes in the liver. They reduce the rate of elimination of the benzodiazepines that are metabolized by CYP450, leading to possibly excessive drug accumulation and increased side-effects. In contrast, drugs that induce cytochrome P450 enzymes, such as <a href="/wiki/Hypericum_perforatum" title="Hypericum perforatum">St John's wort</a>, the antibiotic <a href="/wiki/Rifampicin" title="Rifampicin">rifampicin</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsants" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticonvulsants">anticonvulsants</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">carbamazepine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">phenytoin</a>, accelerate elimination of many benzodiazepines and decrease their action.<a href="#cite_note-isbn1-58829-211-8-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-biadmtad-172">[172]</a> Taking benzodiazepines with alcohol, <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Depressant" title="Depressant">central nervous system depressants</a> potentiates their action. This often results in increased sedation, impaired motor coordination, suppressed breathing, and other adverse effects that have potential to be lethal.<a href="#cite_note-isbn1-58829-211-8-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-biadmtad-172">[172]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antacids" class="mw-redirect" title="Antacids">Antacids</a> can slow down absorption of some benzodiazepines; however, this effect is marginal and inconsistent.<a href="#cite_note-isbn1-58829-211-8-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pharmacology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pharmacodynamics">Pharmacodynamics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Pharmacodynamics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GABAA-receptor-protein-example-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Figure of the GABAA receptor complex where the five subunits (two alpha, two beta, and one gamma) are symmetrically arranged in a pentagon shape about a central ion conduction pore. The location of the two GABA binding sites are located between the alpha and beta subunit, while the single benzodiazepine binding site is located between the alpha and gamma subunits." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/GABAA-receptor-protein-example-en.svg/220px-GABAA-receptor-protein-example-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/GABAA-receptor-protein-example-en.svg/330px-GABAA-receptor-protein-example-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/GABAA-receptor-protein-example-en.svg/440px-GABAA-receptor-protein-example-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="767" data-file-height="763" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagram of the (α1)2(β2)2(γ2) GABAA receptor complex that depicts the five-protein subunits that form the receptor, the chloride (Cl−) ion channel pore at the center, the two GABA active binding sites at the α1 and β2 interfaces and the benzodiazepine (BZD) allosteric binding site at the α1 and γ2 interface.</figcaption></figure> Benzodiazepines work by increasing the effectiveness of the endogenous chemical, <a href="/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">GABA</a>, to decrease the excitability of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-12-088397-X-173">[173]</a> This reduces the communication between neurons and, therefore, has a calming effect on many of the functions of the brain. GABA controls the excitability of neurons by binding to the <a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABAA receptor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-12-088397-X-173">[173]</a> The GABAA receptor is a <a href="/wiki/Multiprotein_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiprotein complex">protein complex</a> located in the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">synapses</a> between neurons. All GABAA receptors contain an <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">ion channel</a> that conducts <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> ions across neuronal <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a> and two binding sites for the <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), while a subset of GABAA receptor complexes also contain a single binding site for benzodiazepines. Binding of benzodiazepines to this receptor complex does not alter binding of GABA. Unlike other positive <a href="/wiki/Allosteric_modulator" title="Allosteric modulator">allosteric modulators</a> that increase ligand binding, benzodiazepine binding acts as a positive allosteric modulator by increasing the total conduction of chloride ions across the neuronal cell membrane when GABA is already bound to its receptor. This increased chloride ion influx hyperpolarizes the neuron's <a href="/wiki/Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">membrane potential</a>. As a result, the difference between resting potential and threshold potential is increased and <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">firing</a> is less likely. Different GABAA receptor subtypes have varying distributions within different regions of the brain and, therefore, control distinct <a href="/wiki/Biological_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological neural network">neuronal circuits</a>. Hence, activation of different GABAA receptor subtypes by benzodiazepines may result in distinct pharmacological actions.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16376150-174">[174]</a> In terms of the mechanism of action of benzodiazepines, their similarities are too great to separate them into individual categories such as anxiolytic or hypnotic. For example, a hypnotic administered in low doses produces anxiety-relieving effects, whereas a benzodiazepine marketed as an anti-anxiety drug at higher doses induces sleep.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> The subset of GABAA receptors that also bind benzodiazepines are referred to as benzodiazepine receptors (BzR). The GABAA receptor is a <a href="/wiki/Heteromer" title="Heteromer">heteromer</a> composed of five subunits, the most common ones being two αs, two βs, and one γ (α2β2γ1). For each subunit, many subtypes exist (α1–6, β1–3, and γ1–3). GABAA receptors that are made up of different combinations of subunit subtypes have different properties, different distributions in the brain and different activities relative to pharmacological and clinical effects.<a href="#cite_note-pmid8783370-176">[176]</a> Benzodiazepines bind at the interface of the α and γ subunits on the GABAA receptor. Binding also requires that alpha subunits contain a <a href="/wiki/Histidine" title="Histidine">histidine</a> amino acid residue, (i.e., <a href="/wiki/GABRA1" class="mw-redirect" title="GABRA1">α1</a>, <a href="/wiki/GABRA2" title="GABRA2">α2</a>, <a href="/wiki/GABRA3" title="GABRA3">α3</a>, and <a href="/wiki/GABRA5" title="GABRA5">α5</a> containing GABAA receptors). For this reason, benzodiazepines show no affinity for GABAA receptors containing <a href="/wiki/GABRA4" title="GABRA4">α4</a> and <a href="/wiki/GABRA6" title="GABRA6">α6</a> subunits with an <a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">arginine</a> instead of a histidine residue.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15157182-177">[177]</a> Once bound to the benzodiazepine receptor, the benzodiazepine <a href="/wiki/Ligand_(biochemistry)" title="Ligand (biochemistry)">ligand</a> locks the benzodiazepine receptor into a conformation in which it has a greater affinity for the <a href="/wiki/Gamma-aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-aminobutyric acid">GABA</a> <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a>. This increases the frequency of the opening of the associated chloride <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">ion channel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hyperpolarization_(biology)" title="Hyperpolarization (biology)">hyperpolarizes</a> the membrane of the associated neuron. The inhibitory effect of the available GABA is potentiated, leading to sedative and anxiolytic effects. For instance, those ligands with high activity at the α1 are associated with stronger <a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">hypnotic</a> effects, whereas those with higher affinity for GABAA receptors containing α2 and/or α3 subunits have good anti-anxiety activity.<a href="#cite_note-pmid9824848-178">[178]</a> GABAA receptors participate in the regulation of synaptic pruning by prompting microglial spine engulfment.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Benzodiazepines have been shown to upregulate microglial spine engulfment and prompt overzealous eradication of synaptic connections.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> This mechanism may help explain the increased risk of dementia associated with long-term benzodiazepine treatment.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> The benzodiazepine class of drugs also interact with <a href="/wiki/Translocator_protein" title="Translocator protein">peripheral benzodiazepine receptors</a>. Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors are present in <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> tissues, <a href="/wiki/Glial_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Glial cells">glial cells</a>, and to a lesser extent the central nervous system.<a href="#cite_note-pmid12240908-182">[182]</a> These peripheral receptors are not structurally related or coupled to GABAA receptors. They modulate the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> and are involved in the body response to injury.<a href="#cite_note-pmid9504140-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid9378234-184">[184]</a> Benzodiazepines also function as weak <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_reuptake_inhibitor" title="Adenosine reuptake inhibitor">adenosine reuptake inhibitors</a>. It has been suggested that some of their anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxant effects may be in part mediated by this action.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16780077-185">[185]</a> Benzodiazepines have binding sites in the periphery, however their effects on muscle tone is not mediated through these peripheral receptors. The peripheral binding sites for benzodiazepines are present in immune cells and gastrointestinal tract.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18922233-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pharmacokinetics">Pharmacokinetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Pharmacokinetics">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Benzodiazepine</th> <th>Half-life (<a href="/wiki/Prediction_interval" title="Prediction interval">range</a>, hours)</th> <th>Speed of onset </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alprazolam" title="Alprazolam">Alprazolam</a></td> <td>6–15<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a></td> <td>Intermediate<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">Chlordiazepoxide</a></td> <td>10–30<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a></td> <td>Intermediate<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">Clonazepam</a></td> <td>19–60<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a></td> <td>Slow<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a></td> <td>20–80<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a></td> <td>Fast<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Flunitrazepam" title="Flunitrazepam">Flunitrazepam</a></td> <td>18–26</td> <td>Fast </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">Lorazepam</a></td> <td>10–20<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a></td> <td>Intermediate<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">Midazolam</a></td> <td>1.5–2.5<a href="#cite_note-medsafe2012-188">[188]</a></td> <td>Fast </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxazepam" title="Oxazepam">Oxazepam</a></td> <td>5–10<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a></td> <td>Slow<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prazepam" title="Prazepam">Prazepam</a></td> <td>50–200<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a></td> <td>Slow<a href="#cite_note-OBrien-186">[186]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">Triazolam</a></td> <td>1.5</td> <td>Fast </td></tr></tbody></table> A benzodiazepine can be placed into one of three groups by its <a href="/wiki/Elimination_half-life" class="mw-redirect" title="Elimination half-life">elimination half-life</a>, or time it takes for the body to eliminate half of the dose.<a href="#cite_note-Cardinali_2006-189">[189]</a> Some benzodiazepines have long-acting <a href="/wiki/Active_metabolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Active metabolites">active metabolites</a>, such as diazepam and chlordiazepoxide, which are metabolised into <a href="/wiki/Desmethyldiazepam" class="mw-redirect" title="Desmethyldiazepam">desmethyldiazepam</a>. Desmethyldiazepam has a half-life of 36–200 hours, and flurazepam, with the main active metabolite of desalkylflurazepam, with a half-life of 40–250 hours. These long-acting metabolites are <a href="/wiki/Partial_agonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial agonists">partial agonists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sddat-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-manual-145">[145]</a> <ul><li>Short-acting compounds have a median half-life of 1–12 hours. They have few residual effects if taken before bedtime, <a href="/wiki/Rebound_insomnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebound insomnia">rebound insomnia</a> may occur upon discontinuation, and they might cause daytime withdrawal symptoms such as next day <a href="/wiki/Rebound_anxiety" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebound anxiety">rebound anxiety</a> with prolonged usage. Examples are <a href="/wiki/Brotizolam" title="Brotizolam">brotizolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">midazolam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">triazolam</a>.</li> <li>Intermediate-acting compounds have a median half-life of 12–40 hours. They may have some residual effects in the first half of the day if used as a <a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">hypnotic</a>. Rebound insomnia, however, is more common upon discontinuation of intermediate-acting benzodiazepines than longer-acting benzodiazepines. Examples are <a href="/wiki/Alprazolam" title="Alprazolam">alprazolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estazolam" title="Estazolam">estazolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flunitrazepam" title="Flunitrazepam">flunitrazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">clonazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lormetazepam" title="Lormetazepam">lormetazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">lorazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrazepam" title="Nitrazepam">nitrazepam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a>.</li> <li>Long-acting compounds have a half-life of 40–250 hours. They have a risk of accumulation in the elderly and in individuals with severely impaired liver function, but they have a reduced severity of <a href="/wiki/Rebound_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebound effects">rebound effects</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">withdrawal</a>. Examples are <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clorazepate" title="Clorazepate">clorazepate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">chlordiazepoxide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flurazepam" title="Flurazepam">flurazepam</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemistry">Chemistry</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Chemistry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benzodiazepine3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="On the left is the chemical structure of the parent benzodiazepine ring system, which consists of a seven-membered ring containing two nitrogen atoms fused to a six-membered ring. The two nitrogen atoms are labeled one and four. On the right is the chemical structure of a pharmacologically active benzodiazepine in which alkyl, phenyl, and halogen groups attach to the one, five, and seven positions, respectively, and the carbon atom at position two is double-bonded to an exocyclic oxygen atom. The ortho and para positions of the phenyl substituent are labeled two-prime and 4-prime, respectively." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Benzodiazepine3.png/220px-Benzodiazepine3.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Benzodiazepine3.png/330px-Benzodiazepine3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Benzodiazepine3.png/440px-Benzodiazepine3.png 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="1771" /></a><figcaption>Left: The 1,4-benzodiazepine ring system. Right: 5-phenyl-1H-benzo[e] [1,4]diazepin-2(3H)-one forms the skeleton of many of the most common benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals, such as <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a> (7-chloro-1-methyl substituted).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bzr_pm.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Superposition of the chemical structures of a benzodiazepine and nonbenzodiazepine ligand and their interactions with binding sites within the receptor." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Bzr_pm.png/220px-Bzr_pm.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Bzr_pm.png/330px-Bzr_pm.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Bzr_pm.png/440px-Bzr_pm.png 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Pharmacophore" title="Pharmacophore">pharmacophore</a> model of the benzodiazepine binding site on the GABAA receptor.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-471-21384-5-190">[190]</a> White sticks represent the carbon atoms of the benzodiazepine <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a>, while green represents carbon atoms of the nonbenzodiazepine <a href="/wiki/CGS-9896" title="CGS-9896">CGS-9896</a>. Red and blue sticks are oxygen and nitrogen atoms that are present in both structures. The red spheres labeled H1 and H2/A3 are, respectively, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bond</a> donating and accepting sites in the receptor, while L1, L2, and L3 denote <a href="/wiki/Lipophilicity" title="Lipophilicity">lipophilic</a> binding sites.</figcaption></figure> Benzodiazepines share a similar chemical structure, and their effects in humans are mainly produced by the <a href="/wiki/Allosteric" class="mw-redirect" title="Allosteric">allosteric</a> modification of a specific kind of <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_receptor" title="Neurotransmitter receptor">neurotransmitter receptor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABAA receptor</a>, which increases the overall conductance of these inhibitory channels; this results in the various therapeutic effects as well as adverse effects of benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-12-088397-X-173">[173]</a> Other less important <a href="/wiki/Mode_of_action" title="Mode of action">modes of action</a> are also known.<a href="#cite_note-pmid9504140-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid16780077-185">[185]</a> The term benzodiazepine is the <a href="/wiki/IUPAC_nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC nomenclature">chemical name</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Heterocycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterocycle">heterocyclic</a> ring system (see figure to the right), which is a fusion between the <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diazepine" title="Diazepine">diazepine</a> ring systems.<a href="#cite_note-IUPAC-191">[191]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Hantzsch%E2%80%93Widman_nomenclature" title="Hantzsch–Widman nomenclature">Hantzsch–Widman nomenclature</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Diazepine" title="Diazepine">diazepine</a> is a heterocycle with two <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> atoms, five <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> atom and the maximum possible number of cumulative <a href="/wiki/Double_bond" title="Double bond">double bonds</a>. The "benzo" prefix indicates the <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a> ring fused onto the diazepine ring.<a href="#cite_note-IUPAC-191">[191]</a> Benzodiazepine drugs are substituted 1,4-benzodiazepines, although the chemical term can refer to many other compounds that do not have useful pharmacological properties. Different benzodiazepine drugs have different side groups attached to this central structure. The different side groups affect the binding of the molecule to the GABAA receptor and so modulate the pharmacological properties.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-12-088397-X-173">[173]</a> Many of the pharmacologically active "classical" benzodiazepine drugs contain the 5-phenyl-1H-benzo[e] [1,4]diazepin-2(3H)-one substructure (see figure to the right).<a href="#cite_note-CAS-192">[192]</a> Benzodiazepines have been found to mimic protein reverse turns structurally, which enable them with their biological activity in many cases.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">Nonbenzodiazepines</a> also bind to the benzodiazepine binding site on the GABAA receptor and possess similar pharmacological properties. While the nonbenzodiazepines are by definition structurally unrelated to the benzodiazepines, both classes of drugs possess a common <a href="/wiki/Pharmacophore" title="Pharmacophore">pharmacophore</a> (see figure to the lower-right), which explains their binding to a common receptor site.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-471-21384-5-190">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types">Types</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>2-keto compounds:</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Clorazepate" title="Clorazepate">clorazepate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flurazepam" title="Flurazepam">flurazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halazepam" title="Halazepam">halazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prazepam" title="Prazepam">prazepam</a>, and others<a href="#cite_note-ub-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-PC89-196">[196]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>3-hydroxy compounds:</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">lorazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lormetazepam" title="Lormetazepam">lormetazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxazepam" title="Oxazepam">oxazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a><a href="#cite_note-ub-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-PC89-196">[196]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>7-nitro compounds:</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">clonazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flunitrazepam" title="Flunitrazepam">flunitrazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nimetazepam" title="Nimetazepam">nimetazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrazepam" title="Nitrazepam">nitrazepam</a><a href="#cite_note-ub-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-PC89-196">[196]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Triazolo compounds:</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Adinazolam" title="Adinazolam">adinazolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alprazolam" title="Alprazolam">alprazolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estazolam" title="Estazolam">estazolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">triazolam</a><a href="#cite_note-ub-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-PC89-196">[196]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Imidazo compounds:</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Climazolam" title="Climazolam">climazolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loprazolam" title="Loprazolam">loprazolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">midazolam</a><a href="#cite_note-ub-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-PC89-196">[196]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>1,5-benzodiazepines:</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Clobazam" title="Clobazam">clobazam</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chlordiazepoxide_structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Chemical structure diagram of a benzene ring fused to a diazepine ring. Cl is attached to the benzene; N, H, CH3, and O are attached to the diazepine." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chlordiazepoxide_structure.svg/220px-Chlordiazepoxide_structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chlordiazepoxide_structure.svg/330px-Chlordiazepoxide_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chlordiazepoxide_structure.svg/440px-Chlordiazepoxide_structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="535" /></a><figcaption>The molecular structure of <a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">chlordiazepoxide</a>, the first benzodiazepine, marketed by <a href="/wiki/Hoffmann%E2%80%93La_Roche" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoffmann–La Roche">Hoffmann–La Roche</a> beginning in 1960 and branded as Librium</figcaption></figure> The first benzodiazepine, <a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">chlordiazepoxide</a> (Librium), was synthesized in 1955 by <a href="/wiki/Leo_Sternbach" title="Leo Sternbach">Leo Sternbach</a> while working at <a href="/wiki/Hoffmann%E2%80%93La_Roche" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoffmann–La Roche">Hoffmann–La Roche</a> on the development of tranquilizers. The pharmacological properties of the compounds prepared initially were disappointing, and Sternbach abandoned the project. Two years later, in April 1957, co-worker Earl Reeder noticed a "nicely crystalline" compound left over from the discontinued project while spring-cleaning in the lab. This compound, later named chlordiazepoxide, had not been tested in 1955 because of Sternbach's focus on other issues. Expecting pharmacology results to be negative, and hoping to publish the chemistry-related findings, researchers submitted it for a standard battery of animal tests. The compound showed very strong <a href="/wiki/Sedative" title="Sedative">sedative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant">anticonvulsant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muscle_relaxant" title="Muscle relaxant">muscle relaxant</a> effects. These impressive clinical findings led to its speedy introduction throughout the world in 1960 under the brand name Librium.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34039-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-Miller-Gold-198">[198]</a> Following chlordiazepoxide, <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a> marketed by Hoffmann–La Roche under the brand name Valium in 1963, and for a while the two were the most commercially successful drugs. The introduction of benzodiazepines led to a decrease in the prescription of <a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">barbiturates</a>, and by the 1970s they had largely replaced the older drugs for sedative and <a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">hypnotic</a> uses.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-19-517668-5-1">[1]</a> The new group of drugs was initially greeted with optimism by the medical profession, but gradually concerns arose; in particular, the risk of dependence became evident in the 1980s. Benzodiazepines have a unique history in that they were responsible for the largest-ever <a href="/wiki/Class-action_lawsuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Class-action lawsuit">class-action lawsuit</a> against <a href="/wiki/Drugs_manufacturers" class="mw-redirect" title="Drugs manufacturers">drug manufacturers</a> in the United Kingdom, involving 14,000 patients and 1,800 <a href="/wiki/Law_firms" class="mw-redirect" title="Law firms">law firms</a> that alleged the manufacturers knew of the dependence potential but intentionally withheld this information from doctors. At the same time, 117 general practitioners and 50 health authorities were sued by patients to recover damages for the harmful effects of <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_dependence" title="Benzodiazepine dependence">dependence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">withdrawal</a>. This led some doctors to require a signed consent form from their patients and to recommend that all patients be adequately warned of the risks of dependence and withdrawal before starting treatment with benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> The court case against the drug manufacturers never reached a verdict; <a href="/wiki/Legal_aid" title="Legal aid">legal aid</a> had been withdrawn and there were allegations that the consultant psychiatrists, the expert witnesses, had a conflict of interest.<a href="#cite_note-urlHouse_of_Commons-200">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-201">[201]</a> The court case fell through, at a cost of £30 million, and led to more cautious funding through legal aid for future cases.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> This made future class action lawsuits less likely to succeed, due to the high cost from financing a smaller number of cases, and increasing charges for losing the case for each person involved.<a href="#cite_note-:1-201">[201]</a> Although antidepressants with anxiolytic properties have been introduced, and there is increasing awareness of the adverse effects of benzodiazepines, prescriptions for short-term anxiety relief have not significantly dropped.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18671662-11">[11]</a> For treatment of insomnia, benzodiazepines are now less popular than <a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">nonbenzodiazepines</a>, which include <a href="/wiki/Zolpidem" title="Zolpidem">zolpidem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaleplon" title="Zaleplon">zaleplon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eszopiclone" title="Eszopiclone">eszopiclone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> Nonbenzodiazepines are molecularly distinct, but nonetheless, they work on the same benzodiazepine receptors and produce similar sedative effects.<a href="#cite_note-wake-204">[204]</a> Benzodiazepines have been detected in plant specimens and brain samples of animals not exposed to synthetic sources, including a human brain from the 1940s. However, it is unclear whether these compounds are biosynthesized by microbes or by plants and animals themselves. A microbial biosynthetic pathway has been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_status">Legal status</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Legal status">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, benzodiazepines are <a href="/wiki/Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_IV_drugs" title="Controlled Substances Act">Schedule IV drugs</a> under the Federal <a href="/wiki/Controlled_Substances_Act" title="Controlled Substances Act">Controlled Substances Act</a>, even when not on the market (for example, <a href="/wiki/Flunitrazepam" title="Flunitrazepam">flunitrazepam</a><a href="#cite_note-deaRohypnol-206">[206]</a>), with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Flualprazolam" title="Flualprazolam">flualprazolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etizolam" title="Etizolam">etizolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clonazolam" title="Clonazolam">clonazolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flubromazolam" title="Flubromazolam">flubromazolam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diclazepam" title="Diclazepam">diclazepam</a> which are placed in <a href="/wiki/Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_I_drugs" title="Controlled Substances Act">Schedule I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-deaDiversion-207">[207]</a> In Canada, possession of benzodiazepines is legal for personal use. All benzodiazepines are categorized as <a href="/wiki/Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_IV" title="Controlled Drugs and Substances Act">Schedule IV</a> substances under the <a href="/wiki/Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act" title="Controlled Drugs and Substances Act">Controlled Drugs and Substances Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-urlControlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act-208">[208]</a> In the United Kingdom, benzodiazepines are Class C controlled drugs, carrying the maximum penalty of 7 years imprisonment, an unlimited fine or both for possession and a maximum penalty of 14 years imprisonment, an unlimited fine or both for supplying benzodiazepines to others.<a href="#cite_note-urlwww.blackpool.nhs.uk-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> In the Netherlands, since October 1993, benzodiazepines, including formulations containing less than 20 mg of temazepam, are all placed on List 2 of the <a href="/wiki/Opium_Law" title="Opium Law">Opium Law</a>. A prescription is needed for possession of all benzodiazepines. Temazepam formulations containing 20 mg or greater of the drug are placed on List 1, thus requiring doctors to write prescriptions in the List 1 format.<a href="#cite_note-urlwww.cannabisbureau.nl-211">[211]</a> In East Asia and Southeast Asia, <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nimetazepam" title="Nimetazepam">nimetazepam</a> are often heavily controlled and restricted. In certain countries, <a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">triazolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flunitrazepam" title="Flunitrazepam">flunitrazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flutoprazepam" title="Flutoprazepam">flutoprazepam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">midazolam</a> are also restricted or controlled to certain degrees. In Hong Kong, all benzodiazepines are regulated under Schedule 1 of <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong's</a> Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> Previously only <a href="/wiki/Brotizolam" title="Brotizolam">brotizolam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flunitrazepam" title="Flunitrazepam">flunitrazepam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">triazolam</a> were classed as dangerous drugs.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> Internationally, benzodiazepines are categorized as <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Schedules_of_Controlled_Substances" title="Convention on Psychotropic Substances">Schedule IV</a> controlled drugs, apart from flunitrazepam, which is a <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Schedules_of_Controlled_Substances" title="Convention on Psychotropic Substances">Schedule III</a> drug under the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances" title="Convention on Psychotropic Substances">Convention on Psychotropic Substances</a>.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recreational_use">Recreational use</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Recreational use">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_drug_misuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzodiazepine drug misuse">Benzodiazepine drug misuse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drug-related_crime" title="Drug-related crime">Drug-related crime</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xanax_2_mg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Xanax_2_mg.jpg/220px-Xanax_2_mg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Xanax_2_mg.jpg/330px-Xanax_2_mg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Xanax_2_mg.jpg/440px-Xanax_2_mg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="997" data-file-height="1477" /></a><figcaption>Xanax (<a href="/wiki/Alprazolam" title="Alprazolam">alprazolam</a>) 2 mg tri-score tablets</figcaption></figure> Benzodiazepines are considered major addictive substances.<a href="#cite_note-pmid10622686-23">[23]</a> Non-medical benzodiazepine use is mostly limited to individuals who use other substances, i.e., people who engage in polysubstance use.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> On the international scene, <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_drug_misuse#Legal_status" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzodiazepine drug misuse">benzodiazepines are categorized</a> as <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Schedules_of_Controlled_Substances" title="Convention on Psychotropic Substances">Schedule IV</a> controlled drugs by the <a href="/wiki/INCB" class="mw-redirect" title="INCB">INCB</a>, apart from <a href="/wiki/Flunitrazepam" title="Flunitrazepam">flunitrazepam</a>, which is a <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Schedules_of_Controlled_Substances" title="Convention on Psychotropic Substances">Schedule III</a> drug under the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances" title="Convention on Psychotropic Substances">Convention on Psychotropic Substances</a>.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> Some variation in drug scheduling exists in individual countries; for example, in the United Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">midazolam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a> are <a href="/wiki/Controlled_Drug#Schedule_3_-_CD_No_Reg" class="mw-redirect" title="Controlled Drug">Schedule III controlled drugs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> British law requires that temazepam (but not midazolam) be stored in safe custody. Safe custody requirements ensures that pharmacists and doctors holding stock of temazepam must store it in securely fixed double-locked steel safety cabinets and maintain a written register, which must be bound and contain separate entries for temazepam and must be written in ink with no use of correction fluid (although a written register is not required for temazepam in the United Kingdom). Disposal of expired stock must be witnessed by a designated inspector (either a local drug-enforcement police officer or official from health authority).<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Benzodiazepine use ranges from occasional binges on large doses, to chronic and compulsive drug use of high doses.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> Benzodiazepines are commonly used recreationally by poly-drug users. <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">Mortality</a> is higher among <a href="/wiki/Poly_drug_use" class="mw-redirect" title="Poly drug use">poly-drug users</a> that also use benzodiazepines. Heavy alcohol use also increases <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality</a> among poly-drug users.<a href="#cite_note-Charlson_2009-21">[21]</a> Polydrug use involving benzodiazepines and alcohol can result in an increased risk of blackouts, risk-taking behaviours, seizures, and overdose.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> Dependence and tolerance, often coupled with dosage escalation, to benzodiazepines can develop rapidly among people who misuse drugs; withdrawal syndrome may appear after as little as three weeks of continuous use. Long-term use has the potential to cause both physical and psychological dependence and severe withdrawal symptoms such as depression, anxiety (often to the point of <a href="/wiki/Panic_attack" title="Panic attack">panic attacks</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Agoraphobia" title="Agoraphobia">agoraphobia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ohop-16">[16]</a> Benzodiazepines and, in particular, <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a> are sometimes used intravenously, which, if done incorrectly or in an unsterile manner, can lead to medical complications including <a href="/wiki/Abscess" title="Abscess">abscesses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cellulitis" title="Cellulitis">cellulitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrombophlebitis" title="Thrombophlebitis">thrombophlebitis</a>, arterial puncture, <a href="/wiki/Deep_vein_thrombosis" title="Deep vein thrombosis">deep vein thrombosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a>. Sharing syringes and needles for this purpose also brings up the possibility of transmission of <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">hepatitis</a>, HIV, and other diseases. Benzodiazepines are also misused <a href="/wiki/Intranasally" class="mw-redirect" title="Intranasally">intranasally</a>, which may have additional health consequences. Once benzodiazepine dependence has been established, a clinician usually converts the patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam before beginning a gradual reduction program.<a href="#cite_note-pmid9274553-222">[222]</a> A 1999–2005 Australian police survey of detainees reported preliminary findings that self-reported users of benzodiazepines were less likely than non-user detainees to work full-time and more likely to receive government benefits, use methamphetamine or heroin, and be arrested or imprisoned.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for criminal purposes; they serve to incapacitate a victim in cases of <a href="/wiki/Drug_assisted_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug assisted rape">drug assisted rape</a> or robbery.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> Overall, <a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">anecdotal evidence</a> suggests that <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a> may be the most psychologically <a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">habit-forming (addictive)</a> benzodiazepine. Non-medical temazepam use reached epidemic proportions in some parts of the world, in particular, in Europe and Australia, and is a major addictive substance in many Southeast Asian countries. This led authorities of various countries to place temazepam under a more restrictive legal status. Some countries, such as Sweden, banned the drug outright.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> Temazepam also has certain pharmacokinetic properties of absorption, distribution, elimination, and clearance that make it more apt to non-medical use compared to many other benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-pmid1786493-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Veterinary_use">Veterinary use</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Veterinary use">edit</a>]</div> Benzodiazepines are used in <a href="/wiki/Veterinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterinary">veterinary</a> practice in the treatment of various disorders and conditions. As in humans, they are used in the first-line management of <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Status_epilepticus" title="Status epilepticus">status epilepticus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a>, and as maintenance therapy in epilepsy (in particular, in cats).<a href="#cite_note-MVM-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> They are widely used in small and large animals (including horses, swine, cattle and exotic and wild animals) for their anxiolytic and sedative effects, as pre-medication before surgery, for induction of <a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthesia</a> and as adjuncts to anesthesia.<a href="#cite_note-MVM-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adams-231">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-19-517668-5-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-19-517668-5_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-19-517668-5_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFShorter_E2005" class="citation book cs1">Shorter E (2005). "Benzodiazepines". A Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry. Oxford University Press. pp. 41–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517668-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517668-1"><bdi>978-0-19-517668-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Benzodiazepines&rft.btitle=A+Historical+Dictionary+of+Psychiatry&rft.pages=41-42&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517668-1&rft.au=Shorter+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenzodiazepine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalonStarcevicSilbermanCosci2020" class="citation journal cs1">Balon R, Starcevic V, Silberman E, Cosci F, Dubovsky S, Fava GA, et al. 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Retrieved 6 June 2009. <q>Generally, a longer-acting benzodiazepine such as chlordiazepoxide or diazepam is used and the initial dose titrated downward</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Emergency+management+of+substance+overdose+and+withdrawal&rft.btitle=Substance+Use+Disorder&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization+%28WHO%29&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Lal&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Gupta%2C+S&rft.au=Rao%2C+R&rft.au=Kattimani%2C+S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whoindia.org%2FLinkFiles%2FMental_Health_%26_substance_Abuse_Emergency_management_of_Substance_Overdose_and_Withdrawal-Manual_For_Nursing_Personnel.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenzodiazepine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFordLaw2014" class="citation web cs1">Ford C, Law F (July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170706085219/http://www.smmgp.org.uk/download/guidance/guidance025.pdf">"Guidance for the use and reduction of misuse of benzodiazepines and other hypnotics and anxiolytics in general practice"</a> (PDF). smmgp.org.uk. 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Iowa State University Press. pp. 325–333. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-1743-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-1743-9"><bdi>978-0-8138-1743-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tranquilizers%2C+%CE%B1%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E-adrenergic+agonists%2C+and+related+agents&rft.btitle=Veterinary+Pharmacology+and+Therapeutics&rft.pages=325-333&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Iowa+State+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8138-1743-9&rft.au=Gross+ME&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenzodiazepine" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzodiazepine&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshton_CH2002" class="citation book cs1">Ashton CH (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://benzo.org.uk/manual/">Benzodiazepines: how they work & how to withdraw (aka The Ashton Manual)</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benzodiazepines%3A+how+they+work+%26+how+to+withdraw+%28aka+The+Ashton+Manual%29&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Ashton+CH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbenzo.org.uk%2Fmanual%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenzodiazepine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshton_CH2007" class="citation web cs1">Ashton CH (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://benzo.org.uk/bzequiv.htm">"Benzodiazepine equivalence table"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benzodiazepine+equivalence+table&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Ashton+CH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbenzo.org.uk%2Fbzequiv.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenzodiazepine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFruchtengarten_L1998" class="citation web cs1">Fruchtengarten L (April 1998). Ruse M (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/pimg008.htm">"Benzodiazepines"</a>. Poisons Information Monograph (Group monograph) G008. <a href="/wiki/International_Programme_on_Chemical_Safety" title="International Programme on Chemical Safety">International Programme on Chemical Safety</a> INCHEM. Retrieved 9 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Poisons+Information+Monograph+%28Group+monograph%29+G008&rft.atitle=Benzodiazepines&rft.date=1998-04&rft.au=Fruchtengarten+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inchem.org%2Fdocuments%2Fpims%2Fpharm%2Fpimg008.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenzodiazepine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongoJohnson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Longo LP, Johnson B (April 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0401/p2121.html">"Addiction: Part I. Benzodiazepines—side effects, abuse risk and alternatives"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Family_Physician" title="American Family Physician">American Family Physician</a>. 61 (7): 2121–2128. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10779253">10779253</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080512180747/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20000401/2121.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 25 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Family+Physician&rft.atitle=Addiction%3A+Part+I.+Benzodiazepines%E2%80%94side+effects%2C+abuse+risk+and+alternatives&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2121-2128&rft.date=2000-04&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10779253&rft.aulast=Longo&rft.aufirst=LP&rft.au=Johnson%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aafp.org%2Fpubs%2Fafp%2Fissues%2F2000%2F0401%2Fp2121.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenzodiazepine" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Benzodiazepines" title="Template talk:Benzodiazepines"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Benzodiazepines" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Benzodiazepines"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Benzodiazepines" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benzodiazepines</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1,4-Benzodiazepines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-Oxoquazepam" title="2-Oxoquazepam">2-Oxoquazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-Hydroxyphenazepam" title="3-Hydroxyphenazepam">3-Hydroxyphenazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromazepam" title="Bromazepam">Bromazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BMS-906024" title="BMS-906024">BMS-906024</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camazepam" title="Camazepam">Camazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carburazepam" title="Carburazepam">Carburazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">Chlordiazepoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinazepam" title="Cinazepam">Cinazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinolazepam" title="Cinolazepam">Cinolazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">Clonazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloniprazepam" title="Cloniprazepam">Cloniprazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clorazepate" title="Clorazepate">Clorazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprazepam" title="Cyprazepam">Cyprazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delorazepam" title="Delorazepam">Delorazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demoxepam" title="Demoxepam">Demoxepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmethylflunitrazepam" title="Desmethylflunitrazepam">Desmethylflunitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devazepide" title="Devazepide">Devazepide</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diclazepam" title="Diclazepam">Diclazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difludiazepam" title="Difludiazepam">Difludiazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxefazepam" title="Doxefazepam">Doxefazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elfazepam" title="Elfazepam">Elfazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_carfluzepate" title="Ethyl carfluzepate">Ethyl carfluzepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_dirazepate" title="Ethyl dirazepate">Ethyl dirazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_loflazepate" title="Ethyl loflazepate">Ethyl loflazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flubromazepam" title="Flubromazepam">Flubromazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fletazepam" title="Fletazepam">Fletazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fludiazepam" title="Fludiazepam">Fludiazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flunitrazepam" title="Flunitrazepam">Flunitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flurazepam" title="Flurazepam">Flurazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flutemazepam" title="Flutemazepam">Flutemazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flutoprazepam" title="Flutoprazepam">Flutoprazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosazepam" title="Fosazepam">Fosazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gidazepam" title="Gidazepam">Gidazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halazepam" title="Halazepam">Halazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iclazepam" title="Iclazepam">Iclazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irazepine" title="Irazepine">Irazepine</a>*</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kenazepine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kenazepine (page does not exist)">Kenazepine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketazolam" title="Ketazolam">Ketazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">Lorazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lormetazepam" title="Lormetazepam">Lormetazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lufuradom" title="Lufuradom">Lufuradom</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meclonazepam" title="Meclonazepam">Meclonazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medazepam" title="Medazepam">Medazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menitrazepam" title="Menitrazepam">Menitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaclazepam" title="Metaclazepam">Metaclazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motrazepam" title="Motrazepam">Motrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Desalkylflurazepam" title="N-Desalkylflurazepam">N-Desalkylflurazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nifoxipam" title="Nifoxipam">Nifoxipam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimetazepam" title="Nimetazepam">Nimetazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitemazepam" title="Nitemazepam">Nitemazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrazepam" title="Nitrazepam">Nitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrazepate" title="Nitrazepate">Nitrazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordazepam" title="Nordazepam">Nordazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nortetrazepam" title="Nortetrazepam">Nortetrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxazepam" title="Oxazepam">Oxazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenazepam" title="Phenazepam">Phenazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinazepam" title="Pinazepam">Pinazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pivoxazepam" title="Pivoxazepam">Pivoxazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prazepam" title="Prazepam">Prazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proflazepam" title="Proflazepam">Proflazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quazepam" title="Quazepam">Quazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QH-II-66" title="QH-II-66">QH-II-66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclazepam" title="Reclazepam">Reclazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RO4491533" title="RO4491533">RO4491533</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro05-4082" title="Ro05-4082">Ro05-4082</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro5-4864" title="Ro5-4864">Ro5-4864</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro07-5220" title="Ro07-5220">Ro07-5220</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro07-9749" title="Ro07-9749">Ro07-9749</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro20-8065" title="Ro20-8065">Ro20-8065</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro20-8552" title="Ro20-8552">Ro20-8552</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SH-I-048A" title="SH-I-048A">SH-I-048A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulazepam" title="Sulazepam">Sulazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">Temazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrazepam" title="Tetrazepam">Tetrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifluadom" title="Tifluadom">Tifluadom</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timelotem" title="Timelotem">Timelotem</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolufazepam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolufazepam">Tolufazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triflunordazepam" title="Triflunordazepam">Triflunordazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuclazepam" title="Tuclazepam">Tuclazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uldazepam" title="Uldazepam">Uldazepam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1,5-Benzodiazepines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arfendazam" title="Arfendazam">Arfendazam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clobazam" title="Clobazam">Clobazam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CP-1414S" title="CP-1414S">CP-1414S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lofendazam" title="Lofendazam">Lofendazam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triflubazam" title="Triflubazam">Triflubazam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2,3-Benzodiazepines*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Girisopam" title="Girisopam">Girisopam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GYKI-52,466" class="mw-redirect" title="GYKI-52,466">GYKI-52466</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GYKI-52895" class="mw-redirect" title="GYKI-52895">GYKI-52895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerisopam" title="Nerisopam">Nerisopam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talampanel" title="Talampanel">Talampanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tofisopam" title="Tofisopam">Tofisopam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Triazolobenzodiazepine" title="Triazolobenzodiazepine">Triazolobenzodiazepines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adinazolam" title="Adinazolam">Adinazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alprazolam" title="Alprazolam">Alprazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balovaptan" title="Balovaptan">Balovaptan</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromazolam" title="Bromazolam">Bromazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonazolam" title="Clonazolam">Clonazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estazolam" title="Estazolam">Estazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluadinazolam" title="Fluadinazolam">Fluadinazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flualprazolam" title="Flualprazolam">Flualprazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flubromazolam" title="Flubromazolam">Flubromazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flunitrazolam" title="Flunitrazolam">Flunitrazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrazolam" title="Nitrazolam">Nitrazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenazolam" title="Phenazolam">Phenazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrazolam" title="Pyrazolam">Pyrazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rilmazolam" title="Rilmazolam">Rilmazolam</a> (active metabolite of <a href="/wiki/Rilmazafone" title="Rilmazafone">Rilmazafone</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">Triazolam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Imidazobenzodiazepines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bretazenil" title="Bretazenil">Bretazenil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climazolam" title="Climazolam">Climazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EVT-201" class="mw-redirect" title="EVT-201">EVT-201</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FG-8205" title="FG-8205">FG-8205</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flumazenil" title="Flumazenil">Flumazenil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GL-II-73" title="GL-II-73">GL-II-73</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imidazenil" title="Imidazenil">Imidazenil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iomazenil" title="Iomazenil">123I-Iomazenil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-655,708" title="L-655,708">L-655,708</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loprazolam" title="Loprazolam">Loprazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">Midazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PWZ-029" title="PWZ-029">PWZ-029</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remimazolam" title="Remimazolam">Remimazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro15-4513" title="Ro15-4513">Ro15-4513</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro48-6791" title="Ro48-6791">Ro48-6791</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro48-8684" title="Ro48-8684">Ro48-8684</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro4938581" title="Ro4938581">Ro4938581</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmazenil" title="Sarmazenil">Sarmazenil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SH-053-R-CH3-2%E2%80%B2F" title="SH-053-R-CH3-2′F">SH-053-R-CH3-2′F</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oxazolobenzodiazepines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloxazolam" title="Cloxazolam">Cloxazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flutazolam" title="Flutazolam">Flutazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haloxazolam" title="Haloxazolam">Haloxazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexazolam" title="Mexazolam">Mexazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxazolam" title="Oxazolam">Oxazolam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thienodiazepine" title="Thienodiazepine">Thienodiazepines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bentazepam" title="Bentazepam">Bentazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clotiazepam" title="Clotiazepam">Clotiazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro09-9212" title="Ro09-9212">Ro09-9212</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thienotriazolodiazepine" title="Thienotriazolodiazepine">Thienotriazolodiazepines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Hydroxyetizolam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Hydroxyetizolam">α-Hydroxyetizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apafant" title="Apafant">Apafant</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotizolam" title="Brotizolam">Brotizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciclotizolam" title="Ciclotizolam">Ciclotizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clotizolam" title="Clotizolam">Clotizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deschloroclotizolam" title="Deschloroclotizolam">Deschloroclotizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deschloroetizolam" title="Deschloroetizolam">Deschloroetizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etizolam" title="Etizolam">Etizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flubrotizolam" title="Flubrotizolam">Flubrotizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluclotizolam" title="Fluclotizolam">Fluclotizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluetizolam" title="Fluetizolam">Fluetizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israpafant" title="Israpafant">Israpafant</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/JQ1" title="JQ1">JQ1</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metizolam" title="Metizolam">Metizolam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thienobenzodiazepine" title="Thienobenzodiazepine">Thienobenzodiazepines</a>*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olanzapine" title="Olanzapine">Olanzapine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telenzepine" title="Telenzepine">Telenzepine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pyridodiazepines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lopirazepam" title="Lopirazepam">Lopirazepam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyridotriazolodiazepine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyridotriazolodiazepine">Pyridotriazolodiazepines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zapizolam" title="Zapizolam">Zapizolam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pyrazolodiazepines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Razobazam" title="Razobazam">Razobazam</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ripazepam" title="Ripazepam">Ripazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zolazepam" title="Zolazepam">Zolazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zomebazam" title="Zomebazam">Zomebazam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zometapine" title="Zometapine">Zometapine</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pyrrolodiazepines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premazepam" title="Premazepam">Premazepam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tetrahydroisoquinobenzodiazepines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clazolam" title="Clazolam">Clazolam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyrrolobenzodiazepine" title="Pyrrolobenzodiazepine">Pyrrolobenzodiazepines</a>*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthramycin" title="Anthramycin">Anthramycin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Benzodiazepine prodrugs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alprazolam_triazolobenzophenone" title="Alprazolam triazolobenzophenone">Alprazolam triazolobenzophenone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avizafone" title="Avizafone">Avizafone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rilmazafone" title="Rilmazafone">Rilmazafone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">* atypical activity profile (not <a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABAA receptor</a> ligands)</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Treatment_of_drug_dependence_(N07B)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dependence_treatment" title="Template:Dependence treatment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dependence_treatment" title="Template talk:Dependence treatment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dependence_treatment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dependence treatment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Treatment_of_drug_dependence_(N07B)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Treatment of <a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">drug dependence</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_N07#N07B" title="ATC code N07">N07B</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nicotine_dependence" title="Nicotine dependence">Nicotine dependence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bupropion" title="Bupropion">Bupropion</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytisine" title="Cytisine">Cytisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobeline" title="Lobeline">Lobeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mecamylamine" title="Mecamylamine">Mecamylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varenicline" title="Varenicline">Varenicline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenergic_agonist" title="Adrenergic agonist"><abbr title="Adrenergic agonist">AA</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Adrenergic agonist (<a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">Clonidine</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_dependence" title="Alcohol dependence">Alcohol dependence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde_dehydrogenase_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitor"><abbr title="Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase">AD</abbr> inhibitor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disulfiram" title="Disulfiram">Disulfiram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acamprosate" title="Acamprosate">Acamprosate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbimide" title="Calcium carbimide">Calcium carbimide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanamide" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen cyanamide">Hydrogen cyanamide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_anesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="General anesthetic">General anesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide_(medication)" title="Nitrous oxide (medication)">Nitrous oxide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_antagonist" title="Opioid antagonist">Opioid antagonists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naltrexone" title="Naltrexone">Naltrexone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalmefene" title="Nalmefene">Nalmefene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenergic_agonist" title="Adrenergic agonist"><abbr title="Adrenergic agonist">AA</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Adrenergic agonist (<a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">Clonidine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baclofen" title="Baclofen">Baclofen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenibut" title="Phenibut">Phenibut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opioid_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Opioid dependence">Opioid dependence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrenergic_agonist" title="Adrenergic agonist"><abbr title="Adrenergic agonist">AA</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Adrenergic agonist (<a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">Clonidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lofexidine" title="Lofexidine">Lofexidine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">Ibogaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">Opioids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine" title="Buprenorphine">Buprenorphine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine/naloxone" title="Buprenorphine/naloxone">+naloxone</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levacetylmethadol" title="Levacetylmethadol">Levacetylmethadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methadone" title="Methadone">Methadone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydrocodeine" title="Dihydrocodeine">Dihydrocodeine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydroetorphine" title="Dihydroetorphine">Dihydroetorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydromorphone" title="Hydromorphone">Hydromorphone (extended-release)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine (extended-release)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_antagonist" title="Opioid antagonist">Opioid antagonists</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naltrexone" title="Naltrexone">Naltrexone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalmefene" title="Nalmefene">Nalmefene</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_dependence" title="Benzodiazepine dependence">Benzodiazepine dependence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrenergic_agonist" title="Adrenergic agonist"><abbr title="Adrenergic agonist">AA</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Adrenergic agonist (<a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">Clonidine</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benzodiazepines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">Lorazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">Chlordiazepoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxazepam" title="Oxazepam">Oxazepam</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">Phenobarbital</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anticonvulsants_(N03)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anticonvulsants" title="Template:Anticonvulsants"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anticonvulsants" title="Template talk:Anticonvulsants"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anticonvulsants" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anticonvulsants"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anticonvulsants_(N03)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant">Anticonvulsants</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_N03" title="ATC code N03">N03</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/GABAergic" title="GABAergic">GABAergics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABAAR</a> <a href="/wiki/Allosteric_modulator" title="Allosteric modulator">PAMs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a>: <a href="/wiki/Barbexaclone" title="Barbexaclone">Barbexaclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metharbital" title="Metharbital">Metharbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphenobarbital" title="Methylphenobarbital">Methylphenobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentobarbital" title="Pentobarbital">Pentobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">Phenobarbital</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primidone" title="Primidone">Primidone</a>; <a href="/wiki/Carbamate" title="Carbamate">Carbamates</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cenobamate" title="Cenobamate">Cenobamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felbamate" title="Felbamate">Felbamate</a>; <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benzodiazepines</a>: <a href="/wiki/Clobazam" title="Clobazam">Clobazam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">Clonazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clorazepate" title="Clorazepate">Clorazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">Lorazepam</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">Midazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimetazepam" title="Nimetazepam">Nimetazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrazepam" title="Nitrazepam">Nitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">Temazepam</a>; Others: <a href="/wiki/Bromide" title="Bromide">Bromide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potassium_bromide" title="Potassium bromide">potassium bromide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bromide" title="Sodium bromide">sodium bromide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imepitoin" title="Imepitoin">Imepitoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraldehyde" title="Paraldehyde">Paraldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stiripentol" title="Stiripentol">Stiripentol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/GABA_transaminase_inhibitor" title="GABA transaminase inhibitor">GABA-T inhibitors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">Fatty acids</a> (and related): <a href="/wiki/Valproate" title="Valproate">Valproate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valpromide" title="Valpromide">Valpromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valproate_pivoxil" title="Valproate pivoxil">Valproate pivoxil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigabatrin" title="Vigabatrin">Vigabatrin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GABA_receptor_agonist" title="GABA receptor agonist">GABAR agonists</a>: <a href="/wiki/Progabide" title="Progabide">Progabide</a>; <a href="/wiki/GABA_reuptake_inhibitor" title="GABA reuptake inhibitor">GAT-1 inhibitors</a>: <a href="/wiki/Tiagabine" title="Tiagabine">Tiagabine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Channel_modulator" title="Channel modulator">Channel modulators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sodium_channel_blocker" title="Sodium channel blocker">Sodium blockers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydantoin" title="Hydantoin">Hydantoins</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ethotoin" title="Ethotoin">Ethotoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosphenytoin" title="Fosphenytoin">Fosphenytoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mephenytoin" title="Mephenytoin">Mephenytoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">Phenytoin</a>#; <a href="/wiki/Acylurea" title="Acylurea">Ureides</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acetylpheneturide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acetylpheneturide (page does not exist)">Acetylpheneturide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorphenacemide" title="Chlorphenacemide">Chlorphenacemide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenacemide" title="Phenacemide">Phenacemide</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pheneturide" title="Pheneturide">Pheneturide</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">Fatty acids</a>: <a href="/wiki/Valproate" title="Valproate">Valproate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valpromide" title="Valpromide">Valpromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valproate_pivoxil" title="Valproate pivoxil">Valproate pivoxil</a>; <a href="/wiki/Carboxamide" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboxamide">Carboxamides</a>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">Carbamazepine</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eslicarbazepine_acetate" title="Eslicarbazepine acetate">Eslicarbazepine acetate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxcarbazepine" title="Oxcarbazepine">Oxcarbazepine</a>; Others: <a href="/wiki/Lacosamide" title="Lacosamide">Lacosamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">Lamotrigine</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufinamide" title="Rufinamide">Rufinamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zonisamide" title="Zonisamide">Zonisamide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Calcium_channel_blocker" title="Calcium channel blocker">Calcium blockers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,4-Oxazolidinedione" title="2,4-Oxazolidinedione">Oxazolidinediones</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ethadione" title="Ethadione">Ethadione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramethadione" title="Paramethadione">Paramethadione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimethadione" title="Trimethadione">Trimethadione</a>; <a href="/wiki/Succinimide" title="Succinimide">Succinimides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ethosuximide" title="Ethosuximide">Ethosuximide</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesuximide" title="Mesuximide">Mesuximide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phensuximide" title="Phensuximide">Phensuximide</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gabapentinoid" title="Gabapentinoid">Gabapentinoids</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gabapentin" title="Gabapentin">Gabapentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregabalin" title="Pregabalin">Pregabalin</a>; Others: <a href="/wiki/Imepitoin" title="Imepitoin">Imepitoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">Lamotrigine</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zonisamide" title="Zonisamide">Zonisamide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Potassium_channel_opener" title="Potassium channel opener">Potassium openers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retigabine" title="Retigabine">Retigabine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase_inhibitor" title="Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor">CA inhibitors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)#Anticonvulsant" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Sulfonamides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Acetazolamide" title="Acetazolamide">Acetazolamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethoxzolamide" title="Ethoxzolamide">Ethoxzolamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultiame" title="Sultiame">Sultiame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zonisamide" title="Zonisamide">Zonisamide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albutoin" title="Albutoin">Albutoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beclamide" title="Beclamide">Beclamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brivaracetam" title="Brivaracetam">Brivaracetam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabidiol" title="Cannabidiol">Cannabidiol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carisbamate" title="Carisbamate">Carisbamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiracetam" title="Etiracetam">Etiracetam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenfluramine" title="Fenfluramine">Fenfluramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganaxolone" title="Ganaxolone">Ganaxolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levetiracetam" title="Levetiracetam">Levetiracetam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perampanel" title="Perampanel">Perampanel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>#<a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li>‡<a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li>§Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anxiolytics_(N05B)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anxiolytics" title="Template:Anxiolytics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anxiolytics" title="Template talk:Anxiolytics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anxiolytics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anxiolytics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anxiolytics_(N05B)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anxiolytic" title="Anxiolytic">Anxiolytics</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_N05#N05B" title="ATC code N05">N05B</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/5-HT1A_receptor" title="5-HT1A receptor"><abbr title="5-HT1A receptor">5-HT1AR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip 5-HT1A receptor <a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">agonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buspirone" title="Buspirone">Buspirone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepirone" title="Gepirone">Gepirone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tandospirone" title="Tandospirone">Tandospirone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor"><abbr title="GABAA receptor">GABAAR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip GABAA receptor <a href="/wiki/Positive_allosteric_modulators" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive allosteric modulators"><abbr title="positive allosteric modulators">PAMs</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip positive allosteric modulators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benzodiazepines</a>: <a href="/wiki/Adinazolam" title="Adinazolam">Adinazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alprazolam" title="Alprazolam">Alprazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromazepam" title="Bromazepam">Bromazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camazepam" title="Camazepam">Camazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">Chlordiazepoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clobazam" title="Clobazam">Clobazam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">Clonazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clorazepate" title="Clorazepate">Clorazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clotiazepam" title="Clotiazepam">Clotiazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloxazolam" title="Cloxazolam">Cloxazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_loflazepate" title="Ethyl loflazepate">Ethyl loflazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etizolam" title="Etizolam">Etizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fludiazepam" title="Fludiazepam">Fludiazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halazepam" title="Halazepam">Halazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketazolam" title="Ketazolam">Ketazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">Lorazepam</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medazepam" title="Medazepam">Medazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordazepam" title="Nordazepam">Nordazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxazepam" title="Oxazepam">Oxazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinazepam" title="Pinazepam">Pinazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prazepam" title="Prazepam">Prazepam</a>; Others: <a href="/wiki/Alpidem" title="Alpidem">Alpidem</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">phenobarbital</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbamate" title="Carbamate">Carbamates</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Meprobamate" title="Meprobamate">meprobamate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carisoprodol" title="Carisoprodol">Carisoprodol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlormezanone" title="Chlormezanone">Chlormezanone</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etifoxine" title="Etifoxine">Etifoxine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">Hypnotics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zopiclone" title="Zopiclone">Zopiclone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Gabapentinoid" title="Gabapentinoid">Gabapentinoids</a> (<a href="/wiki/Voltage-dependent_calcium_channel#.CE.B12.CE.B4_Subunit" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltage-dependent calcium channel"><abbr title="alpha2delta subunit">α2δ</abbr> <abbr title="voltage-dependent calcium channel">VDCC</abbr></a> <a href="/wiki/Channel_blocker" title="Channel blocker">blockers</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gabapentin" title="Gabapentin">Gabapentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabapentin_enacarbil" title="Gabapentin enacarbil">Gabapentin enacarbil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenibut" title="Phenibut">Phenibut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregabalin" title="Pregabalin">Pregabalin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">Antidepressants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors"><abbr title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors">SSRIs</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Escitalopram" title="Escitalopram">escitalopram</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin-norepinephrine_reuptake_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors"><abbr title="Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors">SNRIs</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Duloxetine" title="Duloxetine">duloxetine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin_antagonist_and_reuptake_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors"><abbr title="Serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors">SARIs</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Trazodone" title="Trazodone">trazodone</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressants" class="mw-redirect" title="Tricyclic antidepressants"><abbr title="Tricyclic antidepressants">TCAs</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Clomipramine" title="Clomipramine">clomipramine</a>#)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetracyclic_antidepressants" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetracyclic antidepressants"><abbr title="Tetracyclic antidepressants">TeCAs</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Tetracyclic antidepressants (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Mirtazapine" title="Mirtazapine">mirtazapine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoamine_oxidase_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoamine oxidase inhibitors"><abbr title="Monoamine oxidase inhibitors">MAOIs</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Phenelzine" title="Phenelzine">phenelzine</a>); Others: <a href="/wiki/Agomelatine" title="Agomelatine">Agomelatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bupropion" title="Bupropion">Bupropion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianeptine" title="Tianeptine">Tianeptine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilazodone" title="Vilazodone">Vilazodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vortioxetine" title="Vortioxetine">Vortioxetine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">Antipsychotics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quetiapine" title="Quetiapine">Quetiapine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flupentixol" title="Flupentixol">Flupentixol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Sympatholytic" title="Sympatholytic">Sympatholytics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Antiadrenergic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiadrenergic">Antiadrenergics</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-1_blocker" title="Alpha-1 blocker">Alpha-1 blockers</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Prazosin" title="Prazosin">prazosin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-2_agonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-2 agonist">Alpha-2 agonists</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">clonidine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dexmedetomidine" title="Dexmedetomidine">dexmedetomidine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guanfacine" title="Guanfacine">guanfacine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_blocker" title="Beta blocker">Beta blockers</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Propranolol" title="Propranolol">propranolol</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benzoctamine" title="Benzoctamine">Benzoctamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycloserine" title="Cycloserine">Cycloserine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabomotizole" title="Fabomotizole">Fabomotizole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxyzine" title="Hydroxyzine">Hydroxyzine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorpiprazole" title="Lorpiprazole">Lorpiprazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mebicar" class="mw-redirect" title="Mebicar">Mebicar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mepiprazole" title="Mepiprazole">Mepiprazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">Nicotine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opipramol" title="Opipramol">Opipramol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxaflozane" title="Oxaflozane">Oxaflozane</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenaglycodol" title="Phenaglycodol">Phenaglycodol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenibut" title="Phenibut">Phenibut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picamilon" title="Picamilon">Picamilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selank" title="Selank">Selank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiagabine" title="Tiagabine">Tiagabine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tofisopam" title="Tofisopam">Tofisopam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Validolum" class="mw-redirect" title="Validolum">Validolum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>#<a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li>‡<a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li>§Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hypnotics/sedatives_(N05C)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hypnotics_and_sedatives" title="Template:Hypnotics and sedatives"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hypnotics_and_sedatives" title="Template talk:Hypnotics and sedatives"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hypnotics_and_sedatives" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hypnotics and sedatives"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hypnotics/sedatives_(N05C)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">Hypnotics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sedative" title="Sedative">sedatives</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_N05#N05C" title="ATC code N05">N05C</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABAA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">Alcohols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2M2B" class="mw-redirect" title="2M2B">2M2B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloralodol" title="Chloralodol">Chloralodol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethylpropanediol" class="mw-redirect" title="Diethylpropanediol">Diethylpropanediol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethchlorvynol" title="Ethchlorvynol">Ethchlorvynol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylpentynol" title="Methylpentynol">Methylpentynol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2,2,2-Trichloroethanol" title="2,2,2-Trichloroethanol">Trichloroethanol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allobarbital" title="Allobarbital">Allobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amobarbital" title="Amobarbital">Amobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aprobarbital" title="Aprobarbital">Aprobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbital" title="Barbital">Barbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butabarbital" title="Butabarbital">Butabarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butobarbital" title="Butobarbital">Butobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclobarbital" title="Cyclobarbital">Cyclobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethallobarbital" title="Ethallobarbital">Ethallobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptabarb" title="Heptabarb">Heptabarb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexobarbital" title="Hexobarbital">Hexobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mephobarbital" class="mw-redirect" title="Mephobarbital">Mephobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methohexital" title="Methohexital">Methohexital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcobarbital" title="Narcobarbital">Narcobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentobarbital" title="Pentobarbital">Pentobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenallymal" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenallymal">Phenallymal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">Phenobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propylbarbital" title="Propylbarbital">Propylbarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxibarbal" class="mw-redirect" title="Proxibarbal">Proxibarbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reposal" title="Reposal">Reposal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secobarbital" title="Secobarbital">Secobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talbutal" title="Talbutal">Talbutal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiamylal" title="Thiamylal">Thiamylal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_thiopental" title="Sodium thiopental">Thiopental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiotetrabarbital" title="Thiotetrabarbital">Thiotetrabarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinbarbital" title="Vinbarbital">Vinbarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinylbital" title="Vinylbital">Vinylbital</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benzodiazepines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brotizolam" title="Brotizolam">Brotizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinolazepam" title="Cinolazepam">Cinolazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climazolam" title="Climazolam">Climazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonazolam" title="Clonazolam">Clonazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxefazepam" title="Doxefazepam">Doxefazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estazolam" title="Estazolam">Estazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flubromazolam" title="Flubromazolam">Flubromazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flunitrazolam" title="Flunitrazolam">Flunitrazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flunitrazepam" title="Flunitrazepam">Flunitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flurazepam" title="Flurazepam">Flurazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flutemazepam" title="Flutemazepam">Flutemazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flutoprazepam" title="Flutoprazepam">Flutoprazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loprazolam" title="Loprazolam">Loprazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lormetazepam" title="Lormetazepam">Lormetazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">Midazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimetazepam" title="Nimetazepam">Nimetazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitemazepam" title="Nitemazepam">Nitemazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrazepam" title="Nitrazepam">Nitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrazolam" title="Nitrazolam">Nitrazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quazepam" title="Quazepam">Quazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">Temazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">Triazolam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Carbamate" title="Carbamate">Carbamates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carisoprodol" title="Carisoprodol">Carisoprodol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emylcamate" title="Emylcamate">Emylcamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethinamate" title="Ethinamate">Ethinamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexapropymate" title="Hexapropymate">Hexapropymate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meprobamate" title="Meprobamate">Meprobamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methocarbamol" title="Methocarbamol">Methocarbamol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenprobamate" title="Phenprobamate">Phenprobamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procymate" title="Procymate">Procymate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tybamate" title="Tybamate">Tybamate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Imidazole" title="Imidazole">Imidazoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etomidate" title="Etomidate">Etomidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metomidate" title="Metomidate">Metomidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propoxate" title="Propoxate">Propoxate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Monoureide" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoureide">Monoureides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acecarbromal" title="Acecarbromal">Acecarbromal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apronal" title="Apronal">Apronal (apronalide)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromisoval" title="Bromisoval">Bromisoval</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Capuride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Capuride (page does not exist)">Capuride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbromal" title="Carbromal">Carbromal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ectylurea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ectylurea (page does not exist)">Ectylurea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Neuroactive_steroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroactive steroid">Neuroactive steroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acebrochol" title="Acebrochol">Acebrochol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allopregnanolone" title="Allopregnanolone">Allopregnanolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfadolone" title="Alfadolone">Alphadolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphaxolone" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphaxolone">Alphaxolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eltanolone" class="mw-redirect" title="Eltanolone">Eltanolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxydione" title="Hydroxydione">Hydroxydione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minaxolone" title="Minaxolone">Minaxolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">Progesterone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">Nonbenzodiazepines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eszopiclone" title="Eszopiclone">Eszopiclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiplon" title="Indiplon">Indiplon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lirequinil" title="Lirequinil">Lirequinil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necopidem" title="Necopidem">Necopidem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazinaclone" title="Pazinaclone">Pazinaclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saripidem" title="Saripidem">Saripidem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suproclone" title="Suproclone">Suproclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriclone" title="Suriclone">Suriclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaleplon" title="Zaleplon">Zaleplon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zolpidem" title="Zolpidem">Zolpidem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zopiclone" title="Zopiclone">Zopiclone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Phenol" title="Phenol">Phenols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Propofol" title="Propofol">Propofol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Piperidinedione" class="mw-redirect" title="Piperidinedione">Piperidinediones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glutethimide" title="Glutethimide">Glutethimide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyprylon" title="Methyprylon">Methyprylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrithyldione" title="Pyrithyldione">Pyrithyldione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piperidione" title="Piperidione">Piperidione</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Quinazolinone" title="Quinazolinone">Quinazolinones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afloqualone" title="Afloqualone">Afloqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloroqualone" title="Cloroqualone">Cloroqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diproqualone" title="Diproqualone">Diproqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etaqualone" title="Etaqualone">Etaqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mebroqualone" title="Mebroqualone">Mebroqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mecloqualone" title="Mecloqualone">Mecloqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methaqualone" title="Methaqualone">Methaqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylmethaqualone" title="Methylmethaqualone">Methylmethaqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitromethaqualone" title="Nitromethaqualone">Nitromethaqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SL-164" title="SL-164">SL-164</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetophenone" title="Acetophenone">Acetophenone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acetylglycinamide_chloral_hydrate" title="Acetylglycinamide chloral hydrate">Acetylglycinamide chloral hydrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromide" title="Bromide">Bromide</a> compounds <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_bromide" title="Lithium bromide">Lithium bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_bromide" title="Potassium bromide">Potassium bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_bromide" title="Sodium bromide">Sodium bromide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centalun" title="Centalun">Centalun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloral_betaine" title="Chloral betaine">Chloral betaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloral_hydrate" title="Chloral hydrate">Chloral hydrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloralose" title="Chloralose">Chloralose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clomethiazole" title="Clomethiazole">Clomethiazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dichloralphenazone" title="Dichloralphenazone">Dichloralphenazone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaboxadol" title="Gaboxadol">Gaboxadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kavalactone" title="Kavalactone">Kavalactones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loreclezole" title="Loreclezole">Loreclezole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraldehyde" title="Paraldehyde">Paraldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrichloral" title="Petrichloral">Petrichloral</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfonylalkane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulfonylalkane (page does not exist)">Sulfonylalkanes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfonmethane" title="Sulfonmethane">Sulfonmethane (sulfonal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetronal" title="Tetronal">Tetronal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trional" title="Trional">Trional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triclofos" title="Triclofos">Triclofos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesquiterpene" title="Sesquiterpene">Sesquiterpene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isovaleramide" title="Isovaleramide">Isovaleramide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isovaleric_acid" title="Isovaleric acid">Isovaleric acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerenic_acid" title="Valerenic acid">Valerenic acid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/GABAB_receptor" title="GABAB receptor">GABAB</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1,4-Butanediol" title="1,4-Butanediol">1,4-Butanediol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4-Fluorophenibut" title="4-Fluorophenibut">4-Fluorophenibut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aceburic_acid" title="Aceburic acid">Aceburic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baclofen" title="Baclofen">Baclofen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GABOB" class="mw-redirect" title="GABOB">GABOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-Hydroxybutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid">GHB</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sodium_oxybate" title="Sodium oxybate">sodium oxybate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-Butyrolactone" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Butyrolactone">GBL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-Valerolactone" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Valerolactone">GVL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenibut" title="Phenibut">Phenibut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolibut" title="Tolibut">Tolibut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/H1_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="H1 receptor">H1</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Histamine_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Histamine antagonist">Antihistamines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captodiame" title="Captodiame">Captodiame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyproheptadine" title="Cyproheptadine">Cyproheptadine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphenhydramine" title="Diphenhydramine">Diphenhydramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxylamine" title="Doxylamine">Doxylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxyzine" title="Hydroxyzine">Hydroxyzine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methapyrilene" title="Methapyrilene">Methapyrilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perlapine" title="Perlapine">Perlapine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pheniramine" title="Pheniramine">Pheniramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promethazine" title="Promethazine">Promethazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propiomazine" title="Propiomazine">Propiomazine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">Antidepressants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin_antagonists_and_reuptake_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors">Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etoperidone" title="Etoperidone">Etoperidone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nefazodone" title="Nefazodone">Nefazodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trazodone" title="Trazodone">Trazodone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant" title="Tricyclic antidepressant">Tricyclic antidepressants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amitriptyline" title="Amitriptyline">Amitriptyline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxepin" title="Doxepin">Doxepin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimipramine" title="Trimipramine">Trimipramine</a>, etc.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetracyclic_antidepressant" title="Tetracyclic antidepressant">Tetracyclic antidepressants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mianserin" title="Mianserin">Mianserin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirtazapine" title="Mirtazapine">Mirtazapine</a>, etc.</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">Antipsychotics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Typical_antipsychotic" title="Typical antipsychotic">Typical antipsychotics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">Chlorpromazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thioridazine" title="Thioridazine">Thioridazine</a>, etc.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atypical_antipsychotic" title="Atypical antipsychotic">Atypical antipsychotics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olanzapine" title="Olanzapine">Olanzapine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quetiapine" title="Quetiapine">Quetiapine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risperidone" title="Risperidone">Risperidone</a>, etc.</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Alpha-2_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor">α2-Adrenergic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">Clonidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detomidine" title="Detomidine">Detomidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexmedetomidine" title="Dexmedetomidine">Dexmedetomidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lofexidine" title="Lofexidine">Lofexidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medetomidine" title="Medetomidine">Medetomidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romifidine" title="Romifidine">Romifidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tizanidine" title="Tizanidine">Tizanidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylazine" title="Xylazine">Xylazine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/5-HT2A_receptor" title="5-HT2A receptor">5-HT2A</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">Antidepressants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trazodone" title="Trazodone">Trazodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant" title="Tricyclic antidepressant">Tricyclic antidepressants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amitriptyline" title="Amitriptyline">Amitriptyline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxepin" title="Doxepin">Doxepin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimipramine" title="Trimipramine">Trimipramine</a>, etc.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetracyclic_antidepressant" title="Tetracyclic antidepressant">Tetracyclic antidepressants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mianserin" title="Mianserin">Mianserin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirtazapine" title="Mirtazapine">Mirtazapine</a>, etc.</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">Antipsychotics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Typical_antipsychotic" title="Typical antipsychotic">Typical antipsychotics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">Chlorpromazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thioridazine" title="Thioridazine">Thioridazine</a>, etc.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atypical_antipsychotic" title="Atypical antipsychotic">Atypical antipsychotics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olanzapine" title="Olanzapine">Olanzapine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quetiapine" title="Quetiapine">Quetiapine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risperidone" title="Risperidone">Risperidone</a>, etc.</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Niaprazine" title="Niaprazine">Niaprazine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Melatonin_receptor" title="Melatonin receptor">Melatonin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agomelatine" title="Agomelatine">Agomelatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melatonin_(medication)" class="mw-redirect" title="Melatonin (medication)">Melatonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramelteon" title="Ramelteon">Ramelteon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasimelteon" title="Tasimelteon">Tasimelteon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Orexin_receptor" title="Orexin receptor">Orexin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daridorexant" title="Daridorexant">Daridorexant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemborexant" title="Lemborexant">Lemborexant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suvorexant" title="Suvorexant">Suvorexant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Gabapentinoid" title="Gabapentinoid"><abbr title="alpha2delta subunit">α2δ</abbr> <abbr title="voltage-gated calcium channel">VDCC</abbr></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gabapentin" title="Gabapentin">Gabapentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabapentin_enacarbil" title="Gabapentin enacarbil">Gabapentin enacarbil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirogabalin" title="Mirogabalin">Mirogabalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenibut" title="Phenibut">Phenibut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregabalin" title="Pregabalin">Pregabalin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabidiol" title="Cannabidiol">Cannabidiol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">Cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chlorophenylalkyldiol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chlorophenylalkyldiol (page does not exist)">Chlorophenylalkyldiols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fenpentadiol" title="Fenpentadiol">Fenpentadiol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaglycodol" title="Metaglycodol">Metaglycodol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenaglycodol" title="Phenaglycodol">Phenaglycodol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2,2-Diethyl-1,3-propanediol" class="mw-redirect" title="2,2-Diethyl-1,3-propanediol">Diethylpropanediol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evoxine" title="Evoxine">Evoxine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenadiazole" title="Fenadiazole">Fenadiazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaifenesin" title="Guaifenesin">Guaifenesin</a>-related <a href="/wiki/Muscle_relaxant" title="Muscle relaxant">muscle relaxants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorphenesin" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorphenesin">Chlorphenesin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mephenesin" title="Mephenesin">Mephenesin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mephenoxalone" title="Mephenoxalone">Mephenoxalone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaxalone" title="Metaxalone">Metaxalone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methocarbamol" title="Methocarbamol">Methocarbamol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midaflur" title="Midaflur">Midaflur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">Opioids</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passiflora" title="Passiflora">Passion flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scopolamine" title="Scopolamine">Scopolamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trazodone" title="Trazodone">Trazodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UMB68" class="mw-redirect" title="UMB68">UMB68</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valnoctamide" title="Valnoctamide">Valnoctamide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Insomnia_medications" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Insomnia_medications" title="Template:Insomnia medications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Insomnia_medications" title="Template talk:Insomnia medications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Insomnia_medications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Insomnia medications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Insomnia_medications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">Insomnia medications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor_positive_allosteric_modulator" title="GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator">GABAA receptor positive modulators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benzodiazepines</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brotizolam" title="Brotizolam">Brotizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinolazepam" title="Cinolazepam">Cinolazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climazolam" title="Climazolam">Climazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clorazepate" title="Clorazepate">Clorazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxefazepam" title="Doxefazepam">Doxefazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estazolam" title="Estazolam">Estazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etizolam" title="Etizolam">Etizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flunitrazepam" title="Flunitrazepam">Flunitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flurazepam" title="Flurazepam">Flurazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flutoprazepam" title="Flutoprazepam">Flutoprazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haloxazolam" title="Haloxazolam">Haloxazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loprazolam" title="Loprazolam">Loprazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lormetazepam" title="Lormetazepam">Lormetazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">Midazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimetazepam" title="Nimetazepam">Nimetazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrazepam" title="Nitrazepam">Nitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quazepam" title="Quazepam">Quazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">Temazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">Triazolam</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">Nonbenzodiazepines</a>/<a href="/wiki/Z-drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Z-drug">Z-drugs</a>: <a href="/wiki/Eszopiclone" title="Eszopiclone">Eszopiclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaleplon" title="Zaleplon">Zaleplon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zolpidem" title="Zolpidem">Zolpidem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zopiclone" title="Zopiclone">Zopiclone</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Others: <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">Alcohols</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Ethchlorvynol" title="Ethchlorvynol">ethchlorvynol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tert-Amyl_alcohol" title="Tert-Amyl alcohol">amylene hydrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Amobarbital" title="Amobarbital">amobarbital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pentobarbital" title="Pentobarbital">pentobarbital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">phenobarbital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secobarbital" title="Secobarbital">secobarbital</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromide" title="Bromide">Bromides</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Potassium_bromide" title="Potassium bromide">potassium bromide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bromide" title="Sodium bromide">sodium bromide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbamate" title="Carbamate">Carbamates</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Meprobamate" title="Meprobamate">meprobamate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloral_hydrate" title="Chloral hydrate">Chloral hydrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clomethiazole" title="Clomethiazole">Clomethiazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kava" title="Kava">Kava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosteroid" title="Neurosteroid">Neurosteroids</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Progesterone_(medication)" title="Progesterone (medication)">progesterone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zuranolone" title="Zuranolone">zuranolone</a>†)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraldehyde" title="Paraldehyde">Paraldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piperidinedione" class="mw-redirect" title="Piperidinedione">Piperidinediones</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Glutethimide" title="Glutethimide">glutethimide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinazolinone" title="Quinazolinone">Quinazolinones</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Methaqualone" title="Methaqualone">methaqualone</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfonmethane" title="Sulfonmethane">Sulfonmethane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerian_(herb)" title="Valerian (herb)">Valerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/H1_antagonist" title="H1 antagonist">Antihistamines</a> (<a href="/wiki/H1_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="H1 receptor">H1 receptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Inverse_agonist" title="Inverse agonist">inverse agonists</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alimemazine" title="Alimemazine">Alimemazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captodiame" title="Captodiame">Captodiame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimenhydrinate" title="Dimenhydrinate">Dimenhydrinate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphenhydramine" title="Diphenhydramine">Diphenhydramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxylamine" title="Doxylamine">Doxylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etodroxizine" title="Etodroxizine">Etodroxizine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxyzine" title="Hydroxyzine">Hydroxyzine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meclizine" title="Meclizine">Meclizine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methapyrilene" title="Methapyrilene">Methapyrilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pheniramine" title="Pheniramine">Pheniramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenyltoloxamine" title="Phenyltoloxamine">Phenyltoloxamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pimethixene" title="Pimethixene">Pimethixene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promethazine" title="Promethazine">Promethazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propiomazine" title="Propiomazine">Propiomazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrilamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrilamine">Pyrilamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant" title="Tricyclic antidepressant">Tricyclic antidepressants</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Amitriptyline" title="Amitriptyline">amitriptyline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doxepin" title="Doxepin">doxepin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trimipramine" title="Trimipramine">trimipramine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetracyclic_antidepressant" title="Tetracyclic antidepressant">Tetracyclic antidepressants</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Mirtazapine" title="Mirtazapine">mirtazapine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triprolidine" title="Triprolidine">Triprolidine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orexin_receptor_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Orexin receptor antagonist">Orexin receptor antagonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daridorexant" title="Daridorexant">Daridorexant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemborexant" title="Lemborexant">Lemborexant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seltorexant" title="Seltorexant">Seltorexant</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suvorexant" title="Suvorexant">Suvorexant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vornorexant" title="Vornorexant">Vornorexant</a>†</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Melatonin_receptor_agonist" title="Melatonin receptor agonist">Melatonin receptor agonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melatonin_(medication)" class="mw-redirect" title="Melatonin (medication)">Melatonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramelteon" title="Ramelteon">Ramelteon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasimelteon" title="Tasimelteon">Tasimelteon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">Antipsychotics</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Quetiapine" title="Quetiapine">quetiapine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olanzapine" title="Olanzapine">olanzapine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Risperidone" title="Risperidone">risperidone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">chlorpromazine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withania_somnifera" title="Withania somnifera">Ashwagandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzoctamine" title="Benzoctamine">Benzoctamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid" title="Cannabinoid">Cannabinoids</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dronabinol" title="Dronabinol">dronabinol (<abbr title="tetrahydrocannabinol">THC</abbr>)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nabilone" title="Nabilone">nabilone</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamomile" title="Chamomile">Chamomile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenadiazole" title="Fenadiazole">Fenadiazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabapentinoid" title="Gabapentinoid">Gabapentinoids</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Gabapentin" title="Gabapentin">gabapentin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pregabalin" title="Pregabalin">pregabalin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenibut" title="Phenibut">phenibut</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hops" title="Hops">Hops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavandula" title="Lavandula">Lavender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menthyl_isovalerate" title="Menthyl isovalerate">Menthyl isovalerate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niaprazine" title="Niaprazine">Niaprazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">Opioids</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Hydrocodone" title="Hydrocodone">hydrocodone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxycodone" title="Oxycodone">oxycodone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passiflora" title="Passiflora">Passion flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scopolamine" title="Scopolamine">Scopolamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter#Serotonin_precursors" title="Neurotransmitter">Serotonin precursors</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">tryptophan</a>, <a href="/wiki/5-hydroxytryptophan" class="mw-redirect" title="5-hydroxytryptophan"><abbr title="5-hydroxytryptophan">5-HTP</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip 5-hydroxytryptophan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_oxybate" title="Sodium oxybate">Sodium oxybate (<abbr title="γ-aminobutyric acid">GHB</abbr>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatholytic" title="Sympatholytic">Sympatholytics</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">clonidine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guanfacine" title="Guanfacine">guanfacine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prazosin" title="Prazosin">prazosin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theanine" title="Theanine">Theanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trazodone" title="Trazodone">Trazodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant" title="Tricyclic antidepressant">Tricyclic antidepressants</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Amitriptyline" title="Amitriptyline">amitriptyline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doxepin" title="Doxepin">doxepin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trimipramine" title="Trimipramine">trimipramine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetracyclic_antidepressant" title="Tetracyclic antidepressant">Tetracyclic antidepressants</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Mirtazapine" title="Mirtazapine">mirtazapine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valnoctamide" title="Valnoctamide">Valnoctamide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>#<a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li>‡<a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li>§Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="GABAA_receptor_positive_modulators" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:GABAA_receptor_positive_modulators" title="Template:GABAA receptor positive modulators"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:GABAA_receptor_positive_modulators" title="Template talk:GABAA receptor positive modulators"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:GABAA_receptor_positive_modulators" title="Special:EditPage/Template:GABAA receptor positive modulators"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="GABAA_receptor_positive_modulators" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor_positive_allosteric_modulator" title="GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator"><abbr title="γ-Aminobutyric acid">GABA</abbr>A receptor positive modulators</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">Alcohols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brometone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brometone (page does not exist)">Brometone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1-Butanol" title="1-Butanol">Butanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloralodol" title="Chloralodol">Chloralodol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorobutanol" title="Chlorobutanol">Chlorobutanol (cloretone)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic drink">alcoholic drink</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethchlorvynol" title="Ethchlorvynol">Ethchlorvynol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isobutanol" title="Isobutanol">Isobutanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isopropanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Isopropanol">Isopropanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menthol" title="Menthol">Menthol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">Methanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylpentynol" title="Methylpentynol">Methylpentynol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1-Pentanol" title="1-Pentanol">Pentanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrichloral" title="Petrichloral">Petrichloral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1-Propanol" title="1-Propanol">Propanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert-Butanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Tert-Butanol">tert-Butanol (2M2P)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert-Pentanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Tert-Pentanol">tert-Pentanol (2M2B)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribromoethanol" title="Tribromoethanol">Tribromoethanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichloroethanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichloroethanol">Trichloroethanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triclofos" title="Triclofos">Triclofos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trifluoroethanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Trifluoroethanol">Trifluoroethanol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/(-)-5-(1,3-Dimethylbutyl)-5-ethylbarbituric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="(-)-5-(1,3-Dimethylbutyl)-5-ethylbarbituric acid">(-)-DMBB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allobarbital" title="Allobarbital">Allobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphenal" title="Alphenal">Alphenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amobarbital" title="Amobarbital">Amobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aprobarbital" title="Aprobarbital">Aprobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbexaclone" title="Barbexaclone">Barbexaclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbital" title="Barbital">Barbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzobarbital" title="Benzobarbital">Benzobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzylbutylbarbiturate" title="Benzylbutylbarbiturate">Benzylbutylbarbiturate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brallobarbital" title="Brallobarbital">Brallobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brophebarbital" title="Brophebarbital">Brophebarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butabarbital" title="Butabarbital">Butabarbital/Secbutabarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butalbital" title="Butalbital">Butalbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buthalital" title="Buthalital">Buthalital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butobarbital" title="Butobarbital">Butobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butallylonal" title="Butallylonal">Butallylonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbubarb" title="Carbubarb">Carbubarb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crotylbarbital" title="Crotylbarbital">Crotylbarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclobarbital" title="Cyclobarbital">Cyclobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclopentobarbital" title="Cyclopentobarbital">Cyclopentobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difebarbamate" title="Difebarbamate">Difebarbamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enallylpropymal" title="Enallylpropymal">Enallylpropymal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethallobarbital" title="Ethallobarbital">Ethallobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eterobarb" title="Eterobarb">Eterobarb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Febarbamate" title="Febarbamate">Febarbamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptabarb" title="Heptabarb">Heptabarb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptobarbital" title="Heptobarbital">Heptobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexethal" title="Hexethal">Hexethal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexobarbital" title="Hexobarbital">Hexobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metharbital" title="Metharbital">Metharbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methitural" title="Methitural">Methitural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methohexital" title="Methohexital">Methohexital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphenobarbital" title="Methylphenobarbital">Methylphenobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcobarbital" title="Narcobarbital">Narcobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nealbarbital" title="Nealbarbital">Nealbarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentobarbital" title="Pentobarbital">Pentobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenallymal" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenallymal">Phenallymal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">Phenobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phetharbital" title="Phetharbital">Phetharbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primidone" title="Primidone">Primidone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probarbital" title="Probarbital">Probarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propallylonal" title="Propallylonal">Propallylonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propylbarbital" title="Propylbarbital">Propylbarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxibarbital" title="Proxibarbital">Proxibarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reposal" title="Reposal">Reposal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secobarbital" title="Secobarbital">Secobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmodal" title="Sigmodal">Sigmodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirobarbital" title="Spirobarbital">Spirobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talbutal" title="Talbutal">Talbutal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrabamate" title="Tetrabamate">Tetrabamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrabarbital" title="Tetrabarbital">Tetrabarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thialbarbital" title="Thialbarbital">Thialbarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiamylal" title="Thiamylal">Thiamylal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiobarbital" title="Thiobarbital">Thiobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiobutabarbital" title="Thiobutabarbital">Thiobutabarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_thiopental" title="Sodium thiopental">Thiopental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiotetrabarbital" title="Thiotetrabarbital">Thiotetrabarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valofane" title="Valofane">Valofane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinbarbital" title="Vinbarbital">Vinbarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinylbital" title="Vinylbital">Vinylbital</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benzodiazepines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-Oxoquazepam" title="2-Oxoquazepam">2-Oxoquazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-Hydroxyphenazepam" title="3-Hydroxyphenazepam">3-Hydroxyphenazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adinazolam" title="Adinazolam">Adinazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alprazolam" title="Alprazolam">Alprazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arfendazam" title="Arfendazam">Arfendazam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avizafone" title="Avizafone">Avizafone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bentazepam" title="Bentazepam">Bentazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bretazenil" title="Bretazenil">Bretazenil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromazepam" title="Bromazepam">Bromazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromazolam" title="Bromazolam">Bromazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotizolam" title="Brotizolam">Brotizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camazepam" title="Camazepam">Camazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carburazepam" title="Carburazepam">Carburazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">Chlordiazepoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciclotizolam" title="Ciclotizolam">Ciclotizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinazepam" title="Cinazepam">Cinazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinolazepam" title="Cinolazepam">Cinolazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clazolam" title="Clazolam">Clazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climazolam" title="Climazolam">Climazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clobazam" title="Clobazam">Clobazam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">Clonazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonazolam" title="Clonazolam">Clonazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloniprazepam" title="Cloniprazepam">Cloniprazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clorazepate" title="Clorazepate">Clorazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clotiazepam" title="Clotiazepam">Clotiazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloxazolam" title="Cloxazolam">Cloxazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CP-1414S" title="CP-1414S">CP-1414S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprazepam" title="Cyprazepam">Cyprazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delorazepam" title="Delorazepam">Delorazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demoxepam" title="Demoxepam">Demoxepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diclazepam" title="Diclazepam">Diclazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimdazenil" title="Dimdazenil">Dimdazenil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxefazepam" title="Doxefazepam">Doxefazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elfazepam" title="Elfazepam">Elfazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estazolam" title="Estazolam">Estazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_carfluzepate" title="Ethyl carfluzepate">Ethyl carfluzepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_dirazepate" title="Ethyl dirazepate">Ethyl dirazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_loflazepate" title="Ethyl loflazepate">Ethyl loflazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etizolam" title="Etizolam">Etizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FG-8205" title="FG-8205">FG-8205</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fletazepam" title="Fletazepam">Fletazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flubromazepam" title="Flubromazepam">Flubromazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flubromazolam" title="Flubromazolam">Flubromazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fludiazepam" title="Fludiazepam">Fludiazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flunitrazepam" title="Flunitrazepam">Flunitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flunitrazolam" title="Flunitrazolam">Flunitrazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flurazepam" title="Flurazepam">Flurazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flutazolam" title="Flutazolam">Flutazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flutemazepam" title="Flutemazepam">Flutemazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flutoprazepam" title="Flutoprazepam">Flutoprazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosazepam" title="Fosazepam">Fosazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gidazepam" title="Gidazepam">Gidazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halazepam" title="Halazepam">Halazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haloxazolam" title="Haloxazolam">Haloxazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iclazepam" title="Iclazepam">Iclazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imidazenil" title="Imidazenil">Imidazenil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irazepine" title="Irazepine">Irazepine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketazolam" title="Ketazolam">Ketazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lofendazam" title="Lofendazam">Lofendazam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lopirazepam" title="Lopirazepam">Lopirazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loprazolam" title="Loprazolam">Loprazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">Lorazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lormetazepam" title="Lormetazepam">Lormetazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meclonazepam" title="Meclonazepam">Meclonazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medazepam" title="Medazepam">Medazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menitrazepam" title="Menitrazepam">Menitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaclazepam" title="Metaclazepam">Metaclazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexazolam" title="Mexazolam">Mexazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">Midazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motrazepam" title="Motrazepam">Motrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Desalkylflurazepam" title="N-Desalkylflurazepam">N-Desalkylflurazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nifoxipam" title="Nifoxipam">Nifoxipam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimetazepam" title="Nimetazepam">Nimetazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrazepam" title="Nitrazepam">Nitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrazepate" title="Nitrazepate">Nitrazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrazolam" title="Nitrazolam">Nitrazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordazepam" title="Nordazepam">Nordazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nortetrazepam" title="Nortetrazepam">Nortetrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxazepam" title="Oxazepam">Oxazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxazolam" title="Oxazolam">Oxazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenazepam" title="Phenazepam">Phenazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinazepam" title="Pinazepam">Pinazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pivoxazepam" title="Pivoxazepam">Pivoxazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prazepam" title="Prazepam">Prazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premazepam" title="Premazepam">Premazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proflazepam" title="Proflazepam">Proflazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrazolam" title="Pyrazolam">Pyrazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QH-II-66" title="QH-II-66">QH-II-66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quazepam" title="Quazepam">Quazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclazepam" title="Reclazepam">Reclazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remimazolam" title="Remimazolam">Remimazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rilmazafone" title="Rilmazafone">Rilmazafone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ripazepam" title="Ripazepam">Ripazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro48-6791" title="Ro48-6791">Ro48-6791</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro48-8684" title="Ro48-8684">Ro48-8684</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SH-053-R-CH3-2%E2%80%B2F" title="SH-053-R-CH3-2′F">SH-053-R-CH3-2′F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulazepam" title="Sulazepam">Sulazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">Temazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrazepam" title="Tetrazepam">Tetrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolufazepam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolufazepam">Tolufazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">Triazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triflubazam" title="Triflubazam">Triflubazam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triflunordazepam" title="Triflunordazepam">Triflunordazepam (Ro5-2904)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuclazepam" title="Tuclazepam">Tuclazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uldazepam" title="Uldazepam">Uldazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapizolam" title="Zapizolam">Zapizolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zolazepam" title="Zolazepam">Zolazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zomebazam" title="Zomebazam">Zomebazam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Carbamate" title="Carbamate">Carbamates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carisbamate" title="Carisbamate">Carisbamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carisoprodol" title="Carisoprodol">Carisoprodol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clocental" title="Clocental">Clocental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclarbamate" title="Cyclarbamate">Cyclarbamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difebarbamate" title="Difebarbamate">Difebarbamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emylcamate" title="Emylcamate">Emylcamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethinamate" title="Ethinamate">Ethinamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Febarbamate" title="Febarbamate">Febarbamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felbamate" title="Felbamate">Felbamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexapropymate" title="Hexapropymate">Hexapropymate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxyphenamate" title="Hydroxyphenamate">Hydroxyphenamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorbamate" title="Lorbamate">Lorbamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mebutamate" title="Mebutamate">Mebutamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meprobamate" title="Meprobamate">Meprobamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisobamate" title="Nisobamate">Nisobamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentabamate" title="Pentabamate">Pentabamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenprobamate" title="Phenprobamate">Phenprobamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procymate" title="Procymate">Procymate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Styramate" title="Styramate">Styramate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrabamate" title="Tetrabamate">Tetrabamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tybamate" title="Tybamate">Tybamate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Flavonoid" title="Flavonoid">Flavonoids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/6-Methylapigenin" title="6-Methylapigenin">6-Methylapigenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampelopsin" title="Ampelopsin">Ampelopsin (dihydromyricetin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apigenin" title="Apigenin">Apigenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baicalein" title="Baicalein">Baicalein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baicalin" title="Baicalin">Baicalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechin" title="Catechin">Catechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigallocatechin" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigallocatechin">EGC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigallocatechin_gallate" title="Epigallocatechin gallate">EGCG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispidulin" title="Hispidulin">Hispidulin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Linarin (page does not exist)">Linarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luteolin" title="Luteolin">Luteolin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-6,4%E2%80%B2-dimethoxyretrochalcone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trans-6,4′-dimethoxyretrochalcone (page does not exist)">Rc-OMe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scutellaria" title="Scutellaria">Skullcap</a> constituents (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Baicalin" title="Baicalin">baicalin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wogonin" title="Wogonin">Wogonin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Imidazole" title="Imidazole">Imidazoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etomidate" title="Etomidate">Etomidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metomidate" title="Metomidate">Metomidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propoxate" title="Propoxate">Propoxate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Kava" title="Kava">Kava</a> constituents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=10-Methoxyyangonin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="10-Methoxyyangonin (page does not exist)">10-Methoxyyangonin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=11-Methoxyyangonin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="11-Methoxyyangonin (page does not exist)">11-Methoxyyangonin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=11-Hydroxyyangonin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="11-Hydroxyyangonin (page does not exist)">11-Hydroxyyangonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmethoxyyangonin" title="Desmethoxyyangonin">Desmethoxyyangonin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=11-Methoxy-12-hydroxydehydrokavain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="11-Methoxy-12-hydroxydehydrokavain (page does not exist)">11-Methoxy-12-hydroxydehydrokavain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=7,8-Dihydroyangonin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="7,8-Dihydroyangonin (page does not exist)">7,8-Dihydroyangonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kavain" title="Kavain">Kavain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=5-Hydroxykavain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5-Hydroxykavain (page does not exist)">5-Hydroxykavain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=5,6-Dihydroyangonin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5,6-Dihydroyangonin (page does not exist)">5,6-Dihydroyangonin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=7,8-Dihydrokavain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="7,8-Dihydrokavain (page does not exist)">7,8-Dihydrokavain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=5,6,7,8-Tetrahydroyangonin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5,6,7,8-Tetrahydroyangonin (page does not exist)">5,6,7,8-Tetrahydroyangonin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=5,6-Dehydromethysticin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5,6-Dehydromethysticin (page does not exist)">5,6-Dehydromethysticin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methysticin" title="Methysticin">Methysticin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=7,8-Dihydromethysticin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="7,8-Dihydromethysticin (page does not exist)">7,8-Dihydromethysticin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangonin" title="Yangonin">Yangonin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Monoureide" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoureide">Monoureides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acecarbromal" title="Acecarbromal">Acecarbromal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apronal" title="Apronal">Apronal (apronalide)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromisoval" title="Bromisoval">Bromisoval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbromal" title="Carbromal">Carbromal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Capuride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Capuride (page does not exist)">Capuride</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ectylurea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ectylurea (page does not exist)">Ectylurea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Neuroactive_steroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroactive steroid">Neuroactive steroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acebrochol" title="Acebrochol">Acebrochol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allopregnanolone" title="Allopregnanolone">Allopregnanolone (brexanolone)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfadolone" title="Alfadolone">Alfadolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfaxalone" title="Alfaxalone">Alfaxalone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3%CE%B1-Androstanediol" title="3α-Androstanediol">3α-Androstanediol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androstenol" title="Androstenol">Androstenol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsterone" title="Androsterone">Androsterone</a></li> <li>Certain <a href="/wiki/Anabolic-androgenic_steroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabolic-androgenic steroid">anabolic-androgenic steroids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">Cholesterol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydrodeoxycorticosterone" title="Dihydrodeoxycorticosterone">DHDOC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3%CE%B1-Dihydroprogesterone" title="3α-Dihydroprogesterone">3α-DHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5%CE%B1-Dihydroprogesterone" title="5α-Dihydroprogesterone">5α-DHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5%CE%B2-Dihydroprogesterone" title="5β-Dihydroprogesterone">5β-DHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydrotestosterone" title="Dihydrotestosterone">DHT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiocholanolone" title="Etiocholanolone">Etiocholanolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganaxolone" title="Ganaxolone">Ganaxolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxydione" title="Hydroxydione">Hydroxydione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minaxolone" title="Minaxolone">Minaxolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ORG-20599" title="ORG-20599">ORG-20599</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ORG-21465" title="ORG-21465">ORG-21465</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P1-185" title="P1-185">P1-185</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posovolone" title="Posovolone">Posovolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnanolone" title="Pregnanolone">Pregnanolone (eltanolone)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">Progesterone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renanolone" title="Renanolone">Renanolone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SAGE-105&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SAGE-105 (page does not exist)">SAGE-105</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAGE-324" title="SAGE-324">SAGE-324</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SAGE-516&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SAGE-516 (page does not exist)">SAGE-516</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SAGE-689&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SAGE-689 (page does not exist)">SAGE-689</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SAGE-872&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SAGE-872 (page does not exist)">SAGE-872</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">Testosterone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone" title="Tetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone">THDOC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuranolone" title="Zuranolone">Zuranolone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">Nonbenzodiazepines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclopyrrolone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclopyrrolone">Cyclopyrrolones</a>: <a href="/wiki/Eszopiclone" title="Eszopiclone">Eszopiclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoclone" title="Pagoclone">Pagoclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazinaclone" title="Pazinaclone">Pazinaclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suproclone" title="Suproclone">Suproclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriclone" title="Suriclone">Suriclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zopiclone" title="Zopiclone">Zopiclone</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imidazopyridine" title="Imidazopyridine">Imidazopyridines</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alpidem" title="Alpidem">Alpidem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DS-1_(drug)" title="DS-1 (drug)">DS-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necopidem" title="Necopidem">Necopidem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saripidem" title="Saripidem">Saripidem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zolpidem" title="Zolpidem">Zolpidem</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrazolopyrimidine" title="Pyrazolopyrimidine">Pyrazolopyrimidines</a>: <a href="/wiki/Divaplon" title="Divaplon">Divaplon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasiplon" title="Fasiplon">Fasiplon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiplon" title="Indiplon">Indiplon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorediplon" title="Lorediplon">Lorediplon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocinaplon" title="Ocinaplon">Ocinaplon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panadiplon" title="Panadiplon">Panadiplon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taniplon" title="Taniplon">Taniplon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaleplon" title="Zaleplon">Zaleplon</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Others: <a href="/wiki/Adipiplon" title="Adipiplon">Adipiplon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGS-8216" title="CGS-8216">CGS-8216</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGS-9896" title="CGS-9896">CGS-9896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGS-13767" title="CGS-13767">CGS-13767</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGS-20625" title="CGS-20625">CGS-20625</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CL-218,872" title="CL-218,872">CL-218,872</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CP-615,003" title="CP-615,003">CP-615,003</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CTP-354&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CTP-354 (page does not exist)">CTP-354</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ELB-139" title="ELB-139">ELB-139</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GBLD-345" title="GBLD-345">GBLD-345</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imepitoin" title="Imepitoin">Imepitoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JM-1232" title="JM-1232">JM-1232</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-838,417" title="L-838,417">L-838,417</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lirequinil" title="Lirequinil">Lirequinil (Ro41-3696)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NS-2664" title="NS-2664">NS-2664</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NS-2710" title="NS-2710">NS-2710</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NS-11394" title="NS-11394">NS-11394</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipequaline" title="Pipequaline">Pipequaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROD-188" title="ROD-188">ROD-188</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RWJ-51204" title="RWJ-51204">RWJ-51204</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SB-205,384" class="mw-redirect" title="SB-205,384">SB-205,384</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SX-3228" title="SX-3228">SX-3228</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=TGSC01AA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TGSC01AA (page does not exist)">TGSC01AA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TP-003" title="TP-003">TP-003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TPA-023" title="TPA-023">TPA-023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TP-13" title="TP-13">TP-13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-89843A" title="U-89843A">U-89843A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-90042" title="U-90042">U-90042</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viqualine" title="Viqualine">Viqualine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y-23684" title="Y-23684">Y-23684</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Phenol" title="Phenol">Phenols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fospropofol" title="Fospropofol">Fospropofol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propofol" title="Propofol">Propofol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymol" title="Thymol">Thymol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Piperidinedione" class="mw-redirect" title="Piperidinedione">Piperidinediones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glutethimide" title="Glutethimide">Glutethimide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyprylon" title="Methyprylon">Methyprylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piperidione" title="Piperidione">Piperidione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrithyldione" title="Pyrithyldione">Pyrithyldione</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Pyrazolopyridine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrazolopyridine">Pyrazolopyridines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartazolate" title="Cartazolate">Cartazolate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etazolate" title="Etazolate">Etazolate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICI-190,622" title="ICI-190,622">ICI-190,622</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracazolate" title="Tracazolate">Tracazolate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Quinazolinone" title="Quinazolinone">Quinazolinones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afloqualone" title="Afloqualone">Afloqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloroqualone" title="Cloroqualone">Cloroqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diproqualone" title="Diproqualone">Diproqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etaqualone" title="Etaqualone">Etaqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mebroqualone" title="Mebroqualone">Mebroqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mecloqualone" title="Mecloqualone">Mecloqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methaqualone" title="Methaqualone">Methaqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylmethaqualone" title="Methylmethaqualone">Methylmethaqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitromethaqualone" title="Nitromethaqualone">Nitromethaqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SL-164" title="SL-164">SL-164</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Inhalational_anaesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Inhalational anaesthetic">Volatiles</a>/<a href="/wiki/Inhalational_anaesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Inhalational anaesthetic">gases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetone" title="Acetone">Acetone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acetophenone" title="Acetophenone">Acetophenone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acetylglycinamide_chloral_hydrate" title="Acetylglycinamide chloral hydrate">Acetylglycinamide chloral hydrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliflurane" title="Aliflurane">Aliflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">Benzene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butane" title="Butane">Butane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butylene" class="mw-redirect" title="Butylene">Butylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centalun" title="Centalun">Centalun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloral" title="Chloral">Chloral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloral_betaine" title="Chloral betaine">Chloral betaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloral_hydrate" title="Chloral hydrate">Chloral hydrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroform" title="Chloroform">Chloroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryofluorane" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryofluorane">Cryofluorane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desflurane" title="Desflurane">Desflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dichloralphenazone" title="Dichloralphenazone">Dichloralphenazone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dichloromethane" title="Dichloromethane">Dichloromethane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">Diethyl ether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroethane" title="Chloroethane">Ethyl chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">Ethylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluroxene" title="Fluroxene">Fluroxene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">Gasoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halopropane" title="Halopropane">Halopropane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">Kerosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methoxyflurane" title="Methoxyflurane">Methoxyflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methoxypropane" title="Methoxypropane">Methoxypropane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">Nitric oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norflurane" class="mw-redirect" title="Norflurane">Norflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraldehyde" title="Paraldehyde">Paraldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">Propane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propene" class="mw-redirect" title="Propene">Propylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roflurane" title="Roflurane">Roflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sevoflurane" title="Sevoflurane">Sevoflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthane" title="Synthane">Synthane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teflurane" title="Teflurane">Teflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toluene" title="Toluene">Toluene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1,1,1-Trichloroethane" title="1,1,1-Trichloroethane">Trichloroethane (methyl chloroform)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichloroethylene" title="Trichloroethylene">Trichloroethylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divinyl_ether" title="Divinyl ether">Vinyl ether</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Others/unsorted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-Hydroxybutanal" title="3-Hydroxybutanal">3-Hydroxybutanal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%CE%91-Ethyl-%CE%B1-methylthiobutyrolactone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Α-Ethyl-α-methylthiobutyrolactone (page does not exist)">α-EMTBL</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=AA-29504&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AA-29504 (page does not exist)">AA-29504</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alogabat" title="Alogabat">Alogabat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avermectin" title="Avermectin">Avermectins</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Ivermectin" title="Ivermectin">ivermectin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromide" title="Bromide">Bromide</a> compounds (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Lithium_bromide" title="Lithium bromide">lithium bromide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium_bromide" title="Potassium bromide">potassium bromide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bromide" title="Sodium bromide">sodium bromide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">Carbamazepine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloralose" title="Chloralose">Chloralose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlormezanone" title="Chlormezanone">Chlormezanone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clomethiazole" title="Clomethiazole">Clomethiazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darigabat" title="Darigabat">Darigabat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3,3-Diethyl-2-pyrrolidinone" title="3,3-Diethyl-2-pyrrolidinone">DEABL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterated_etifoxine" title="Deuterated etifoxine">Deuterated etifoxine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydroergoline" class="mw-redirect" title="Dihydroergoline">Dihydroergolines</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Dihydroergocryptine" title="Dihydroergocryptine">dihydroergocryptine</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dihydroergosine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dihydroergosine (page does not exist)">dihydroergosine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dihydroergotamine" title="Dihydroergotamine">dihydroergotamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ergoloid" title="Ergoloid">ergoloid (dihydroergotoxine)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=4-Chloro-N-(2-(2-thienyl)imidazo(1,2-a)pyridin-3-yl)benzamide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="4-Chloro-N-(2-(2-thienyl)imidazo(1,2-a)pyridin-3-yl)benzamide (page does not exist)">DS2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efavirenz" title="Efavirenz">Efavirenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etazepine" title="Etazepine">Etazepine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etifoxine" title="Etifoxine">Etifoxine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fenamate">Fenamates</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Flufenamic_acid" title="Flufenamic acid">flufenamic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mefenamic_acid" title="Mefenamic acid">mefenamic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niflumic_acid" title="Niflumic acid">niflumic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tolfenamic_acid" title="Tolfenamic acid">tolfenamic acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluoxetine" title="Fluoxetine">Fluoxetine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flupirtine" title="Flupirtine">Flupirtine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopantenic_acid" title="Hopantenic acid">Hopantenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KRM-II-81" title="KRM-II-81">KRM-II-81</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">Lanthanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_oil" title="Lavender oil">Lavender oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lignan" title="Lignan">Lignans</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/4-O-methylhonokiol" class="mw-redirect" title="4-O-methylhonokiol">4-O-methylhonokiol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honokiol" title="Honokiol">honokiol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnolol" title="Magnolol">magnolol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obovatol" title="Obovatol">obovatol</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loreclezole" title="Loreclezole">Loreclezole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menthyl_isovalerate" title="Menthyl isovalerate">Menthyl isovalerate (validolum)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastrol" title="Monastrol">Monastrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niacin" title="Niacin">Niacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niacinamide" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacinamide">Niacinamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Org_25435" class="mw-redirect" title="Org 25435">Org 25,435</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">Phenytoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propanidid" title="Propanidid">Propanidid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retigabine" title="Retigabine">Retigabine (ezogabine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safranal" title="Safranal">Safranal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seproxetine" title="Seproxetine">Seproxetine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stiripentol" title="Stiripentol">Stiripentol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfonylalkane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulfonylalkane (page does not exist)">Sulfonylalkanes</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Sulfonmethane" title="Sulfonmethane">sulfonmethane (sulfonal)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tetronal" title="Tetronal">tetronal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trional" title="Trional">trional</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terpenoid" title="Terpenoid">Terpenoids</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Borneol" title="Borneol">borneol</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerian_(herb)" title="Valerian (herb)">Valerian</a> constituents (e.g., <a href="/wiki/3-methylbutanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="3-methylbutanoic acid">isovaleric acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isovaleramide" title="Isovaleramide">isovaleramide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valerenic_acid" title="Valerenic acid">valerenic acid</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Valerenol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Valerenol (page does not exist)">valerenol</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li>Unsorted benzodiazepine site positive modulators: <a href="/wiki/%CE%91-Pinene" title="Α-Pinene">α-Pinene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MRK-409_(MK-0343)" class="mw-redirect" title="MRK-409 (MK-0343)">MRK-409 (MK-0343)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=TCS-1105&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TCS-1105 (page does not exist)">TCS-1105</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TCS-1205" title="TCS-1205">TCS-1205</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also: <a href="/wiki/Template:Receptor_modulators" title="Template:Receptor modulators">Receptor/signaling modulators</a> • <a href="/wiki/Template:GABA_receptor_modulators" title="Template:GABA receptor modulators">GABA receptor modulators</a> • <a href="/wiki/Template:GABA_metabolism_and_transport_modulators" title="Template:GABA metabolism and transport modulators">GABA metabolism/transport modulators</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="General_anesthetics_(N01A)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:General_anesthetics" title="Template:General anesthetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:General_anesthetics" title="Template talk:General anesthetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:General_anesthetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:General anesthetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="General_anesthetics_(N01A)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/General_anaesthetic" title="General anaesthetic">General anesthetics</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_N01#N01A" title="ATC code N01">N01A</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inhalational_anesthetic" title="Inhalational anesthetic">Inhalational</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chloroform" title="Chloroform">Chloroform</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclopropane" title="Cyclopropane">Cyclopropane</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desflurane" title="Desflurane">Desflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">Diethyl ether</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">Ethylene</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluroxene" title="Fluroxene">Fluroxene</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methoxyflurane" title="Methoxyflurane">Methoxyflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methoxypropane" title="Methoxypropane">Methoxypropane</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sevoflurane" title="Sevoflurane">Sevoflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichloroethylene" title="Trichloroethylene">Trichloroethylene</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divinyl_ether" title="Divinyl ether">Vinyl ether</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xenon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/General_anaesthetic#Injection" title="General anaesthetic">Injection</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phenols" title="Phenols">Phenols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciprofol" title="Ciprofol">Ciprofol</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fospropofol" title="Fospropofol">Fospropofol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propofol" title="Propofol">Propofol</a>#</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amobarbital" title="Amobarbital">Amobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexobarbital" title="Hexobarbital">Hexobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methohexital" title="Methohexital">Methohexital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcobarbital" title="Narcobarbital">Narcobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiamylal" title="Thiamylal">Thiamylal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_thiopental" title="Sodium thiopental">Thiopental</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiotetrabarbital" title="Thiotetrabarbital">Thiotetrabarbital</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benzodiazepines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">Midazolam</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">Lorazepam</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remimazolam" title="Remimazolam">Remimazolam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">Opioids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxycodone" title="Oxycodone">Oxycodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anileridine" title="Anileridine">Anileridine</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embutramide" title="Embutramide">Embutramide</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fentanyl" title="Fentanyl">Fentanyl</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfentanil" title="Alfentanil">Alfentanil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenoperidine" title="Phenoperidine">Phenoperidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remifentanil" title="Remifentanil">Remifentanil</a>÷</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufentanil" title="Sufentanil">Sufentanil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arylcyclohexylamine" title="Arylcyclohexylamine">Arylcyclohexylamines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esketamine" title="Esketamine">Esketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">Phencyclidine</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiletamine" title="Tiletamine">Tiletamine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neurosteroid" title="Neurosteroid">Neuroactive steroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfadolone" title="Alfadolone">Alfadolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfaxalone" title="Alfaxalone">Alfaxalone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxydione" title="Hydroxydione">Hydroxydione</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etomidate" title="Etomidate">Etomidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propanidid" title="Propanidid">Propanidid</a>‡</li></ul> 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