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id="toc-Notable_theorists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Talcott_Parsons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Talcott_Parsons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Talcott Parsons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Talcott_Parsons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Niklas_Luhmann" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Niklas_Luhmann"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Niklas Luhmann</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Niklas_Luhmann-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jay_Wright_Forrester" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jay_Wright_Forrester"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Jay Wright Forrester</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jay_Wright_Forrester-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racialized_social_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racialized_social_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Racialized social system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racialized_social_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> 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Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A5%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="نظام إجتماعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظام إجتماعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Осигурителна система – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Осигурителна система" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_social" title="Sistema social – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sistema social" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_syst%C3%A9m" title="Sociální systém – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sociální systém" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziales_System" title="Soziales System – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Soziales System" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%83%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Κοινωνικό σύστημα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κοινωνικό σύστημα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_social" title="Sistema social – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sistema social" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%DB%8C" title="نظام اجتماعی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نظام اجتماعی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C_%EC%B2%B4%EA%B3%84" title="사회 체계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사회 체계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_sosial" title="Sistem sosial – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sistem sosial" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%B6%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B5" title="Әлеуметтік жүйе – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Әлеуметтік жүйе" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Социалдык система – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Социалдык система" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_sociale" title="Systema sociale – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Systema sociale" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociaal_systeem" title="Sociaal systeem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sociaal systeem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E4%BD%93%E5%88%B6" title="社会体制 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="社会体制" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_spo%C5%82eczny" title="System społeczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="System społeczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_social" title="Sistema social – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sistema social" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Социальная система – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Социальная система" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Social system" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Друштвени систем – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Друштвени систем" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiaaliset_j%C3%A4rjestelm%C3%A4t" title="Sosiaaliset järjestelmät – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sosiaaliset järjestelmät" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyal_sistem" title="Sosyal sistem – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sosyal sistem" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Соціальна система – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Соціальна система" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%87_th%E1%BB%91ng_x%C3%A3_h%E1%BB%99i" title="Hệ thống xã hội – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ thống xã hội" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1639378#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_Network_Diagram_(segment).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/375px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br /></li></ul> <p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br /> </p> <b>1900s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. 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<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/16px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/24px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sociology" title="Template:Sociology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sociology" title="Template talk:Sociology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, a <b>social system</b> is the patterned network of relationships constituting a coherent whole that exist between individuals, groups, and institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the formal <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">structure</a> of role and status that can form in a small, stable group.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An individual may belong to multiple social <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">systems</a> at once;<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> examples of social systems include <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">nuclear family</a> units, <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">communities</a>, <a href="/wiki/City" title="City">cities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/College_campus" class="mw-redirect" title="College campus">college campuses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Religions">religions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Industry_(economics)" title="Industry (economics)">industries</a>. The organization and definition of groups within a social system depend on various shared properties such as location, <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">socioeconomic</a> status, race, religion, societal function, or other distinguishable features.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_theorists">Notable theorists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_system&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Notable theorists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The study of social systems is integral to the fields of sociology and public policy. Social systems have been studied for as long as sociology has existed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Talcott_Parsons">Talcott Parsons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_system&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Talcott Parsons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a> was the first to formulate a systematic theory of social systems,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> which he did as a part of his <a href="/wiki/AGIL_paradigm" title="AGIL paradigm">AGIL paradigm</a>. He defined a social system as only a segment (or a "subsystem") of what he called <a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(sociology)" title="Action theory (sociology)">action theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parsons organized social systems in terms of action units, where one action executed by an individual is one unit. He defines a social system as a network of interactions between actors.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Parsons, social systems rely on a system of language, and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> must exist in a society in order for it to qualify as a social system.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parsons' work laid the foundations for the rest of the study of social systems theory and ignited the debate over what framework social systems should be built around, such as actions, communication, or other relationships. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Niklas_Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_system&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Niklas Luhmann"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a> was a prominent sociologist and social systems theorist who laid the foundations of modern social system thought.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He based his definition of a "social system" on the mass network of communication between people and defined society itself as an "autopoietic" system, meaning a self-referential and self-reliant system that is distinct from its environment.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Luhmann considered social systems as belonging to three categories: societal systems, organizations, and interaction systems.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Luhmann considered societal systems, such as religion, law, art, education, science, etc., to be closed systems consisting of different fields of interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organizations were defined as a network of decisions which reproduce themselves; his definition is difficult to apply in terms of finding a real-world example.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, interaction systems are systems that reproduce themselves on the basis of co-presence rather than decision making.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jay_Wright_Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_system&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Jay Wright Forrester"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a> founded the field of <a href="/wiki/System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">system dynamics</a>, which deals with the simulation of interactions in dynamic systems. In his work on social systems, he discusses the possibilities of social system dynamics, or modeling social systems using computers with the aim of testing the possible effects of passing new public policies or laws. In his paper he recognized the difficulty of producing a reliable computer model system, but argued that an imperfect model was better than none and simply implementing new policy.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forrester argued that unsuccessful public policies aim to treat the symptoms rather than the causes of social issues and that they also generally focus on efforts rather than on results. This occurs because there is either an incomplete understanding or a misunderstanding of the causes of an issue on the part of the policymakers, which often leads to ineffective or detrimental policies which aggravate the issues they were implemented to correct or cause other issues to arise. Another problem Forrester notes is that some policies which may work in the long run may aggravate an issue in the short run. A successful policy according to Forrester must target the correct leverage points, in this case the aspect of the social problem which, if modified, will produce a sizeable enough effect to correct the problem. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Racialized_social_system">Racialized social system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_system&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Racialized social system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Eduardo_Bonilla-Silva" title="Eduardo Bonilla-Silva">Eduardo Bonilla-Silva</a> referred to the social relationships between different racial groups as a <i>racialized social system.</i><sup id="cite_ref-:4_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 50">: 50 </span></sup> Some academics have criticized the idea that the group of white people constitute a meaningful group for such analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 163">: 163 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Iris_Marion_Young" title="Iris Marion Young">Iris Marion Young</a> distinguished between the notions of "group" and "series", with a "group" being defined by <a href="/wiki/Self-identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-identity">one's own acknowledgment</a> of being a member and a series being a passive social reality. Lewis argues that most groups of white people are a series rather in this sense rather than a group.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 164">: 164 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modeling">Modeling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_system&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The problem with studying social systems is the difficulty of forming and testing theories; social systems are manipulated or controlled and large-scale systems cannot be reproduced in a lab setting.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the rapid increase in the availability of digital <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> over the last decade gives scientists studying the behaviors of social systems very detailed and much more holistic pictures of how social systems respond to various events and how networked social systems behave.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the development and popularity of social media platforms such as <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> and <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> offer new ways to study the evolution of social systems and social networking behaviors with <a href="/wiki/Social_graph" title="Social graph">social graphs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though the behaviors of these systems may be surprising or not yet well understood, the digital age offers a new frontier for the study of social systems.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notable past models are the WORLD2 and <a href="/wiki/World3" title="World3">WORLD3</a> models: these both aimed to outline the world's distribution of resources. WORLD3 was based on the <a href="/wiki/Club_of_Rome" title="Club of Rome">Club of Rome</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Limits_to_Growth" title="The Limits to Growth">Limits to Growth</a>.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_system&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliotropic_hypothesis" title="Heliotropic hypothesis">Heliotropic hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">Political system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">Social network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_rule_system_theory" title="Social rule system theory">Social rule system theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_web" title="Social web">Social web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory in anthropology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_system&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/social%20system">"Definition of SOCIAL SYSTEM"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+SOCIAL+SYSTEM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fsocial%2520system&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reference.com/world-view/examples-social-systems-94b4451fbf47f34c#">"What are some examples of social systems?"</a>. <i>Reference</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Lee and Achim Brosziewski"</a>. <i>www.cambriapress.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cambriapress.com&rft.atitle=Observing+Society%3A+Meaning%2C+Communication%2C+and+Social+Systems+By+Daniel+B.+Lee+and+Achim+Brosziewski&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambriapress.com%2Fcambriapress.cfm%3Ftemplate%3D4%26bid%3D339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermeer2006" class="citation book cs1">Vermeer, Hans J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMlvNXfpxfoC&q=social+systems&pg=PA117"><i>Luhmann's "social Systems" Theory: Preliminary Fragments for a Theory of Translation</i></a>. Frank & Timme GmbH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783865961020" title="Special:BookSources/9783865961020"><bdi>9783865961020</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Luhmann%27s+%22social+Systems%22+Theory%3A+Preliminary+Fragments+for+a+Theory+of+Translation&rft.pub=Frank+%26+Timme+GmbH&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9783865961020&rft.aulast=Vermeer&rft.aufirst=Hans+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMlvNXfpxfoC%26q%3Dsocial%2Bsystems%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayrhofer2004" class="citation journal cs1">Mayrhofer, Wolfgang (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/78961/1/752404644.pdf">"Social Systems Theory as Theoretical Framework for Human Resource Management – Benediction or Curse?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Management Revue</i>. <b>15</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">178–</span>191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5771%2F0935-9915-2004-2-178">10.5771/0935-9915-2004-2-178</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10419%2F78961">10419/78961</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41783463">41783463</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Management+Revue&rft.atitle=Social+Systems+Theory+as+Theoretical+Framework+for+Human+Resource+Management+%E2%80%93+Benediction+or+Curse%3F&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E178-%3C%2Fspan%3E191&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10419%2F78961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41783463%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5771%2F0935-9915-2004-2-178&rft.aulast=Mayrhofer&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.econstor.eu%2Fbitstream%2F10419%2F78961%2F1%2F752404644.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Seidl2013" class="citation book cs1">David Seidl, Kai Helge Becker (2013). <i>Niklas Luhmann and Organizational Studies</i>. Denmark: CBS press. pp. <span class="nowrap">35–</span>42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-630-0304-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-630-0304-9"><bdi>978-87-630-0304-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Niklas+Luhmann+and+Organizational+Studies&rft.place=Denmark&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.pub=CBS+press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-87-630-0304-9&rft.aulast=David+Seidl&rft.aufirst=Kai+Helge+Becker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/ps/cbss.htm">"Jay W. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Systems+Thinker&rft.atitle=Extending+Systems+Thinking+to+Social+Systems+-+The+Systems+Thinker&rft.date=2016-01-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthesystemsthinker.com%2Fextending-systems-thinking-to-social-systems%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.simonsfoundation.org/multimedia/simons-science-series/online-social-systems/">"Online Social Systems | Simons Foundation"</a>. <i>www.simonsfoundation.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.simonsfoundation.org&rft.atitle=Online+Social+Systems+%7C+Simons+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.simonsfoundation.org%2Fmultimedia%2Fsimons-science-series%2Fonline-social-systems%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_system&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Przybylak, Roman (2015) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/38981400/ON_THE_ORIGIN_OF_SOCIAL_SYSTEMS">On the origin of social systems</a>".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_system&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Systems_science494" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Systems_science" title="Template:Systems science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Systems_science" title="Template talk:Systems science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Systems_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Systems science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Systems_science494" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/System" title="System">System</a><br />types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_art" title="Systems art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_human%E2%80%93environment_system" title="Coupled human–environment system">Coupled human–environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">Multi-agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recommender_system" title="Recommender system">Recommender</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Social</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doubling_time" title="Doubling time">Doubling time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_leverage_points" title="Twelve leverage points">Leverage points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor">Limiting factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">Negative feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">Positive feedback</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_systems" title="Living systems">Living systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_pharmacology" title="Systems pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_philosophy" title="Systems philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">Systems thinking</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_scientists" title="List of systems scientists">Scientists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Russell L. Ackoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Aladjev" title="Victor Aladjev">Victor Aladjev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ross Ashby">William Ross Ashby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruzena_Bajcsy" title="Ruzena Bajcsy">Ruzena Bajcsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_H._B%C3%A1n%C3%A1thy" title="Béla H. Bánáthy">Béla H. Bánáthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Stafford_Beer" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Stafford Beer">Anthony Stafford Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Bellman" title="Richard E. Bellman">Richard E. Bellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Boden" title="Margaret Boden">Margaret Boden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_E._Boulding" title="Kenneth E. Boulding">Kenneth E. Boulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bowen" title="Murray Bowen">Murray Bowen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Carley" title="Kathleen Carley">Kathleen Carley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cartwright" title="Mary Cartwright">Mary Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._West_Churchman" title="C. West Churchman">C. West Churchman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Clynes" title="Manfred Clynes">Manfred Clynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Emery" title="Fred Emery">Fred Emery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Forrest" title="Stephanie Forrest">Stephanie Forrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_J._Grosz" title="Barbara J. Grosz">Barbara Grosz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._S._Hall" title="Charles A. S. Hall">Charles A. S. Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Jackson_(systems_scientist)" title="Mike Jackson (systems scientist)">Mike Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Kavraki" title="Lydia Kavraki">Lydia Kavraki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_J._Kay" title="James J. Kay">James J. Kay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faina_Mihajlovna_Kirillova" class="mw-redirect" title="Faina Mihajlovna Kirillova">Faina M. Kirillova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Klir" title="George Klir">George Klir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allenna_Leonard" title="Allenna Leonard">Allenna Leonard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Norton_Lorenz" title="Edward Norton Lorenz">Edward Norton Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donella_Meadows" title="Donella Meadows">Donella Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihajlo_D._Mesarovic" title="Mihajlo D. Mesarovic">Mihajlo D. Mesarovic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Grier_Miller" title="James Grier Miller">James Grier Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radhika_Nagpal" title="Radhika Nagpal">Radhika Nagpal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_T._Odum" title="Howard T. Odum">Howard T. Odum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatol_Rapoport" title="Anatol Rapoport">Anatol Rapoport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Seddon" title="John Seddon">John Seddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Senge" title="Peter Senge">Peter Senge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katia_Sycara" title="Katia Sycara">Katia Sycara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Trist" title="Eric Trist">Eric Trist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuela_M._Veloso" title="Manuela M. Veloso">Manuela M. Veloso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Wilby" title="Jennifer Wilby">Jennifer Wilby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wilden" title="Anthony Wilden">Anthony Wilden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory in anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_archaeology" title="Systems theory in archaeology">Systems theory in archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_political_science" title="Systems theory in political science">Systems theory in political science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_sciences_organizations" title="List of systems sciences organizations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Cybernetica" title="Principia Cybernetica">Principia Cybernetica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" 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