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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smaller_buildings_and_infrastructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smaller_buildings_and_infrastructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Smaller buildings and infrastructure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smaller_buildings_and_infrastructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tombs_and_burials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tombs_and_burials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Tombs and burials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tombs_and_burials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artifacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artifacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> 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.geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Erlitou&params=34_41_33_N_112_41_24_E_type:landmark"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">34°41′33″N</span> <span class="longitude">112°41′24″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">34.69250°N 112.69000°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">34.69250; 112.69000</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Archaeological site in Henan, China</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Erlitou</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div class="nickname" lang="zh">二里頭</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:20240815_Erlitou_Site_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An aerial view of an archaeological site amidst grassy plains near a town. In the distance, a city with high-rise apartments and a power plant looms." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/20240815_Erlitou_Site_05.jpg/220px-20240815_Erlitou_Site_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/20240815_Erlitou_Site_05.jpg/330px-20240815_Erlitou_Site_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/20240815_Erlitou_Site_05.jpg/440px-20240815_Erlitou_Site_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Aerial view, 2024</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="switcher-container"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Henan_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Erlitou is located in Henan"><img alt="Erlitou is located in Henan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/China_Henan_location_map.svg/250px-China_Henan_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/China_Henan_location_map.svg/375px-China_Henan_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/China_Henan_location_map.svg/500px-China_Henan_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1125" data-file-height="1096" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:36.683%;left:38.125%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Erlitou"><img alt="Erlitou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Location within <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a></div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Henan</span></div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738" /><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China_edcp_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Erlitou is located in China"><img alt="Erlitou is located in China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/China_edcp_location_map.svg/250px-China_edcp_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/China_edcp_location_map.svg/375px-China_edcp_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/China_edcp_location_map.svg/500px-China_edcp_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="408" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:56.415%;left:64.472%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Erlitou"><img alt="Erlitou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Erlitou (China)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of China</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container center" style="width: 270px; height: 200px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="270" data-height="200" data-zoom="10" data-lat="34.6925" data-lon="112.69" data-overlays="["_9f575a1850df997df00369e3b4c78005fd0346ff"]" href="/wiki/Special:Map/10/34.6925/112.69/en"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,10,34.6925,112.69,270x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Erlitou&revid=1281998596&groups=_9f575a1850df997df00369e3b4c78005fd0346ff" width="270" height="200" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,10,34.6925,112.69,270x200@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Erlitou&revid=1281998596&groups=_9f575a1850df997df00369e3b4c78005fd0346ff 2x" alt="Map" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label">South of Erlitou village, <a href="/wiki/Yanshi,_Luoyang" title="Yanshi, Luoyang">Yanshi, Luoyang</a>, Henan, China</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Erlitou&params=34_41_33_N_112_41_24_E_type:landmark"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">34°41′33″N</span> <span class="longitude">112°41′24″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">34.69250°N 112.69000°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">34.69250; 112.69000</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data category">Settlement</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Area</th><td class="infobox-data">300 ha (740 acres)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Founded</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>First period: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3500–3000 BCE</span></li> <li>Second period: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1870 BCE</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Abandoned</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>First period: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2600 BCE</span></li> <li>Second period: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300 BCE</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cultures</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yangshao_culture" title="Yangshao culture">Yangshao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshan_culture" title="Longshan culture">Longshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erlitou_culture" title="Erlitou culture">Erlitou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erligang_culture" title="Erligang culture">Erligang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">Site notes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Discovered</th><td class="infobox-data">1959</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Erlitou</b> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">二里头</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Èrlǐtou</span></i>), also known as <b>Yanshi Erlitou</b>, is a Chinese archaeological site in the Yiluo Basin of <a href="/wiki/Yanshi,_Luoyang" title="Yanshi, Luoyang">Yanshi District</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>. Discovered by archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Xu_Xusheng" title="Xu Xusheng">Xu Xusheng</a> in 1959, it was initially identified as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bo_(Shang_capital)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bo (Shang capital) (page does not exist)">Bo</a>, the first capital of the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>, although Chinese archaeologists now generally recognize it as the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a>—although the existence of the dynasty is still debated by scholars. A major center of early <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age China">Bronze Age China</a>, it is the type site and largest settlement of the eponymous <a href="/wiki/Erlitou_culture" title="Erlitou culture">Erlitou culture</a>, although limited occupation has been found from the earlier <a href="/wiki/Yangshao_culture" title="Yangshao culture">Yangshao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longshan_culture" title="Longshan culture">Longshan</a> cultures and the later <a href="/wiki/Erligang_culture" title="Erligang culture">Erligang culture</a>. </p><p>The site was the paramount settlement of a polity which spread across the Yiluo Basin and adjacent portions of the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Song" title="Mount Song">Mount Song</a> region. The site lies south of the modern <a href="/wiki/Luo_River_(Henan)" title="Luo River (Henan)">Luo River</a>; however, during its period of occupation, the settlement was on the river's northern bank. An initial <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period of occupation, which saw several small settlements at the site, lasted from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3500</span>–2600 BCE. After several centuries of vacancy, a major settlement emerged around 1860 BCE, and soon became the largest settlement in the Yiluo Basin, likely attracting waves of migrants. At its peak, it reached a population of around 24,000 residents and an area of around 300 hectares (740 acres). Centered around a large palatial complex surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Rammed_earth" title="Rammed earth">rammed earth</a> walls, the city became a center of bronze casting, pioneering <a href="/w/index.php?title=Piece-mold_casting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Piece-mold casting (page does not exist)">piece-mold casting</a> and the production of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_bronzes" title="Chinese ritual bronzes">bronze ritual vessels</a>. Turquoise and jade goods were also produced at the site, including ritual artifacts such as ceremonial weapons and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Turquoise-inlaid_bronze_plaque&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Turquoise-inlaid bronze plaque (page does not exist)">turquoise-inlaid bronze plaques</a>. Outside of the palatial complex, the settlement consists largely of small semi-subterranean houses intermixed with haphazardly located graves and tombs, often underlying houses, courtyards, and roads. There are no formal areas set aside for burials, and tomb sites were used for only short intervals. The site contains the remains of the earliest known road network in China. A set of wagon tracks has been found on these roads, although it is unknown if the vehicle was drawn by humans or animals. </p><p>In the modern era, the site partially underlies three villages, which continue construction projects and development atop the site. Probing excavations are made by the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Archaeology,_Chinese_Academy_of_Social_Sciences" title="Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences">Institute of Archaeology</a> prior to development, although at times construction is done without archaeological involvement. The Chinese government declared Erlitou a <a href="/wiki/National_priority_protected_site" title="National priority protected site">national priority protected site</a> in 1988 and a <a href="/wiki/National_archaeological_park_of_China" title="National archaeological park of China">National Archaeological Park</a> in 2022. In 2019, the <a href="/wiki/Erlitou_Site_Museum_of_the_Xia_Capital" title="Erlitou Site Museum of the Xia Capital">Erlitou Site Museum of the Xia Capital</a> opened near the site, exhibiting over 2,000 artifacts. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erlitou_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A topographic map of China, showing the area occupied by the Erlitou culture in the north. A black square marks the Erlitou site" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Erlitou_map.svg/220px-Erlitou_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Erlitou_map.svg/330px-Erlitou_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Erlitou_map.svg/440px-Erlitou_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="920" data-file-height="1006" /></a><figcaption>Spread of the Erlitou culture in China, with the Erlitou site marked</figcaption></figure> <p>Erlitou (also known as Yanshi Erlitou)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllan2007463_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan2007463-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the <a href="/wiki/Type_site" title="Type site">type site</a> of the eponymous <a href="/wiki/Erlitou_culture" title="Erlitou culture">Erlitou culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1900</span>–1500 BCE) of ancient China—although a prior period of occupation dates to the earlier <a href="/wiki/Yangshao_culture" title="Yangshao culture">Yangshao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longshan_culture" title="Longshan culture">Longshan</a> cultures (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3500</span>–2600 BCE) of the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period. The Erlitou culture spans over five hundred sites<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> across portions of Henan, <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>; many of these have not been excavated, and have been identified with the culture through analysis of ceramic <a href="/wiki/Sherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherd">sherd</a> finds. The Yiluo Basin and adjacent portions of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Song" title="Mount Song">Mount Song</a> are the core territory of the culture,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013301_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013301-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200633_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp200633-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and likely hosted a <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polity</a> centered at Erlitou itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013301–302_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013301–302-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Yiluo Basin is an <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_plain" title="Alluvial plain">alluvial plain</a> flanked by the Mangling hills to the north and mountain ranges on all other sides, forming natural defensive barriers. Combined with the highly fertile soils of the basin, this allowed for a high population density.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2009165_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2009165-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2018184–185_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2018184–185-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the time of the Erlitou culture, other settlements emerged in the basin. To the east of Erlitou, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shaochai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shaochai (page does not exist)">Shaochai</a> was the second largest settlement in the basin, and may have been a regional center which supported Erlitou through its advantageous position along the route to the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201875-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013301_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013301-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further east, sites such <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dashigu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dashigu (page does not exist)">Dashigu</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q107178197#sitelinks-wikipedia" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q107178197"><span title="Wikidata list: "Dashigu" articles in other languages">Wikidata</span></a>]</span> may have been associated with the Erlitou or served as the centers of other neighboring polities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013301–302_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013301–302-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese archaeologists generally divide the settlement sites of the Erlitou culture into four tiers: small villages, secondary centers, regional centers, and the Erlitou site itself in the highest tier.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013302_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013302-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014330_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014330-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Erlitou is much larger than other sites of the culture, at around 3,000,000 square metres (740 acres); in comparison, most settlements of the culture are less than 100,000 square metres (25 acres), while particularly large sites such as Shaochai and Dashigu measure at around 600,000 square metres (150 acres).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuLi2021177–179_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuLi2021177–179-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most other Erlitou sites are located along the central reaches of the Yellow River, while outlying sites with some similarities with the Erlitou have been found along the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dan_River_(China)" title="Dan River (China)">Dan River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200633_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp200633-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it is not the earliest culture within China which made use of <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, it is the first within the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a>, and is generally considered to mark the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Bronze Age">Chinese Bronze Age</a>. The Erlitou people were the creators of the first <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_bronzes" title="Chinese ritual bronzes">ritual bronzes</a> in China through compound molds, an artistic tradition which would remain extremely prominent within the political and religious culture of the Central Plains into the late first millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell201420–21_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell201420–21-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Erlitou is located in <a href="/wiki/Yanshi,_Luoyang" title="Yanshi, Luoyang">Yanshi District, Luoyang</a>, between three modern villages which partially or fully overlie the site; Erlitou to the north, Gedangtou to the southeast, and Sijiaolou to the south. Another village, Beixu, lies immediately adjacent to the northwestern end of the site.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200621_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp200621-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007887_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007887-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014344_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014344-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is adjacent to the <a href="/wiki/Luo_River_(Henan)" title="Luo River (Henan)">Luo River</a>, shortly upstream from its confluence with the <a href="/wiki/Yi_River_(Henan)" title="Yi River (Henan)">Yi</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/Yiluo_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiluo River">Yiluo</a>, which drains into the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> to the north. During its period of occupation, Erlitou was on the northern bank of the Luo. The river moved to the north of the site during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang Dynasty</a> (618–907 CE); portions of the site may have been destroyed during the river's change in course. Outside of the main settlement area, some scattered ruins associated with the site which have been found on the northern side of the Luo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2009165_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2009165-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200625_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp200625-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_periodization">History and periodization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History and periodization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the last portion (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3500</span>–3000 BCE) of the Yangshao culture, three small settlements existed at the site on its western, southern, and eastern extents. From about 3000–2600, during the early period of the Longshan culture, these were succeeded by another settlement at the southern end of the site. After this, the site was abandoned for many centuries, before it was reoccupied by the Erlitou culture,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200621_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp200621-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007888_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007888-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> beginning a primary period of occupation lasting from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1860</span>–1545.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllan2007475_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan2007475-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The history of the site as part of the Erlitou culture (a period of roughly 360 years) has been divided into four phases, numbered I through IV.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007887_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007887-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During Phase I, the Erlitou site exceed 100 hectares (250 acres) and became the largest known settlement in the Yiluo Basin. Its growth was likely fueled by migration from the surrounding region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2009169_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2009169-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The layout of the site during this period is uncertain, as the <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy_(archaeology)" title="Stratigraphy (archaeology)">stratum</a> was heavily disrupted by occupants in later periods. The population of the settlement engaged in both agriculture and artisanry. The production of bronze, ceramics and <a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">bone tools</a> were local industries, each apparently delegated to workshops in different portions of the site. Although slag from bronze casting was produced, knives are the only bronze objects found from this phase.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2009169_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2009169-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012266_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012266-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Erlitou greatly expanded during Phase II, reaching its maximum size of around 300 hectares (740 acres),<sup id="cite_ref-a_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-a-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and likely increasing greatly in population. The number of known burials and tools at the site tripled. While no houses or kilns have been discovered from Phase I, the remains of seven homes and one kiln are attested from Phase II. In the southeastern portion of the site, a palace complex of large <a href="/wiki/Rammed_earth" title="Rammed earth">rammed earth</a> buildings was constructed, enclosed by a set of four roads.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2009169–173_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2009169–173-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013306–307_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013306–307-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Production of bone tools, bronze, and ceramics continued, while <a href="/wiki/Turquoise" title="Turquoise">turquoise</a> production may have begun.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007888–889_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007888–889-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During Phase III, craft production and population density increased, and the city reached its peak population. The palace structures built in Phase II were superseded by six new structures built in a more organized pattern. The new palace complex, significantly larger in area, had significantly fewer storage pits and wells, indicating that the area was likely used by a small group of elites. Production of agricultural tools in the city decreased relative to the production of crafts and arrowheads, the latter of which increased tenfold from Phase II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012268_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012268-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Development continued during Phase IV, which saw several new buildings erected in the palatial complex. Bronze production increased in number and quantity during the phase.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007889–891_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007889–891-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Erlitou reached its peak, fortified settlements of the <a href="/wiki/Erligang_culture" title="Erligang culture">Erligang culture</a> began to emerge in the surrounding region. The city was eclipsed by the <a href="/wiki/Yanshi_Shang_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanshi Shang City">Yanshi Shang City</a>, a large fortified Erligang settlement about 6 km (3.7 mi) to the northeast. As estimates for Phase IV (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1560</span>–1520) overlap with the early subperiod (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span>–1415) of the Erligang, the production of traditional Erlitou-style pottery may have continued at Erlitou even after the beginning of Erligang pottery production at Yanshi. By the latter portion of the Erligang (ending around 1300), production of goods such as bronzes had ceased, and the settlement became a village around 30 hectares (74 acres) in area, centered on what was once the palace complex. The remains of small houses, ash pits, and burials are attested from this period. After the end of the Erligang culture, the settlement was abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013306–307_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013306–307-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012269–270_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012269–270-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During Erlitou's decline, the <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhou_Shang_City" title="Zhengzhou Shang City">Zhengzhou Shang City</a>, about 85 km (53 mi) to the east, also emerged as a prominent regional center. Zhengzhou's metallurgical technology shows similarities to Erlitou, suggesting that craftsmen from Erlitou may have migrated to the new city as Erlitou declined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012269–270_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012269–270-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exact estimates for the dates of the Erlitou culture at the site vary. Various <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> measures taken during the 20th century attested a date range of 1900–1500 BC for the Erlitou culture remains at the site, while <a href="/wiki/Accelerator_mass_spectrometry" title="Accelerator mass spectrometry">accelerator mass spectrometry</a> dates published for Erlitou culture remains at <a href="/wiki/Xinzhai" title="Xinzhai">Xinzhai</a> and Erlitou in 2007 gave a range of 1750–1530.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012266_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012266-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Layout">Layout</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Layout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The site stretches around 2,400 m (7,900 ft) east-west and 1,900 m (6,200 ft) north-south, with an area of around 300 hectares (740 acres);<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013306_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013306-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including northern portions destroyed by the movement of the Luo, the settlement may have totaled around 400 hectares (990 acres) in area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201875-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its maximum population is not known. One study estimated that the site had between 18,000 and 30,000 residents, with a mean around 24,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palatial_complex">Palatial complex</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Palatial complex"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The palatial complex, near the center of the site, was an enclosed rectangular area at least 12 hectares (30 acres) in area at its peak. It formed the original core of the city prior to expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The purpose of the palatial complex (<span lang="zh">宫城</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">gongcheng</span></i>), also referred to as a palace complex or palace city, remains a matter of academic contention. The purposes of the site may have changed over time. In 1991, historian Robert Thorp critiqued the complex's identification as a palace, theorizing that the structures were likely gathering or ritual spaces, as large audiences could congregate within their courtyards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014330_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014330-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell201425–27_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell201425–27-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp199116_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp199116-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The complex was divided into two clusters of buildings on the western and eastern ends of the enclosure. On the western end was a structure referred to by archaeologists as Foundation 1, an irregularly-shaped rammed-earth platform built during Phase III which measures 107 m × 99 m (351 ft × 325 ft), with a total area of around 1 hectare (2.5 acres). A series of covered corridors enclosed this platform, creating a courtyard for a wooden building on the northern end. One 1979 study estimated that the foundation would have taken 200,000 <a href="/wiki/Man-hour" title="Man-hour">person-days</a> to construct, not including the management and the logistics required for such a large project.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013312_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013312-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The eastern portion of the complex contains the remains of multiple structural foundations. Foundation 3 measures more than 150 m × 50 m (490 ft × 160 ft), and contains three courtyards. It was built during Phase II, predating the surrounding wall. A 3 m (9.8 ft) passageway containing a wooden drainage ditch separates it from another early structure. During Phase III, two more structures were built atop these layers. One of these, Foundation 2, is a large rectangular platform, measuring 73 m × 53 m (240 ft × 174 ft) and 3 m (9.8 ft) in depth. On top of the platform laid an enclosed courtyard containing a wood and <a href="/wiki/Wattle-and-daub" class="mw-redirect" title="Wattle-and-daub">wattle-and-daub</a> structure on the northern end. Another foundation was built on the site during Phase IV.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013309–311_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013309–311-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeologist Xu Hong proposed that the layout of the structures shares intense similarities with descriptions of <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> architecture, and evidences continuity between Erlitou and Zhou ritual practice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013309–311_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013309–311-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Large rammed-earth walls, about 2 m (6.6 ft) thick, were built around the palatial complex and an adjacent cluster of turquoise and bronze workshops to the south. The enclosure of the workshops, roughly 1 ha (2.5 acres) in area, likely indicates that they received state support. The city lacks an outer wall; similar urban plans, with a walled palace surrounded by an unwalled city, would remain common for the following millennium.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013313_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013313-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smaller_buildings_and_infrastructure">Smaller buildings and infrastructure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Smaller buildings and infrastructure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Elite tombs and residences are located immediately adjacent to the palatial complex. The residences and tombs of commoners are located at a lower elevation in the western part of the site; these areas also include tombs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The residences of commoners are very small semi-subterranean structures ranging from 3–5 m<sup>2</sup> (32–54 sq ft). Medium-sized buildings, generally to the north of the palatial complex, vary between tens to hundreds of square meters in size. They are generally one-roomed, although some have multiple. They are thought to be either residences or areas for meetings and ritual offerings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013312_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013312-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuLi2021182_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuLi2021182-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the north of the palatial area is an apparent ceremonial complex, evidenced by uniquely designed buildings with detached burials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Large roads, generally between 10–20 m (33–66 ft) wide, flank each side of the palatial complex with intersections at each corner, forming a shape resembling a <a href="/wiki/Number_sign" title="Number sign">number sign</a> (#). This is the earliest known urban road network in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013306–307_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013306–307-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A set of parallel wagon tracks spaced about 1 m (3 ft) apart were found on the road at the southern end of the palatial complex. This is the earliest known evidence of <a href="/wiki/Wagon" title="Wagon">wagon</a> use in China. It is unknown if the vehicle was pulled by humans or animals. The width between suggests a much smaller vehicle than the horse-drawn chariots of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a>, currently the earliest confirmed evidence of domesticated horses in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007889_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007889-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013308_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013308-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tombs_and_burials">Tombs and burials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tombs and burials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>More than 400 graves have been discovered during excavations at the site. In contrast to the cemeteries of Neolithic and Late Shang settlements, there are no formal areas set aside for burials. Tombs are located haphazardly, adjacent to or directly underlying houses, courtyards, and roads. These tombs are generally found by themselves or in small clusters arranged in rows. Land use appears to have frequently alternated between tombs and houses, and so tomb sites were likely used for relatively short intervals. Archaeologists such as <a href="/wiki/Liu_Li_(archaeologist)" title="Liu Li (archaeologist)">Liu Li</a> have theorized that this sharp distinction from other Chinese mortuary traditions stems from Erlitou's demographic composition of migrants from many unrelated small kin groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013314_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013314-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007893_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007893-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270–271_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270–271-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two particularly dense assemblages of elite tombs are located to the north and northeast of the complex.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ceramic vessels are the most common grave goods found at Erlitou, although in the tombs of elites, bronze ritual vessels, turquoise, and jade have also been found. Most graves are small and shallow, with little to no grave goods, although some contain a secondary ledge within the grave and a coffin. The largest tomb at the site is 5.2 by 4.5 metres (17 ft × 15 ft) and 6 metres (20 ft) deep, with the remains of a wooden coffin. The ornamentation of the tomb is unknown, as it was looted in antiquity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014346–347_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014346–347-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013314_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013314-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About ten of the largest graves have traces of wooden coffins with <a href="/wiki/Cinnabar" title="Cinnabar">cinnabar</a> dye, which likely had ritual significance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013314_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013314-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some graves have been found without proper burial whatsoever, whether found within a suspected sacrificial area or disposed in pits. Some of these skeletons are incomplete, while others show evidence of bound hands and feet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013314_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013314-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Artifacts">Artifacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Artifacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:165px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%B5%8C%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%93%9C%E7%89%8C%E9%A5%B0%EF%BC%8881YLVM4%EF%BC%89,_2024-06-22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photo of a bronze plaque in a museum inlaid with an animistic turquoise design" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%E5%B5%8C%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%93%9C%E7%89%8C%E9%A5%B0%EF%BC%8881YLVM4%EF%BC%89%2C_2024-06-22.jpg/110px-%E5%B5%8C%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%93%9C%E7%89%8C%E9%A5%B0%EF%BC%8881YLVM4%EF%BC%89%2C_2024-06-22.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%E5%B5%8C%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%93%9C%E7%89%8C%E9%A5%B0%EF%BC%8881YLVM4%EF%BC%89%2C_2024-06-22.jpg/165px-%E5%B5%8C%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%93%9C%E7%89%8C%E9%A5%B0%EF%BC%8881YLVM4%EF%BC%89%2C_2024-06-22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%E5%B5%8C%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%93%9C%E7%89%8C%E9%A5%B0%EF%BC%8881YLVM4%EF%BC%89%2C_2024-06-22.jpg/220px-%E5%B5%8C%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%93%9C%E7%89%8C%E9%A5%B0%EF%BC%8881YLVM4%EF%BC%89%2C_2024-06-22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A <a href="/w/index.php?title=Turquoise-inlaid_bronze_plaque&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Turquoise-inlaid bronze plaque (page does not exist)">turquoise-inlaid bronze plaque</a> recovered from Erlitou</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:176px;max-width:176px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:165px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%9D%92%E9%93%9C%E7%88%B508792.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A thin bronze drinking vessel standing on a museum display stand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/%E9%9D%92%E9%93%9C%E7%88%B508792.jpg/174px-%E9%9D%92%E9%93%9C%E7%88%B508792.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/%E9%9D%92%E9%93%9C%E7%88%B508792.jpg/261px-%E9%9D%92%E9%93%9C%E7%88%B508792.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/%E9%9D%92%E9%93%9C%E7%88%B508792.jpg/348px-%E9%9D%92%E9%93%9C%E7%88%B508792.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5005" data-file-height="4755" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A <i><span lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Jue_(vessel)" title="Jue (vessel)">jue</a></span></i>, a form of ritual bronze vessel, recovered from Erlitou</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Although it may not have been the earliest culture in China to cast bronze and copper—the <a href="/wiki/Qijia_culture" title="Qijia culture">Qijia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siba_culture" title="Siba culture">Huoshaogou cultures</a> did so roughly contemporaneously—Erlitou was the first site confirmed to produce bronze ritual vessels. This practice may have originated in late Longshan sites; a slightly rounded copper fragment from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wangchenggang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wangchenggang (page does not exist)">Wangchenggang</a> site in <a href="/wiki/Dengfeng" title="Dengfeng">Dengfeng</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> may have been part of a ritual vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllan2007473–475_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan2007473–475-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bronze ritual vessels were produced at Erlitou by Phase III.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007891_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007891-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seventeen have been found at the site. The most common of these are small drinking cups, <i><span lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Jia_(vessel)" title="Jia (vessel)">jia</a></span></i> and <i><span lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Jue_(vessel)" title="Jue (vessel)">jue</a></span></i>, although a <a href="/w/index.php?title=He_(vessel)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="He (vessel) (page does not exist)"><i>he</i></a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%89" class="extiw" title="zh:盉">zh</a>]</span> and a <i><span lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ding_(vessel)" title="Ding (vessel)">ding</a></span></i> have also been recovered from the site.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014347_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014347-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Associated with powerful elites and religious power, they are found in elite burials and residential areas. The Erlitou site appears to have monopolized both the production and distribution of the Erlitou culture's ritual vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012268_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012268-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007891_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007891-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012271–272_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012271–272-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animal bones, especially those of pigs and cattle, have been recovered from the site. About one-fifth of these are burnt, evidencing that meat was frequently roasted, possibly in <i><span lang="zh-Latn">ding</span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013316_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013316-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%BE%99%E5%BD%A2%E5%99%A88.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The head of a large turquoise and jade sculpture of a dragon embedded within a block of earth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%BE%99%E5%BD%A2%E5%99%A88.jpg/250px-%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%BE%99%E5%BD%A2%E5%99%A88.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%BE%99%E5%BD%A2%E5%99%A88.jpg/330px-%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%BE%99%E5%BD%A2%E5%99%A88.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%BE%99%E5%BD%A2%E5%99%A88.jpg/500px-%E7%BB%BF%E6%9D%BE%E7%9F%B3%E9%BE%99%E5%BD%A2%E5%99%A88.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7593" data-file-height="5113" /></a><figcaption>The head of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Turquoise_dragon-form_artifact&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Turquoise dragon-form artifact (page does not exist)">turquoise dragon-form artifact</a> recovered from Erlitou</figcaption></figure> <p>Turquoise fragments have been found concentrated along a suspected workshop at the southern portion of the palatial complex wall. Characteristic <a href="/w/index.php?title=Turquoise-inlaid_bronze_plaque&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Turquoise-inlaid bronze plaque (page does not exist)">turquoise-inlaid bronze plaques</a> have been found in elite burials from Phase III onward. One particularly large artifact recovered from the site, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Turquoise_dragon-form_artifact&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Turquoise dragon-form artifact (page does not exist)">a dragon sculpture</a> composed of 2,000 pieces of turquoise and jade, has been found as a grave good.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014347_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014347-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large jade objects such as daggers, axes, tablets, and <a href="/wiki/Dagger-axe" title="Dagger-axe">dagger-axes</a>, as well as ceremonial bronze weapons such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yue_(axe)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yue (axe) (page does not exist)">yue</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%92%BA" class="extiw" title="zh:钺">zh</a>]</span> axes have also been recovered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013314–316_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013314–316-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alongside copper and lead, metal objects recovered from Erlitou were also fashioned out of tin-copper, lead-copper, tin-lead-copper, and arsenic-copper alloys; tin-lead-copper is the most frequently attested of these alloys, although the exact proportions of each metal vary greatly between artifacts. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Piece-mold_casting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Piece-mold casting (page does not exist)">Piece-mold casting</a> was either invented or refined at Erlitou, a technology likely utilized by a select group of craftsmen affiliated with the Erlitou elite. The technique requires a high degree of technical mastery and thus likely indicates an advanced <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a> and a stratified and complex society. The casting technique allowed for the creation of the ritual vessels; this separated the culture from other Bronze Age cultures in the surrounding region, which rarely cast bronze objects for ritual purposes. Piece-mold casting is only attested at Erlitou, while other sites used stone molds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014347_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014347-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012271–272_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012271–272-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest bronze-cast objects at Erlitou, made with the piece-mold technique, are <i><span lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ling_(bell)" title="Ling (bell)">ling</a></span></i> bells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013313_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013313-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These first appear in the archaeological record during Phase II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013313_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013313-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Metallurgical artifacts recovered from the workshop area include crucibles, <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a>, lead sheets, and charcoal. Abundant quantities of ceramic piece-molds have been found, generally external molds which were discarded after casting. Apparently used to produce vessels around 30 cm (12 in) in diameter, they have polished linings, which were sometimes decorated with patterns such as animal motifs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013313_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013313-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bronze tools such as adzes, chisels, and fishhooks have also been recovered from the site.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013313_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013313-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As it was located within a floodplain, the resources in the immediate vicinity of the city were largely restricted to agricultural products, necessitating imports from both the surrounding region and further afield. Prestige goods such as <a href="/wiki/Proto-celadon" title="Proto-celadon">proto-celadon</a> wares and jade artifacts were also commonly imported.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012272–273_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012272–273-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Excavation_and_analysis">Excavation and analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Excavation and analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20240815_Erlitou_Site_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A Chinese sign in a grassy park, marking the area as the Erlitou National Archaeological Site Park" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/20240815_Erlitou_Site_02.jpg/220px-20240815_Erlitou_Site_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/20240815_Erlitou_Site_02.jpg/330px-20240815_Erlitou_Site_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/20240815_Erlitou_Site_02.jpg/440px-20240815_Erlitou_Site_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Erlitou National Archaeology Park</figcaption></figure> <p>An archaeological team led by <a href="/wiki/Xu_Xusheng" title="Xu Xusheng">Xu Xusheng</a>, seeking to find the ruins of the legendary <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a>, discovered the Erlitou site in 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007894_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007894-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was recognized as a major advance in urban culture and development within China, although other prominent sites from the 3rd millennium BCE of a similar size to Erlitou have since been discovered elsewhere in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell201421–22_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell201421–22-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200636_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp200636-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The site has become an important case study for research into the early history of urbanization in China. Alongside excavations of residential areas and workshops, archaeologists have made broader regional surveys in the Yiluo basin to study settlement patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201871_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201871-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Identification">Identification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Identification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Xu Xusheng identified the Erlitou site with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bo_(Shang_capital)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bo (Shang capital) (page does not exist)">Bo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%B3" class="extiw" title="zh:亳">zh</a>]</span>, the capital founded by the first Shang king <a href="/wiki/Tang_of_Shang" title="Tang of Shang">Tang of Shang</a>, which some ancient texts placed at Yanshi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007894_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007894-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_Annals" title="Bamboo Annals">Bamboo Annals</a></i>, Bo was the capital for the reign of the first eight kings, before a rapid series of capital changes during the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Zhong_Ding" title="Zhong Ding">Zhong Ding</a> through <a href="/wiki/Pan_Geng" title="Pan Geng">Pan Geng</a>, who moved the capital to its final site of Yin. Unlike all previous capitals, the presence of written records has allowed Yin's identification with the <a href="/wiki/Yinxu" title="Yinxu">Yinxu</a> site at <a href="/wiki/Anyang" title="Anyang">Anyang</a>. The site of Bo, the other Shang capital to be occupied for a significant length of time, has been generally identified with one of three sites; Erlitou, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shixianggou&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shixianggou (page does not exist)">Shixianggou</a> (also in Yanshi District), or <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhou_Shang_City" title="Zhengzhou Shang City">Zhengzhou</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuber198846–47_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuber198846–47-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Erlitou's identification with Bo was the academic consensus in China until archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Zou_Heng" title="Zou Heng">Zou Heng</a> proposed in 1978 that it was actually the site of the Xia capital, while the newly discovered <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhou_Shang_City" title="Zhengzhou Shang City">Zhengzhou Shang City</a> was the historic Bo. This sparked academic debate among Chinese archaeologists on the identification of the site — Phases I through IV have all been identified with either dynasty by different scholars. Excavation teams at the site generally placed the site within the Xia-Shang transition, often identifying the rapid development which began in Phase III with the beginning of the Shang dynasty. The discovery of the Yanshi Shang City (founded contemporaneously with Phase IV) in the 1980s sparked another round of discourse; by the end of the 1990s, Chinese scholars generally identified Phases I through III with the Xia, and Phase IV with the early Shang. Proponents of this theory point to the abandonment of Foundation No. 1. Initially thought to have been abandoned during Phase IV, a 1999 Institute of Archaeology report reinterpreted some portions of the temple (which were previously placed within Phase III or thought of as undatable) as belonging to Phase III.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007894–895_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007894–895-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to historian <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>'s (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 145</span>–85 BCE) <i><span lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a></span></i>, the Xia dynasty was the first dynasty of Chinese history. Founded by <a href="/wiki/Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu the Great</a>, thirty kings of the dynasty ruled over a period of 400 years, before it was superseded by the Shang. The existence of the Xia dynasty remains a matter of historical debate. Chinese historians and archaeologists generally interpret later historical materials such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_Annals" title="Bamboo Annals">Bamboo Annals</a></i> and <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Shiji</span></i> as sufficient evidence for the dynasty's existence, especially as they recorded the list of Shang kings with relative accuracy. However, unlike the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">oracle bones</a> of the Shang, no contemporary writings exist to attest the Xia dynasty, and no Shang sources mention the Xia. The Xia may have been a group of people prior to the Shang recorded through the oral tradition, who were only later reinterpreted as a dynastic state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007897–898_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007897–898-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014328–329_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014328–329-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1996, the Chinese government commissioned the <a href="/wiki/Xia%E2%80%93Shang%E2%80%93Zhou_Chronology_Project" title="Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project">Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project</a>, attempting to standardize the chronology of the early Chinese dynasties. Relying on both historical texts and archaeological data, the project produced dates of 2070–1600 BCE for the Xia and 1600–1046 for the Shang.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014328–329_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014328–329-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conservation">Conservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20240815_Erlitou_Xia_Capital_Site_Museum_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An overhead view of a large museum in a grassy environment" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/20240815_Erlitou_Xia_Capital_Site_Museum_01.jpg/250px-20240815_Erlitou_Xia_Capital_Site_Museum_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/20240815_Erlitou_Xia_Capital_Site_Museum_01.jpg/330px-20240815_Erlitou_Xia_Capital_Site_Museum_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/20240815_Erlitou_Xia_Capital_Site_Museum_01.jpg/500px-20240815_Erlitou_Xia_Capital_Site_Museum_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Erlitou_Site_Museum_of_the_Xia_Capital" title="Erlitou Site Museum of the Xia Capital">Erlitou Site Museum of the Xia Capital</a></figcaption></figure><p>Past agricultural activities have removed some of the top levels of the ancient deposits at Erlitou.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007887_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007887-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Construction projects continue in the three overlying villages. Probing excavations are made by the Institute of Archaeology prior to development, although at times construction is done without archaeological involvement. Several bronze vessels from the site were removed from the site by construction workers during an unsanctioned dig; these were later recovered by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Security_(China)" title="Ministry of Public Security (China)">Ministry of Public Security</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200625–26_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp200625–26-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Culture_(China)" title="Ministry of Culture (China)">Ministry of Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_China" title="State Council of China">State Council</a> declared Erlitou a <a href="/wiki/National_priority_protected_site" title="National priority protected site">national priority protected site</a> in January 1988,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the <a href="/wiki/National_Cultural_Heritage_Administration" title="National Cultural Heritage Administration">National Cultural Heritage Administration</a> established a <a href="/wiki/National_archaeological_park_of_China" title="National archaeological park of China">National Archaeological Park</a> at the site in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 2019, the <a href="/wiki/Erlitou_Site_Museum_of_the_Xia_Capital" title="Erlitou Site Museum of the Xia Capital">Erlitou Site Museum of the Xia Capital</a> opened near the site. It exhibits over 2,000 artifacts, including 112 <a href="/w/index.php?title=First-class_national_cultural_relic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First-class national cultural relic (page does not exist)">first-class national cultural relics</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%80%E7%BA%A7%E6%96%87%E7%89%A9" class="extiw" title="zh:一级文物">zh</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Major_National_Historical_and_Cultural_Sites_in_Henan" title="List of Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Henan">List of Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Henan</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Including northern portions destroyed by the movement of the Luo, it may have been around 400 ha (990 acres) in area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201875-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Only a portion of sites associated with the Erlitou culture have been excavated. In 2013, archaeologist Xu Hong estimated that over 100 of the 500 sites had been excavated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013301_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013301-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-a-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-a_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Including northern portions destroyed by the movement of the Luo, it may have been around 400 hectares (990 acres) in area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201875-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sometimes identified with <a href="/wiki/Yangcheng_(historical_city)" title="Yangcheng (historical city)">Yangcheng</a>, the first Xia capital<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllan2007473–475_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan2007473–475-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201875-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2018">Xu 2018</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan2007463-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllan2007463_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllan2007">Allan 2007</a>, p. 463.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013301-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013301_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013301_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013301_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2013">Xu 2013</a>, p. 301.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012262–264_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuChen2012">Liu & Chen 2012</a>, pp. 262–264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp200633-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200633_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200633_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThorp2006">Thorp 2006</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013301–302-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013301–302_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013301–302_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2013">Xu 2013</a>, pp. 301–302.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2009165-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2009165_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2009165_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiu2009">Liu 2009</a>, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2018184–185-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2018184–185_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2018">Li 2018</a>, pp. 184–185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013302-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013302_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2013">Xu 2013</a>, p. 302.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014330-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014330_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014330_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShelachJaffe2014">Shelach & Jaffe 2014</a>, p. 330.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuLi2021177–179-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuLi2021177–179_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXuLi2021">Xu & Li 2021</a>, pp. 177–179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell201420–21-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell201420–21_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCampbell2014">Campbell 2014</a>, pp. 20–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp200621-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200621_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200621_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThorp2006">Thorp 2006</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007887-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007887_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007887_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007887_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuXu2007">Liu & Xu 2007</a>, p. 887.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014344-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014344_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShelachJaffe2014">Shelach & Jaffe 2014</a>, p. 344.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp200625-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200625_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThorp2006">Thorp 2006</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007888-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007888_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuXu2007">Liu & Xu 2007</a>, p. 888.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan2007475-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllan2007475_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllan2007">Allan 2007</a>, p. 475.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2009169-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2009169_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2009169_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiu2009">Liu 2009</a>, p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012266-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012266_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012266_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuChen2012">Liu & Chen 2012</a>, p. 266.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2009169–173-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2009169–173_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiu2009">Liu 2009</a>, pp. 169–173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013306–307-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013306–307_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013306–307_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013306–307_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2013">Xu 2013</a>, pp. 306–307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007888–889-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007888–889_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuXu2007">Liu & Xu 2007</a>, pp. 888–889.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012268-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012268_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012268_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuChen2012">Liu & Chen 2012</a>, p. 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007889–891-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007889–891_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuXu2007">Liu & Xu 2007</a>, pp. 889–891.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012269–270-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012269–270_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012269–270_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuChen2012">Liu & Chen 2012</a>, pp. 269–270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013306-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013306_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2013">Xu 2013</a>, p. 306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuChen2012">Liu & Chen 2012</a>, p. 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201875–77_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2018">Xu 2018</a>, pp. 75–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell201425–27-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell201425–27_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCampbell2014">Campbell 2014</a>, pp. 25–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp199116-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp199116_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThorp1991">Thorp 1991</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013312-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013312_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013312_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2013">Xu 2013</a>, p. 312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013309–311-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013309–311_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013309–311_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2013">Xu 2013</a>, pp. 309–311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013313-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013313_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013313_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013313_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013313_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013313_37-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2013">Xu 2013</a>, p. 313.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuLi2021182-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuLi2021182_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXuLi2021">Xu & Li 2021</a>, p. 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007889-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007889_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuXu2007">Liu & Xu 2007</a>, p. 889.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013308-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013308_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2013">Xu 2013</a>, p. 308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2013314-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013314_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013314_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013314_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu2013314_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2013">Xu 2013</a>, p. 314.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007893-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007893_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuXu2007">Liu & Xu 2007</a>, p. 893.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270–271-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012270–271_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuChen2012">Liu & Chen 2012</a>, pp. 270–271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014346–347-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014346–347_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShelachJaffe2014">Shelach & Jaffe 2014</a>, pp. 346–347.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan2007473–475-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllan2007473–475_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllan2007473–475_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllan2007">Allan 2007</a>, pp. 473–475.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007891-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007891_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007891_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuXu2007">Liu & Xu 2007</a>, p. 891.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014347-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014347_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014347_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShelachJaffe2014347_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012272–273_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuChen2012">Liu & Chen 2012</a>, pp. 272–273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007894-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007894_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007894_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuXu2007">Liu & Xu 2007</a>, p. 894.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell201421–22-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell201421–22_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCampbell2014">Campbell 2014</a>, pp. 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorp200636-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorp200636_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThorp2006">Thorp 2006</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201871-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu201871_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2018">Xu 2018</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuber198846–47-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuber198846–47_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuber1988">Huber 1988</a>, pp. 46–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007894–895-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007894–895_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuXu2007">Liu & Xu 2007</a>, pp. 894–895.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007897–898-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuXu2007897–898_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuXu2007">Liu & Xu 2007</a>, pp. 897–898.</span> </li> <li 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"Erlitou and the Formation of Chinese Civilization: Toward a New Paradigm". <i>Journal of Asian Studies</i>. <b>66</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">461–</span>496. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002191180700054X">10.1017/S002191180700054X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Erlitou+and+the+Formation+of+Chinese+Civilization%3A+Toward+a+New+Paradigm&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E461-%3C%2Fspan%3E496&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS002191180700054X&rft.aulast=Allan&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2014" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Roderick B. 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"Urbanization in China: Erlitou and Its Hinterland". 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"The Earliest States in China: A Long-Term Trajectory Approach". <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>. <b>22</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">327–</span>364. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-014-9074-8">10.1007/s10814-014-9074-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Research&rft.atitle=The+Earliest+States+in+China%3A+A+Long-Term+Trajectory+Approach&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E327-%3C%2Fspan%3E364&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10814-014-9074-8&rft.aulast=Shelach&rft.aufirst=Gideon&rft.au=Jaffe%2C+Yitzhak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThorp1991" class="citation journal cs1">Thorp, Robert L. (1991). "Erlitou and the Search for the Xia". <i>Early China</i>. <b>16</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0362502800003825">10.1017/S0362502800003825</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23351500">23351500</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+China&rft.atitle=Erlitou+and+the+Search+for+the+Xia&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0362502800003825&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23351500%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Thorp&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThorp2006" class="citation book cs1">Thorp, Robert L. (2006). <i>China in the Early Bronze Age: Shang Civilization</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812203615" title="Special:BookSources/9780812203615"><bdi>9780812203615</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt3fhxmw">j.ctt3fhxmw</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+in+the+Early+Bronze+Age%3A+Shang+Civilization&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt3fhxmw%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=9780812203615&rft.aulast=Thorp&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFXu2013" class="citation book cs1">Xu, Hong (2013). "The Erlitou Culture". In Underhill, Anne P. (ed.). <i>A Companion to Chinese Archaeology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">300–</span>322. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118325698">10.1002/9781118325698</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444335293" title="Special:BookSources/9781444335293"><bdi>9781444335293</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Erlitou+Culture&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Chinese+Archaeology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E300-%3C%2Fspan%3E322&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118325698&rft.isbn=9781444335293&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Hong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFXu2018" class="citation journal cs1">Xu, Hong (2018). "Erlitou: The Origin of the Tradition of Non-Fortified Primary Capitals in Early China". <i>Archaeological Research in Asia</i>. <b>14</b>: <span class="nowrap">71–</span>79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ara.2017.11.003">10.1016/j.ara.2017.11.003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeological+Research+in+Asia&rft.atitle=Erlitou%3A+The+Origin+of+the+Tradition+of+Non-Fortified+Primary+Capitals+in+Early+China&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E71-%3C%2Fspan%3E79&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ara.2017.11.003&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Hong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">Childs-Johnson, Elizabeth, ed. (2021). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Early China</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199328369.001.0001">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199328369.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199328369" title="Special:BookSources/9780199328369"><bdi>9780199328369</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Early+China&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199328369.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780199328369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite class="citation wikicite" id="CITEREFXu2021">Xu, Hong. "Introduction: Definitions, Themes, and Debate". 161–175. </cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562" /><cite class="citation wikicite" id="CITEREFXuLi2021">Xu, Hong; Li, Xiang. "Settlements, Buildings, and Society of the Erlitou Culture". 176–189. </cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562" /><cite class="citation wikicite" id="CITEREFXuLiu2021">Xu, Hong; Liu, Yu. "The Bronze-Casting Revolution and the Ritual Vessel Set". 190–201. </cite></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHan2024" class="citation book cs1">Han, Jianye (2024). <i>The Making of the Chinese Civilization</i>. Translated by Liu, Zequan; Hou, Jian; Mei, Bing; Qiu, Siping. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-99-4213-8">10.1007/978-981-99-4213-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789819942121" title="Special:BookSources/9789819942121"><bdi>9789819942121</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-981-99-4213-8&rft.isbn=9789819942121&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=Jianye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKessler1989" class="citation thesis cs1">Kessler, Adam Theodore (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/303681118"><i>The Erlitou Site: Evidence for the Contemporaneity of Late Xia and Early Shang Dynastic Kings</i></a> (PhD thesis). <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Los_Angeles" class="mw-redirect" title="University of California Los Angeles">University of California Los Angeles</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/303681118">303681118</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Erlitou+Site%3A+Evidence+for+the+Contemporaneity+of+Late+Xia+and+Early+Shang+Dynastic+Kings&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+California+Los+Angeles&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Adam+Theodore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F303681118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJaang2022" class="citation journal cs1">Jaang, Li (2022). "Erlitou: The Making of a Secondary State and a New Sociopolitical Order in Early Bronze Age China". <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>. <b>31</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">209–</span>262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-022-09173-9">10.1007/s10814-022-09173-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Research&rft.atitle=Erlitou%3A+The+Making+of+a+Secondary+State+and+a+New+Sociopolitical+Order+in+Early+Bronze+Age+China&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E209-%3C%2Fspan%3E262&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10814-022-09173-9&rft.aulast=Jaang&rft.aufirst=Li&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFXieDaudjeeLeeSebillaud2020" class="citation journal cs1">Xie, Liye; Daudjee, Zahid; Lee, Chen Fu; Sebillaud, Pauline (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.science/hal-03086083/file/2020%20Xie_et_al.%20Settlement%20Relocation%2C%20Urban%20Construction%20pour%20Hal.pdf">"Settlement Relocation, Urban Construction, and Social Transformation in China's Central Plain, 2300–1500 B.C."</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Asian Perspectives</i>. <b>59</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">299–</span>329. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fasi.2020.0016">10.1353/asi.2020.0016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Settlement+Relocation%2C+Urban+Construction%2C+and+Social+Transformation+in+China%27s+Central+Plain%2C+2300%E2%80%931500+B.C.&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E299-%3C%2Fspan%3E329&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fasi.2020.0016&rft.aulast=Xie&rft.aufirst=Liye&rft.au=Daudjee%2C+Zahid&rft.au=Lee%2C+Chen+Fu&rft.au=Sebillaud%2C+Pauline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.science%2Fhal-03086083%2Ffile%2F2020%2520Xie_et_al.%2520Settlement%2520Relocation%252C%2520Urban%2520Construction%2520pour%2520Hal.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFXuChenZhao2005" class="citation journal cs1">Xu, Hong; Chen, Guoliang; Zhao, Haitao (2005). "A Preliminary Investigation of the Settlement Pattern of the Erlitou Site". <i>Chinese Archaeology</i>. <b>5</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">13–</span>18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2FCHAR.2005.5.1.13">10.1515/CHAR.2005.5.1.13</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Archaeology&rft.atitle=A+Preliminary+Investigation+of+the+Settlement+Pattern+of+the+Erlitou+Site&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2FCHAR.2005.5.1.13&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Hong&rft.au=Chen%2C+Guoliang&rft.au=Zhao%2C+Haitao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Xu, Hong, ed. (2014). <i>夏商都邑与文化：纪念二里头遗址发现55周年学术研讨会论文集</i> [<i>Capitals and Cultures of the Xia and Shang Dynasties: Proceedings of the Academic Symposium to Commemorate the 55th Anniversary of the Discovery of the Erlitou Site</i>] (in Chinese). <a href="/wiki/China_Social_Sciences_Press" title="China Social Sciences Press">China Social Sciences Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787516149553" title="Special:BookSources/9787516149553"><bdi>9787516149553</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%A4%8F%E5%95%86%E9%83%BD%E9%82%91%E4%B8%8E%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%EF%BC%9A%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E4%BA%8C%E9%87%8C%E5%A4%B4%E9%81%97%E5%9D%80%E5%8F%91%E7%8E%B055%E5%91%A8%E5%B9%B4%E5%AD%A6%E6%9C%AF%E7%A0%94%E8%AE%A8%E4%BC%9A%E8%AE%BA%E6%96%87%E9%9B%86&rft.pub=China+Social+Sciences+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9787516149553&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZhangPollardRawsonHuan2019" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Chi; Pollard, A. Mark; Rawson, Jessica; Huan, Limin; Liu, Ruiliang; Tang, Xiaojia (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:e40fe0dd-beca-457b-99dc-632688aa38be">"China's Major Late Neolithic Centres and the Rise of Erlitou"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Antiquity_(journal)" title="Antiquity (journal)">Antiquity</a></i>. <b>93</b> (369): <span class="nowrap">588–</span>603. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2019.63">10.15184/aqy.2019.63</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=China%27s+Major+Late+Neolithic+Centres+and+the+Rise+of+Erlitou&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=369&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E588-%3C%2Fspan%3E603&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15184%2Faqy.2019.63&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Chi&rft.au=Pollard%2C+A.+Mark&rft.au=Rawson%2C+Jessica&rft.au=Huan%2C+Limin&rft.au=Liu%2C+Ruiliang&rft.au=Tang%2C+Xiaojia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fora.ox.ac.uk%2Fobjects%2Fuuid%3Ae40fe0dd-beca-457b-99dc-632688aa38be&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZhangZhangXiaXu2019" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Junna; Zhang, Xiaohu; Xia, Zhengkai; Xu, Hong; Zhao, Haitao (2019). "Geomorphic Changes Along the Yiluo River Influenced the Emergence of the First Urban Center at the Erlitou Site, Central Plains of China". <i><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_International" title="Quaternary International">Quaternary International</a></i>. <b>521</b>: <span class="nowrap">90–</span>103. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019QuInt.521...90Z">2019QuInt.521...90Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quaint.2019.06.038">10.1016/j.quaint.2019.06.038</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaternary+International&rft.atitle=Geomorphic+Changes+Along+the+Yiluo+River+Influenced+the+Emergence+of+the+First+Urban+Center+at+the+Erlitou+Site%2C+Central+Plains+of+China&rft.volume=521&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E90-%3C%2Fspan%3E103&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.quaint.2019.06.038&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019QuInt.521...90Z&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Junna&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Xiaohu&rft.au=Xia%2C+Zhengkai&rft.au=Xu%2C+Hong&rft.au=Zhao%2C+Haitao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZhangQiuCaiXu2022" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Xuelian; Qiu, Shihua; Cai, Lianzhen; Xu, Hong; Zhang, Haitao; Chen, Guoliang (2022). "14C Dating of the Erlitou Site". <i><a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_(journal)" title="Radiocarbon (journal)">Radiocarbon</a></i>. <b>64</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">819–</span>832. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Radcb..64..819Z">2022Radcb..64..819Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FRDC.2021.72">10.1017/RDC.2021.72</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radiocarbon&rft.atitle=14C+Dating+of+the+Erlitou+Site&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E819-%3C%2Fspan%3E832&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FRDC.2021.72&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Radcb..64..819Z&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Xuelian&rft.au=Qiu%2C+Shihua&rft.au=Cai%2C+Lianzhen&rft.au=Xu%2C+Hong&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Haitao&rft.au=Chen%2C+Guoliang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZhao2021" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Haitao (2021). "New Insights into the Settlement Patterns of the Capital City at Erlitou". <i>Chinese Archaeology</i>. <b>21</b> (1). Translated by Gao, Yuting: <span class="nowrap">167–</span>172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fchar-2021-0012">10.1515/char-2021-0012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Archaeology&rft.atitle=New+Insights+into+the+Settlement+Patterns+of+the+Capital+City+at+Erlitou&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E167-%3C%2Fspan%3E172&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fchar-2021-0012&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Haitao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErlitou" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&oldid=1281998596">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erlitou&oldid=1281998596</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_sites_in_China" title="Category:Archaeological sites in China">Archaeological sites in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Luoyang" title="Category:History of Luoyang">History of Luoyang</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1959_archaeological_discoveries" title="Category:1959 archaeological discoveries">1959 archaeological discoveries</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bronze_Age_in_China" title="Category:Bronze Age in China">Bronze Age in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Xia_dynasty" title="Category:Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ruins_in_China" title="Category:Ruins in China">Ruins in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Shang_dynasty" title="Category:Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas" title="Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas">Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Chinese-language_sources_(zh)" title="Category:CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)">CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_March_2025" title="Category:Use dmy dates from March 2025">Use dmy dates from March 2025</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Infobox_mapframe_without_OSM_relation_ID_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata">Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coordinates_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Coordinates on Wikidata">Coordinates on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Chinese-language text">Articles containing Chinese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images" title="Category:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images">Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Kartographer_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Kartographer extension">Pages using the Kartographer extension</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 23 March 2025, at 18:48<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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