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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Definition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Definition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Definition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definitions_of_Kalām_in_chronological_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions_of_Kalām_in_chronological_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Definitions of Kalām in chronological order</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions_of_Kalām_in_chronological_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kalām_as_apologetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kalām_as_apologetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Kalām as apologetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kalām_as_apologetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kalām_as_the_science_of_religious_foundations_or_dogmas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kalām_as_the_science_of_religious_foundations_or_dogmas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Kalām as the science of religious foundations or dogmas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kalām_as_the_science_of_religious_foundations_or_dogmas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Linguistic</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Linguistic-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Linguistic subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Linguistic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theories_about_the_origin_of_the_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_about_the_origin_of_the_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Theories about the origin of the term</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_about_the_origin_of_the_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_question_of_origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_question_of_origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The question of origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_question_of_origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formative_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formative_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Formative years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formative_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_heyday_under_the_early_Abbasids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_heyday_under_the_early_Abbasids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>The heyday under the early Abbasids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_heyday_under_the_early_Abbasids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-10th_and_11th_centuries:_Spread_from_Iraq_to_the_east_and_west" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#10th_and_11th_centuries:_Spread_from_Iraq_to_the_east_and_west"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>10th and 11th centuries: Spread from Iraq to the east and west</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-10th_and_11th_centuries:_Spread_from_Iraq_to_the_east_and_west-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-classical_period_and_“conservatism”" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-classical_period_and_“conservatism”"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Post-classical period and “conservatism”</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-classical_period_and_“conservatism”-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_attempts_at_revival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_attempts_at_revival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Modern attempts at revival</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_attempts_at_revival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_an_Islamic_discipline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_an_Islamic_discipline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>As an Islamic discipline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_an_Islamic_discipline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Schools</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Schools-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Schools subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sunni_kalam_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sunni_kalam_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Sunni kalam schools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sunni_kalam_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shia_kalam_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shia_kalam_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Shia kalam schools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shia_kalam_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appendix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appendix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Appendix</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Appendix-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Appendix subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Appendix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.1.1</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kalam</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kal%C4%81m" title="Kalām – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kalām" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="علم الكلام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الكلام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calam" title="Calam – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Calam" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%99lam" title="Kəlam – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kəlam" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DA%AF%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="کلام بیلگی‌سی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="کلام بیلگی‌سی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE" title="কালাম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কালাম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%99%D0%BB%D3%99%D0%BC" title="Кәләм – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Кәләм" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kal%C4%81m" title="Kalām – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kalām" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%86%DE%A6%DE%8D%DE%A7%DE%89%DE%B0" title="ކަލާމް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ކަލާމް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="علم کلام – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علم کلام" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kal%C3%A2m" title="Kalâm – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Kalâm" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B4" title="Քալամ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քալամ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="इल्म अल-कलाम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इल्म अल-कलाम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_kalam" title="Ilmu kalam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu kalam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kal%C4%81m" title="Kalām – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Kalām" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%9D" title="כלאם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כלאם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Калам – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Калам" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelam" title="Kelam – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kelam" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kal%C3%A1m" title="Kalám – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kalám" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Келам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Келам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_kalam" title="Ilmu kalam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ilmu kalam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam_(islam)" title="Kalam (islam) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kalam (islam)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AB%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0" title="カラーム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="カラーム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalom" title="Kalom – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kalom" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cal%C3%A2m" title="Calâm – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Calâm" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam_(doctrin%C4%83)" title="Kalam (doctrină) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Kalam (doctrină)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Калам – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Калам" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%DA%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="علم ڪلام – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="علم ڪلام" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kal%C3%A1m" title="Kalám – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kalám" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%95%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="کەلام – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کەلام" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கலாம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கலாம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC" title="Кәлям – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Кәлям" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Калом – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Калом" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kel%C3%A2m" title="Kelâm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kelâm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Калам – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Калам" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="علم کلام – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="علم کلام" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D9%89%D9%84%D9%85%D9%89_%D9%83%DB%95%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="ئىلمى كەلام – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئىلمى كەلام" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelam" title="Kelam – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Kelam" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E6%95%99%E4%B9%89%E5%AD%A6" title="伊斯兰教义学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伊斯兰教义学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q280817#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/110px-Allah3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/165px-Allah3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/220px-Allah3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="313" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iman_(Islam)" title="Iman (Islam)">Beliefs</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Oneness</a> of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revealed Books</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Day of Resurrection</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Predestination</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Practices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Profession of Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Prayer</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Almsgiving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Fasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Pilgrimage</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Islamic_texts" title="List of Islamic texts">Texts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Foundations</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Sirah</a></i>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir"><i>Tafsir</i> (exegesis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah"><i>Aqidah</i> (creed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qisas_al-Anbiya" title="Qisas al-Anbiya"><i>Qisas al-Anbiya</i> ("Stories of the Prophets")</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathnawi" title="Mathnawi">Mathnawi</a> (Poems)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh"><i>Fiqh</i> (jurisprudence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia"><i>Sharia</i> (law)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Muhammad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahabah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Imamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">society</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Academics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_(circumcision)" title="Khitan (circumcision)">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_diaspora" title="Muslim diaspora">Diaspora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Islam" title="Education in Islam">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession_and_exorcism_in_Islam" title="Spirit possession and exorcism in Islam">Exorcism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">Proselytizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_Islam" title="Sexuality in Islam">Sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_people_and_Islam" title="LGBTQ people and Islam">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">Concubinage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Related topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_hadith" title="Criticism of hadith">Hadith</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_violence" title="Islam and violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_war" title="Islam and war">war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jihadism" title="Jihadism">Jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_jihadism" title="Salafi jihadism">Salafi jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deobandi_jihadism" title="Deobandi jihadism">Deobandi jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military laws</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Islam" title="Glossary of Islam">Glossary</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-top:0.1em;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.5em;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-right:0.2em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output 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If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.</li> <li>You <b>must</b> provide <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Copying_within_Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia:Copying within Wikipedia">copyright attribution</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Help:Edit_summary" title="Help:Edit summary">edit summary</a> accompanying your translation by providing an <a href="/wiki/Help:Interlanguage_links" title="Help:Interlanguage links">interlanguage link</a> to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is <code>Content in this edit is translated from the existing Arabic Wikipedia article at [[:ar:علم الكلام]]; see its history for attribution.</code></li> <li>You may also add the template <code>{{Translated|ar|علم الكلام}}</code> to the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Kalam" title="Talk:Kalam">talk page</a>.</li> <li>For more guidance, see <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Translation" title="Wikipedia:Translation">Wikipedia:Translation</a>.</li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Ilm al-kalam</b></i> <sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i><b>ilm al-lahut</b></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often shortened to <i><b>kalam</b></i>, is the scholastic, speculative, or rational study of Islamic theology (<i><a href="/wiki/Aqida" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqida">aqida</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Mutahhari-intro_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mutahhari-intro-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can also be defined as the science that studies the fundamental doctrines of Islamic faith (<i><a href="/wiki/Usul_al-din" class="mw-redirect" title="Usul al-din">usul al-din</a></i>), proving their validity, or refuting doubts regarding them.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kalām was born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> against the philosophical doubters.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidtke_2016_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidtke_2016-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A scholar of <i>kalam</i> is referred to as a <i><b>mutakallim</b></i> (plural <i><b>mutakallimun</b></i>), a role distinguished from those of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">jurists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After its first beginnings in the late <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad period</a>, the Kalām experienced its rise in the early <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> period, when the <a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">Caliph al-Mahdi</a> commissioned Mutakallimūn to write books against the followers of Iranian religions, and the <a href="/wiki/Barmakids" title="Barmakids">Barmakid</a> vizier <a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Khalid" title="Yahya ibn Khalid">Yahya ibn Khalid</a> held Kalām discussions with members of various religions and confessional groups in his house. Until the 10th century, the <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Muʿtazilites</a> were considered the real "masters of the Kalām". Later, two important <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> Kalām schools emerged: the <a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ashʿariyya</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidiyya</a>. They positioned the Kalām particularly against the growing <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonic">Neoplatonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> philosophy and elevated the "Kalām science" (ʿilm al-kalām) to the highest ranking science in Islam. Some of the arguments of the Mutakallimūn also found their way into <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian">Christian</a> theological discussions in the Middle Ages. After the Kalām science in the early modern period was essentially limited to the study of manuals and commentaries, from the late 19th century onwards various reform thinkers appeared in British India and the Ottoman Empire who called for the founding of a "new Kalām". </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definitions_of_Kalām_in_chronological_order"><span id="Definitions_of_Kal.C4.81m_in_chronological_order"></span>Definitions of Kalām in chronological order</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definitions of Kalām in chronological order"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Author with death date</th> <th>Region</th> <th>Kalām is…</th> <th>Arabic or Persian original text </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a> (d. 950)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Syrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian">Syrian</a></td> <td>"a mental ability through which man can help the established views and actions expressed by the founder of a religion to triumph and can refute everything that contradicts them by statements"</td> <td><i>malaka yaqtadir bi-hā al-insān ʿalā nuṣrat al-ārā wa-l-afʿāl al-maḥdūda allatī ṣarraḥa bi-hā wāḍiḥ al-milla wa-tazyīf kull mā ḫālafa-hā bi-l-aqāwīl</i><sup id="cite_ref-Farabi107_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farabi107-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri</a> (d. 992)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a></td> <td>"the linguistic effort to defend religion"</td> <td><i>al-muǧāhada ʿan ad-dīn bi-l-lisān</i><sup id="cite_ref-al-Amiri95_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Amiri95-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hayyan_al-Tawhidi" title="Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi">Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi</a> (d. 1023)</td> <td>Baghdad, <a href="/wiki/Rayy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rayy">Rayy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shiraz" title="Shiraz">Shiraz</a></td> <td>"a way of considering the foundations of religion, in which the deliberation is based on reason alone."</td> <td><i>bāb min al-iʿtibār fī uṣūl ad-dīn yadūr an-naẓar fīhi ʿalā maḥḍ al-ʿaql</i><sup id="cite_ref-Tauhidi294_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tauhidi294-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Yusr_al-Bazdawi" title="Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi">Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi</a> (d. 1099)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a></td> <td>"the explanation of those questions which constitute the foundations of religion, which it is an individual duty to learn."</td> <td><i>bayān al-masāʾil allatī hiya uṣūl ad-dīn allatī hiya taʿallumuhā farḍ ʿain</i><sup id="cite_ref-Bazdawi15_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bazdawi15-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sharaf al-Din Ibn al-Tilimsani al-Fihri (d. 1260)</td> <td>Ägypten</td> <td>"the knowledge of the evidence of divinity and divine messengership, as well as the things on which their knowledge depends, namely the possibility and temporal origin of the world and the refutation of everything that is incompatible with this"</td> <td><i>al-ʿilm bi-ṯubūt al-ilāhīya wa-r-risāla wa-mā yatawaqqaf maʿrifatuhumā ʿalaihi min ǧawāz al-ʿālam wa-ḥudūṯihī wa-ibṭāl mā yunāqiḍ ḏālik</i><sup id="cite_ref-IbnTilimsani43_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IbnTilimsani43-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_al-Samarqandi" title="Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi">Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi</a> (d. 1303)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a></td> <td>"a science that investigates the nature and attributes of God and the states of <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">contingent</a> entities in the beginning and at the return according to the law of Islam"</td> <td><i>ʿilm yubḥaṯ fīhi ʿan ḏāt Allāh wa-ṣifātihī wa-aḥwāl al-mumkināt fī l-mubtadaʾ wa-l-maʿād ʿalā qānūn al-islām</i><sup id="cite_ref-Samarqandi66_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samarqandi66-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Adud_al-Din_al-Iji" title="Adud al-Din al-Iji">Adud al-Din al-Iji</a> (d. 1355)</td> <td>Īj near <a href="/wiki/Shiraz" title="Shiraz">Shiraz</a></td> <td>"the science by which one can prove religious dogmas by citing arguments and averting doubts"</td> <td><i>ʿilm yuqtadar maʿa-hū ʿalā iṯbāt al-ʿaqāʾid ad-dīnīya, bi-īrād al-ḥuǧaǧ wa-dafʿ aš-šubah</i><sup id="cite_ref-Igi7vanEss37_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Igi7vanEss37-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Al-Taftazani" title="Al-Taftazani">al-Taftazani</a> (d. 1390)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Taftazan" title="Taftazan">Taftazan</a></td> <td>"the knowledge of religious dogmas based on certain evidence"</td> <td><i>al-ʿilm bi-l-ʿaqāʾid ad-dīnīya ʿan al-adilla al-yaqīnīya</i><sup id="cite_ref-Taftazani163_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taftazani163-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ibn_%27Arafa" title="Ibn 'Arafa">Ibn 'Arafa</a> (d. 1401)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a></td> <td>"the knowledge of the decrees of divinity, the sending of messengers, their truthfulness in all their communications, and that on which any of them is specifically based, as well as the establishment of their proofs by a skill that is believed to avert doubts and resolve uncertainties"</td> <td><i>al-ʿilm bi-aḥkām al-ulūhīya wa-irsāl ar-rusul wa-ṣidqihā fī kull aḫbārihā wa-mā yatawaqqaf šaiʾ min ḏālik ʿalaihi ḫāṣṣan bihī wa-taqrīr adillatihā bi-qūwa hiya maẓinna li-radd aš-šubuhāt</i><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (d. 1406)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a></td> <td>"a science that involves the disputation of religious dogmas with rational arguments and the refutation of innovators who deviate from the teachings of the ancients and the Sunnis."</td> <td><i>ʿilm yataḍamman al-ḥiǧāǧ ʿan al-ʿaqāʾid al-īmānīya bi-l-adilla al-ʿaqlīya wa-r-radd ʿalā l-mubtadiʿa al-munḥarifīn fī l-iʿtiqādāt ʿan maḏāhib as-salaf wa-ahl as-sunna</i><sup id="cite_ref-IbnKhaldun580_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IbnKhaldun580-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Al-Kamal_ibn_al-Humam" title="Al-Kamal ibn al-Humam">Ibn al-Humām</a> (d. 1457)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></td> <td>"the knowledge of the individual about the dogmas of the Islamic religion that are incumbent upon him through the evidence"</td> <td><i>maʿrifat an-nafs mā ʿalaihā min al-ʿaqāʾid al-mansūba ilā dīn al-islām ʿan al-adilla</i><sup id="cite_ref-IbnHumam5_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IbnHumam5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ta%C5%9Fk%C3%B6pr%C3%BCzade" title="Taşköprüzade">Taşköprüzade</a> (d. 1561)</td> <td>Ottoman Empire</td> <td>"the science of proving religious truths by providing arguments for them and removing doubts from them"</td> <td><i>ʿilm yuqtadar maʿa-hū ʿalā iṯbāt al-ḥaqāʾiq ad-dīnīya, bi-īrād al-ḥuǧaǧ ʿalai-hā wa-dafʿ aš-šubah ʿan-hā</i><sup id="cite_ref-Taschköprüzade132_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taschköprüzade132-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Razzaq_Lahiji" title="Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji">Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji</a> (d. 1661)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></td> <td>"a theoretical skill with which one can prove religious dogmas"</td> <td><i>ṣināʿa naẓarīya yuqtadar bi-hā ʿalā iṯbāt al-ʿaqāʾid ad-dīnīya</i><sup id="cite_ref-LahidschiI51_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LahidschiI51-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>al-Tahānawī (d. 1745)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a></td> <td>"a science by which one can prove religious dogmas to one's fellow men by citing arguments and averting doubts"</td> <td><i>ʿilm yuqtadar maʿa-hū ʿalā iṯbāt al-ʿaqāʾid ad-dīnīya ʿalā l-ġair, bi-īrād al-ḥuǧaǧ wa-dafʿ aš-šubah</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-TahanawiI29_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TahanawiI29-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Morteza_Motahhari" title="Morteza Motahhari">Morteza Motahhari</a> (d. 1979)</td> <td>Iran</td> <td>"a science that discusses Islamic dogmas, i.e. what one must believe in from an Islamic point of view, in such a way that it explains, proves and defends them"</td> <td><i>ʿilmi ast ke darbāre-ye ʿaqāyed-e eslāmī yaʿnī ānče az naẓar-e eslām bāyad bedān moʿtaqed būd va īmān dāšt, baḥs̱ mīkonad be īn naḥw ke ānhā toużīḥ mīdehad va darbāre-ye ānhā estedlāl mīkonad va az ānhā defāʿ mīnamāyad</i><sup id="cite_ref-MutahhariIII57_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MutahhariIII57-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kalām_as_apologetics"><span id="Kal.C4.81m_as_apologetics"></span>Kalām as apologetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Kalām as apologetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to several of the definitions given above, kalām has an <a href="/wiki/Apologetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Apologetic">apologetic</a> function: it serves to defend one's own religious views. This apologetic function is particularly evident in the philosophers <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a> (d. 950) and <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri</a> (d. 992). The former sees it as a mental ability through which man can refute everything that contradicts the views and actions established by the founder of the religion,<sup id="cite_ref-Farabi107_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farabi107-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the latter as "the defence of religion with the tongue".<sup id="cite_ref-al-Amiri95_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Amiri95-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the definitions of the Ashʿarite scholar <a href="/wiki/Adud_al-Din_al-Iji" title="Adud al-Din al-Iji">Adud al-Din al-Iji</a> (d. 1355), the Ottoman scholar <a href="/wiki/Ta%C5%9Fk%C3%B6pr%C3%BCzade" title="Taşköprüzade">Taşköprüzade</a> (d. 1561) and the Indian scholar at-Tahānawī (around 1745), who worked in Iran, kalām has the task of averting doubts from religious dogmas or truths. Against the background of such definitions, the French orientalist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Gardet" title="Louis Gardet">Louis Gardet</a> judged that the function of kalām as a defensive "apology" could not be overestimated.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The view that the "fundamental character" of the Kalām consists of "defensive apology" is also the declared leitmotif of the French handbook <i>Introduction à la théologie musulmane</i>, co-authored by Gardet and M.M Anawati in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardet_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardet-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Indian scholar ʿAbd an-Nabī al-Ahmadnagarī (d. 1759) even believed that the value of the Kalam was limited to this apologetic function alone. The great Mutakallimūn, he explains in his encyclopedia Dustūr al-ʿulamā, never justified or authenticated their doctrines with arguments from the Kalam, since the sole purpose of the Kalam was to silence the adversary and bring the stubborn to their knees. The great Mutakallimūn, on the other hand, drew their doctrines solely from the "lamp of prophethood".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such statements can also be found in <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a>. Thus, in his work <i>Jawahir al-Qur'an</i> (The Jewels of the Qur'an ), he judged that the purpose of the science of kalam was "to protect the beliefs of the masses from disruption by innovators". On the other hand, this science was never about "revealing the truths".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kalām_as_the_science_of_religious_foundations_or_dogmas"><span id="Kal.C4.81m_as_the_science_of_religious_foundations_or_dogmas"></span>Kalām as the science of religious foundations or dogmas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Kalām as the science of religious foundations or dogmas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several Muslim authors defined kalām by its relationship to the "fundamentals of religion" (Uṣūl al-Dīn). For example, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hayyan_al-Tawhidi" title="Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi">Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi</a> (d. 1023) described the science of kalām as "a way of contemplating the fundamentals of religion in which deliberation is based on reason alone."<sup id="cite_ref-Tauhidi294_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tauhidi294-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Yusr_al-Bazdawi" title="Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi">Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi</a> (d. 1099) defined it as "the explanation of those questions which constitute the fundamentals of religion, which it is an individual duty to learn."<sup id="cite_ref-Bazdawi15_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bazdawi15-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Athir" title="Ibn al-Athir">Ibn al-Athir</a> (d. 1233) in his book <i>al-Lubāb fī Tahḏīb al-Ansāb</i> was the first to define kalām science as "the science of the foundations of religion" (ʿilm Uṣūl al-Dīn).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khallikan" title="Ibn Khallikan">Ibn Khallikan</a> (d. 1282) and <a href="/wiki/Siraj_al-Din_Urmavi" title="Siraj al-Din Urmavi">Siraj al-Din Urmavi</a> (d. 1283) even equated kalām science with the foundations of religion itself.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The equation of ʿilm al-kalām and ʿilm uṣūl al-dīn is also found in the catalogue of the Ottoman Palace Library from the beginning of the 16th century, where the section containing the books on kalām was entitled "Section of the Books of the Science of the Foundations of Religion, i.e. the Science of Kalām".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This classification probably also influenced the Ottoman scholars <a href="/wiki/Ta%C5%9Fk%C3%B6pr%C3%BCzade" title="Taşköprüzade">Taşköprüzade</a> and Saçaklızāde (d. 1732), who also equated kalām science and the "science of the foundations of religion" in their Arabic scientific encyclopedias.<sup id="cite_ref-Taschköprüzade132_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taschköprüzade132-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At-Tahānawī explains this equation by saying that the Kalām is the basis of the religious legal sciences and that they are based on it.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some later scholars defined the kalām science of dogmas. For <a href="/wiki/Adud_al-Din_al-Iji" title="Adud al-Din al-Iji">Adud al-Din al-Iji</a> (d. 1355), kalām is "the science of proving religious dogmas by citing arguments and removing doubts."<sup id="cite_ref-Igi7vanEss37_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Igi7vanEss37-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a slightly modified form, this definition was also adopted by the Ottoman scholar Tashköprüzāde (d. 1561) and the Indian scholar at-Tahānawī (c. 1745).<sup id="cite_ref-Taschköprüzade132_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taschköprüzade132-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TahanawiI29_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TahanawiI29-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For <a href="/wiki/Al-Taftazani" title="Al-Taftazani">al-Taftazani</a> (d. 1390), Kalām is "the knowledge of religious dogmas based on certain evidence",<sup id="cite_ref-Taftazani163_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taftazani163-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (d. 1406) "a science that includes the disputation of the dogmas of faith with rational arguments"<sup id="cite_ref-IbnKhaldun580_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IbnKhaldun580-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for <a href="/wiki/Morteza_Motahhari" title="Morteza Motahhari">Morteza Motahhari</a> (d. 1979) "a science that discusses the Islamic dogmas [...] in such a way that it explains, proves and defends them". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linguistic">Linguistic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Linguistic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories_about_the_origin_of_the_term">Theories about the origin of the term</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Theories about the origin of the term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Arabic , the term Kalām generally means "speech, conversation, debate." There are different theories as to why this term came to be used to describe the discipline that deals with the rational justification of one's own religious doctrines: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shahrastani" title="Al-Shahrastani">Al-Shahrastani</a> (d. 1153) suggested that the name was coined by the <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazila">Mu'tazila</a>. They called this science by this name either because the speech of God was the main question around which their disputations and controversies revolved, so that the whole science was called by it.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Ibn at-Tilimsanī (d. 1260) considered three different possibilities: 1. the name Kalām comes from the fact that the Mutakallimūn began the chapters in their books with the phrase: "Chapter of speech about..." ( bāb al-kalām fī... ); 2. When the <a href="/wiki/Zahiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Zahiri">Zahirites</a> were asked about one of the problems of this science, they replied: "That is that about which we are forbidden to speak". This happened repeatedly, so that after a time it was called "the science of (forbidden) speech", with the expression "forbidden" eventually being dropped; 3. Science was called ʿilm al-kalām because its learning is one of the most important means of bringing out the intellectual power of speech by which man is distinguished from other living beings.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Taftazani" title="Al-Taftazani">Al-Taftazani</a> (d. 1390) gives a total of eight explanations for the name Kalām in his commentary on the confession of an-Nasafī , including the one that this science takes place solely in discussion ( mubāḥaṯa ) and exchange of speech ( idārat al-kalām ) and thus differs from other sciences that can also be practiced in the form of reflection ( taʾammul ) and reading of books ( muṭālaʿat al-kutub ). Another possibility that he discusses is that this science was considered to be speech par excellence because of the strength of its evidence, just as one says of the stronger of two statements: "This is the speech".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (d. 1406) suggested that the science of kalām was so called either because the fight against innovations did not require action, but was achieved solely through "speech" (kalām).<sup id="cite_ref-Ibn_Khaldun_2001_589_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ibn_Khaldun_2001_589-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morteza_Motahhari" title="Morteza Motahhari">Morteza Motahhari</a> (d. 1979) stated the reason why the name originated from the habit of its scholars speaking (kalām), which is the opposite of silence and the Kalām scholars made statements on questions of faith where silence would have been necessary, imitating the <a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Companions of the Prophet</a> and the Muslims of the <a href="/wiki/Tabi%27un" title="Tabi'un">second generation</a>, who had also remained silent on the matter.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>According to <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_van_Ess" class="extiw" title="de:Josef van Ess">Josef van Ess</a>, the many explanations given by Arab scholars "clearly demonstrate the perplexity of native philologists and theologians when faced with the term kalām ".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As for Western scholarship, <a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tjitze_de_Boer" class="extiw" title="fy:Tjitze de Boer">Tjitze de Boer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Black_MacDonald" title="Duncan Black MacDonald">Duncan Black MacDonald</a> suggested that the term kalām was derived from the Greek word logos.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arent_Jan_Wensinck" class="extiw" title="de:Arent Jan Wensinck">Arent Jan Wensinck</a>, on the other hand, rejected the view that the term kalām could have anything to do with logos or its derivatives in 1932, and argued that it had arisen "through the development of Arabic terminology itself".<sup id="cite_ref-Wensinck_1932_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wensinck_1932-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Gardet" title="Louis Gardet">Louis Gardet</a> and M.-M. Anawati considered the first possibility of derivation mentioned by Ibn at-Tilimsānī to be the most likely and suspected that kalām initially meant "speech about..." and then, through antonomasia, became "discourse" per se (about the things of God).<sup id="cite_ref-Gardet_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardet-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/W._Montgomery_Watt" title="W. Montgomery Watt">W. Montgomery Watt</a> took a similar path of explanation to <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Taymiyyah">Ibn Taymiyyah</a> when he wrote about the term mutakalli : "Undoubtedly this was once a derisive name, perhaps creating the image of people 'who talk forever.' Eventually, however, it became accepted as a neutral term."<sup id="cite_ref-Wensinck_1932_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wensinck_1932-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_question_of_origin">The question of origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The question of origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> (d. 1204) believed that the Kalām was actually of Christian origin and only later became known to Muslims through translations.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Franz_August_Schm%C3%B6lders" title="Franz August Schmölders">Franz August Schmölders</a> rejected this theory as implausible as early as 1840 in his <i>Essai sur les écoles philosophiques chez les Arabes</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>According to Ibn Khaldūn (d. 1406), the science of kalam arose from the fact that disagreements about the details of the doctrines of faith arose in the period after the first Muslims. Most of these disagreements were, in his opinion, caused by ambiguous Quranic verses (<a href="/wiki/Mutashabih" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutashabih">Muḥkam and Mutashabih</a>). They led to dispute, disputation and rational argumentation.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Abed_al-Jabri" title="Mohammed Abed al-Jabri">Mohammed Abed al-Jabri</a> (d. 2010) assumes that the Kalam arose in the middle of the 7th century, immediately after the arbitration that ended the war between <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya</a>. During this period, Arab political discourse began to use religion as a mediator. The various parties sought religious legitimacy for their positions, which was the first step in the theoretical formation of what was later called the science of Kalam. Thus, in its historical reality, this science is not just a discourse on the doctrine of faith, but a "practice of politics in religion".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>In fact, the origins of the kalām are obscure. This is also due to the fact that the specifically theological meaning of the words kalām and mutakallim was very slow to gain acceptance. Mutakallim initially only referred to a "speaker with a specific function".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the anonymous <i>Aḫbār al-ʿAbbās wa-waladihī</i>, which dates from the eighth century, it is reported that when <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muslim" title="Abu Muslim">Abu Muslim</a> (d. 755) wanted to establish himself in <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>, he sent mutakallimūn from his followers into the city to win the population over to their cause and make it clear to them that they were following the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a> and acting according to the truth.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shlomo_Pines" title="Shlomo Pines">Shlomo Pines</a> has concluded that the term originally arose in Abū Muslim's army and referred to political and religious propagandists such as the <a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">Dawah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, there are reports that indicate that the culture of kalām existed before this. The Arab historian Abu Zakariya al-Azdi (d. 945) cites a report according to which the Umayyad caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz" title="Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz">Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</a> (r. 717–720) is said to have said: "I have argued and spoken with the people. Indeed, I love to speak with the <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fact that the verb kallama is used here for "to speak with", from which the word kalām is derived, is seen by <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_van_Ess" class="extiw" title="de:Josef van Ess">Josef van Ess</a> as an indication that the specifically theological meaning of the kalām concept may have already developed at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a report quoted in the <i>Kitab al-Aghani</i> by <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani" title="Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani">Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani</a> (d. 967), there were six representatives of the Kalam (aṣḥāb al-kalām) in <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>: the two <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Muʿtazilites</a> <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_Ubayd" title="Amr ibn Ubayd">Amr ibn Ubayd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wasil_ibn_Ata" title="Wasil ibn Ata">Wasil ibn Ata</a>, the poet <a href="/wiki/Bashshar_ibn_Burd" title="Bashshar ibn Burd">Bashshar ibn Burd</a>, Salih ibn Abd al-Quddus and Abdul Karim bin Abi Al-Awja', and a man from the tribe of <a href="/wiki/Azd" title="Azd">Azd</a> who was inclined towards Sumanīya, an Indian doctrine, and who made his house available to the group for their meetings.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since Wāsil died around 748, the Kalām must have existed in the late Umayyad period if this report is authentic. </p><p>In two narrations cited by <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Ansari" title="Abdullah Ansari">Abdullah Ansari</a> (d. 1089), <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_Ubayd" title="Amr ibn Ubayd">Amr ibn Ubayd</a> is identified as the one who "invented these innovations of kalām". <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa" title="Abu Hanifa">Abu Hanifa</a> is said to have cursed ʿAmr ibn ʿUbaid for "opening the way for people to speak (kalām) about what it is not their business to speak about."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a> (d. 1328), on the other hand, believed that the special type of argumentation that characterizes the Kalam first appeared at the beginning of the second Islamic century with Jaʿd ibn Dirham (d. 724) and <a href="/wiki/Jahm_bin_Safwan" title="Jahm bin Safwan">Jahm bin Safwan</a> (d. 746). From them it then reached <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_Ubayd" title="Amr ibn Ubayd">Amr ibn Ubayd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wasil_ibn_Ata" title="Wasil ibn Ata">Wasil ibn Ata</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Ottoman scholar <a href="/wiki/Ta%C5%9Fk%C3%B6pr%C3%BCzade" title="Taşköprüzade">Taşköprüzade</a> (d. 1561), the spread of the Kalam began as early as the year 100 of the Hijra (= 718/19 AD) through the <a href="/wiki/Mu%CA%BFtazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Muʿtazila">Muʿtazila</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Qadariya" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadariya">Qadariya</a>, with Wasil ibn Ata again playing the decisive role.<sup id="cite_ref-Taschköprüzade132_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taschköprüzade132-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, neither Wasil ibn Ata nor any other persons mentioned here have recorded book titles or sayings that indicate that they themselves used the term kalām as a name for a particular science or knowledge culture. </p><p>According to a report quoted by <a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">al-Masudi</a> (d. 956) in his work <i><a href="/wiki/The_Meadows_of_Gold" title="The Meadows of Gold">The Meadows of Gold</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">Abbasid CaliphateAbbasid caliph al-Mahdi</a> (r. 775–785) was the first ruler to commission Mutakallimūn representing <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> to write books against <a href="/wiki/Mulhid" title="Mulhid">Mulhid</a> from the circle of the <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bardaisan" title="Bardaisan">Bardesanites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionites</a> and to refute their arguments. The reason for this was that at that time writings of these groups had spread and were being translated from New Persian and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> into Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formative_years">Formative years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Formative years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In early Islam, the <i>Ahl al-Kalām</i> or "Kalamites" essentially referred to the <a href="/wiki/Mu%CA%BFtazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Muʿtazila">Muʿtazila</a>. Historian <a href="/wiki/Daniel_W._Brown" title="Daniel W. Brown">Daniel W. Brown</a> describes <i>Ahl al-Kalām</i> as one of three main groups engaged in polemical disputes over sources of authority in Islamic law during the second century of Islam: the <i><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Ra%27y" title="Ahl al-Ra'y">Ahl al-Ra'y</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Hadith" title="Ahl al-Hadith">Ahl al-Hadith</a></i> being the other two. (Brown also describes the Muʿtazila as "the later <i>ahl al-Kalām</i>", suggesting the <i>ahl al-Kalām</i> were forerunners of the Muʿtazilites.<sup id="cite_ref-DWBRTMIT1996:15_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DWBRTMIT1996:15-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p><p>In the times of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> (750–1258 CE), the discipline of Kalām arose in an "attempt to grapple" with several "complex problems" early in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">history of Islam</a>, according to historian Majid Fakhry.<sup id="cite_ref-Fakhry-xvii-xviii_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fakhry-xvii-xviii-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One was how to rebut arguments "leveled at Islam by pagans, Christians and Jews".<sup id="cite_ref-Fakhry-xvii-xviii_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fakhry-xvii-xviii-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another was how to deal with (what some saw as the conflict between) the <a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">predestination</a> of sinners to <a href="/wiki/Jahannam" title="Jahannam">hell</a> on the one hand and "divine justice" on the other (some asserting that to be punished for what is beyond someone's control is unjust). Also Kalam sought to make "a systematic attempt to bring the conflict in data of revelation (in the Quran and the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Traditions</a>) into some internal harmony".<sup id="cite_ref-Fakhry-xvii-xviii_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fakhry-xvii-xviii-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other factors that might have led the establishment of kalam was an effort by some Islamic scholars to oppose the thoughs of <i><a href="/wiki/Zandaqa" title="Zandaqa">Zandaqa</a></i> in the Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later schools of Kalam like the <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kullab" title="Ibn Kullab">Kullabis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Asharites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Matuiridis</a> representing as <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni Islam</a> would develop systems that would defend the core orthodox creedal points of Islam completely on rational grounds, and were open to engaging in kalam in accordance to the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EncyclopediaofIslam_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EncyclopediaofIslam-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was unlike the <a href="/wiki/Mutazilites" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutazilites">Mutazilites</a>, whose kalam instead prioritised reason over revelation to the point where the Quran and hadith would only be accepted if it aligned with their interpretation of rationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Hanbali_school" title="Hanbali school">Hanbali</a> school and followers of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmed Ibn Hanbal</a> would generally avoid kalam and philosophical talk all together, seeing it as an innovation, and only address it out of necessity.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Ahmad ibn Hanbal also provided an episode of long feud of Mu'tazila Quran creationism doctrine opposed by the scripturalists (Atharism) doctrine that Quran as <i>shifat</i> (attribution) of God which championed by <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Hanbali_school" title="Hanbali school">Hanbali school</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ushul_Shunnah;_Walid_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ushul_Shunnah;_Walid-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Creed_Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal;_Williams_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Creed_Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal;_Williams-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal;_Shaukat_Ali_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal;_Shaukat_Ali-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal;_Malaysia_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal;_Malaysia-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battah" title="Ibn Battah">Ibn Battah</a> has recorded in his work, <i>Al-Ibāna </i>, that Ahmad ibn Hanbal has instructed his students of total academic boycott against the scholars of kalam.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, Ahmad ibn Hanbal also recorded engaged in long debates against the leading Mu'tazilite and <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qadi</a> of caliphate, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Abi_Du%27ad" title="Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad">Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad</a> regarding the said matter about the nature of Quran.<sup id="cite_ref-Mustafa_Said_al-Khin;_Ibn_Abi_Du'ad_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mustafa_Said_al-Khin;_Ibn_Abi_Du'ad-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Hanbali_school" title="Hanbali school">Hanbali scholars</a> and followers of Ahmad ibn Hanbal rarely mention about kalam in their teaching, as they consider it as <a href="/wiki/Bid%27ah" title="Bid'ah">bid'ah</a> (heresy).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the longtime persecution of <a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">Mihna</a> towards the Ahl a-Hadith since the time of his great-grandfather, caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a> changed the caliphate policy by restoring them to favor, while abandoning <a href="/wiki/Mu%CA%BFtazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Muʿtazila">Mu'tazilites</a> led by Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The caliph also attempted to reconcile with Ahmad ibn Hanbal, and finally, in March 852, he ordered that all prisoners held on account of the innquisition against the Sunnis be released.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_heyday_under_the_early_Abbasids">The heyday under the early Abbasids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The heyday under the early Abbasids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Al-Shahrastani" title="Al-Shahrastani">Al-Shahrastani</a>, the golden age of the science of kalam began with the caliphs <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> (r. 786–809), <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a> (r. 813–833), <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a> (r. 833–842), <a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">al-Wathiq</a> (r. 842–847) and <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a> (r. 847–861) and ended in the time of <a href="/wiki/Sahib_ibn_Abbad" title="Sahib ibn Abbad">Sahib ibn Abbad</a>, who served as vizier of the <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ray,_Iran" title="Ray, Iran">Ray</a> from 979 to 995.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most important promoters of kalam discussions in the early Abbasid period was the <a href="/wiki/Barmakids" title="Barmakids">Barmakid</a> <a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Khalid" title="Yahya ibn Khalid">Yahya ibn Khalid</a>, who served as <a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">vizier</a> under <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ya%27qubi" title="Ya'qubi">Al-Yaʿqūbī</a> (d. after 905) reports that he loved kalam and discussion (Naẓar), and that in his days the mutakallimūn became numerous and they debated with each other and wrote books. Al-Yaʿqūbī cites <a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_al-Hakam" title="Hisham ibn al-Hakam">Hisham ibn al-Hakam</a> and <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%8Cir%C4%81r_ibn_%CA%BBAmr" class="extiw" title="fr:Ḍirār ibn ʻAmr">Dirar ibn Amr</a> (d. 815) as examples of mutakallimīn of this period.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a report quoted by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Babawayh" title="Ibn Babawayh">Ibn Babawayh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Khalid" title="Yahya ibn Khalid">Yahya ibn Khalid</a> used to hold a discussion group (maǧlis) at his place on Sundays, in which mutakallimūn from every sect (firqa) and religious community (milla) participated, who then debated with each other about their religions and put forward arguments against each other.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This discussion group is also mentioned by al-Masʿūdī . According to his report, many Islamic mutakallimūn participated in this discussion, including <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Muʿtazilites</a> such as <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_l-Hudhail" class="extiw" title="de:Abū l-Hudhail">Abu l-Hudhail</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Nazzam" title="Ibrahim al-Nazzam">Ibrahim al-Nazzam</a> and <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishr_ibn_al-Mu%CA%BFtamir" class="extiw" title="de:Bishr ibn al-Muʿtamir">Bishr ibn al-Muʿtamir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Imamites</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_al-Hakam" title="Hisham ibn al-Hakam">Hisham ibn al-Hakam</a>, one <a href="/wiki/Kharijite" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharijite">Kharijite</a> and one <a href="/wiki/Murji%27ah" title="Murji'ah">Murjite each</a>, as well as representatives of other worldviews and faiths, including the Mobed of the <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrians">Zoroastrians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a> also distinguished himself by promoting the Kalam. <a href="/wiki/Ya%27qubi" title="Ya'qubi">Al-Yaʿqūbī</a> reports that he openly professed the "People of Monotheism and Justice" (Ahl al-Tawhid wal 'Adl), that is, the Muʿtazila, attracted Mutakallimūn to his court and paid them maintenance so that their numbers increased. Each one, explains al-Yaʿqūbī, wrote books to defend his own doctrine and to refute his opponents.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a> (d. 869), who wrote one of the first treatises on the kalam, praised the art of the kalam as a "precious jewel" (juhar tamīn), as "the treasure that never perishes" (al-kanz allaḏī lā yafnā wa-lā yablā) and as the "companion who does not bore and does not deceive". It is the standard for every other art, the rein for every expression, the scales with which one can clarify the lack or excess of every thing, and the filter with which one can recognize the purity or impurity of every thing. All scholars depend on it, and it is the tool and model for every acquisition. What could be more important than something without which one cannot prove the glory of God or prophethood, and without which one cannot distinguish the true argument from the false argument and the proof from the false proof. The kalam makes it possible to distinguish the community (jama'a) from the sect (firqa) and the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Bid%27ah" title="Bid'ah">Bid'ah</a>. Al-Jahiz also compares the kalam to a border fortress, the defence of which requires great personal commitment. It is like a border fortress because all people are hostile towards its followers.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whoever gives this science its due can expect a corresponding reward. [ 85 ] Al-Jāhiz praises the Mutakallimūn for remaining loyal to their discipline out of conviction of its high value, despite the rejection that their discipline experiences in society, and for even being willing to accept the sacrifice of poverty and lack of career opportunities as a <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">Qadi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In another writing, <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">al-Jahiz</a> stated that without the Kalam, there would be no religion for God and no one would be distinguished from the heretics . There would be no difference between falsehood and truth and no separation between a prophet and a mere pretender to prophethood. Argument could not be distinguished from deceit and proof could not be distinguished from apparent proof. The art of the Kalam was preferable to every other art and education , which is why it was made the standard for all philosophical speculation and the basis of every <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a> . It was only held in such high esteem because every scholar needed it and could not do without it.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="10th_and_11th_centuries:_Spread_from_Iraq_to_the_east_and_west">10th and 11th centuries: Spread from Iraq to the east and west</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 10th and 11th centuries: Spread from Iraq to the east and west"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Until the early 10th century, the Kalam was essentially limited to <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Greater Khorasan</a> . A very important center of the Kalam culture was the Muʿtazilite stronghold of ʿAskar Mukram in <a href="/wiki/Khuzestan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzestan Province">Khuzistan</a>, the place of work of <a href="/wiki/Al-Jubba%27i" title="Al-Jubba'i">Al-Jubba'i</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hashim_al-Jubba%27i" title="Abu Hashim al-Jubba'i">Abu Hashim al-Jubba'i</a>. The geographer Ibn Hauqal (d. 977) reports that members of the common people also practiced the Kalam method here and achieved such mastery that they could compete with scholars from other cities. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal" title="Ibn Hawqal">Ibn Hawqal</a> reprots in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Surat_Al-Ard" title="Surat Al-Ard">Surat Al-Ard</a></i> that he saw two porters in the city who were carrying heavy loads on their heads or backs and at the same time arguing about the interpretation of the Quran and questions of the Kalam.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the course of the 10th century, the Kalam also spread more widely to the eastern regions of the Islamic Empire. One of the early Kalam scholars representing the <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazila">Mu'tazila</a> in Khorasan was Abū al-Qāsim al-Balkhī (d. 931). Other Kalam scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Qadi_Abd_al-Jabbar" title="Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar">Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar</a> (d. 1024) settled in <a href="/wiki/Rayy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rayy">Rayy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ibn_Khaldun_2001_589_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ibn_Khaldun_2001_589-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 10th century, the two renowned Ash'ari Kalam scholars, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Furak" title="Ibn Furak">Ibn Furak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ishaq_al-Isfarayini" title="Abu Ishaq al-Isfarayini">Abu Ishaq al-Isfarayini</a> (d. 1027) having studied in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> arrived to teach in Khurasan at this time. Some of the prominent Shafi'i families in <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a> took up the cause of <a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a> and it became well-established in the city, which developed into the main hub of Shafi'ite learning in the East. Ash'arism swiftly proliferated throughout Iran's other Shafi'ite communities. It developed into the mainstream <a href="/wiki/Shafi%27ism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'ism">Shafi'ite ideology</a> in the Islamic world during the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk era</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Maghreb and al-Andalus, on the other hand, the Kalam was not yet a topic of discussion until the early 11th century. <a href="/wiki/Al-Baqillani" title="Al-Baqillani">Al-Baqillani</a> a Maliki jurist contributed to the propagation of <a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a> within the Maliki circles in North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of his students, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Dharr_al-Harawi" title="Abu Dharr al-Harawi">Abu Dharr al-Harawi</a> was the first to introduce the Ash'ari doctrine to the <a href="/wiki/Masjid_al-Haram" title="Masjid al-Haram">Holy Sanctuary</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>. Among the hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Andalusi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maghrebi">Maghrebi</a> pupils that Abu Dharr al-Harawi trained to become <a href="/wiki/Faqih" class="mw-redirect" title="Faqih">jurists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">judges</a>, and who helped Ash'arism expand to their home countries are <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Walid_al-Baji" title="Abu al-Walid al-Baji">Abu al-Walid al-Baji</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abu_Imran_al-Fasi" title="Abu Imran al-Fasi">Abu Imran al-Fasi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-research_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-research-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, research shows that his students weren't the first to introduce Ash'arism as there were already known Ash'ari presence in the <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Zayd_al-Qayrawani" title="Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani">Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abu_%27l-Hasan_%27Ali_ibn_Khalaf_al-Qabisi" title="Abu 'l-Hasan 'Ali ibn Khalaf al-Qabisi">Abu al-Hassan al-Qabisi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-research_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-research-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In al-Andalus, Ash'arism was flourishing since the time of the theologian-philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a> (d. 1064). The theologian Abu Bakr al-Baqillani's works were widely circulated in the region, which helped fostered the growth of Ash'arite theology and sparked debates. Eventually, Mu'tazilite beliefs in the region were subdued.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after, the Ash'ari theology became the mainstream doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Maliki</a> school.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazila">Mu'tazila</a>, also known as the Ahl al-Tawhid wal-'Adl, or the "People of Divine Unity and Justice," were originally the dominant school of kalam, but by the tenth century, two madhabs—the Ash'ariyya and the Maturidiyya—rose in fierce opposition to the Mu'tazila. Each school bore the names of its founders, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hasan_al-Ash%27ari" title="Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari">Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_al-Maturidi" title="Abu Mansur al-Maturidi">Abu Mansur al-Maturidi</a>, and represented Ahl al-Sunnah (People of Prophetic ways). In the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Maturidites flourished in Khurasan and Central Asia, while the Ash'arites posed a threat to Mu'tazila hegemony in central Iraq and Iran. Both schools use kalam to defend what we now refer to as "orthodox Islam" or traditionalist Islamic theological doctrine. Mu'tazalism would eventually fall because of this. This is noted by Western historians, who label the Mu'tazila as a heterodox theological movement and extreme rationalists. The group would continue to exist and primarily follow <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi">Ibadi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-classical_period_and_“conservatism”"><span id="Post-classical_period_and_.E2.80.9Cconservatism.E2.80.9D"></span>Post-classical period and “conservatism”</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Post-classical period and “conservatism”"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most influential work of the post-classical Kalām was the <i>Kitāb al-Mawāqif</i> by the Iranian Shafi'i theologian <a href="/wiki/Adud_al-Din_al-Iji" title="Adud al-Din al-Iji">Adud al-Din al-Iji</a> (d. 1355). It received a total of five commentaries and 32 supercommentaries and became part of the Dars al-Nizāmī curriculum in the South Asian <a href="/wiki/Madrasas" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasas">madrasas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book also played an important role in <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Education in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman schools</a>. The Ottoman scholar Sāčaqlızāde recommended it to scholars in the Kalām section of his encyclopedia <i>Tartīb al-ʿulūm</i>, together with the <i>Kitāb al-Maqāṣid</i> by <a href="/wiki/Al-Taftazani" title="Al-Taftazani">Saʿd ad-Dīn at-Taftāzānī</a>, as a basis for teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work contains an introductory chapter at the beginning in which the author discusses the definition, subject, utility, rank, problems and naming of the science of Kalām.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the end of the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> believed that the science of Kalam was no longer necessary for students of his time, because the heretics and innovators had since perished and it was sufficient to study what the Sunni imams had written to defend themselves against them.<sup id="cite_ref-Jeffry_R._Halveson;_chapter_2_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jeffry_R._Halveson;_chapter_2-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the science of Kalam experienced a revival in the 17th and 18th centuries in what is now <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A particularly zealous follower of the Kalam was the Ash'arite scholar Muhammad ibn 'Umar al-Bartallī (d. 1696) in <a href="/wiki/Walatah" class="mw-redirect" title="Walatah">Walatah</a>. A West African biography collection reports that he was one of the famous Mutakallimūn and was constantly busy reading, copying and teaching Kalam books.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kalām was also promoted among the Volga-Ural Tatars in Russia . At the end of the 18th century, it became an integral part of madrasa scholarship in villages and small towns, even if it was limited to commentaries and glosses.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the early modern period was a phase of "frozen conservatism" for Kalām science, as Louis Gardet writes.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardet_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardet-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muslim scholars also diagnosed a decline in this discipline. The Ottoman-Turkish scholar <a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0smail_Hakk%C4%B1_%C4%B0zmirli" class="extiw" title="tr:İsmail Hakkı İzmirli">İsmail Hakkı İzmirli</a> (d. 1946), for example, complained that in his time there were very few people who really knew the Kalām problems and understood the Kalām riddles. There is hardly a Kalam scholar who understands more than the Kalam questions of a book, and the science of Kalam is limited to the study of the commentary on the ʿAqāʾid of Najm al-Dīn Abū Hafs an-Nasafī (d. 1142) and on the ʿAqāʾid of ʿAdud al-Dīn al-Īji (d. 1355).<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_attempts_at_revival">Modern attempts at revival</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modern attempts at revival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mulla Sadra, 17th AD <a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shia</a> philosopher and mystic; has felt that he owed to the greek philosophy, for the development of kalam as Islamic discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-Mulla_Sadra;_Corbin_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mulla_Sadra;_Corbin-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern philosopher <a href="/wiki/Federico_Campagna" title="Federico Campagna">Federico Campagna</a> has suspected the similarity between the unique cosmological kalam philosophy taught by Mulla Sadra with Hindu Vedic <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In retrospect, Muhammad Kamal from Islamic studies at the <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a> institute has stated Mulla Sadra philosophy was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a>, Iranian Islamic revolutionary, politician, religious leader who served as the first <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran" title="Supreme Leader of Iran">Supreme Leader of Iran</a>, founder of modern day Islamic Republic of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and the main leader of the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a>; has used kalam to facilitate his socio-religious revival of moral spirit of the masses. As he formulate the revolutionary system on his states building, Khomeini's political thoughts was closely linked with kalam discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="As_an_Islamic_discipline">As an Islamic discipline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: As an Islamic discipline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks collapsible"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background: #dcf5dc;;font-size:88%; line-height:188%;"><span style="font-size:115%;"><span class="nobold">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islamic_theology" title="Category:Islamic theology">a series</a> on </span></span><br /><span style="font-size:188%;"><a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">Aqidah</a></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosque02.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Silhouette of a mosque"><img alt="Silhouette of a mosque" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Mosque02.svg/110px-Mosque02.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Mosque02.svg/165px-Mosque02.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Mosque02.svg/220px-Mosque02.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="487" data-file-height="220" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #dcf5dc;;background: #dcf5dc;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology#Sunni_schools_of_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Sunni</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b><a href="/wiki/Iman_(concept)#The_six_articles_of_the_Islamic_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Iman (concept)">Six Articles of Iman</a></b><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Holy books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_angels" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic view of angels">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">The Last Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Predestination</a></li></ul> </div> <b><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars of Islam</a></b><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Shahada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_during_Ramadan" title="Fasting during Ramadan">Sawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></li></ul> </div> <b><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology#Sunnī_schools_of_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Schools of theology</a></b><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Hadith" title="Ahl al-Hadith">Ahl al-Hadith</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athari" class="mw-redirect" title="Athari">Athari</a><sup>1</sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Ra%27y" title="Ahl al-Ra'y">Ahl al-Ra'y</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a><sup>2</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maturidi">Maturidi</a><sup>3</sup></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #dcf5dc;;background: #dcf5dc;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology#Shia_schools_of_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Shi'a</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b><a href="/wiki/Ancillaries_of_the_Faith" title="Ancillaries of the Faith">Basic Tenets of Faith</a></b><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawm_of_Ramadan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawm of Ramadan">Sawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khums" title="Khums">Khums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanding_what_is_just" class="mw-redirect" title="Commanding what is just">Commanding what is just</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enjoining_good_and_forbidding_wrong" title="Enjoining good and forbidding wrong">Forbidding what is evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawalla" class="mw-redirect" title="Tawalla">Tawalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabarra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabarra">Tabarra</a></li></ul> </div> <b><a href="/wiki/Twelver_theology" title="Twelver theology">Theology of the Twelvers</a></b><sup>4,</sup> <sup>5</sup><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adalah_(Islam)" title="Adalah (Islam)">Adalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy_(Shia_Islam)" title="Prophecy (Shia Islam)">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Twelver_doctrine" title="Imamate in Twelver doctrine">Imamah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology#Resurrection_and_final_judgement" title="Islamic eschatology">Qiyamah</a></li></ul> </div> <b><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism#Beliefs" title="Isma'ilism">Theology of the Ismailis</a></b><sup>6</sup><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walayah" title="Walayah">Walayah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawm_of_Ramadan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawm of Ramadan">Sawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a></li></ul> </div> <b><a href="/wiki/Zaydism#Theology" title="Zaydism">Theology of the Zaydis</a></b></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #dcf5dc;;background: #dcf5dc;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology#Muhakkima" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Muhakkima</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_theology" title="Ibadi theology">Theology of the Ibadis</a></b></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #dcf5dc;;background: #dcf5dc;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Other variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jabriyya" title="Jabriyya">Jabriyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jahmiyya" title="Jahmiyya">Jahmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology#Tashbih" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Mujassimah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murji%27ah" title="Murji'ah">Murji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Mu'tazila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadariyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadariyya">Qadariyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quraniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #dcf5dc;border-bottom:1px solid #dcf5dc;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <p><u>Including:</u><br /> </p> <div class="plainlist" style="font-weight:normal"> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span style="position: relative; top: 0.2em;"><sup>1</sup></span> <a href="/wiki/Hanbali_school" title="Hanbali school">Hanbali school</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Zahiri_school" title="Zahiri school">Zahiri school</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span style="position: relative; top: 0.2em;"><sup>2</sup></span> <a href="/wiki/Maliki_school" title="Maliki school">Maliki school</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i_school" title="Shafi'i school">Shafi'i school</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><span style="position: relative; top: 0.2em;"><sup>3</sup></span> <a href="/wiki/Hanafi_school" title="Hanafi school">Hanafi school</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span style="position: relative; top: 0.2em;"><sup>4</sup></span> <a href="/wiki/Ja%27fari_school" title="Ja'fari school">Ja'fari school</a> (<a href="/wiki/Usulism" title="Usulism">Usuli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akhbarism" class="mw-redirect" title="Akhbarism">Akhbari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaykhism" title="Shaykhism">Shaykhi</a>)</li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span style="position: relative; top: 0.2em;"><sup>5</sup></span> <a href="/wiki/Alawite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alawite">Alawi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bektashi_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Bektashi Order">Bektashi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishiki</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span style="position: relative; top: 0.2em;"><sup>6</sup></span> <a href="/wiki/Nizari" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizari">Nizari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Khoja" title="Khoja">Khoja</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Satpanth" title="Satpanth">Satpanth</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mustali" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustali">Mustali</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sulaymani_Bohra" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulaymani Bohra">Sulaymani Bohra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alavi_Bohra" class="mw-redirect" title="Alavi Bohra">Alavi Bohra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hebtiahs_Bohra" title="Hebtiahs Bohra">Hebtiahs Bohra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Atba-e-Malak" title="Atba-e-Malak">Atba-i-Malak Bohra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Qutbi_Bohra" class="mw-redirect" title="Qutbi Bohra">Qutbi Bohra</a>)</li></ul></div></li></ul> </div> <p><br /> </p> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aqidah" title="Template:Aqidah"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aqidah" title="Template talk:Aqidah"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aqidah" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aqidah"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Although seeking knowledge in Islam is considered a religious obligation, the study of kalam is considered by Muslim scholars to fall beyond the category of necessity and is usually the preserve of qualified scholars, eliciting limited interest from the masses or common people.<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett119_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett119-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early Muslim scholar <a href="/wiki/Al-Shafi%27i" title="Al-Shafi'i">al-Shafi'i</a> held that there should be a certain number of men trained in kalam to defend and purify the faith, but that it would be a great evil if their arguments should become known to the mass of the people.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, the Islamic scholar <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a> held the view that the science of kalam is not a personal duty on Muslims but a collective duty. Like al-Shafi'i, he discouraged the masses from studying it and that only the most able do so.<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett119_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett119-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the dominance of kalam as an intellectual tradition within Islam, some scholars were critical of its use. For example, <a href="/wiki/Hanbali_school" title="Hanbali school">Hanbali</a> school and followers of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmed Ibn Hanbal</a> would generally avoid kalam and philosophical talk all together, seeing it as an <a href="/wiki/Bid%27ah" title="Bid'ah">innovation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same sentiments is also found within the <a href="/wiki/Zahiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Zahiri">Zahiri</a> school.;<sup id="cite_ref-Ibn_Hazm_about_Kalam_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ibn_Hazm_about_Kalam-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern <a href="/wiki/Wahhabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Wahhabi">Wahhabi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafi">Salafi</a> movements generally consider kalam to be an <a href="/wiki/Bid%27ah" title="Bid'ah">innovation</a> and reject its usage.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a> <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khwaja_Abdullah_Ansari" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwaja Abdullah Ansari">Khwaja Abdullah Ansari</a> wrote a treatise entitled <i>Dhamm al-Kalam</i> where he criticized the use of kalam.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Jawzi" title="Ibn al-Jawzi">Ibn al-Jawzi</a>, 12th AD Hanbali scholar; has explained that that <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Ulama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a> of his contemporary have considered kalam as <i>"..useless discipline.."</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharh_Aqida_Ahl_sunnah;_Yazid_Jawas_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharh_Aqida_Ahl_sunnah;_Yazid_Jawas-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He described the kalam scholars progression was at first "because they were exposed to foreign literatures about philosophy...", then in the end they established kalam, which in practice damaged their creed of Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-kalam_vs_Aqida;_Ibn_al-Jawzi;_Ibn_Hajar_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalam_vs_Aqida;_Ibn_al-Jawzi;_Ibn_Hajar-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Qudamah" title="Ibn Qudamah">Ibn Qudama</a>, 13th AD Hanbali scholar; harshly criticized kalam as one of the worst of all heresies. He characterized their scholars, the <i>mutakallimūn</i>, as innovators and heretics who had betrayed and deviated from the simple and pious faith of the early Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al-Dhahabi, 14th AD Hanbali scholar and historian; has made his derogatory statement towards kalam scholar by comparing them with <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_Hisham" title="Amr ibn Hisham">Abu Jahl</a>, the reviled figure in Islam during the time of Muhammad.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ibn Taymiyya, 14th AD Hanbali scholar; was notable for his bold stance against the doctrines of Mutakallimin in his works such as <i>ar-Radd 'ala al-mantiqiyyın</i> (Refutation of the Rationalists), and <i>bayan muwafaqat al-'aql al-sarih li al-Naql as-Sahiha</i>. Ibn Taymiyya even further criticize Ash'arite rationalists such as al-Ghazali, <a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a>, and al-Shahrastani for their method in discourses by abandoning the scripturalism way.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, Ibn Taymiyya has detailed his criticism in <i>Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin</i>. Regarding al-Ghazali in particular, Through the seventh chapter of his book, <i>Mi'yar Al-'Ilm</i>, Ibn Taymiyyah wrote that although he recognized that al-Ghazali's intention are not inherently bad in his attempt to describe the limit of human's mind in metaphysical and esoterical concepts, as it was aimed to oppose the core idea of kalam scholars that everything must be grasped by logic; although he still held that such discourse are moot as it only distract al-Ghazali from the important aspect of literal meanings, while it kept al-Ghazali busy with irrelevant semantic argumentations.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Al-Shawkani" title="Al-Shawkani">Al-Shawkani</a>, a 18th AD Atharism,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-al-Shawkani;_anti_kalam_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Shawkani;_anti_kalam-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zahiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Zahiri">Zahiri</a> scholar,<sup id="cite_ref-Zahiri_Madhhab;_Shawkani_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zahiri_Madhhab;_Shawkani-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> early <a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi movement</a> figure,<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab</a> contemporary;<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has expressed his view for literal theological interpretation and opposition to kalam (speculative theology)<sup id="cite_ref-Shawkani_anti_kalam_2_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shawkani_anti_kalam_2-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shawkani_anti_kalam_3_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shawkani_anti_kalam_3-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shawkani_anti_kalam_4_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shawkani_anti_kalam_4-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shawkani_anti_kalam_5_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shawkani_anti_kalam_5-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-umma_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-umma-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Siddiq_Hasan_Khan" title="Siddiq Hasan Khan">Siddiq Hasan Khan</a>, 19th AD North Indian Salafi scholar,<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidtke_2014_428_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidtke_2014_428-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> co-founder of <a href="/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Ahl-i Hadith</a> movement,<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also <a href="/wiki/Nawab" title="Nawab">Nawab</a> (viceroy) of <a href="/wiki/Bhopal_State" title="Bhopal State">Bhopal State</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has rejected kalam as he regards it as "full of speculations". It was stated by himself that his opposition towards kalam were influenced by the thoughts of Al-Shawkani, Al-San'ani and Ibn Taymiyya.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schmidtke_2014_428_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidtke_2014_428-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Rida" title="Rashid Rida">Rashid Rida</a>, 19th century AD reformer of Islamics school;<sup id="cite_ref-Olidort_2015_52–62_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olidort_2015_52–62-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in his later years of life has perceived the Athari theology as more rational than Kalam and actively condemning Kalam, as he view the Athari methodology had stronger religious foundations of Islam. Furthermore, he also saw the Ash'arite theology as ineffective against philosophical doubts.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Al-Albani" title="Al-Albani">Al-Albani</a>, prominent figure of <a href="/wiki/Salafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafi">Salafism</a> and modern era Hadith scholar; considered kalam doctrine as misguided in the <a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">Islamic creed</a> due to their <a href="/wiki/Ta%27til" title="Ta'til">Ta'til</a> methodology, which consequently divesting the <a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Islam" title="Names of God in Islam">Names of God in Islam</a>. Al-Albani stated the notable example was the rejection of kalam scholars of the <i>al-ʿAliyy</i> (Most highest) attribute of God.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Manzoor Elahi, 21th century AD <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladeshi</a> Salafi scholar and academic; has stated in his book "The Importance of Right Aqeedah in Reforming Society" edited by <a href="/wiki/Abubakar_Muhammad_Zakaria" title="Abubakar Muhammad Zakaria">Abubakar Muhammad Zakaria</a> says about Ilmul Kalam,<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Mutaqallimin called the Aqeedah studies "Ilmul Kalam" and the philosophers called "Al-Falsafa al-Islamiyyah" or Islamic philosophy, "Al-Ilahiyat" and "Metaphysics" (supernaturalism). About the latter names, Dr. Nasser al-Aql and many others say that it is not pure to call the Islamic Aqeedah by these names. Explaining the reason, Muhammad Ibrahim Al Hamad said, "Because the source of Ilmul Kalam is human intellect, which is based on Hindu and Greek philosophy. On the other hand, the main source of Tawheed is revelation. Moreover, Ilmul Kalam includes restlessness, imbalance, ignorance and doubt. That is why the Salaf Saleheen condemned Ilmul Kalam. And Tawheed is based on knowledge, conviction and faith,….. Another reason can be said that the foundation of philosophy is based on assumptions, false beliefs, imaginary thoughts and superstitious ideas". Imam Harawi wrote a 5-volume book called ذم الكلام وأهله and Imam Ghazali wrote a book called تهافت الفلاسفة. Besides, Imam Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, among other Muslim scholars have discussed in detail that 'Ilmul Kalam' and 'Falsafa' do not represent the correct Islamic belief.</p></blockquote> <p>Similar sentiment were also stated by ʻUthmān ibn Jumʻah Ḍumayrīyah, an Islamic theology professor of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sharjah" title="University of Sharjah">University of Sharjah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umm_al-Qura_University" title="Umm al-Qura University">Umm al-Qura University</a>; that kalam science inherently contradicts the Islamic creed of <a href="/wiki/Al-Burooj" title="Al-Burooj">al-Burooj</a> <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D85%3Averse%3D16">85:16</a> chapter regarding the attribute of God's name as <a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Islam#List_of_names" title="Names of God in Islam">omnipotent (al-Jabbār)</a>; which contain the attribute of capability to perform any wills (yurīd). ʻUthmān views that kalam's doctrine omitted such attribute by human's logic only.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharh_Aqida_Ahl_sunnah;_Yazid_Jawas_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharh_Aqida_Ahl_sunnah;_Yazid_Jawas-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Schools">Schools</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sunni_kalam_schools">Sunni kalam schools</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sunni kalam schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kullab" title="Ibn Kullab">Kullabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ash%CA%BFari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashʿari">Ashʿari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maturidi">Maturidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zahiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Zahiri">Zahiri</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shia_kalam_schools">Shia kalam schools</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Shia kalam schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_(Twelver_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamate (Twelver doctrine)">Twelver</a> <i>(<a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Twelvers" class="mw-redirect" title="Theology of Twelvers">Theology of Twelvers</a>)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Ismaili_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Ismaili doctrine)">Ismāʿīlī</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Nizari_doctrine" title="Imamate in Nizari doctrine">Nizari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musta%27li" class="mw-redirect" title="Musta'li">Musta'li</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hafizi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafizi">Hafizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayyibi_Isma%27ilism" title="Tayyibi Isma'ilism">Tayyibi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Istihsan_al-Khawd_fi_%27Ilm_al-Kalam" title="Istihsan al-Khawd fi 'Ilm al-Kalam">Istihsan al-Khawd fi 'Ilm al-Kalam</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fiqh_al-Akbar" title="Al-Fiqh al-Akbar">Al-Fiqh al-Akbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apologetics" title="Apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Kalam" title="Jewish Kalam">Jewish Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam cosmological argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic in Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logos_(Christianity)" title="Logos (Christianity)">Logos (Christianity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">Mihna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadr_(doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadr (doctrine)">Qadr (doctrine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Appendix">Appendix</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Appendix"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">عِلْم ٱلْكَلَام</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿilm al-kalām</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'science of discourse'<sup id="cite_ref-Abdel-Haleem_2008_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abdel-Haleem_2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">عِلْم ٱللَّاهُوت</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿilm al-lāhūt</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'science of theology'</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Abdel-Haleem_2008-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Abdel-Haleem_2008_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAbdel-Haleem2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abdel-Haleem" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Abdel-Haleem">Abdel-Haleem, M. A. S.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O1IiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19">"Part I: Historical perspectives - Qur'an and hadith"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Winter" title="Timothy Winter">Winter, Timothy</a> (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 19–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL9780521780582.002">10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-00181-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-00181-6"><bdi>978-1-139-00181-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+I%3A+Historical+perspectives+-+Qur%27an+and+hadith&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Classical+Islamic+Theology&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=19-32&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCCOL9780521780582.002&rft.isbn=978-1-139-00181-6&rft.aulast=Abdel-Haleem&rft.aufirst=M.+A.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO1IiAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mutahhari-intro-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mutahhari-intro_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMutahhari" class="citation web cs1">Mutahhari, Murtada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/kalam.htm">"An Introduction to 'Ilm al-Kalam"</a>. <i>Muslim Philosophy</i>. Translated by Qara'i, 'Ali Quli<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Muslim+Philosophy&rft.atitle=An+Introduction+to+%27Ilm+al-Kalam&rft.aulast=Mutahhari&rft.aufirst=Murtada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.muslimphilosophy.com%2Fip%2Fkalam.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMutahhari2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Morteza_Motahhari" title="Morteza Motahhari">Mutahhari, Murtadha</a> (12 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol3-no2/introduction-ilm-al-kalam-murtadha-mutahhari/definition-and-subject-matter-ilm-al">"An Introduction to Ilm al-Kalam"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-31</span></span>. <q>For a definition of 'ilm al-kalam, it is sufficient to say that, "It is a science which studies the basic doctrines of the Islamic faith (usul al-Din). It identifies the basic doctrines and seeks to prove their validity and answers any doubts which may be cast upon them."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Ilm+al-Kalam&rft.date=2013-03-12&rft.aulast=Mutahhari&rft.aufirst=Murtadha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Fal-tawhid%2Fvol3-no2%2Fintroduction-ilm-al-kalam-murtadha-mutahhari%2Fdefinition-and-subject-matter-ilm-al&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmidtke_2016-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schmidtke_2016_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> •  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreiger2016" class="citation book cs1">Treiger, Alexander (2016) [2014]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=70wnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27">"Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period - Origins of Kalām"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sabine_Schmidtke" title="Sabine Schmidtke">Schmidtke, Sabine</a> (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 27–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696703.013.001">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969670-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969670-3"><bdi>978-0-19-969670-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2016935488">2016935488</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+I%3A+Islamic+Theologies+during+the+Formative+and+the+Early+Middle+period+-+Origins+of+Kal%C4%81m&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Islamic+Theology&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=27-43&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2016935488&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696703.013.001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969670-3&rft.aulast=Treiger&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D70wnDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span><br /> •  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbrahamov2016" class="citation book cs1">Abrahamov, Binyamin (2016) [2014]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=70wnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA264">"Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period - Scripturalist and Traditionalist Theology"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sabine_Schmidtke" title="Sabine Schmidtke">Schmidtke, Sabine</a> (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 264–279. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696703.013.025">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.025</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969670-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969670-3"><bdi>978-0-19-969670-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2016935488">2016935488</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+I%3A+Islamic+Theologies+during+the+Formative+and+the+Early+Middle+period+-+Scripturalist+and+Traditionalist+Theology&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Islamic+Theology&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=264-279&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2016935488&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696703.013.025&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969670-3&rft.aulast=Abrahamov&rft.aufirst=Binyamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D70wnDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones, <i>Handbook to Life in the Medieval World</i>, p. 391. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4381-0907-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-4381-0907-5">1-4381-0907-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clinton Bennett, <i>The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies</i>, p. 119. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4411-2788-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-4411-2788-7">1-4411-2788-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farabi107-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farabi107_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farabi107_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAl-Farabi1949">Al-Farabi 1949</a>, p. 107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-al-Amiri95-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-al-Amiri95_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-al-Amiri95_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri1988">Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri 1988</a>, p. 95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tauhidi294-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tauhidi294_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tauhidi294_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbu_Hayyan_al-Tawhidi1993-4">Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi & 1993-4</a>, p. 94<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAbu_Hayyan_al-Tawhidi1993-4 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bazdawi15-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bazdawi15_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bazdawi15_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbu_al-Yusr_al-Bazdawi2003">Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi 2003</a>, p. 15<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAbu_al-Yusr_al-Bazdawi2003 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IbnTilimsani43-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IbnTilimsani43_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIbn_al-Tilimsani2010">Ibn al-Tilimsani 2010</a>, p. 43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Samarqandi66-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Samarqandi66_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShams_al-Din_al-Samarqandi1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_al-Samarqandi" title="Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi">Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi</a> (1985). Ahmad Abdurahman al-Sharif (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1291Pdf_201812/page/66/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>Al-Sahaʾif al-Ilahiya</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>: Maktabat al-Falah. p. 66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Saha%CA%BEif+al-Ilahiya&rft.place=Kuwait&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Maktabat+al-Falah&rft.date=1985&rft.au=Shams+al-Din+al-Samarqandi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F1291Pdf_201812%2Fpage%2F66%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Igi7vanEss37-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Igi7vanEss37_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Igi7vanEss37_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdud_al-Din_al-Iji1966">Adud al-Din al-Iji 1966</a>, p. 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taftazani163-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taftazani163_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taftazani163_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-Taftzani1998">al-Taftzani 1998</a>, p. 163<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFal-Taftzani1998 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIbn'Arafa2004">Ibn'Arafa 2004</a>, p. 78<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFIbn'Arafa2004 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IbnKhaldun580-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IbnKhaldun580_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IbnKhaldun580_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIbn_Khaldun2001">Ibn Khaldun 2001</a>, p. 588</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IbnHumam5-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IbnHumam5_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Kamal_ibn_al-Humam1929" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Al-Kamal_ibn_al-Humam" title="Al-Kamal ibn al-Humam">Al-Kamal ibn al-Humam</a> (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/al-musayara/page/n3/mode/1up"><i>Al-Musayara fi Ilm al-Kalam</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>: Al-Maṭbaʿa al-Mahmudiya, Cairo. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Musayara+fi+Ilm+al-Kalam&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Al-Ma%E1%B9%ADba%CA%BFa+al-Mahmudiya%2C+Cairo&rft.date=1929&rft.au=Al-Kamal+ibn+al-Humam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fal-musayara%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taschköprüzade132-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taschköprüzade132_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taschköprüzade132_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taschköprüzade132_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taschköprüzade132_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaşköprüzade2001">Taşköprüzade 2001</a>, p. 148<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFTaşköprüzade2001 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LahidschiI51-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LahidschiI51_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbd_al-Razzaq_Lahiji2011">Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji 2011</a>, p. 51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TahanawiI29-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TahanawiI29_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TahanawiI29_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-Tahānawī1996">al-Tahānawī 1996</a>, p. 29<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFal-Tahānawī1996 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MutahhariIII57-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MutahhariIII57_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorteza_Motahhari1991">Morteza Motahhari 1991</a>, p. 57</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouis_Gardet" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Gardet" title="Louis Gardet">Louis Gardet</a>. <i>"Ilm al-kalām" in <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam</a></i>. Vol. 3. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. p. 1142.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Ilm+al-kal%C4%81m%22+in+The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.pages=1142&rft.pub=Brill&rft.au=Louis+Gardet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gardet-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gardet_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardet_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardet_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouis_Gardet,_M.M_Anawati1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Gardet" title="Louis Gardet">Louis Gardet</a>, M.M Anawati (1981). <i>Introduction à la théologie musulmane</i>. <a href="/wiki/Librairie_philosophique_J._Vrin" title="Librairie philosophique J. Vrin">Librairie philosophique J. Vrin</a>. pp. 6–20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+%C3%A0+la+th%C3%A9ologie+musulmane&rft.pages=6-20&rft.pub=Librairie+philosophique+J.+Vrin&rft.date=1981&rft.au=Louis+Gardet%2C+M.M+Anawati&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbd_an-Nabī_al-Ahmadnagarī2000" class="citation book cs1">Abd an-Nabī al-Ahmadnagarī (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1_20201011_20201011_0539/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A1%203%20/page/n93/mode/2up"><i>Gami al-Ulum fi Istilahat al-Funan, al-Mulaqqab bi-Dustur al-Ulama</i></a>. Vol. 3. <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>: <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Kotob_al-ilmiyah" class="extiw" title="de:Dar al-Kotob al-ilmiyah">Dar al-Kotob al-'Ilmiyya</a>. p. 95.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gami+al-Ulum+fi+Istilahat+al-Funan%2C+al-Mulaqqab+bi-Dustur+al-Ulama&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Dar+al-Kotob+al-%27Ilmiyya&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Abd+an-Nab%C4%AB+al-Ahmadnagar%C4%AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F1_20201011_20201011_0539%2F%25D8%25AC%25D8%25A7%25D9%2585%25D8%25B9%2520%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25B9%25D9%2584%25D9%2588%25D9%2585%2520%25D9%2581%25D9%258A%2520%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B5%25D8%25B7%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AD%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AA%2520%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2581%25D9%2586%25D9%2588%25D9%2586-%2520%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AC%25D8%25B2%25D8%25A1%25203%2520%2Fpage%2Fn93%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Ghazali2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> (2000). <a href="/wiki/Rashid_Rida" title="Rashid Rida">Rashid Rida</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1004Pdf_201804/page/n19/mode/1up"><i>Gawahir al-Qur'an</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>: Dar Iḥya al-Ulum. p. 39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gawahir+al-Qur%27an&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Dar+I%E1%B8%A5ya+al-Ulum&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Al-Ghazali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F1004Pdf_201804%2Fpage%2Fn19%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_al-Athir1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Athir" title="Ibn al-Athir">Ibn al-Athir</a> (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alkamela2000_gmail_1_20150219/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%B0%D9%8A%D8%A8%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A8%203/page/n159/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>Al-Lubab fi Tahḏib al-Ansab</i></a>. Vol. 3. <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>: Dar al-Sadir. p. 161.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Lubab+fi+Tah%E1%B8%8Fib+al-Ansab&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=161&rft.pub=Dar+al-Sadir&rft.date=1980&rft.au=Ibn+al-Athir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falkamela2000_gmail_1_20150219%2F%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2584%25D8%25A8%25D8%25A7%25D8%25A8%2520%25D9%2581%25D9%258A%2520%25D8%25AA%25D9%2587%25D8%25B0%25D9%258A%25D8%25A8%2520%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25D8%25B3%25D8%25A7%25D8%25A8%25203%2Fpage%2Fn159%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_Khallikan1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khallikan" title="Ibn Khallikan">Ibn Khallikan</a> (1978). Ihsan Abbas (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/WAQ17074/04_17078/page/n270/mode/2up"><i>Wafayat al-A'yan wa-Anba Abna al-Zaman</i></a>. Vol. 4. <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>: Dar al-Sadir. p. 271.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wafayat+al-A%27yan+wa-Anba+Abna+al-Zaman&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=Dar+al-Sadir&rft.date=1978&rft.au=Ibn+Khallikan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FWAQ17074%2F04_17078%2Fpage%2Fn270%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiraj_al-Din_Urmavi2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Siraj_al-Din_Urmavi" title="Siraj al-Din Urmavi">Siraj al-Din Urmavi</a> (2012). <i>Al-Risala al-Garre fi al-Farq Baina Nau'ai al-Ilm al-Ilahi wa-l-Kalam</i>. p. 75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Risala+al-Garre+fi+al-Farq+Baina+Nau%27ai+al-Ilm+al-Ilahi+wa-l-Kalam&rft.pages=75&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Siraj+al-Din+Urmavi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdurrahman_Atçıl2019" class="citation book cs1">Abdurrahman Atçıl (2019). "The Kalām (Rational Theology) Section in the Palace Library Inventory". In <a href="/w/index.php?title=G%C3%BClr%C3%BC_Necipo%C4%9Flu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gülrü Necipoğlu (page does not exist)">Gülrü Necipoğlu</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cemal_Kafadar" title="Cemal Kafadar">Cemal Kafadar</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cornell_Fleischer" title="Cornell Fleischer">Cornell Fleischer</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/34966562"><i>Treasures of Knowledge. An Inventory of the Ottoman Palace Library (1502/03–1503/04)</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 367–388.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Kal%C4%81m+%28Rational+Theology%29+Section+in+the+Palace+Library+Inventory&rft.btitle=Treasures+of+Knowledge.+An+Inventory+of+the+Ottoman+Palace+Library+%281502%2F03%E2%80%931503%2F04%29&rft.pages=367-388&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft.au=Abdurrahman+At%C3%A7%C4%B1l&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F34966562&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-Tahānawī1996">al-Tahānawī 1996</a>, p. 31<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFal-Tahānawī1996 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Shahrastani1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Al-Shahrastani" title="Al-Shahrastani">Al-Shahrastani</a> (1992). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-31</span></span>. <q>These were: embracing of Islam by various nations who brought with them a series of (alien) ideas and notions; mixing and coexistence of the Muslims with people of various religions, such as, the Jews, the Christians, the Magians, and the Sabaeans, and the ensuing religious debates and disputes between the Muslims and those peoples; the emergence of the Zanadiqah in the Islamic world - who were totally against religion - as a result of the general freedom during the rule of the 'Abbasid Caliphs (as long as it did not interfere in the matters of state politics); the birth of philosophy in the Muslim world - which by itself gave birth to doubts and skeptical attitudes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=al-islam.org&rft.atitle=An+Introduction+to+Ilm+al-Kalam&rft.date=2013-03-12&rft.aulast=Mutahhari&rft.aufirst=Murtadha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Fal-tawhid%2Fvol3-no2%2Fintroduction-ilm-al-kalam-murtadha-mutahhari%2Fintroduction-ilm-al-kalam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EncyclopediaofIslam-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EncyclopediaofIslam_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardet1978" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gardet, Louis (1978). 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Halverson, Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam, 2010: p 37. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-230-10658-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-230-10658-7">0-230-10658-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack_Macdonald2008" class="citation book cs1">Black Macdonald, Duncan (2008). <i>Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence, and Constitutional Theory, Chapter=III</i>. 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Abdurahman Abdallah al-Saqir (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/20200526_20200526_1608/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%D9%85/page/99/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>Musakalat al-Nas li-Zamanihim</i></a> (in Arabic). <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>: Gadawil. p. 100.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Musakalat+al-Nas+li-Zamanihim&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Gadawil&rft.date=2019&rft.au=Al-Ya%CA%BFq%C5%ABb%C4%AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F20200526_20200526_1608%2F%25D9%2585%25D8%25B4%25D8%25A7%25D9%2583%25D9%2584%25D8%25A9_%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2586%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B3_%25D9%2584%25D8%25B2%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25D9%2587%25D9%2585%2Fpage%2F99%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_Babawayh1991" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Babawayh" title="Ibn Babawayh">Ibn Babawayh</a> (1991). Husain al-A'lami (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/348783478349/page/n339/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>Musakalat al-Nas li-Zamanihim</i></a> (in Arabic). <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>: Mu'assasat al-A'lami. p. 339.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Musakalat+al-Nas+li-Zamanihim&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=339&rft.pub=Mu%27assasat+al-A%27lami&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Ibn+Babawayh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F348783478349%2Fpage%2Fn339%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-Masudi1861–1877" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">al-Masudi</a> (1861–1877). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lesprairiesdor06masuuoft/page/368/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>Muruj ad-Dahab wa-Maʿadin al-Jawhar</i></a>. Vol. VI. Translated by Barbier de Meynard et Pavet de Courteille. pp. 368–375.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muruj+ad-Dahab+wa-Ma%CA%BFadin+al-Jawhar&rft.pages=368-375&rft.date=1861%2F1877&rft.au=al-Masudi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flesprairiesdor06masuuoft%2Fpage%2F368%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Yaʿqūbī2019" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ya%27qubi" title="Ya'qubi">Al-Yaʿqūbī</a> (2019). Abdurahman Abdallah al-Saqir (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/20200526_20200526_1608/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%D9%85/page/103/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>Musakalat al-Nas li-Zamanihim</i></a> (in Arabic). <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>: Gadawil. p. 104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Musakalat+al-Nas+li-Zamanihim&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Gadawil&rft.date=2019&rft.au=Al-Ya%CA%BFq%C5%ABb%C4%AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F20200526_20200526_1608%2F%25D9%2585%25D8%25B4%25D8%25A7%25D9%2583%25D9%2584%25D8%25A9_%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2586%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B3_%25D9%2584%25D8%25B2%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25D9%2587%25D9%2585%2Fpage%2F103%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-Jahiz1979">al-Jahiz 1979</a>, p. 244<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFal-Jahiz1979 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-Jahiz1979">al-Jahiz 1979</a>, p. 246<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFal-Jahiz1979 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Jahiz1979" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a> (1979). Abd as-Salam M. Harun (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ia803207.us.archive.org/22/items/rsagahfp_202007/01_RsaGah.pdf#page=278"><i>Risala fi nafy at-tasbih</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Arabic). Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>. p. 285.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Risala+fi+nafy+at-tasbih&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pages=285&rft.date=1979&rft.au=Al-Jahiz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fia803207.us.archive.org%2F22%2Fitems%2Frsagahfp_202007%2F01_RsaGah.pdf%23page%3D278&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_Hawqal1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal" title="Ibn Hawqal">Ibn Hawqal</a> (1967). <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hendrik_Kramers" title="Johannes Hendrik Kramers">Johannes Hendrik Kramers</a> (ed.). <i>Book of Surat al-Ard</i>. <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a>. p. 255.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Book+of+Surat+al-Ard&rft.pages=255&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.au=Ibn+Hawqal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilferd_Madelung1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Wilferd Madelung</a> (22 September 1988). <i>Religious Trends in Early Islamic Iran</i>. <a href="/wiki/Iran_Heritage_Foundation" title="Iran Heritage Foundation">Iran Heritage Foundation</a>. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-701-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-701-3"><bdi>978-0-88706-701-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Trends+in+Early+Islamic+Iran&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Iran+Heritage+Foundation&rft.date=1988-09-22&rft.isbn=978-0-88706-701-3&rft.au=Wilferd+Madelung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._Montgomery_Watt2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Montgomery_Watt" title="W. Montgomery Watt">W. Montgomery Watt</a> (8 August 2019). <i>Islamic Philosophy and Theology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-7347-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-7347-7"><bdi>978-1-4744-7347-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Philosophy+and+Theology&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019-08-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4744-7347-7&rft.au=W.+Montgomery+Watt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-research-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-research_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-research_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF'Abd_Allah_ibn_Muhammad_ibn_al-Tahir" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">'Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Tahir. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20230413032508/https://www.arrabita.ma/blog/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%B0%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA/">"دور أبي ذر الهروي في نشر الأشعرية بالمغرب"</a> [The role of Abu Dharr al-Harawi in the spread of Ash'ari theology in Morocco] (in Arabic). <a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B7%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1" class="extiw" title="ar:الرابطة المحمدية للعلماء">Muhammadiya Association of Scholars</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arrabita.ma/blog/دور-أبي-ذر-الهروي-في-نشر-الأشعرية-بالمغ/">the original</a> on 13 Apr 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1+%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%8A+%D8%B0%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8&rft.pub=Muhammadiya+Association+of+Scholars&rft.au=%27Abd+Allah+ibn+Muhammad+ibn+al-Tahir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.arrabita.ma%2Fblog%2F%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%B0%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Bayhaqi1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Al-Bayhaqi" title="Al-Bayhaqi">Al-Bayhaqi</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PM7wz92Tq6oC"><i>Allah's Names and Attributes</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Gibril_Fouad_Haddad" class="mw-redirect" title="Gibril Fouad Haddad">Gibril Fouad Haddad</a>. <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Supreme_Council_of_America" title="Islamic Supreme Council of America">Islamic Supreme Council of America</a>. pp. 17–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-930409-03-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-930409-03-3"><bdi>978-1-930409-03-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Allah%27s+Names+and+Attributes&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=Islamic+Supreme+Council+of+America&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-930409-03-3&rft.au=Al-Bayhaqi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPM7wz92Tq6oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aaron Spevack, <i>The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of Al-Bajuri</i>, p 55. State University of New York Press, 1 Oct 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/143845371X" title="Special:BookSources/143845371X">143845371X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPellat1971" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Charles</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3374">"Ibn <u>Sh</u>araf al-Qayrawānī"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Victor_Louis_M%C3%A9nage" title="Victor Louis Ménage">Ménage, V. L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume III:<i> H–Iram</i>. Leiden: E. J. 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Routledge. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19889-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19889-3"><bdi>978-1-135-19889-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-04403-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-350-04403-6"><bdi>978-1-350-04403-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technic+and+Magic%3A+The+Reconstruction+of+Reality&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-350-04403-6&rft.au=Federico+Campagna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIRJUDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuhammad_Kamal2016" class="citation book cs1">Muhammad Kamal (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd0GDAAAQBAJ"><i>Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 42, 50, 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-09370-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-09370-1"><bdi>978-1-317-09370-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mulla+Sadra%27s+Transcendent+Philosophy&rft.pages=42%2C+50%2C+52&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-09370-1&rft.au=Muhammad+Kamal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCd0GDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogdana_Todorova2020" class="citation journal cs1">Bogdana Todorova (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=885343">"KHOMEINI'S POLITICAL-RELIGIOUS APPROACH OF THE 'IRANIAN NATION'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Politics and Religion • Politologie des Religions</i>. <b>XIV</b> (1). Bulgarian Academy of Sciences: 45, 47, 52<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politics+and+Religion+%E2%80%A2+Politologie+des+Religions&rft.atitle=KHOMEINI%27S+POLITICAL-RELIGIOUS+APPROACH+OF+THE+%27IRANIAN+NATION%27&rft.volume=XIV&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=45%2C+47%2C+52&rft.date=2020&rft.au=Bogdana+Todorova&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ceeol.com%2Fsearch%2Farticle-detail%3Fid%3D885343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bennett119-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bennett119_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bennett119_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett2012" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, Clinton (2012). <i>The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies</i>. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-2788-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-2788-4"><bdi>978-1-4411-2788-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bloomsbury+Companion+to+Islamic+Studies&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-2788-4&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Clinton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuncan_Black_MacDonald2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Black_MacDonald" title="Duncan Black MacDonald">Duncan Black MacDonald</a> (2008). <i>Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory</i>. Macdonald Press. p. 197. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58477-858-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58477-858-5"><bdi>978-1-58477-858-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+of+Muslim+Theology%2C+Jurisprudence+and+Constitutional+Theory&rft.pages=197&rft.pub=Macdonald+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-58477-858-5&rft.au=Duncan+Black+MacDonald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ibn_Hazm_about_Kalam-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ibn_Hazm_about_Kalam_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSupreme_Council_for_Islamic_Affairs_(Egypt)_research_team2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs (Egypt) research team (2015). Artawijaya (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=btveDwAAQBAJ"><i>Ensiklopedi Aliran dan Madzhab Di Dunia Islam</i></a> [<i>Encyclopedia of Schools and Schools of Thought in the Islamic World</i>] (in Indonesian). Translated by Masturi Ilham; M. Abidin Zuhdi; Khalifurrahman Fath. <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>: Pustaka Al-Kautsar; <a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A4%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9_(%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1)" class="extiw" title="ar:المجلس الأعلى للشؤون الإسلامية (مصر)">Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs (Egypt)</a>. p. 664<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ensiklopedi+Aliran+dan+Madzhab+Di+Dunia+Islam&rft.place=Jakarta&rft.pages=664&rft.pub=Pustaka+Al-Kautsar%3B+Supreme+Council+for+Islamic+Affairs+%28Egypt%29&rft.date=2015&rft.au=Supreme+Council+for+Islamic+Affairs+%28Egypt%29+research+team&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbtveDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaul_Silas_Fathi2023" class="citation book cs1">Saul Silas Fathi (22 December 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-B3-EAAAQBAJ"><i>Gods and Religions</i></a>. Writers Republic LLC. p. 615. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9798891004665" title="Special:BookSources/9798891004665"><bdi>9798891004665</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gods+and+Religions&rft.pages=615&rft.pub=Writers+Republic+LLC&rft.date=2023-12-22&rft.isbn=9798891004665&rft.au=Saul+Silas+Fathi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-B3-EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharh_Aqida_Ahl_sunnah;_Yazid_Jawas-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharh_Aqida_Ahl_sunnah;_Yazid_Jawas_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharh_Aqida_Ahl_sunnah;_Yazid_Jawas_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYazid_bin_Abdul_Qadir_Jawas2012" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yazid_bin_Abdul_Qadir_Jawas" title="Yazid bin Abdul Qadir Jawas">Yazid bin Abdul Qadir Jawas</a> (13 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://almanhaj.or.id/3425-dalil-aqli-akal-yang-benar-akan-sesuai-dengan-dalil-naqlinash-yang-shahih.html">"Dalil 'Aqli (Akal) Yang Benar Akan Sesuai Dengan Dalil Naqli/Nash Yang Shahih: Penjelasan Kaidah Keenam Dalil aqli (akal) yang benar akan sesuai dengan dalil Naqli/nash yang shahih"</a> [The correct 'Aqli (reason) argument will be in accordance with the authentic Naqli/Nash argument: Explanation of the Sixth Rule The correct aqli (reason) argument will be in accordance with the authentic Naqli/Nash argument]. <i>Almanhaj</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Almanhaj&rft.atitle=Dalil+%27Aqli+%28Akal%29+Yang+Benar+Akan+Sesuai+Dengan+Dalil+Naqli%2FNash+Yang+Shahih%3A+Penjelasan+Kaidah+Keenam+Dalil+aqli+%28akal%29+yang+benar+akan+sesuai+dengan+dalil+Naqli%2Fnash+yang+shahih&rft.date=2012-11-13&rft.au=Yazid+bin+Abdul+Qadir+Jawas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falmanhaj.or.id%2F3425-dalil-aqli-akal-yang-benar-akan-sesuai-dengan-dalil-naqlinash-yang-shahih.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span> Chapter 6 of= <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xuTGWJr8n18C"><i>Syarah Aqidah Ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama'ah</i></a> (in Indonesian). Pustaka Imam As-Syafi'i. 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-979-3536-64-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-979-3536-64-4"><bdi>978-979-3536-64-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/949744119">949744119</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syarah+Aqidah+Ahl+al-Sunna+wa+al-Jama%27ah&rft.pub=Pustaka+Imam+As-Syafi%27i&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F949744119&rft.isbn=978-979-3536-64-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxuTGWJr8n18C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span> References from: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOthman_Jum'a_ad-Damiriyya1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Othman Jum'a ad-Damiriyya (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mdaasj"><i>المدخل لدراسات العقيدة الإسلامية على مذهب أهل السنة والجماعة</i></a> [<i>Introduction to Islamic Doctrine Studies According to the Sunni School of Thought</i>] (in Arabic) (2 ed.). مكتبة السوادي للتوزيع. pp. 40–41, 45–46. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shamela.ws/book/9991">the original</a> on 18 January 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%AE%D9%84+%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AA+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89+%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%87%D8%A8+%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%84+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%A9+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9&rft.pages=40-41%2C+45-46&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=%D9%85%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A+%D9%84%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B9&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Othman+Jum%27a+ad-Damiriyya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshamela.ws%2Fbook%2F9991&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed_ibn_Muhammad_ad-Dahlawi_Al-Madani1985" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ahmed ibn Muhammad ad-Dahlawi Al-Madani (1985). Hasan al-Halabi (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dlibrary.mediu.edu.my/bib/26634"><i>تاريخ أهل الحديث تعيين الفرقة الناجية وأنها طائفة أهل الحديث</i></a> [<i>History of the People of Hadith: Determining the Saved Sect and That It Is the Sect of the People of Hadith</i>] (in Arabic). السعودية مكتبة الغرباء الأثرية. pp. 116–117<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"1". In Al-Ansari, Hammad (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aqeeda.sa/scientific-researchs/1961/"><i>منهج الامام الشافعي في احصاء العقيدة</i></a> [<i>Imam Al-Shafi'i's approach to enumerating the creed</i>]. <a href="/wiki/Islamic_University_of_Madinah" title="Islamic University of Madinah">Islamic University of Madinah</a>. pp. 74–75, 121<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1&rft.btitle=%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87%D8%AC+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B9%D9%8A+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9&rft.pages=74-75%2C+121&rft.pub=Islamic+University+of+Madinah&rft.date=2021&rft.au=Muhammad+ibn+%27Abd+al-Wahhab+al-Aqil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faqeeda.sa%2Fscientific-researchs%2F1961%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_Abi_al-Izzal-Adhra'i_al-Salihi_al-Dimashqi1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_al-Izz" title="Ibn Abi al-Izz">Ibn Abi al-Izz</a>; al-Adhra'i al-Salihi al-Dimashqi (1997). <a href="/wiki/Shu%27ayb_al-Arna%27ut" title="Shu'ayb al-Arna'ut">al-Arna'ut, Shu'ayb</a>; ibn al-Muhsin al-Turki, Abdullah (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ozkorallh_20181027_2024"><i>شرح العقيدة الطحاوية</i></a> [<i>Explanation of the Creed of al-Tahawiyyah</i>] (in Arabic). Beirut: العاشرة. pp. 17–18. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shamela.ws/book/8352">the original</a> on 27 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%AD+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A9&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Ibn+Abi+al-Izz&rft.au=al-Adhra%27i+al-Salihi+al-Dimashqi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshamela.ws%2Fbook%2F8352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Baghawi1983" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Al-Baghawi" title="Al-Baghawi">Al-Baghawi</a> (1983). "1". In <a href="/wiki/Shu%27ayb_al-Arna%27ut" title="Shu'ayb al-Arna'ut">al-Arna'ut, Shu'ayb</a>; Zuhair ash-Shawish, Muhammad (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ozkorallh_20181027_2024"><i>شرح السنة</i></a> [<i>Explanation of the Sunnah</i>] (in Arabic). Damascus, Beirut: المكتب الإسلامي. p. 217. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shamela.ws/book/7891">the original</a> on 27 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1&rft.btitle=%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%AD+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%A9&rft.place=Damascus%2C+Beirut&rft.pages=217&rft.pub=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A&rft.date=1983&rft.au=Al-Baghawi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshamela.ws%2Fbook%2F7891&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Suyuti" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Al-Suyuti" title="Al-Suyuti">Al-Suyuti</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islamicbook.ws/amma/alamr-balatbaa-walnhi-an-alabtdaa.html"><i>الأمر بالاتباع والنهي عن الابتداع المؤلف</i></a> [<i>The command to follow and the prohibition of innovation</i>] (in Arabic). p. 70<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B9+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D9%8A+%D8%B9%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%AA%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A4%D9%84%D9%81&rft.pages=70&rft.au=Al-Suyuti&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamicbook.ws%2Famma%2Falamr-balatbaa-walnhi-an-alabtdaa.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_'Abd_al-Barr1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_%27Abd_al-Barr" title="Ibn 'Abd al-Barr">Ibn 'Abd al-Barr</a> (1994). Al-Zuhairi, Abu Al-Ashbal (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shamela.ws/book/22367"><i>جامع بيانل علمي وفضله</i></a> [<i>Jāmiʻ bayān al-ʻIlm wa-faḍlihi (A comprehensive scientific statement and its merits)</i>] (in Arabic). Sa: دار ابن الجوزي. p. 217 (1st edition), 941 (2nd edition)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9+%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%84+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A+%D9%88%D9%81%D8%B6%D9%84%D9%87&rft.place=Sa&rft.pages=217+%281st+edition%29%2C+941+%282nd+edition%29&rft.pub=%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A&rft.date=1994&rft.au=Ibn+%27Abd+al-Barr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshamela.ws%2Fbook%2F22367&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-kalam_vs_Aqida;_Ibn_al-Jawzi;_Ibn_Hajar-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kalam_vs_Aqida;_Ibn_al-Jawzi;_Ibn_Hajar_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbu_Minhal2010" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Abu Minhal (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://almanhaj.or.id/3453-ilmu-filsafat-perusak-akidah-islam.html">"Ilmu Filsafat, Perusak Akidah Islam"</a> [Philosophy damaging Aqida]. <i>Almanhaj</i> (in Indonesian). Yayasan Lajnah Istiqomah (Lajnah Istiqomah institute)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Almanhaj&rft.atitle=Ilmu+Filsafat%2C+Perusak+Akidah+Islam&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Abu+Minhal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falmanhaj.or.id%2F3453-ilmu-filsafat-perusak-akidah-islam.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span> concise references from: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_al-Jawzi2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Jawzi" title="Ibn al-Jawzi">Ibn al-Jawzi</a> (2004). al-Masihi Suwaidan, Hassan (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aakamel18_gmail_20190131"><i>كتاب صيد الخاطر</i></a> [<i>Book of Hunting the Mind</i>] (in Arabic). Damascus: دار القلم. p. 226. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shamela.ws/book/12028">the original</a> on 31 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8+%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B7%D8%B1&rft.place=Damascus&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D9%84%D9%85&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Ibn+al-Jawzi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshamela.ws%2Fbook%2F12028&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuhammad_Ishaq_Kandu2011" class="citation book cs1">Muhammad Ishaq Kandu (2011). "3". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dawa.center/file/4285"><i>منهج الحافظ ابن حجر في العقيدة</i></a> [<i>The Methodology of Al-Hafiz Ibn Hajar in Creed</i>]. موقع الدرر السنية على الإنترنت dorar.net. p. 1446<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3&rft.btitle=%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87%D8%AC+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B8+%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%B1+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9&rft.pages=1446&rft.pub=%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AA+dorar.net&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Muhammad+Ishaq+Kandu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdawa.center%2Ffile%2F4285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHalverson2010">Halverson (2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theologycreedsun00halv/page/n46">38</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbu_Isma'il_Muslim_al_Atsari2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Abu Isma'il Muslim al Atsari (2000). "Jangan Mengambil Ilmu dari Ahli Bid'ah (en. do not take knowledge from innovators)". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://almanhaj.or.id/2602-jangan-mengambil-ilmu-dari-ahli-bidah.html"><i>Majalah as-Sunnah</i></a> [<i>As-Sunnah magazine</i>] (in Indonesian). <a href="/wiki/Surakarta" title="Surakarta">Solo</a>, Indonesia: Lajnah Istiqomah Surakarta Foundation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jangan+Mengambil+Ilmu+dari+Ahli+Bid%27ah+%28en.+do+not+take+knowledge+from+innovators%29&rft.btitle=Majalah+as-Sunnah&rft.place=Solo%2C+Indonesia&rft.pub=Lajnah+Istiqomah+Surakarta+Foundation&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Abu+Isma%27il+Muslim+al+Atsari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falmanhaj.or.id%2F2602-jangan-mengambil-ilmu-dari-ahli-bidah.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span> quote from: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakr_bin_Abdullah_Abu_Zaid_bin_Muhammad_bin_Abdullah_bin_Bakr_bin_Othman_bin_Yahya_bin_Ghayhab_bin_Muhammad1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bakr bin Abdullah Abu Zaid bin Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Bakr bin Othman bin Yahya bin Ghayhab bin Muhammad (1994). Abu Zaid, Bakr (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shamela.ws/book/9884"><i>حلية طالب العلم</i></a> [<i>Student's ornament</i>] (in Arabic). <a href="/wiki/Riyadh" title="Riyadh">Riyadh</a>, Saudi Arabia: دار العاصمة للنشر والتوزيع. p. 39<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2024</span>. <q><a href="/wiki/Siyar_A%27lam_al-Nubala%27" title="Siyar A'lam al-Nubala'">Siyar A'lam al-Nubala'</a>, 4/472</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85&rft.place=Riyadh%2C+Saudi+Arabia&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%85%D8%A9+%D9%84%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%B1+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B9&rft.date=1994&rft.au=Bakr+bin+Abdullah+Abu+Zaid+bin+Muhammad+bin+Abdullah+bin+Bakr+bin+Othman+bin+Yahya+bin+Ghayhab+bin+Muhammad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshamela.ws%2Fbook%2F9884&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirgit_KrawietzGeorges_Tamer2013" class="citation book cs1">Birgit Krawietz; Georges Tamer (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5noBQAAQBAJ"><i>Islamic Theology, Philosophy and Law: Debating Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des islamischen Orients</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 276–277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-028540-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-028540-6"><bdi>978-3-11-028540-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Theology%2C+Philosophy+and+Law%3A+Debating+Ibn+Taymiyya+and+Ibn+Qayyim+al-Jawziyya+Studien+zur+Geschichte+und+Kultur+des+islamischen+Orients&rft.pages=276-277&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-11-028540-6&rft.au=Birgit+Krawietz&rft.au=Georges+Tamer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh5noBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaid_Al-Sharif2015" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zaid Al-Sharif (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.alukah.net/sharia/0/82681/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A-%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D9%8A/">"آراء الغزالي وابن تيمية في الحد المنطقي"</a> [Al-Ghazali and Ibn Taymiyyah's views on the logical definition]. <i>alukah.net</i> (in Arabic). لألوكة<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=alukah.net&rft.atitle=%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A+%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D9%8A&rft.date=2015&rft.au=Zaid+Al-Sharif&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.alukah.net%2Fsharia%2F0%2F82681%2F%25D8%25A2%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D8%25A1-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25BA%25D8%25B2%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%258A-%25D9%2588%25D8%25A7%25D8%25A8%25D9%2586-%25D8%25AA%25D9%258A%25D9%2585%25D9%258A%25D8%25A9-%25D9%2581%25D9%258A-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AD%25D8%25AF-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2585%25D9%2586%25D8%25B7%25D9%2582%25D9%258A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span> References: <ul><li>Al-Mustasfa, pp. 11-14, 19-24</li> <li>Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin, pp. 45, 48, 50-53, 55-57, 61, 64, 68, 70, 72, 80-83, 101, 103-104, 113, 114, 117-119, 121.</li> <li>Majmu' Al-Fatawa, vol. 9, pp. 23-25.</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowering2013" class="citation book cs1">Bowering, Gerhard, ed. (2013). <i>The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 506–507. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13484-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13484-0"><bdi>978-0-691-13484-0</bdi></a>. <q>al-Shawkani, Muhammad b. 'Ali (1760–1834)... dismissed speculative theology (kalām) and reason-based arguments as idle talk and was a staunch Salafi in matters of creed</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Political+Thought&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=506-507&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13484-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-al-Shawkani;_anti_kalam-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-al-Shawkani;_anti_kalam_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaykel2003" class="citation book cs1">Haykel, Bernard (2003). "The Absolute Interpreter and Renewer of the Thirteenth Century AH". <i>Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad Al-Shawkani</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52890-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52890-0"><bdi>978-0-521-52890-0</bdi></a>. <q>Shawkänī, as was mentioned already, was opposed to kaläm, which he regarded as a science that led to more confusion than clarity for the believer. He admits that he felt confused by it (lam azdad bihā illā þpiratan) and he found it to consist of idle talk (khuza"balār)... Shawkānī appears to fit more properly, though perhaps not entirely, in the Hanbalī tradition, which rejected outright many of the theological claims made by the various schools of kalām.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Absolute+Interpreter+and+Renewer+of+the+Thirteenth+Century+AH&rft.btitle=Revival+and+Reform+in+Islam%3A+The+Legacy+of+Muhammad+Al-Shawkani&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-52890-0&rft.aulast=Haykel&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zahiri_Madhhab;_Shawkani-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zahiri_Madhhab;_Shawkani_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmad_Farid_Al-Mazidi2023" class="citation book cs1">Ahmad Farid Al-Mazidi (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K27dEAAAQBAJ"><i>المذهب العارف ومذاهب أخرى (دائرة المعارف -8-)</i></a>. f Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية‎. pp. iii, 28, 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7451-8264-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7451-8264-7"><bdi>978-2-7451-8264-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%87%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%81+%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B0%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A8+%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%B1%D9%89+%28%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B1%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%81+-8-%29&rft.pages=iii%2C+28%2C+31&rft.pub=f+Dar+Al+Kotob+Al+Ilmiyah+%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9%E2%80%8E.&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-2-7451-8264-7&rft.au=Ahmad+Farid+Al-Mazidi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK27dEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ali, Mohamed Bin. "Salafis, salafism and modern salafism: what lies behind a term?." (2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowering2013" class="citation book cs1">Bowering, Gerhard, ed. (2013). <i>The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 484, 506. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13484-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13484-0"><bdi>978-0-691-13484-0</bdi></a>. <q>Shawkani .. is a prominent authority for the Salafi version of Islam</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Political+Thought&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=484%2C+506&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13484-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_HaykelThomas_HegghammerStéphane_Lacroix2015" class="citation book cs1">Bernard Haykel; Thomas Hegghammer; Stéphane Lacroix (2015). <i>Saudi Arabia in Transition: Insights on Social, Political, Economic and Religious Change</i>. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. p. 158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00629-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00629-4"><bdi>978-1-107-00629-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saudi+Arabia+in+Transition%3A+Insights+on+Social%2C+Political%2C+Economic+and+Religious+Change&rft.place=New+York%2C+USA&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-00629-4&rft.au=Bernard+Haykel&rft.au=Thomas+Hegghammer&rft.au=St%C3%A9phane+Lacroix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrkaby2021" class="citation book cs1">Orkaby, Asher (2021). <i>Yemen: What Everyone Needs to Know</i>. New York, USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 120, 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-093226-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-093226-8"><bdi>978-0-19-093226-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yemen%3A+What+Everyone+Needs+to+Know&rft.place=New+York%2C+USA&rft.pages=120%2C+160&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-093226-8&rft.aulast=Orkaby&rft.aufirst=Asher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbualrab2013" class="citation book cs1">Abualrab, Jalal (2013). <i>Biography and Mission of Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab</i>. New York, NY: Madinah Publishers and Distributors. p. 497. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9856326-9-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9856326-9-4"><bdi>978-0-9856326-9-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biography+and+Mission+of+Muhammad+Ibn+Abdul+Wahhab&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=497&rft.pub=Madinah+Publishers+and+Distributors&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-9856326-9-4&rft.aulast=Abualrab&rft.aufirst=Jalal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFul_Haq2011" class="citation web cs1">ul Haq, Asim (August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wahhabis.com/articles/ytouz-imam-al-shawkani-d-1250h-on-the-writings-dawah-and-adversaries-of-shaykh-muhammad-bin-abd-al-wahhaab.cfm">"Al Imam al-Shawkani (d. 1250H) on the Writings, Da'wah and Adversaries of Shaykh Muhammad Bin Abd Al-Wahhab"</a>. <i><span></span>'Wahhabis'.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140724110456/http://www.wahhabis.com/articles/ytouz-imam-al-shawkani-d-1250h-on-the-writings-dawah-and-adversaries-of-shaykh-muhammad-bin-abd-al-wahhaab.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 24 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%27Wahhabis%27.com&rft.atitle=Al+Imam+al-Shawkani+%28d.+1250H%29+on+the+Writings%2C+Da%27wah+and+Adversaries+of+Shaykh+Muhammad+Bin+Abd+Al-Wahhab&rft.date=2011-08&rft.aulast=ul+Haq&rft.aufirst=Asim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wahhabis.com%2Farticles%2Fytouz-imam-al-shawkani-d-1250h-on-the-writings-dawah-and-adversaries-of-shaykh-muhammad-bin-abd-al-wahhaab.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shawkani_anti_kalam_2-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shawkani_anti_kalam_2_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoussa2016" class="citation book cs1">Moussa, Mohammed (2016). "3: Renewal in the formation of the Islamic tradition". <i>Politics of the Islamic Tradition: The thought of Muhammad al-Ghazali</i>. New York, USA: Routledge. pp. 56–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-84121-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-84121-5"><bdi>978-1-138-84121-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3%3A+Renewal+in+the+formation+of+the+Islamic+tradition&rft.btitle=Politics+of+the+Islamic+Tradition%3A+The+thought+of+Muhammad+al-Ghazali&rft.place=New+York%2C+USA&rft.pages=56-59&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-138-84121-5&rft.aulast=Moussa&rft.aufirst=Mohammed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shawkani_anti_kalam_3-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shawkani_anti_kalam_3_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeaman2022" class="citation book cs1">Leaman, Oliver (2022). <i>Routledge Handbook of Islamic Ritual and Practice</i>. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-49123-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-49123-9"><bdi>978-0-367-49123-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+Islamic+Ritual+and+Practice&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-367-49123-9&rft.aulast=Leaman&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shawkani_anti_kalam_4-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shawkani_anti_kalam_4_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVassiliev1998" class="citation book cs1">Vassiliev, Alexei (1998). <i>The History of Saudi Arabia</i>. London, UK: Saqi Books. p. 146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86356-399-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-86356-399-6"><bdi>0-86356-399-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Saudi+Arabia&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Saqi+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-86356-399-6&rft.aulast=Vassiliev&rft.aufirst=Alexei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shawkani_anti_kalam_5-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shawkani_anti_kalam_5_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarr_BrianIndira_Mahalingam1997" class="citation book cs1">Carr Brian; Indira Mahalingam (1997). <i>Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy</i>. London, UK: Routledge. p. 931. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-01350-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-203-01350-6"><bdi>0-203-01350-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Companion+Encyclopedia+of+Asian+Philosophy&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=931&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-203-01350-6&rft.au=Carr+Brian&rft.au=Indira+Mahalingam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-umma-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-umma_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060501222723/http://umma.ws/Fatwa/family/">"Fatwa: What does 'family' mean?"</a>. <i>Umma.ws</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://umma.ws/Fatwa/family/">the original</a> on 2006-05-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Umma.ws&rft.atitle=Fatwa%3A+What+does+%27family%27+mean%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fumma.ws%2FFatwa%2Ffamily%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmidtke_2014_428-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidtke_2014_428_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidtke_2014_428_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidtkeEl-Rouayheb2014" class="citation book cs1">Schmidtke, Sabine; El-Rouayheb, Khaled (2014). "Theology and Logic". <i>The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 428. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969670-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969670-3"><bdi>978-0-19-969670-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Theology+and+Logic&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Islamic+Theology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=428&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969670-3&rft.aulast=Schmidtke&rft.aufirst=Sabine&rft.au=El-Rouayheb%2C+Khaled&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeijer2014" class="citation book cs1">Meijer, Roel (2014). "Salafism In Pakistan: The Ahl-e Hadith Movement". <i>Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-933343-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-933343-1"><bdi>978-0-19-933343-1</bdi></a>. <q>The Jama'at Ahl-e Hadith, an elitist politico religious movement aimed at islah (reform), has its origins in the early 1870s. Like other Sunni reform movements, it claims to continue the tradition of Shah Waliullah Dehlavi (1703–1762) whom it regards as the first modern Ahl-e Hadith member and draws on ideas of Syed Ahmed Barelvi (Ahmed Shaheed) (1786–1831), follower of Shah Abdul Aziz (1746–1824), the son of Shah Waliullah, and the Yemenite qadi Mohammad ibn Ali al Shawkani (1775–1839).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Salafism+In+Pakistan%3A+The+Ahl-e+Hadith+Movement&rft.btitle=Global+Salafism%3A+Islam%27s+New+Religious+Movement&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-933343-1&rft.aulast=Meijer&rft.aufirst=Roel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSophie_Gilliat-Ray2010" class="citation book cs1">Sophie Gilliat-Ray (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CUFGGwAACAAJ"><i>Muslims in Britain: An Introduction</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83006-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83006-5"><bdi>978-0-521-83006-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslims+in+Britain%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83006-5&rft.au=Sophie+Gilliat-Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCUFGGwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNizami1990" class="citation journal cs1">Nizami, Khaliq AHmad (1990). "The Impact of Ibn Taymiyya on South Asia". <i>Journal of Islamic Studies</i>. <b>1</b>. Oxford University Press: 139–140. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjis%2F1.1.120">10.1093/jis/1.1.120</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26195671">26195671</a>. <q>After Shah Wali Allah, the most powerful advocate of Ibn Taimiyya's ideology was Nawab Sayyid Muhammad Siddiq Hasan Khan (1832–1890)..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Islamic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+Ibn+Taymiyya+on+South+Asia&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=139-140&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjis%2F1.1.120&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26195671%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nizami&rft.aufirst=Khaliq+AHmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrawietzTamer2013" class="citation book cs1">Krawietz, birgit; Tamer, Georges, eds. (2013). "Screening Ṣiddīq Ḥasan Khān's Library: The Use of Ḥanbalī Literature in 19th-Century Bhopal". <i>Islamic Theology, Philosophy and Law: Debating Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya</i>. Berlin, Germany: Walter De Gruyter. pp. 195–196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-028534-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-028534-5"><bdi>978-3-11-028534-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Screening+%E1%B9%A2idd%C4%ABq+%E1%B8%A4asan+Kh%C4%81n%27s+Library%3A+The+Use+of+%E1%B8%A4anbal%C4%AB+Literature+in+19th-Century+Bhopal&rft.btitle=Islamic+Theology%2C+Philosophy+and+Law%3A+Debating+Ibn+Taymiyya+and+Ibn+Qayyim+al-Jawziyya&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Germany&rft.pages=195-196&rft.pub=Walter+De+Gruyter&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-11-028534-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olidort_2015_52–62-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Olidort_2015_52–62_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlidort2015" class="citation thesis cs1">Olidort, Jacob (2015). "A New Curriculum: Rashīd Riḍā and Traditionalist Salafism". <i>In Defense of Tradition: Muhammad Nasir Al-Din Al-Albani and the Salafi Method</i> (Thesis). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. pp. 52–62. <q>Rashīd Riḍā presented these core ideas of Traditionalist Salafism, especially the purported interest in ḥadīth of the early generations of Muslims, as a remedy for correcting Islamic practice and belief during his time.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=In+Defense+of+Tradition%3A+Muhammad+Nasir+Al-Din+Al-Albani+and+the+Salafi+Method&rft.inst=Princeton+University&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Olidort&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauziere2016" class="citation book cs1">Lauziere, Henri (2016). <i>The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-17550-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-17550-0"><bdi>978-0-231-17550-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Salafism%3A+Islamic+Reform+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-231-17550-0&rft.aulast=Lauziere&rft.aufirst=Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYusuf_Abu_Ubaidah_as-Sidawy2010" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Yusuf Abu Ubaidah as-Sidawy (13 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abiubaidah.com/tahukah-anda-di-mana-allah/comment-page-1/#_ftn29">"15 Alasan Kokohnya Aqidah Salaf Shalih"</a> [Do You Know Where Allah Is?]. <i>Yusuf Abu Ubaidah Official</i> (in Indonesian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yusuf+Abu+Ubaidah+Official&rft.atitle=15+Alasan+Kokohnya+Aqidah+Salaf+Shalih&rft.date=2010-03-13&rft.au=Yusuf+Abu+Ubaidah+as-Sidawy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabiubaidah.com%2Ftahukah-anda-di-mana-allah%2Fcomment-page-1%2F%23_ftn29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span> concise reference text from: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Albani2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Al-Albani" title="Al-Albani">Al-Albani</a> (2003). "1". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elibrary.staidaf.ac.id/index.php?p=show_detail&id=573"><i>Irwaul Ghalil</i></a> [<i>The stability of the Salaf's creed and its safety from changes</i>] (in Arabic). Saudi Arabia: Najla Press. p. 113<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1&rft.btitle=Irwaul+Ghalil&rft.place=Saudi+Arabia&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=Najla+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Al-Albani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felibrary.staidaf.ac.id%2Findex.php%3Fp%3Dshow_detail%26id%3D573&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIlahi" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ilahi, Muhammad Manzoor. <a href="/wiki/Abubakar_Muhammad_Zakaria" title="Abubakar Muhammad Zakaria">Zakariya, Abu Bakr Muhammad</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d1.islamhouse.com/data/bn/ih_articles/single3/bn_somaj_songoskare_sothik_aqidar_gurutto.pdf"><i>"Samāja sanskārē saṭhika ākīdāra gurutba" (The Importance of Right Aqeedah in Social Reformation)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Bengali). Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Islamic_Affairs,_Dawah,_and_Guidance" title="Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Dawah, and Guidance">Islamic Propagation Office in Rabwah</a>. pp. 11–12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Sam%C4%81ja+sansk%C4%81r%C4%93+sa%E1%B9%ADhika+%C4%81k%C4%ABd%C4%81ra+gurutba%22+%28The+Importance+of+Right+Aqeedah+in+Social+Reformation%29&rft.place=Riyadh%2C+Saudi+Arabia&rft.pages=11-12&rft.pub=Islamic+Propagation+Office+in+Rabwah&rft.aulast=Ilahi&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Manzoor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fd1.islamhouse.com%2Fdata%2Fbn%2Fih_articles%2Fsingle3%2Fbn_somaj_songoskare_sothik_aqidar_gurutto.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References">References</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Jahiz1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rsagahfp_202007/04_RsaGah/page/n239/mode/2up"><i>Risalah fi Sina'ah al-Kalam</i></a>. Vol. IV. <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>. pp. 241–250.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Risalah+fi+Sina%27ah+al-Kalam&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pages=241-250&rft.date=1979&rft.au=Al-Jahiz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frsagahfp_202007%2F04_RsaGah%2Fpage%2Fn239%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Farabi1949" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a> (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shiabooks.net/library.php?id=10042"><i>Ihsa al-Ulum</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>: Dar al-Fikr al-Arabi. pp. 107–113.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ihsa+al-Ulum&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pages=107-113&rft.pub=Dar+al-Fikr+al-Arabi&rft.date=1949&rft.au=Al-Farabi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshiabooks.net%2Flibrary.php%3Fid%3D10042&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/AlElamBemaqebAlIslam/page/n1/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>Al-Ilam bi-Manaqis al-Islam</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Riyadh" title="Riyadh">Riyadh</a>: Dar al-Asala. pp. 107–113.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Ilam+bi-Manaqis+al-Islam&rft.place=Riyadh&rft.pages=107-113&rft.pub=Dar+al-Asala&rft.date=1988&rft.au=Abu+al-Hassan+al-Amiri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FAlElamBemaqebAlIslam%2Fpage%2Fn1%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbu_al-Yusr_al-Bazdawi1985" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Yusr_al-Bazdawi" title="Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi">Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi</a> (1985). <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Peter_Linss" class="extiw" title="de:Hans-Peter Linss">Hans-Peter Linss</a>, Ahmad Higazi as-Saqqa <span class="cs1-format">[in German]</span> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/19332/usool-al-deen/page/14/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>Al-Ilam bi-Manaqis al-Islam</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>: <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_Al-Sharif" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Azhar Al-Sharif">Al-Azhar Al-Sharif</a>. p. 66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Ilam+bi-Manaqis+al-Islam&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Al-Azhar+Al-Sharif&rft.date=1985&rft.au=Abu+al-Yusr+al-Bazdawi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F19332%2Fusool-al-deen%2Fpage%2F14%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_al-Tilimsani2010" class="citation book cs1">Ibn al-Tilimsani (2010). 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Translated by Josef van Ess. <a href="/wiki/Franz_Steiner_Verlag" title="Franz Steiner Verlag">Franz Steiner Verlag</a>. pp. 30–60.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-Mawaqif+fi+%27ilm+al-Kalam&rft.btitle=The+Epistemology+of+Adudaddin+al-Iji&rft.pages=30-60&rft.pub=Franz+Steiner+Verlag&rft.date=1966&rft.au=Adud+al-Din+al-Iji&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Taftazani1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Al-Taftazani" title="Al-Taftazani">Al-Taftazani</a> (1998). Salih Musa Sharaf (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/SHMAQT01_201611/SHMAQT01/page/n161/mode/2up"><i>Sharh al-Maqasid</i></a>. 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Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>: Dar Ihya al-Turat al-Arabi. pp. 22–24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sharh+al-Aqa%CA%BEid+al-Nasafiya&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=22-24&rft.pub=Dar+Ihya+al-Turat+al-Arabi&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Al-Taftazani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FSharNasafiya%2Fpage%2Fn23%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_'Arafa2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_%27Arafa" title="Ibn 'Arafa">Ibn 'Arafa</a> (2014). 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Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>: Maktabat Lubnan. pp. 29–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kitab+Kassaf+Istilahat+al-Funan+wa+al-Umm&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=29-31&rft.pub=Maktabat+Lubnan&rft.date=2011&rft.au=al-Tah%C4%81naw%C4%AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fahbab_1_20150622%2F%25D9%2583%25D8%25B4%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%2520%25D8%25A5%25D8%25B5%25D8%25B7%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AD%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AA%2520%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2581%25D9%2586%25D9%2588%25D9%2586%25201%2Fpage%2Fn87%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorteza_Motahhari1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Morteza_Motahhari" title="Morteza Motahhari">Morteza Motahhari</a> (1991). 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(1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/116836545/Rethinking-Traditions-in-Modern-Islamic-Thought-Daniel-w-Brown"><i>Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-57077-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-57077-8"><bdi>0-521-57077-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+tradition+in+modern+Islamic+thought&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-521-57077-8&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Daniel+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdocument%2F116836545%2FRethinking-Traditions-in-Modern-Islamic-Thought-Daniel-w-Brown&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBulğen2019" class="citation journal cs1">Bulğen, Mehmet (December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/913963">"al-Māturīdī and Atomism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ULUM: Journal of Religious Inquiries</i>. <b>2</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Ankara" title="Ankara">Ankara</a>: ULUM İslami İlimler Eğitim ve Araştırma Merkezi: 223–264. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.3601654">10.5281/zenodo.3601654</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2645-9132">2645-9132</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201127235117/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/913963">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ULUM%3A+Journal+of+Religious+Inquiries&rft.atitle=al-M%C4%81tur%C4%ABd%C4%AB+and+Atomism&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=223-264&rft.date=2019-12&rft.eissn=2645-9132&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5281%2Fzenodo.3601654&rft.aulast=Bul%C4%9Fen&rft.aufirst=Mehmet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdergipark.org.tr%2Ftr%2Fdownload%2Farticle-file%2F913963&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaspar1998" class="citation book cs1">Caspar, Robert (1998). <i>A Historical Introduction to Islamic Theology: Muḥammad and the Classical Period</i>. Studi arabo-islamici del PISAI. Vol. 11. <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>: <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Institute_of_Arab_and_Islamic_Studies" title="Pontifical Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies">Pontifical Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-85907-10-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-85907-10-2"><bdi>978-88-85907-10-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42577199">42577199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Historical+Introduction+to+Islamic+Theology%3A+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+and+the+Classical+Period&rft.place=Rome&rft.series=Studi+arabo-islamici+del+PISAI&rft.pub=Pontifical+Institute+of+Arab+and+Islamic+Studies&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42577199&rft.isbn=978-88-85907-10-2&rft.aulast=Caspar&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalverson2010" class="citation book cs1">Halverson, Jeffry R. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IYzGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">"The Doctrines of Sunni Theology"</a>. <i>Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism</i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 12–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230106581_2">10.1057/9780230106581_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10658-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10658-1"><bdi>978-0-230-10658-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Doctrines+of+Sunni+Theology&rft.btitle=Theology+and+Creed+in+Sunni+Islam%3A+The+Muslim+Brotherhood%2C+Ash%27arism%2C+and+Political+Sunnism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=12-31&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230106581_2&rft.isbn=978-0-230-10658-1&rft.aulast=Halverson&rft.aufirst=Jeffry+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIYzGAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinds1993" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Hinds" title="Martin Hinds">Hinds, M.</a> (1993). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/mihna-COM_0732?s.num=10">"Mihna"</a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W. P.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume VII:<i> Mif–Naz</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 2–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09419-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09419-2"><bdi>978-90-04-09419-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mihna&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+VII%3A+Mif%E2%80%93Naz&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=2-6&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09419-2&rft.aulast=Hinds&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-2%2Fmihna-COM_0732%3Fs.num%3D10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKars2019" class="citation book cs1">Kars, Aydogan (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ANqUDwAAQBAJ"><i>Unsaying God: Negative Theology in Medieval Islam</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190942458.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780190942458.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-094245-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-094245-8"><bdi>978-0-19-094245-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2018048099">2018048099</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1147875085">1147875085</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unsaying+God%3A+Negative+Theology+in+Medieval+Islam&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1147875085&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2018048099&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190942458.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-094245-8&rft.aulast=Kars&rft.aufirst=Aydogan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DANqUDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurvitz2002" class="citation book cs1">Hurvitz, Nimrod (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W5LxLkUYMTUC"><i>The Formation of Hanbalism: Piety into Power</i></a>. 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Trans. Bn. Mac Guckin de Slane. Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ibn+Khallikan%27s+Biographical+Dictionary%2C+Vol.+I&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Oriental+Translation+Fund+of+Great+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.date=1871&rft.aulast=Ibn+Khallikan&rft.aufirst=Shams+al-Din+Abu+al-Abbas+Ahmad+ibn+Muhammad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD9jd70CULyYC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadelungSchmidtke2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Madelung, Wilferd</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sabine_Schmidtke" title="Sabine Schmidtke">Schmidtke, Sabine</a>, eds. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ONM6DQAAQBAJ">"Al-Ṣāḥib Ibn ʿAbbād, Promoter of Rational Theology: Two Muʿtazilī kalām texts from the Cairo Geniza"</a>. <i>Al-Ṣāḥib Ibn ʿAbbād Promoter of Rational Theology</i>. Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 132. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. i–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004323735_001">10.1163/9789004323735_001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-32373-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-32373-5"><bdi>978-90-04-32373-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0929-2403">0929-2403</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/952470870">952470870</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-%E1%B9%A2%C4%81%E1%B8%A5ib+Ibn+%CA%BFAbb%C4%81d%2C+Promoter+of+Rational+Theology%3A+Two+Mu%CA%BFtazil%C4%AB+kal%C4%81m+texts+from+the+Cairo+Geniza&rft.btitle=Al-%E1%B9%A2%C4%81%E1%B8%A5ib+Ibn+%CA%BFAbb%C4%81d+Promoter+of+Rational+Theology&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.series=Islamic+History+and+Civilization&rft.pages=i-102&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F952470870&rft.issn=0929-2403&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004323735_001&rft.isbn=978-90-04-32373-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DONM6DQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahdi_Tourage,_Ovamir_Anjum2017" class="citation book cs1">Mahdi Tourage, Ovamir Anjum, ed. 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Vol. 99. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004259683_001">10.1163/9789004259683_001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25968-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25968-3"><bdi>978-90-04-25968-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0169-8729">0169-8729</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2014034960">2014034960</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1041077026">1041077026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theology+of+Ab%C5%AB+l-Q%C4%81sim+al-Balkh%C4%AB%2Fal-Ka%CA%BFb%C4%AB+%28d.+319%2F931%29&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.series=Islamic+Philosophy%2C+Theology+and+Science%3A+Texts+and+Studies&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004259683_001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1041077026&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2014034960&rft.issn=0169-8729&rft.isbn=978-90-04-25968-3&rft.aulast=el-Omari&rft.aufirst=Racha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9nwJDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatton1897" class="citation book cs1">Patton, Walter M. 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Murdoch</i>). <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>: 68–78. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157338209X425506">10.1163/157338209X425506</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3823">1573-3823</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20617778">20617778</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19831225">19831225</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+Science+and+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+Simple+Ontology+of+Kal%C4%81m+Atomism%3A+An+Outline&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1-3%3A+%27%27Evidence+and+Interpretation%3A+Studies+on+Early+Science+and+Medicine+in+Honor+of+John+E.+Murdoch%27%27&rft.pages=68-78&rft.date=2009-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19831225&rft.issn=1573-3823&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20617778%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F157338209X425506&rft.aulast=Sabra&rft.aufirst=A.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-Salimi2021" class="citation book cs1">al-Salimi, Abdulrahman, ed. 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V.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (1960). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ahmad-b-abi-duad-SIM_0391">"Ahmad b. Abi Du'ad"</a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/H._A._R._Gibb" title="H. A. R. Gibb">Gibb, H. A. R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hendrik_Kramers" title="Johannes Hendrik Kramers">Kramers, J. H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/%C3%89variste_L%C3%A9vi-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Évariste Lévi-Provençal">Lévi-Provençal, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume I:<i> A–B</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 271. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469456">495469456</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ahmad+b.+Abi+Du%27ad&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+I%3A+A%E2%80%93B&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F495469456&rft.aulast=Zetterst%C3%A9en&rft.aufirst=K.+V.&rft.au=Pellat%2C+Ch.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-2%2Fahmad-b-abi-duad-SIM_0391&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalam" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Eissa, Mohamed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gorgiaspress.com/theology-and-legal-theory-in-the-fiftheleventh-century"><i>The Jurist and the Theologian: Speculative Theology in Shāfiʿī Legal Theory</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Gorgias_Press" title="Gorgias Press">Gorgias Press</a>: Piscataway, NJ, 2017. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4632-0618-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4632-0618-5">978-1-4632-0618-5</a>.</li> <li>Wolfson, Harry Austryn, <i>The Philosophy of the Kalam,</i> Harvard University Press, 1976, 779 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66580-4">978-0-674-66580-4</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fuv8J-g7EdAC">Google Books</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ThePhilosophyOfKalam">text at archive.org</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalam&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://masud.co.uk/kalam-and-islam/">Kalam and Islam by Sheikh Nuh Keller</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livingislam.org/k/ki_e.html">Kalam and Islam</a>, Living Islam</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedie-humanisme.com/?Islamic-Kal%C4%81m">Islamic Kalām: Rational Expressions of Medieval Theological Thought</a>, Encyclopedia of Mediterranean Humanism</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God in Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">In Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in 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title="Zakat">Zakat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_leaders" title="Islamic religious leaders">Leaders</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam" title="Timeline of the history of Islam">Timeline of the history of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahaba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Shi'a Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate"><i>Rashidun</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto 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and branches">Denominations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Bektashi Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhakkima" title="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azariqa" title="Azariqa">Azariqa</a></li> <li>Moderate Kharijites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azzabas" title="Azzabas">Azzabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukkari" title="Nukkari">Nukkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam#Wahbi_school" title="Ibadi Islam">Wahbi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufri" title="Sufri">Sufri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdat" title="Najdat">Najdat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" 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class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_family_jurisprudence" title="Islamic family jurisprudence">Family</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marital_jurisprudence" title="Islamic marital jurisprudence">Marriage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_sexual_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic sexual jurisprudence">Sex</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marriage_contract" title="Islamic marriage contract">Marriage contract</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahr" title="Mahr">Mahr</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahram" title="Mahram">Mahram</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Nikah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nikah_mut%27ah" title="Nikah mut'ah">Nikah mut'ah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">Zina</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Baligh" title="Baligh">Baligh</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_criminal_jurisprudence" title="Islamic criminal jurisprudence">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">Blasphemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">Death penalty</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">Dhabiĥa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam" title="Divorce in Islam">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maisir" title="Maisir">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Gender segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_honorifics" title="Islamic honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hudud" title="Hudud">Hudud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_inheritance_jurisprudence" title="Islamic inheritance jurisprudence">Inheritance</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war in Islam">POWs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_sharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sources of sharia">Sources of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_theological_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theological jurisprudence">Theological</a> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kalam</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Schools of islamic jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Islamic_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="padding-left:2.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Theological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_evolution" title="Islamic views on evolution">Creationism (evolution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Liberalism and progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shu%27ubiyya" title="Shu'ubiyya">Shu'ubiyya</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_non-Islamic_places_of_worship_into_mosques" title="Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques">Conversion to mosques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="padding-left:2.5em;"> </span>Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Mormonism" title="Islam and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Islam" title="Protestantism and Islam">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze#Relationship_with_Muslims" title="Druze">Druzism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Jainism" title="Islam and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Sikhism" title="Islam and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam_by_country" title="Apostasy in Islam by country">Apostasy in Islam by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-Muslims" title="Ex-Muslims">Ex-Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_Muslims" title="List of former Muslims">List of former Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ex-Muslim_organisations" title="List of ex-Muslim organisations">List of ex-Muslim organisations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism of Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Muslim">Cultural Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamism" title="Criticism of Islamism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Islamism" title="Post-Islamism">Post-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_miracles" title="Islamic view of miracles">Islamic view of miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_domestic_violence" title="Islam and domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_in_Islam" title="Nursing in Islam">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_and_miracles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran and miracles">Quran and miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Islam" title="Symbols of Islam">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_philosophy" title="Template:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology"><i>Aqidah</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(theology)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Aql" title="'Aql">'<i>Aql</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(intellect)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">medieval astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam"><i>Kalam</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(dialectic)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh"><i>Fiqh</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(jurisprudence)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Natural philosophy <span style="font-size:85%;">(physics)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa"><i>Madrasah</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(education)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism <span style="font-size:85%;">(mysticism)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Farabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_metaphysics" title="Sufi metaphysics">metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_psychology" title="Sufi psychology">psychology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Transcendent theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Traditionalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">ʻAṣabīya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hal_(Sufism)" title="Hal (Sufism)">Ḥāl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27jaz" title="I'jaz">Iʻjaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ʼIjtihād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_(Arabic)" title="Ilm (Arabic)">ʻIlm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irfan" title="Irfan">ʻIrfān</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">Ijmāʿ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslaha" title="Maslaha">Maslaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafs" title="Nafs">Nafs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalb" title="Qalb">Qalb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">Qiyās</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">Shūrā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawḥīd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophers_by_century_(CE)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_philosophers" title="List of Muslim philosophers">Philosophers</a> by century (<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th–10th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Sahl_Rabban_al-Tabari" title="Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari">Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_Iranshahri" title="Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri">Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Apharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hatim_Ahmad_ibn_Hamdan_al-Razi" title="Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi">Abu Hatim al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Al Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Ikhwan al-Safa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sulayman_Sijistani" title="Abu Sulayman Sijistani">Abu Sulayman Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Masarra" title="Ibn Masarra">Ibn Masarrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_al-Sijistani" title="Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani">Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Ibn Miskawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahmany%C4%81r" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmanyār">Bahmanyār</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27ayyad_fi%27l-Din_al-Shirazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi">Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Khusraw" title="Nasir Khusraw">Nasir Khusraw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afdal_al-Din_Kashani" title="Afdal al-Din Kashani">Afdal al-Din Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahi_Evren" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahi Evren">Ahi Evren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoja_Akhmet_Yassawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoja Akhmet Yassawi">Ahmad Yasavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Quzat_Hamadani" title="Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani">Ayn-al-Quzat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyám</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_Tabrizi" title="Shams Tabrizi">Shams Tabrizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Bektash_Veli" title="Haji Bektash Veli">Hajji Bektash Wali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sab%27in" title="Ibn Sab'in">Ibn Sab’in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ath%C4%ABr_al-D%C4%ABn_al-Abhar%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Athīr al-Dīn al-Abharī">al-Abharī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_al-Din_al-Qunawi" title="Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi">Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th–16th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunus_Emre" title="Yunus Emre">Yunus Emre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Bayram_Veli" title="Haji Bayram Veli">Hajji Bayram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalaladdin_Davani" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalaladdin Davani">Jalaladdin Davani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_ad-Din_Dashtaki" title="Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki">Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Hudayi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud Hudayi">Aziz Mahmud Hudayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadi_Mir_Husayn_al-Maybudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi">Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Shabestari" title="Mahmoud Shabestari">Mahmud Shabistari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Haydar_Amuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Haydar Amuli">Sayyid Haydar Amuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daw%C5%ABd_al-Qay%E1%B9%A3ar%C4%AB" title="Dawūd al-Qayṣarī">Dawūd al-Qayṣarī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jami" title="Jami">Jami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th–19th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Damad" title="Mir Damad">Mir Damad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Fendereski" title="Mir Fendereski">Mir Fendereski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohsen_Fayz_Kashani" title="Mohsen Fayz Kashani">Mohsen Fayz Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Razzaq_Lahiji" title="Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji">Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajab_Ali_Tabrizi" title="Rajab Ali Tabrizi">Rajab Ali Tabrizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qazi_Sa%E2%80%99id_Qumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Qazi Sa’id Qumi">Qazi Sa’id Qumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah_Waliullah_Dehlawi" title="Shah Waliullah Dehlawi">Shah Waliullah Dehlawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadi_Sabzavari" title="Hadi Sabzavari">Hādī Sabzavārī</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Tabataba%27i" title="Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i">Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riaz_Ahmed_Gohar_Shahi" title="Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi">Gohar Shahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Baqir_al-Sadr" title="Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr">Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ismail_al-Faruqi" title="Ismail al-Faruqi">Ismail al-Faruqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syed_Muhammad_Naquib_al-Attas" title="Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas">Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdolkarim_Soroush" title="Abdolkarim Soroush">Abdolkarim Soroush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gholamhossein_Ebrahimi_Dinani" title="Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani">Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Abdurrahman" title="Taha Abdurrahman">Taha Abdurrahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Abed_al-Jabri" title="Mohammed Abed al-Jabri">Mohammed Abed al-Jabri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Arkoun" title="Mohammed Arkoun">Mohammed Arkoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fouad_Zakariyya" title="Fouad Zakariyya">Fouad Zakariyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reza_Davari_Ardakani" title="Reza Davari Ardakani">Reza Davari Ardakani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Fardid" title="Ahmad Fardid">Ahmad Fardid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mostafa_Malekian" title="Mostafa Malekian">Mostafa Malekian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Hassanzadeh_Amoli" title="Hassan Hassanzadeh Amoli">Hasanzadeh Amoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdollah_Javadi-Amoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdollah Javadi-Amoli">Javadi Amoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_Nasir_Hunzai" title="Nasir al-Din Nasir Hunzai">Partawi Shah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_theology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_theology" title="Template:Islamic theology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_theology" title="Template talk:Islamic theology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_theology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic theology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_theology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Islamic theology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="FieldsTheologiansBooks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Fields</li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_theologians" title="List of Muslim theologians">Theologians</a></li><li>Books</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">Aqidah</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kalam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%27Aql" title="'Aql">‘Aql</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Islam" title="Education in Islam">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_metaphysics" title="Sufi metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_theologians" title="List of Muslim theologians">Theologians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Abu_Hasan_al-Ash%27ari" title="Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari">al-Ash'ari</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Bayhaqi" title="Al-Bayhaqi">Al-Bayhaqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Baqillani" title="Al-Baqillani">Al-Baqillani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Juwayni" title="Al-Juwayni">Al-Juwayni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qushayri" title="Al-Qushayri">Al-Qushayri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shahrastani" title="Al-Shahrastani">Al-Shahrastani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Taftazani" title="Al-Taftazani">Al-Taftazani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Maziri" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Maziri">Al-Maziri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Furak" title="Ibn Furak">Ibn Furak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Zayd_al-Qayrawani" title="Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani">Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariyya_al-Ansari" title="Zakariyya al-Ansari">Zakariyya al-Ansari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_al-Baghdadi" title="Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi">Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ishaq_al-Isfara%27ini" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Ishaq al-Isfara'ini">Abu Ishaq al-Isfara'ini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Aqil" title="Ibn Aqil">Ibn Aqil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tumart" title="Ibn Tumart">Ibn Tumart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_Gilani" title="Abdul Qadir Gilani">Abdul Qadir Gilani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Walid_al-Baji" title="Abu al-Walid al-Baji">Abu al-Walid al-Baji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_ibn_al-Arabi" title="Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi">Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Jawzi" title="Ibn al-Jawzi">Ibn al-Jawzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadi_Ayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadi Ayyad">Qadi Ayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Rifa%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad al-Rifa'i">Ahmad al-Rifa'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayf_al-Din_al-Amidi" title="Sayf al-Din al-Amidi">Sayf al-Din al-Amidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izz_al-Din_ibn_%27Abd_al-Salam" title="Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam">Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqi_al-Din_al-Subki" title="Taqi al-Din al-Subki">Taqi al-Din al-Subki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihab_al-Din_al-Qarafi" title="Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi">Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hayyan_al-Gharnati" title="Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati">Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Baydawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Baydawi">Al-Baydawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arafa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Arafa">Ibn Arafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Tha%27alibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi">Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hajar_al-Haytami" title="Ibn Hajar al-Haytami">Ibn Hajar al-Haytami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sha%27rani" title="Al-Sha'rani">Al-Sha'rani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_al-Dawani" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalal al-Din al-Dawani">Jalal al-Din al-Dawani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Maqqari_al-Tilmisani" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Maqqari al-Tilmisani">Al-Maqqari al-Tilmisani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Fasi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Fasi">Abd al-Rahman al-Fasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Ashir" title="Ibn Ashir">Ibn Ashir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Bah%C5%ABt%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Bahūtī">Al-Bahūtī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mayyara" title="Muhammad Mayyara">Muhammad Mayyara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ali_al-Hassan_al-Yusi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Ali al-Hassan al-Yusi">Abu Ali al-Hassan al-Yusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Illish" class="mw-redirect" title="'Illish">'Illish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Bajuri" title="Ibrahim al-Bajuri">Ibrahim al-Bajuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Alawi_al-Haddad" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah ibn Alawi al-Haddad">Abdullah ibn Alawi al-Haddad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Dardir" title="Ahmad al-Dardir">Ahmad al-Dardir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Arafa_al-Desouki" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Arafa al-Desouki">Muhammad Arafa al-Desouki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Zayni_Dahlan" title="Ahmad Zayni Dahlan">Ahmad Zayni Dahlan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_scholars_diagram" title="Template:Islam scholars diagram">Early</a> <a href="/wiki/Sunni_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni schools">Sunni</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa" title="Abu Hanifa">Abū Ḥanīfah al-Nu'mān ibn Thābit</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hanafi_school" title="Hanafi school">Hanafiyah</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik_ibn_Anas" title="Malik ibn Anas">Malik ibn Anas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maliki_school" title="Maliki school">Maliki</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shafi%27i" title="Al-Shafi'i">Al-Shafi'i</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i_school" title="Shafi'i school">Shafi‘i</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_al-Maturidi" title="Abu Mansur al-Maturidi">Al-Maturidi</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_al-Samarqandi" title="Al-Hakim al-Samarqandi">Al-Hakim al-Samarqandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sarakhsi" title="Al-Sarakhsi">Al-Sarakhsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Bazdawi" title="Al-Bazdawi">Al-Bazdawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Yusr_al-Bazdawi" title="Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi">Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Mu%27in_al-Nasafi" title="Abu al-Mu'in al-Nasafi">Abu al-Mu'in al-Nasafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ishaq_al-Saffar_al-Bukhari" title="Abu Ishaq al-Saffar al-Bukhari">Abu Ishaq al-Saffar al-Bukhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Layth_al-Samarqandi" title="Abu al-Layth al-Samarqandi">Abu al-Layth al-Samarqandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Ala%27_al-Din_al-Bukhari" title="'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari">'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sharif_al-Jurjani" title="Al-Sharif al-Jurjani">Al-Sharif al-Jurjani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akmal_al-Din_al-Babarti" title="Akmal al-Din al-Babarti">Akmal al-Din al-Babarti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Din_al-Ghaznawi" title="Jamal al-Din al-Ghaznawi">Jamal al-Din al-Ghaznawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nur_al-Din_al-Sabuni" title="Nur al-Din al-Sabuni">Nur al-Din al-Sabuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najm_al-Din_%27Umar_al-Nasafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Najm al-Din 'Umar al-Nasafi">Najm al-Din 'Umar al-Nasafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siraj_al-Din_al-Ushi" title="Siraj al-Din al-Ushi">Siraj al-Din al-Ushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_al-Samarqandi" title="Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi">Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khidr_Bey" title="Khidr Bey">Khidr Bey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kemal" title="Ibn Kemal">Ibn Kemal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Qushji" title="Ali Qushji">Ali Qushji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Qari" title="Ali al-Qari">Ali al-Qari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Ghani_al-Ghunaymi_al-Maydani" title="Abd al-Ghani al-Ghunaymi al-Maydani">Al-Maydani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Ahmad Sirhindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anwar_Shah_Kashmiri" title="Anwar Shah Kashmiri">Anwar Shah Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah_Waliullah_Dehlawi" title="Shah Waliullah Dehlawi">Shah Waliullah Dehlawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah_Abdul_Aziz" class="mw-redirect" title="Shah Abdul Aziz">Shah Abdul Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalil_Ahmad_Saharanpuri" title="Khalil Ahmad Saharanpuri">Khalil Ahmad Saharanpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Zakariya_Kandhlawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Zakariya Kandhlawi">Muhammad Zakariya Kandhlawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahmatullah_Kairanawi" title="Rahmatullah Kairanawi">Rahmatullah Kairanawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murtada_al-Zabidi" title="Murtada al-Zabidi">Murtada al-Zabidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Ghani_al-Nabulsi" title="Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi">Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abu_Zahra" title="Muhammad Abu Zahra">Muhammad Abu Zahra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanthapuram_A._P._Aboobacker_Musliyar" title="Kanthapuram A. P. Aboobacker Musliyar">Kanthapuram A. P. Aboobacker Musliyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ta%27til" title="Ta'til">Mu'attila</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/al-Dscha%CA%BFd_ibn_Dirham" class="extiw" title="de:al-Dschaʿd ibn Dirham">Al-Ja'd ibn Dirham</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jabriyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabriyah">Mu'jbira</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jahm_bin_Safwan" title="Jahm bin Safwan">Abū Muḥrīz Jahm ibn Ṣafwān ar-Rāsibī as-Samarqāndī at-Tirmidhī</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jahmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Jahmi">Jahmīyya</a> <ul><li>Abū Abdirrahmān Bishr ibn Ghiyāth ibn Abī Karīma al-Marīsī al-Baghdādī</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tashbih" class="mw-redirect" title="Tashbih">Mu'jassimā</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muqatil_ibn_Sulayman" title="Muqatil ibn Sulayman">Abu’l-Hassan Muqātil ibn Sulaymān ibn Bashīr al-Azdī</a> al-<a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>ī (Muqātilīyya)</li> <li>Abū Muḥāmmad (Abū’l-Hākem) Heshām ibn Sālem al-Jawālikī al-<a href="/wiki/Juzjan" class="mw-redirect" title="Juzjan">Juzjan</a>ī al-<a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kūf</a>ī <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">Jawālikīyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum_(endonym)" title="Rum (endonym)">Rum</a> <a href="/wiki/Abdal" title="Abdal">Abdals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Karram" title="Ibn Karram">Ibn Karram</a> (<a href="/wiki/Karramiyya" title="Karramiyya">Karramiyya</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Murji%27ah" title="Murji'ah">Murji'ah</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Abū Marwān Gaylān ibn Mūslīm ad-<a href="/wiki/Dimashq" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimashq">Dimashq</a>ī an-<a href="/wiki/Nabati" title="Nabati">Nabati</a> al-Qībtī (<a href="/wiki/Murji%27ah" title="Murji'ah">Murjī</a>-<a href="/wiki/Qadariyah" title="Qadariyah">Qadariyah</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazila">Mu'tazila</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Wasil_ibn_%27Ata%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasil ibn 'Ata'">Wasil ibn 'Ata'</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Nazzam" title="Ibrahim al-Nazzam">Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm ibn Sayyār ibn Hāni’ an-Nazzām</a> (Nazzāmīyya)</li> <li>Abū Bakr Abdurrahmān ibn Kaysān al-Asāmm</li> <li>Abū Mūsā Isā ibn Subeyh (Sabīh) al-Murdār al-Bāsrī (Murdārīyya)</li> <li>Hīshām ibn Amr al-Fuwātī ash-Shaybānī (Hīshāmīyya)</li> <li>Abū Sahl Abbād ibn Sulaimān (Salmān) as-Sāymarī</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jubba%27i" title="Al-Jubba'i">Abū Alī Muḥāmmad ibn Abdi’l-Wahhāb ibn Sallām al-Jubbā'ī</a> (Jubbāīyya)</li> <li>Abū’l-Hūsayn Abdūrrāhīm ibn Muḥāmmad ibn Uthmān al-Hayyāt (Hayyātīyya)</li> <li>Ja'far ibn Harb</li> <li>Ja'far ibn Mūbassīr</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Abū Uthmān Amr ibn Bhār ibn Māhbūb al-Jāhiz al-Kinānī</a> (Jāhizīyya)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Jabbar_ibn_Ahmad" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad">Al-Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Husayn_al-Basri" title="Abu al-Husayn al-Basri">Abu al-Husayn al-Basri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zamakhshari" title="Al-Zamakhshari">Al-Zamakhshari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_Ubayd" title="Amr ibn Ubayd">Amr ibn Ubayd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi%27l-Hadid" title="Ibn Abi'l-Hadid">Ibn Abi'l-Hadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahib_ibn_Abbad" title="Sahib ibn Abbad">Sahib ibn Abbad</a></li> <li>Abū Amr Ḍirār ibn Amr al-Gatafānī al-Kūfī (Ḍirārīyya)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neccariyye" class="extiw" title="tr:Neccariyye">Najjārīyya</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Abū ʿAbdillāh al-Husayn ibn Muḥāmmad ibn ʿAbdillāh an-Najjār ar-Rāzī <ul><li>Abū Amr (Abū Yahyā) Hāfs al-Fard</li> <li>Muḥāmmad ibn ʿĪsā (Burgūsīyya)</li> <li>Abū ʿAbdallāh Ibnū’z-Zā‘farānī (Zā‘farānīyya)</li> <li>Mustadrakīyya</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi Theologians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Taymiyyah">Ibn Taymiyyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibnul_Qayyim" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibnul Qayyim">Ibnul Qayyim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shawkani" title="Al-Shawkani">Al-Shawkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Rida" title="Rashid Rida">Rashid Rida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Baz" title="Ibn Baz">Ibn Baz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Uthaymin" title="Al-Uthaymin">Al-Uthaymin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqbil_bin_Hadi_al-Wadi%27i" title="Muqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'i">Muqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Albani" title="Al-Albani">Al-Albani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saleh_Al-Fawzan" title="Saleh Al-Fawzan">Saleh Al-Fawzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabee_al-Madkhali" title="Rabee al-Madkhali">Rabee al-Madkhali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madkhalism" title="Madkhalism">Madkhalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syed_Nazeer_Husain" title="Syed Nazeer Husain">Syed Nazeer Husain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Ahl-i Hadith</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddiq_Hasan_Khan" title="Siddiq Hasan Khan">Siddiq Hasan Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zubair_Ali_Zai" title="Zubair Ali Zai">Zubair Ali Zai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safar_Al-Hawali" class="mw-redirect" title="Safar Al-Hawali">Safar Al-Hawali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sahwa_movement" title="Sahwa movement">Sahwa movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salman_al-Ouda" title="Salman al-Ouda">Salman al-Ouda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_Jihadism" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafi Jihadism">Salafi Jihadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Umar_al-Hazimi" title="Ahmad ibn Umar al-Hazimi">Ahmad ibn Umar al-Hazimi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hazimism" title="Hazimism">Hazimism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasir_Qadhi" title="Yasir Qadhi">Yasir Qadhi</a> <ul><li>Post-Salafism</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Imams" title="Twelve Imams">Twelve Imams</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Hasan ibn Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Husayn ibn Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Sajjad" title="Ali al-Sajjad">Ali al-Sajjad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Baqir" title="Muhammad al-Baqir">Muhammad al-Baqir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_al-Sadiq" title="Ja'far al-Sadiq">Ja'far al-Sadiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musa_al-Kazim" title="Musa al-Kazim">Musa al-Kazim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Rida" title="Ali al-Rida">Ali al-Rida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Jawad" title="Muhammad al-Jawad">Muhammad al-Jawad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Hadi" title="Ali al-Hadi">Ali al-Hadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_al-Askari" title="Hasan al-Askari">Hasan al-Askari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Mahdi" title="Muhammad al-Mahdi">Muhammad al-Mahdi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shaykh_Al-Mufid" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid">Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharif_al-Murtaza" title="Sharif al-Murtaza">Sharif al-Murtaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaykh_Tusi" title="Shaykh Tusi">Shaykh Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allamah_Al-Hilli" class="mw-redirect" title="Allamah Al-Hilli">Allamah Al-Hilli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad-Baqer_Majlesi" title="Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi">Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurarah_ibn_A%27yan" title="Zurarah ibn A'yan">Zurarah ibn A'yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Hakam" class="mw-redirect" title="Hisham ibn Hakam">Hisham ibn Hakam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agha_Zia_ol_Din_Araghi" title="Agha Zia ol Din Araghi">Agha Zia ol Din Araghi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_Sobhani" title="Ja'far Sobhani">Ja'far Sobhani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilayat_al-faqih" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilayat al-faqih">Wilayat al-faqih</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ili Shi'ism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadi_al-Nu%27man" title="Al-Qadi al-Nu'man">Al-Qadi al-Nu'man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Yaqub_al-Sijistani" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani">Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27ayyad_fi%27l-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi">Al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Ibrahim_al-Naysaburi" title="Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Naysaburi">Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Naysaburi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Fawaris_Ahmad_ibn_Ya%27qub" title="Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad ibn Ya'qub">Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad ibn Ya'qub</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tayyibi_Isma%27ilism" title="Tayyibi Isma'ilism">Tayyibi Ismā'īlī doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhu%27ayb_ibn_Musa" title="Dhu'ayb ibn Musa">Dhu'ayb ibn Musa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam" class="mw-redirect" title="Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam">Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idris_Imad_al-Din" title="Idris Imad al-Din">Idris Imad al-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Muhammad_ibn_al-Walid" title="Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Walid">Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Walid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydi Shi'ism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Jarud_al-Hamdani" title="Abu'l-Jarud al-Hamdani">Abu'l-Jarud al-Hamdani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Isa_ibn_Zayd" title="Ahmad ibn Isa ibn Zayd">Ahmad ibn Isa ibn Zayd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qasim_al-Rassi" title="Al-Qasim al-Rassi">Al-Qasim al-Rassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi_ila%27l-Haqq_Yahya" title="Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya">Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_al-Qasim" title="Al-Mansur al-Qasim">Al-Mansur al-Qasim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sunni_books" title="List of Sunni books">Sunni books</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Asas_al-Taqdis" title="Asas al-Taqdis">Asas al-Taqdis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Baz_al-Ashhab" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Baz al-Ashhab">Al-Baz al-Ashhab</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Farq_bayn_al-Firaq" title="Al-Farq bayn al-Firaq">Al-Farq bayn al-Firaq</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Milal_wa_al-Nihal" title="Al-Milal wa al-Nihal">Al-Milal wa al-Nihal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Guide_to_Conclusive_Proofs_for_the_Principles_of_Belief" title="A Guide to Conclusive Proofs for the Principles of Belief">Al-Irshad</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Aqidah_al-Tahawiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Aqidah al-Tahawiyyah">Al-Aqidah al-Tahawiyyah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Sawad_al-A%27zam" title="Al-Sawad al-A'zam">Al-Sawad al-A'zam</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Tawhid_(Al-Maturidi)" title="Kitab al-Tawhid (Al-Maturidi)">Kitab al-Tawhid</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tabsirat_al-Adilla" title="Tabsirat al-Adilla">Tabsirat al-Adilla</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Masnavi" title="Masnavi">Masnavi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fihi_Ma_Fihi" title="Fihi Ma Fihi">Fihi Ma Fihi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Divan-i_Shams-i_Tabrizi" title="Divan-i Shams-i Tabrizi">Divan-i Shams-i Tabrizi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Moderation_in_Belief" title="The Moderation in Belief">The Moderation in Belief</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Shia_books" title="List of Shia books">Shia books</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/E%CA%BFteq%C4%81d%C4%81tal-Em%C4%81m%C4%ABya" title="Eʿteqādātal-Emāmīya">Eʿteqādātal-Emāmīya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Amali_(of_Shaykh_Saduq)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Amali (of Shaykh Saduq)">Al-Amali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Khisal" title="Al-Khisal">Al-Khisal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Awail_Al_Maqalat" title="Awail Al Maqalat">Awail Al Maqalat</a></i></li> <li><i>Tashih al-I'tiqad</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tajrid_al-I%27tiqad" title="Tajrid al-I'tiqad">Tajrid al-I'tiqad</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.77em;font-weight:normal;">Independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Majmu" title="Kitab al-Majmu">Kitab al-Majmu</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alawis" class="mw-redirect" title="Alawis">Alawis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Malf%C5%ABz%C4%81t" title="Malfūzāt">Malfūzāt</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-kitab_(Shi%27i_book)" title="Umm al-kitab (Shi'i book)">Umm al-kitab</a> of <a href="/wiki/Musta%27li_Isma%27ilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Musta'li Isma'ilism">Musta'li Isma'ilism</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_scholars_diagram" title="Template:Islam scholars diagram">Early Muslim scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_Muslim_scholars_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of contemporary Muslim scholars of Islam">List of contemporary Muslim scholars of Islam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Islamic_schools_and_branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Islamic schools and branches</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Hadith" title="Ahl al-Hadith">Ahl al-Hadith</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Kullabiyya <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kullab" title="Ibn Kullab">Ibn Kullab</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanbali_school" title="Hanbali school">Hanbalis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadi_Abu_Ya%27la" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Qadi Abu Ya'la">Al-Qadi Abu Ya'la</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwaja_Abdullah_Ansari" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwaja Abdullah Ansari">Khwaja Abdullah Ansari</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zahiri_school" title="Zahiri school">Zahiris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dawud_al-Zahiri" title="Dawud al-Zahiri">Dawud al-Zahiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Ahl-i Hadith</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syed_Nazeer_Husain" title="Syed Nazeer Husain">Syed Nazeer Husain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Siddiq_Hasan_Khan" title="Siddiq Hasan Khan">Siddiq Hasan Khan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Baz" title="Ibn Baz">Ibn Baz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Uthaymin" title="Al-Uthaymin">Al-Uthaymin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Albani" title="Al-Albani">Al-Albani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement#Political_trends_within_Salafism" title="Salafi movement">Other Salafi trends</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_jihadism" title="Salafi jihadism">Jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madkhalism" title="Madkhalism">Madkhalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahwa_movement" title="Sahwa movement">Sahwa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_Modernism" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafi Modernism">Salafi Modernism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Dawud_al-Zahiri" title="Muhammad bin Dawud al-Zahiri">Muhammad bin Dawud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqrizi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maqrizi">Maqrizi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ahl_ar-Ra%27y" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahl ar-Ra'y">Ahl ar-Ra'y</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maliki_school" title="Maliki school">Malikis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i_school" title="Shafi'i school">Shafi'is</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Harari" title="Abdullah al-Harari">Abdullah al-Harari</a> – <a href="/wiki/Al-Ahbash" title="Al-Ahbash">Al-Ahbash</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hanafi_school" title="Hanafi school">Hanafis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fazl-e-Haq_Khairabadi" title="Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi">Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Raza_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed Raza Khan">Ahmed Raza Khan</a> – <a href="/wiki/Barelvi" class="mw-redirect" title="Barelvi">Barelvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Qasim_Nanautavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi">Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ahmad_Gangohi" title="Rashid Ahmad Gangohi">Rashid Ahmad Gangohi</a> – <a href="/wiki/Deobandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Deobandi">Deobandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necmettin_Erbakan" title="Necmettin Erbakan">Necmettin Erbakan</a> – <a href="/wiki/Mill%C3%AE_G%C3%B6r%C3%BC%C5%9F" title="Millî Görüş">Millî Görüş</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Zaydism" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zayd_ibn_Ali" title="Zayd ibn Ali">Zayd ibn Ali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jarudiyya" title="Jarudiyya">Jarudiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batriyya" title="Batriyya">Batriyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Zaydi_doctrine" title="Imamate in Zaydi doctrine">Imamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alid dynasties of northern Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_al-Utrush" title="Hasan al-Utrush">Hasan al-Utrush</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Umar" title="Yahya ibn Umar">Yahya ibn Umar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imams_of_Yemen" title="Imams of Yemen">Imams of Yemen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_Shia_sects#Zaydi_Shia_sects" title="List of extinct Shia sects">Extinct Zaydi Shi'a sects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dukayniyya_Shia" title="Dukayniyya Shia">Dukayniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalafiyya_Shia" title="Khalafiyya Shia">Khalafiyya</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Shi%27a_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)">Imami</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdiist</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shi%27ite" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'ite">Shi'ite</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sects_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sects in Islam">Sects in</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Twelver_doctrine" title="Imamate in Twelver doctrine">Imami</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Twelvers" class="mw-redirect" title="Theology of Twelvers">Theology of Twelvers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ja%27fari_school" title="Ja'fari school">Ja'fari</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akhbari" title="Akhbari">Akhbari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usulism" title="Usulism">Usuli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaykhism" title="Shaykhism">Shaykhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Haydar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheikh Haydar">Sheikh Haydar</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shah_Ismail" class="mw-redirect" title="Shah Ismail">Shah Ismail</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pir_Sultan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pir Sultan">Pir Sultan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kul_Nes%C3%AEm%C3%AE" title="Kul Nesîmî">Kul Nesîmî</a> – <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghulat" title="Ghulat">Ghulat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kha%E1%B9%A3%C4%ABb%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Khaṣībī">al-Khaṣībī</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Nusayr" title="Ibn Nusayr">ibn Nusayr</a> – <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fazlallah_Astarabadi" title="Fazlallah Astarabadi">Astarabadi (Naimi)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Imadaddin_Nasimi" title="Imadaddin Nasimi">Imadaddin Nasimi</a> – <a href="/wiki/Hurufism" title="Hurufism">Hurufism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bektashism_and_folk_religion" title="Bektashism and folk religion">Bektashism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology#Baktāshism_(Bektaşilik)" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Baktāshism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demir_Baba_Teke" title="Demir Baba Teke">Demir Bābā</a> – <a href="/wiki/Alians" title="Alians">Alians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baba_Rexheb" title="Baba Rexheb">Bābā Rexheb</a> – <a href="/wiki/Arabati_Baba_Te%E1%B8%B1e" title="Arabati Baba Teḱe">Hārābātīs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Ismaili_doctrine" title="Imamate in Ismaili doctrine">Imami</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fathite" class="mw-redirect" title="Fathite">Fathite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_al-Aftah" title="Abdallah al-Aftah">Abdallah al-Aftah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batiniyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Batiniyyah">Batiniyyah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamdan_Qarmat" title="Hamdan Qarmat">Hamdan Qarmat</a> – <a href="/wiki/Sevener" title="Sevener">Sevener</a> <a href="/wiki/Qarmatians" title="Qarmatians">Qarmatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza_ibn_Ali" title="Hamza ibn Ali">Hamza</a> / <a href="/wiki/Baha_al-Din_al-Muqtana" title="Baha al-Din al-Muqtana">Baha al-Din al-Muqtana</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ad-Darazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ad-Darazi">ad-Darazi</a> – <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druzes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_dynasty" title="Fatimid dynasty">Fatimids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musta%27li_Isma%27ilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Musta'li Isma'ilism">Musta'li</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tayyibi_Isma%27ilism" title="Tayyibi Isma'ilism">Tayyibi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alavi_Bohras" title="Alavi Bohras">Alavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulaymani_Bohra" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulaymani Bohra">Sulaymani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafizi_Isma%27ilism" title="Hafizi Isma'ilism">Hafizi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Khusraw_al-Qubadiani" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir Khusraw al-Qubadiani">Nasir Khusraw al-Qubadiani</a> – <a href="/wiki/Badakhshan" title="Badakhshan">Badakhshan</a> <a href="/wiki/Pamiris#Religion" title="Pamiris">Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Nizari_doctrine" title="Imamate in Nizari doctrine">Nizari</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hassan-i_Sabbah" class="mw-redirect" title="Hassan-i Sabbah">Hassan-i Sabbah</a> – <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Assassins" title="Order of Assassins">Assassins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aga_Khan" title="Aga Khan">Aga Khans</a> – <a href="/wiki/Nizaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizaris">Nizaris</a> / <a href="/wiki/Khojas" class="mw-redirect" title="Khojas">Khojas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pir_Sadardin" title="Pir Sadardin">Pir Sadardin</a> – <a href="/wiki/Satpanth" title="Satpanth">Satpanth</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kaysanites_Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaysanites Shia">Kaysanites<br />Shia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mukhtar_al-Thaqafi" title="Mukhtar al-Thaqafi">Mukhtār</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Amra_Kaysan" title="Abu Amra Kaysan">Abū ʿAmra Kaysān</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Muhammad_ibn_al-Hanafiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah">Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah</a> – <a href="/wiki/Hashimiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashimiyya">Hashimiyya</a> <ul><li>Hārbīyya <ul><li>ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Hārb ibn al-Kindi</li> <li>Janāhiyya <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Mu%27awiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdallah ibn Mu'awiya">Abdallah ibn Mu'awiya</a></li> <li>Hārithīyya</li></ul></li> <li>Riyāhīyya</li></ul></li> <li>Sam‘ānīyya <ul><li>Bayān ibn Sam‘ān</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rawendis" title="Rawendis">Rawendis</a> <ul><li>Rezāmīyya <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Muslim" title="Abu Muslim">Abu Muslim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunpadh" title="Sunpadh">Sunpadh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%E1%B8%A5ammirah" class="mw-redirect" title="Muḥammirah">Muḥammirah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khurramites" title="Khurramites">Khurramites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babak_Khorramdin" title="Babak Khorramdin">Babak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazyar" title="Mazyar">Mazyar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqanna" title="Al-Muqanna">al-Muqanna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishaq_al-Turk" title="Ishaq al-Turk">Ishaq al-Turk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khashabiyya_Shia" title="Khashabiyya Shia">Khashabiyya Shia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;">Other <a href="/wiki/Mahdiist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdiist">Mahdiists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/An-Nafs_Az-Zakiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="An-Nafs Az-Zakiyyah">An-Nafs Az-Zakiyyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurufiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurufiyya">Hurufiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Pasikhani" title="Mahmoud Pasikhani">Maḥmūd Pasīkhānī</a> – <a href="/wiki/Nuktawiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuktawiyya">Nuktawiyya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shayki" class="mw-redirect" title="Shayki">Shayki</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuqta-yi_Ula" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuqta-yi Ula">Nuqta-yi Ula</a> – <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bis#Antecedents" class="mw-redirect" title="Bábis">Bábīyya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawussite_Shia" title="Tawussite Shia">Tawussite Shia</a> <ul><li>ʿAjlan ibn Nawus</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waqifite_Shia" title="Waqifite Shia">Waqifite Shia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muhakkima" title="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Siffin#Arbitration" title="Battle of Siffin">Arbitration</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ajardi <ul><li>Abd al-Karīm ibn Adjrād</li> <li>Maymunīyyah</li> <li>Sa'labīyyah</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azariqa" title="Azariqa">Azariqa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nafi_ibn_al-Azraq" title="Nafi ibn al-Azraq">Nafi ibn al-Azraq al-Hānafī al-Handhalī</a></li></ul></li> <li>Bayhasīyyah <ul><li>Abu Bayhas al-Hāytham ibn Jābir</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdat" title="Najdat">Najdat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Najdah_ibn_%27Amir" class="mw-redirect" title="Najdah ibn 'Amir">Najdah ibn 'Amir al-Hānafī</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufri" title="Sufri">Sufri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Qurra" title="Abu Qurra">Abu Qurra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Yazid" title="Abu Yazid">Abū Yazīd Mukhallad ibn Kayrād</a> al-<a href="/wiki/Nukkari" title="Nukkari">Nukkari</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Ibad" title="Abdallah ibn Ibad">'Abdullāh ibn Ibāḍ al-Tamimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%81bir_ibn_Zayd" class="mw-redirect" title="Jābir ibn Zayd">Jābir ibn Zayd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakkariyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Nakkariyyah">Abu Qudama Yazid ibn Fandin</a> al-<a href="/wiki/Banu_Ifran" title="Banu Ifran">Ifrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Wahb_al-Rasibi" title="Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi">Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi#Wahbi_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi">Wahbiyyah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azzabas" title="Azzabas">Azzabas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Murji%27ah" title="Murji'ah">Murji'ah</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Muhammad_ibn_al-Hanafiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah">Hasan ibn<br />Muḥāmmad</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_al-Hanafiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah">ibn al-<br />Hanafiyyah</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Karramiyya" title="Karramiyya">Karrāmīyya</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Abū ʿAbdillāh Muḥāmmad ibn Karrām ibn Arrāk ibn Huzāba ibn al-Barā’ as-Sijjī <ul><li>ʿĀbidīyya (ʿUthmān al-ʿĀbid)</li> <li>Dhīmmīyya</li> <li>Hakāiqīyya</li> <li>Haisamīyya (Abū ʿAbdallāh Muhammad ibn al-Haisam)</li> <li>Hīdīyya (Hīd ibn Saif)</li> <li>Ishāqīyya (Abū Yaʿqūb Ishāq ibn Mahmashādh)</li> <li>Maʿīyya</li> <li>Muhājirīyya (Ibrāhīm ibn Muhājir)</li> <li>Nūnīyya</li> <li>Razīnīyya</li> <li>Sauwāqīyya</li> <li>Sūramīyya</li> <li>Tarā'ifīyya (Ahmad ibn ʿAbdūs at-Tarā'ifī)</li> <li>Tūnīyya (Abū Bakr ibn ʿAbdallāh)</li> <li>Wāhidīyya</li> <li>Zarībīyya</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;">Other sects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gaylānīyya <ul><li>Gaylān ibn Marwān</li></ul></li> <li>Yūnusīyya <ul><li>Yūnus ibn Awn an-Namīrī</li></ul></li> <li>Gassānīyya <ul><li>Gassān al-Kūfī</li></ul></li> <li>Tūmanīyya <ul><li>Abū Muāz at-Tūmanī</li></ul></li> <li>Sawbānīyya <ul><li>Abū Sawbān al-Murjī</li></ul></li> <li>Sālehīyya <ul><li>Sāleh ibn Umar</li></ul></li> <li>Shamrīyya <ul><li>Abū Shamr</li></ul></li> <li>Ubaydīyya <ul><li>Ubayd al-Mūktaib</li></ul></li> <li>Ziyādīyya <ul><li>Muhammad ibn Ziyād al-Kūfī</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;">Other Murjīs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Harith_ibn_Surayj" title="Al-Harith ibn Surayj">Al-Harith ibn Surayj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27id_ibn_Jubayr" title="Sa'id ibn Jubayr">Sa'id ibn Jubayr</a></li> <li>Hammād ibn Abū Sūlaimān</li> <li>Muhārīb ibn Dithār</li> <li>Sābit Kutna</li> <li>Awn ibn Abdullāh</li> <li>Mūsā ibn Abū Kasīr</li> <li>Umar ibn Zar</li> <li>Salm ibn Sālem</li> <li>Hālaf ibn Ayyūb</li> <li>Ibrāhim ibn Yousūf</li> <li>Nusayr ibn Yahyā</li> <li>Ahmad ibn Hārb</li> <li>Amr ibn Murrah</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology#Tashbih" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Mu'shabbiha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Euhemerism" title="Euhemerism">Tamsīl</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Jawārībīyya <ul><li>Dāwūd al-Jawāribî</li></ul></li> <li>Hāshwīyya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tashbih" class="mw-redirect" title="Tashbih">Hulmānīyya</a> <ul><li>Abū Hulmān al-<a href="/wiki/Fars_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fars Province">Fāris</a>ī ad-<a href="/wiki/Dimashq" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimashq">Dimashq</a>ī</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalandars" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalandars">Kalandars</a></li> <li><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barak_Baba" class="extiw" title="tr:Barak Baba">Bārāq Bābā</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology#Anthropopathy_in_the_history_of_Ghulāt_Shīʿīsm" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Tajsīm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khattabiyya" title="Khattabiyya">Khaṭṭābiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Khattab" title="Abu al-Khattab">Abu al-Khattab</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bazighiyya_Shia" title="Bazighiyya Shia">Bāzīghiyya</a> <ul><li>Bāzīgh ibn Mūsā</li></ul></li> <li>Muʿāmmarīyya <ul><li>Muʿāmmar ibn Ahmar</li></ul></li> <li>ʿIjlīyya/Umayrīyya <ul><li>Umayr ibn Bayān al-ʿIjlī</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mufaddaliyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Mufaddaliyya">Mufaḍḍaliyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mufaddal_ibn_Umar_al-Ju%27fi" title="Al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi">al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghurabiya" title="Ghurabiya">Ghurābīyya</a></li> <li>Mānsūrīyya <ul><li>Abū Mānsūr al-ʿIjlī</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_Shia_sects#Ghulat_sects" title="List of extinct Shia sects">Mughīrīyya</a> <ul><li>Abū Abdillāh Mugīre ibn Sāīd al-ʿIjlī el-Bajalī</li></ul></li> <li>Mukhāmmīsa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namiriya" class="mw-redirect" title="Namiriya">Namiriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammiyya_Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhammiyya Shia">‘Ulyanīyya/'Alyaīyya</a></li> <li>Saba'īyya <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Saba%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah ibn Saba'">Abdullah ibn Saba'</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qadariyah" title="Qadariyah">Qadariyah</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Ma%27bad_al-Juhani" title="Ma'bad al-Juhani">Ma'bad<br />al-Juhani</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_ad-D%C4%ABn_Haydar" title="Qutb ad-Dīn Haydar">Qutb ad-Dīn Haydar</a> – <a href="/wiki/Malamatiyya" title="Malamatiyya">Malamatiyya</a> / <a href="/wiki/Qalandariyya" title="Qalandariyya">Qalandariyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baba_Ishak" title="Baba Ishak">Baba Ishak</a> – <a href="/wiki/Babai_revolt" title="Babai revolt">Babai revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bal%C4%B1m_Sultan" title="Balım Sultan">Balım Sultan</a> – <a href="/wiki/Bektashi_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Bektashi Order">Bektashi Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galip_Hassan_Kuscuoglu" title="Galip Hassan Kuscuoglu">Galip Hassan Kuscuoglu</a> – <a href="/wiki/Galibi_Order" title="Galibi Order">Galibi Order</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mu%CA%BFtazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Muʿtazila">Muʿtazila</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Mā’marīyya <ul><li>Abū Amr (Abū Mu‘tamīr) Muāmmar ibn Abbād as-Sūlamī</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishriyya" title="Bishriyya">Bishriyya</a> <ul><li>Abū Sahl Bīshr ibn al-Mu‘tamīr al-Hilālī al-Baghdādī</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Abi_Du%27ad" title="Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad">Abū Abdi’l-Lāh Ahmad ibn Abī Du'ad Faraj ibn Carīr ibn Mâlik al-Iyādī</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahshamiyya" title="Bahshamiyya">Bahshamiyya</a> <ul><li>Abū Hāshīm Abdu’s-Salām ibn Muḥāmmad ibn Abdi’l-Wahhāb al-Jubbā'ī</li></ul></li> <li>Huzaylīyya <ul><li>Abū’l-Huzayl Muḥāmmad ibn al-Huzayl ibn Abdillāh al-Allāf al-Abdī al-Bāsrī <ul><li>Abū Ma‘n Sūmāma ibn Ashras an-Nūmayrī al-Bāsrī al-Baghdādī</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Ikhshīdiyya</li> <li>Nazzāmīyya <ul><li>Ali al-Aswarī</li> <li>Abū Bakr Muḥāmmad ibn Abdillāh ibn Shabīb al-Basrī</li> <li>Hābītīyya <ul><li>Ahmad ibn Hābīt</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Sumamīyya <ul><li>Sumāma ibn Ashras</li></ul></li> <li>Kā‘bīyya <ul><li>Abū’l-Kāsīm Abdullāh ibn Ahmad ibn Māhmūd al-Balhī al-Kā‘bī</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Ahle Qur'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kala_Kato" title="Kala Kato">Kala Kato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolu-e-Islam_(organization)" title="Tolu-e-Islam (organization)">Tolu-e-Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghulam_Ahmed_Pervez" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghulam Ahmed Pervez">Ghulam Ahmed Pervez</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Submitters_International" class="mw-redirect" title="United Submitters International">United Submitters International</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashad_Khalifa" title="Rashad Khalifa">Rashad Khalifa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edip_Y%C3%BCksel" title="Edip Yüksel">Edip Yüksel</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independent<br /><a href="/wiki/Muslim_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim beliefs">Muslim<br />beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Messianism#Islam" title="Messianism">Messianism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad_bibliography" title="Mirza Ghulam Ahmad bibliography">Mirza Ghulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadiani" title="Qadiani">Qadiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement_for_the_Propagation_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam">Lahori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabbalist">Kabbalist</a> <a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Dönmes">Dönmes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sabbatai_Zevi" title="Sabbatai Zevi">Sabbatai Zevi</a> – <a href="/wiki/Sabbatean" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabbatean">Sabbatean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdavia">Mahdavīyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Jaunpuri" title="Muhammad Jaunpuri">Muhammad Jaunpuri</a> / <a href="/wiki/Syed_Khundmir" title="Syed Khundmir">Bandagi Mian Syed Khundmir</a> – <a href="/wiki/Zikris" class="mw-redirect" title="Zikris">Zikris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Fard_Muhammad" title="Wallace Fard Muhammad">Wallace Fard Muhammad</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Beliefs_and_theology_of_the_Nation_of_Islam" title="Beliefs and theology of the Nation of Islam">doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nur_movement" title="Nur movement">Nur movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Said_Nurs%C3%AE" title="Said Nursî">Said Nursî</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fethullah_G%C3%BClen" title="Fethullah Gülen">Fethullah Gülen</a> – <a href="/wiki/Hizmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Hizmet">Hizmet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Modernism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Modernism">Modernism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modernist_Salafism" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist Salafism">Modernist Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Asad" title="Muhammad Asad">Muhammad Asad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_ad-Din_al-Afghani" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani">Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Rida" title="Rashid Rida">Rashid Rida</a></li> <li>Other <a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic modernist">Islamic modernists</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%A3awwuf" class="mw-redirect" title="Taṣawwuf">Taṣawwuf</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tariqah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariqah">Tariqah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Raza_Khan_Barelvi" title="Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi">Ahmed Raza Khan</a> – <a href="/wiki/Barelvi" class="mw-redirect" title="Barelvi">Barelvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleyman_Hilmi_Tunahan" title="Süleyman Hilmi Tunahan">Hilmi Tunahan</a> – <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleymanc%C4%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="Süleymancı">Süleymancı</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Rifa%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad al-Rifa'i">Ahmad al-Rifa'i</a> – <a href="/wiki/Rifa%60i" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa`i">Rifa`i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sufi_orders" title="List of Sufi orders">Other orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawassul" title="Tawassul">Tawassul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.65em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim beliefs">Other beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sadaqah" title="Sadaqah">Sadaqah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqwa" title="Taqwa">Taqwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawakkul" title="Tawakkul">Tawakkul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tewafuq" title="Tewafuq">Tewafuq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thawab" title="Thawab">Thawab</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Other scholars of <a href="/wiki/Sunni_schools_of_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni schools of jurisprudence">Sunni schools of jurisprudence</a>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hanafi_scholars" title="Template:Hanafi scholars">Hanafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hanbali_scholars" title="Template:Hanbali scholars">Hanbali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Maliki_scholars" title="Template:Maliki scholars">Maliki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Shafi%27i_scholars" title="Template:Shafi'i scholars">Shafi'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Zahiri_scholars" title="Template:Zahiri scholars">Zahiri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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[\"CITEREFAbu_Zakariya_al-Azdi1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbu_al-Yusr_al-Bazdawi1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbualrab2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdud_al-Din_al-Iji1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmad_Farid_Al-Mazidi2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmed_ibn_Muhammad_ad-Dahlawi_Al-Madani1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Albani2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Baghawi1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Bayhaqi1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Dhahabi1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Farabi1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Ghazali2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Jahiz1979\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Kamal_ibn_al-Humam1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Shahrastani1850–1851\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Shahrastani1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Suyuti\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Taftazani1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Taftazani2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Yaʿqūbī2019\"] = 2,\n 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