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href="#U.S._strategy:_"massive_retaliation"_and_"brinksmanship""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>U.S. strategy: "massive retaliation" and "brinksmanship"</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-U.S._strategy:_"massive_retaliation"_and_"brinksmanship"-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle U.S. strategy: "massive retaliation" and "brinksmanship" subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-U.S._strategy:_"massive_retaliation"_and_"brinksmanship"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conflicting_objectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflicting_objectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Conflicting objectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflicting_objectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eisenhower_administration_strategy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eisenhower_administration_strategy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Eisenhower administration strategy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eisenhower_administration_strategy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fear_of_Soviet_influence_and_nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fear_of_Soviet_influence_and_nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Fear of Soviet influence and nationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fear_of_Soviet_influence_and_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_end_of_the_Korean_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_end_of_the_Korean_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The end of the Korean War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_end_of_the_Korean_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_of_the_Space_Race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_the_Space_Race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Origins of the Space Race</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins_of_the_Space_Race-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins of the Space Race subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_Space_Race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Creation_of_NASA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_of_NASA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Creation of NASA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_of_NASA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kennedy's_space_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kennedy's_space_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Kennedy's space administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kennedy's_space_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Soviet_Union_in_the_Space_Race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Soviet_Union_in_the_Space_Race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>The Soviet Union in the Space Race</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Soviet_Union_in_the_Space_Race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_R7_ICBM" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_R7_ICBM"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>The R7 ICBM</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_R7_ICBM-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sputnik_1_and_Sputnik_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sputnik_1_and_Sputnik_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sputnik_1_and_Sputnik_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lunar_missions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lunar_missions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>Lunar missions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lunar_missions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_space_travel_from_1960–1962" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_space_travel_from_1960–1962"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.4</span> <span>Soviet space travel from 1960–1962</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_space_travel_from_1960–1962-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_race_continues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_race_continues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>The race continues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_race_continues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_strategy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_strategy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Soviet strategy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_strategy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutual_assured_destruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutual_assured_destruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Mutual assured destruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutual_assured_destruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Bloc_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Bloc_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Eastern Bloc events</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Eastern_Bloc_events-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Eastern Bloc events subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Bloc_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1953_East_Germany_uprising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1953_East_Germany_uprising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>1953 East Germany uprising</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1953_East_Germany_uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_of_the_Warsaw_Pact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_of_the_Warsaw_Pact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Creation of the Warsaw Pact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_of_the_Warsaw_Pact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1956_Polish_protests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1956_Polish_protests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>1956 Polish protests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1956_Polish_protests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Hungarian Revolution of 1956</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1960_U-2_incident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1960_U-2_incident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>1960 U-2 incident</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1960_U-2_incident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Berlin_Crisis_of_1961"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Berlin Crisis of 1961</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Berlin_Crisis_of_1961-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_World_arena_of_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_World_arena_of_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Third World arena of conflict</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Third_World_arena_of_conflict-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Third World arena of conflict subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Third_World_arena_of_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Defense_pacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defense_pacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Defense pacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defense_pacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decolonization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decolonization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Decolonization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decolonization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Africa-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Africa subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Congo_Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congo_Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Congo Crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congo_Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>East Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suez_Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suez_Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Suez Crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suez_Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Latin America</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Latin America subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Haiti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haiti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Haiti</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haiti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guatemala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guatemala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Guatemala</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guatemala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuba" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuba"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Cuba</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuba-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.1</span> <span>Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plans_against_Castro" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plans_against_Castro"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.2</span> <span>Plans against Castro</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plans_against_Castro-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion_and_the_Cuban_Missile_Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion_and_the_Cuban_Missile_Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.3</span> <span>Bay of Pigs Invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion_and_the_Cuban_Missile_Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Asia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Asia subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mossadegh_and_the_CIA_in_Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mossadegh_and_the_CIA_in_Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Mossadegh and the CIA in Iran</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mossadegh_and_the_CIA_in_Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indochina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indochina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Indochina</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indochina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indonesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indonesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Indonesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indonesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>South Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sino-Soviet_split" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sino-Soviet_split"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Sino-Soviet split</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sino-Soviet_split-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture_and_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture_and_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Culture and media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture_and_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computers_in_the_Cold_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computers_in_the_Cold_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Computers in the Cold War</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Computers_in_the_Cold_War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Computers in the Cold War subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Computers_in_the_Cold_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computers_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computers_in_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Computers in the Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computers_in_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computers_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computers_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Computers in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computers_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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Available in 7 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-7" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">7 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A9_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="الحرب الباردة (1953–1962) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحرب الباردة (1953–1962)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Fr%C3%ADa_(1953-1962)" title="Guerra Fría (1953-1962) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra Fría (1953-1962)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_fredda_(1953-1962)" title="Guerra fredda (1953-1962) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra fredda (1953-1962)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%93%D9%87_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87_(%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B5%DB%B3-%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B6%DB%B2)" title="سړه جګړه (۱۹۵۳-۱۹۶۲) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سړه جګړه (۱۹۵۳-۱۹۶۲)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Fria_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Guerra Fria (1953–1962) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra Fria (1953–1962)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%E1%BA%BFn_tranh_L%E1%BA%A1nh_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Chiến tranh Lạnh (1953–1962) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chiến tranh Lạnh (1953–1962)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B7%E6%88%98_(1953%E5%B9%B4%E2%80%941962%E5%B9%B4)" title="冷战 (1953年—1962年) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="冷战 (1953年—1962年)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1052535#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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</div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Phase of the Cold War during 1953-1962</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold_War_Map_1959.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cold_War_Map_1959.svg/550px-Cold_War_Map_1959.svg.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cold_War_Map_1959.svg/825px-Cold_War_Map_1959.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cold_War_Map_1959.svg/1100px-Cold_War_Map_1959.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>1959 World map of alignments: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0000b0; color:white;"> </span> NATO member states</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#96b3f6; color:black;"> </span> Other allies of the US</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#90c090; color:black;"> </span> Colonized countries</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#b00000; color:white;"> </span> Warsaw Pact member states</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f4a091; color:black;"> </span> Other allies of the USSR</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#b9b9b9; color:black;"> </span> Non-aligned nations</div></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:18em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle">History of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Titan_Missile_(41980404201).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Titan nuclear missile, in use from 1959 until 1962"><img alt="Titan nuclear missile, in use from 1959 until 1962" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Titan_Missile_%2841980404201%29.jpg/150px-Titan_Missile_%2841980404201%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Titan_Missile_%2841980404201%29.jpg/225px-Titan_Missile_%2841980404201%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Titan_Missile_%2841980404201%29.jpg/300px-Titan_Missile_%2841980404201%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4504" data-file-height="3353" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Periods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Cold War (1947–1948)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Cold War (1948–1953)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cold War (1953–1962)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Cold War (1962–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Cold War (1979–1985)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">Cold War (1985–1991)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Frozen conflicts">Frozen conflicts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_in_the_Cold_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of events in the Cold War">Timeline of events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Historiography of the Cold War">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">Related conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_since_1989" title="International relations since 1989">Relations since 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_in_Asia" title="Cold War in Asia">Cold War in Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Cold_War" title="Template:History of the Cold War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Cold_War" title="Template talk:History of the Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kitchen_debate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Kitchen_debate.jpg/260px-Kitchen_debate.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Kitchen_debate.jpg/390px-Kitchen_debate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Kitchen_debate.jpg/520px-Kitchen_debate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2708" /></a><figcaption>Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> (left, with hat) and US Vice President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (right) <a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">debate the merits of communism versus capitalism</a> in a model American kitchen at the <a href="/wiki/American_National_Exhibition" title="American National Exhibition">American National Exhibition</a> in Moscow (July 1959)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Cold War (1953–1962)</b> refers to the period in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> between the end of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> in 1953 and the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a> in 1962. It was marked by tensions and efforts at détente between the US and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. </p><p>After the death of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> in March 1953, <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> rose to power, initiating the policy of <a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a> which caused political unrest in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> nations.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khrushchev's speech at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party in 1956 shocked domestic and international audiences, by <a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">denouncing Stalin’s personality cult and his regime's excesses</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> succeeded <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> as US President in 1953, but US foreign policy remained focused on containing Soviet influence. <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a>, Eisenhower’s Secretary of State, advocated for a doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Massive_retaliation" title="Massive retaliation">massive retaliation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship" title="Brinkmanship">brinkmanship</a>, whereby the US would threaten overwhelming nuclear force in response to Soviet aggression. This strategy aimed to avoid the high costs of conventional warfare by relying heavily on nuclear deterrence.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite temporary reductions in tensions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_State_Treaty" title="Austrian State Treaty">Austrian State Treaty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a> ending the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a>, both superpowers continued their <a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">arms race</a> and extended their rivalry into space with the launch of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> in 1957 by the Soviets. The <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> and the nuclear arms buildup defined much of the competitive atmosphere during this period. The Cold War expanded to new regions, with the addition of <a href="/wiki/African_decolonization" class="mw-redirect" title="African decolonization">African decolonization</a> movements. The <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a> in 1960 drew Cold War battle lines in Africa, as the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> became a Soviet ally, causing concern in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by the early 1960s, the Cold War reached its most dangerous point with the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a> in 1962, as the world stood on the brink of nuclear war. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eisenhower_and_Khrushchev">Eisenhower and Khrushchev</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Eisenhower and Khrushchev"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> was succeeded in office by <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> as the 34th <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> in 1953, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a> lost their two-decades-long control of the U.S. presidency. Under Eisenhower, however, the United States' Cold War policy remained essentially unchanged. Whilst a thorough rethinking of foreign policy was launched (known as "<a href="/wiki/Project_Solarium" title="Project Solarium">Project Solarium</a>"), the majority of emerging ideas (such as a "<a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">rollback</a> of communism" and the liberation of Eastern Europe) were quickly regarded as unworkable. An underlying focus on the <a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">containment</a> of Soviet communism remained to inform the broad approach of U.S. foreign policy. </p><p>While the transition from the <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Truman</a> to the Eisenhower presidencies was a mild transition in character (from moderate to conservative), the change in the Soviet Union was immense. With the death of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (who led the Soviet Union from 1928 and through the <a href="/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Patriotic War">Great Patriotic War</a>) in 1953, <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Malenkov" title="Georgy Malenkov">Georgy Malenkov</a> was named leader of the Soviet Union. This was short lived however, as <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> soon undercut all of Malenkov's authority as <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> and took control of the Soviet Union himself. Malenkov joined a failed coup against Khrushchev in 1957, after which he was sent to <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazakh SSR">Kazakhstan</a>. </p><p>During a subsequent period of <a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">collective leadership</a>, Khrushchev gradually consolidated his hold on power. At <a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">a speech</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the closed session of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_CPSU" class="mw-redirect" title="Congress of the CPSU">Twentieth Party Congress</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>, February 25, 1956, First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev shocked his listeners by denouncing Stalin's <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">personality cult</a> and the many crimes that occurred under Stalin's leadership. Although the contents of the speech were secret, it was leaked to outsiders, thus shocking both Soviet allies and Western observers. Khrushchev was later named <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">premier of the Soviet Union</a> in March 1958. </p><p>The effect of this speech on Soviet politics was immense. With it Khrushchev stripped his remaining <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinist</a> rivals of their legitimacy in a single stroke, dramatically boosting the First Party Secretary's domestic power. Khrushchev followed by easing restrictions, freeing some dissidents and initiating economic policies that emphasized commercial goods rather than just <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> production. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._strategy:_"massive_retaliation"_and_"brinksmanship""><span id="U.S._strategy:_.22massive_retaliation.22_and_.22brinksmanship.22"></span>U.S. strategy: "massive retaliation" and "brinksmanship"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: U.S. strategy: "massive retaliation" and "brinksmanship""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflicting_objectives">Conflicting objectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Conflicting objectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When Eisenhower entered office in 1953, he was committed to two possibly contradictory goals: maintaining—or even heightening—the national commitment to counter the spread of Soviet influence; and satisfying demands to balance the budget, lower taxes, and curb <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a>. The most prominent of the doctrines to emerge from this goal was "massive retaliation", which Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a> announced early in 1954. Eschewing the costly, conventional ground forces of the Truman administration, and wielding the vast superiority of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear</a> arsenal and covert intelligence, Dulles defined this approach as "<a href="/wiki/Brinksmanship" class="mw-redirect" title="Brinksmanship">brinksmanship</a>" in a January 16, 1956, interview with <i><a href="/wiki/Life_(magazine)" title="Life (magazine)">Life</a></i>: pushing the Soviet Union to the brink of war in order to exact concessions. </p><p>Eisenhower inherited from the Truman administration a military budget of roughly US$42 billion, as well as a paper (NSC-141) drafted by Acheson, Harriman, and Lovett calling for an additional $7–9 billion in military spending.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Treasury Secretary <a href="/wiki/George_M._Humphrey" title="George M. Humphrey">George Humphrey</a> leading the way, and reinforced by pressure from <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senator</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Robert A. Taft</a> and the cost-cutting mood of the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> Congress, the target for the new fiscal year (to take effect on July 1, 1954) was reduced to $36 billion. While the Korean armistice was on the verge of producing significant savings in troop deployment and money, the State and Defense Departments were still in an atmosphere of rising expectations for budgetary increases. Humphrey wanted a balanced budget and a tax cut in February 1955, and had a savings target of $12 billion (obtaining half of this from cuts in military expenditures). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg/220px-Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg/330px-Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg/440px-Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_N._Welch" title="Joseph N. Welch">Joseph N. Welch</a> (left) being questioned by Senator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a> (right), June 9, 1954</figcaption></figure> <p>Although unwilling to cut deeply into defense, the President also wanted a balanced budget and smaller defense allocations. "Unless we can put things in the hands of people who are starving to death we can never lick <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>", he told his cabinet. With this in mind, Eisenhower continued funding for America's innovative <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diplomacy" title="Cultural diplomacy">cultural diplomacy</a> initiatives throughout Europe which included goodwill performances by the "soldier-musician ambassadors" of the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Army_Symphony_Orchestra" title="Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra">Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-journal.juilliard.edu_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-journal.juilliard.edu-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Eisenhower feared that a bloated "<a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">military–industrial complex</a>" (a term he popularized) "would either drive U.S. to war—or into some form of dictatorial government" and perhaps even force the U.S. to "initiate war at the most propitious moment." On one occasion, the former commander of the <a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">greatest amphibious invasion force in history</a> privately exclaimed, "God help the nation when it has a President who doesn't know as much about the military as I do."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the meantime, however, attention was being diverted elsewhere in Asia. The continuing pressure from the "China lobby" or "Asia firsters", who had insisted on active efforts to restore <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> to power was still a strong domestic influence on foreign policy. In April 1953 Senator <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Robert A. Taft</a> and other powerful Congressional Republicans suddenly called for the immediate replacement of the top chiefs of the Pentagon, particularly the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, <a href="/wiki/Omar_Bradley" title="Omar Bradley">Omar Bradley</a>. To the so-called "China lobby" and Taft, Bradley was seen as having leanings toward a Europe-first orientation, meaning that he would be a possible barrier to new departures in military policy that they favored. Another factor was the vitriolic accusations of <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a>, where large portions of the U.S. government allegedly contained covert communist agents or sympathizers. But after the mid-term elections in 1954–and censure by the Senate–the influence of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a> ebbed after his unpopular accusations against the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eisenhower_administration_strategy">Eisenhower administration strategy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Eisenhower administration strategy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Massive_retaliation" title="Massive retaliation">Massive retaliation</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I think most of our people cannot understand that we are actually at war. They need to hear shells. They are not psychologically prepared for the concept that you can have a war when you don't have actual fighting.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Admiral <a href="/wiki/Hyman_G._Rickover" title="Hyman G. Rickover">Hyman G. Rickover</a> addressing U.S. Senate Committee on Defense Preparedness on January 6, 1958<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv/220px--1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="49" data-mwtitle="1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cb/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cb/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cb/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cb/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cb/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv/1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1958-02-06_Atomic_Weapons_come_to_Korea.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>1958 deployment of U.S. atomic weapons in Korea, while reducing the size of conventional forces</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="931" data-mwtitle="Eisenhower_farewell_address.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Eisenhower_farewell_address.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Eisenhower_farewell_address.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/90/Eisenhower_farewell_address.ogg/Eisenhower_farewell_address.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEisenhower_farewell_address.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span><figcaption>Eisenhower's farewell address, January 17, 1961. Length 15:30.</figcaption></figure> <p>The administration attempted to reconcile the conflicting pressures from the "Asia firsters" and pressures to cut federal spending while continuing to fight the Cold War effectively. On May 8, 1953, the President and his top advisors tackled this problem in "Operation Solarium", named after the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> sunroom where the president conducted secret discussions. Although it was not traditional to ask military men to consider factors outside their professional discipline, the President instructed the group to strike a proper balance between his goals to cut government spending and an ideal military posture. </p><p>The group weighed three policy options for the next year's military budget: the Truman-Acheson approach of containment and reliance on conventional forces; threatening to respond to limited Soviet "aggression" in one location with nuclear weapons; and serious "liberation" based on an economic response to the Soviet political-military-ideological challenge to Western hegemony: <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> campaigns and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological warfare</a>. The third option was strongly rejected. Eisenhower and the group (consisting of <a href="/wiki/Allen_Dulles" title="Allen Dulles">Allen Dulles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Bedell_Smith" title="Walter Bedell Smith">Walter Bedell Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Douglas_Jackson" title="Charles Douglas Jackson">C.D. Jackson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cutler" title="Robert Cutler">Robert Cutler</a>) instead opted for a combination of the first two, one that confirmed the validity of containment, but with reliance on the American air-nuclear deterrent. This was geared toward avoiding costly and unpopular ground wars, such as Korea. </p><p>The Eisenhower administration viewed atomic weapons as an integral part of U.S. defense, hoping that they would bolster the relative capabilities of the U.S. vis-à-vis the Soviet Union. The administration also reserved the prospects of using them, in effect, as a weapon of first resort, hoping to gain the initiative while reducing costs. By wielding the nation's nuclear superiority, the new Eisenhower-Dulles approach was a cheaper form of containment geared toward offering Americans "more bang for the buck".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Thus, the administration increased the number of nuclear warheads from 1,000 in 1953 to 18,000 by early 1961. Despite overwhelming U.S. superiority, one additional nuclear weapon was produced each day. The administration also exploited new technology. In 1955 the eight-engined <a href="/wiki/B-52_Stratofortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-52 Stratofortress">B-52 Stratofortress</a> bomber, the first true jet bomber designed to carry nuclear weapons, was developed. </p><p>In 1961, the U.S. deployed 15 <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(missile)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (missile)">Jupiter IRBMs</a> (intermediate-range ballistic missiles) at <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmir" title="İzmir">İzmir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, aimed at the western USSR's cities, including <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>. Given its 1,500-mile (2,410 km) range, Moscow was only 16 minutes away. The U.S. could also launch 1,000-mile (1,600 km)-range <a href="/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris" title="UGM-27 Polaris">Polaris</a> <a href="/wiki/SLBM" class="mw-redirect" title="SLBM">SLBMs</a> from submerged submarines.<sup id="cite_ref-Races_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Races-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1962, the United States had more than eight times as many bombs and missile warheads as the USSR: 27,297 to 3,332.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a> the U.S. had 142 Atlas and 62 <a href="/wiki/Titan_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Titan I">Titan I</a> <a href="/wiki/ICBM" class="mw-redirect" title="ICBM">ICBMs</a>, mostly in hardened underground silos.<sup id="cite_ref-Races_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Races-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fear_of_Soviet_influence_and_nationalism">Fear of Soviet influence and nationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fear of Soviet influence and nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Allen Dulles, along with most U.S. foreign policy-makers of the era, considered many Third World nationalists and "revolutionaries" as being essentially under the influence, if not control, of the Warsaw Pact. Ironically, in <i>War, Peace, and Change</i> (1939), he had called <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> an "agrarian reformer", and during World War II he had deemed Mao's followers "the so called 'Red Army faction<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But he no longer recognized indigenous roots in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> by 1950. In <i>War or Peace</i>, an influential work denouncing the containment policies of the Truman administration, and espousing an active program of "liberation", he writes: </p> <blockquote><p>Thus the 450,000,000 people in China have fallen under leadership that is violently anti-American, and takes its inspiration and guidance from Moscow... Soviet Communist leadership has won a victory in China which surpassed what <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> was seeking and we risked war to avert.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Behind the scenes, Dulles could explain his policies in terms of geopolitics. But publicly, he used the moral and religious reasons that he believed Americans preferred to hear, even though he was often criticized by observers at home and overseas for his strong language. </p><p>Two of the leading figures of the interwar and early Cold War period who viewed international relations from a "<a href="/wiki/Realism_(international_relations)" title="Realism (international relations)">realist</a>" perspective, diplomat <a href="/wiki/George_F._Kennan" title="George F. Kennan">George Kennan</a> and theologian <a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a>, were troubled by Dulles' moralism and the method by which he analyzed Soviet behavior. Kennan disagreed with the notion that the Soviets even had a world design after Stalin's death, being far more concerned with maintaining control of their own bloc. However, the underlying assumptions of a monolithic world communism, directed from the Kremlin, of the Truman-Acheson containment after the drafting of NSC-68<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were essentially compatible with those of the Eisenhower-Dulles foreign policy. The conclusions of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nitze" title="Paul Nitze">Paul Nitze</a>'s <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">National Security Council</a> policy paper were as follows: </p> <blockquote><p>What is new, what makes the continuing crisis, is the polarization of power which inescapably confronts the slave society with the free... the Soviet Union, unlike previous aspirants to hegemony, is animated by a new fanatic faith, antithetical to our own, and seeks to impose its absolute authority... [in] the Soviet Union and second in the area now under [its] control... In the minds of the Soviet leaders, however, achievement of this design requires the dynamic extension of their authority... To that end Soviet efforts are now directed toward the domination of the Eurasian land mass.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_end_of_the_Korean_War">The end of the Korean War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The end of the Korean War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></div> <p>Prior to his election in 1953, <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> was already displeased with the manner that <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> had handled the war in Korea. After the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> secured a resolution from the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> to engage in military defense on behalf of <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> led by the president <a href="/wiki/Syngman_Rhee" title="Syngman Rhee">Syngman Rhee</a>, who had been invaded by <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> in an attempt to unify all of Korea under the communist North Korean regime led by the dictator <a href="/wiki/Kim_Il-sung" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Il-sung">Kim Il-sung</a>. President Truman engaged U.S. land, air, and sea forces;<sup id="cite_ref-:3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> United States involvement in the war quickly reversed the direction of military advancement into South Korea to military advancement into North Korea; to the point that North Korean forces were being forced against the border with China, which led to the involvement of hundreds of thousands of communist Chinese troops heavily assaulting U.S. and South Korean forces.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acting on a campaign pledge made during his <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election" title="United States presidential election">United States presidential election</a> campaign, Eisenhower visited Korea on December 2, 1952, to assess to the situation. Eisenhower's investigation consisted of meeting with South Korean troops, commanders, and government officials, after his meetings Eisenhower concluded, "we could not stand forever on a static front and continue to accept casualties without any visible results. Small attacks on small hills would not end this war".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eisenhower urged the South Korean President <a href="/wiki/Syngman_Rhee" title="Syngman Rhee">Syngman Rhee</a> to compromise in order to speed up peace talks. This, coupled with the United States' threat of using nuclear weapons if the war did not end soon, led to the signing of an armistice on July 27, 1953. The armistice concluded the United States' initial Cold War concept of "limited war".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">Prisoners of war</a> were allowed to choose where they would stay, either the area that would become <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> or the area to become <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, and a border was placed between the two territories in addition to an allotted demilitarized zone.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "police action" implemented by the Korean U.N. agreement prevented communism from spreading from North Korea to South Korea. United States involvement in the Korean War demonstrated its readiness to the world to rally to the aid of nations under invasion, particularly communistic invasion, and resulted in President Eisenhower's empowered image as an effective leader against tyranny; this ultimately led to a strengthened position of the United States in Europe and guided the development of the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic Treaty Organization">North Atlantic Treaty Organization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary effect of these developments for the United States were the military buildup called for in response to Cold War concerns as seen in <a href="/wiki/NSC_68" title="NSC 68">NSC 68</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_the_Space_Race">Origins of the Space Race</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Origins of the Space Race"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Space Race between the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> was an integral component of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. Contrary to the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a>, it was a peaceful competition in which the two powers could demonstrate their technological and theoretical advancements over the other. The Soviet Union was the first nation to enter the space realm with their launch of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> on October 4, 1957. The satellite was merely an 83.6-kilogram aluminum alloy sphere, which was a major downsize from the original 1,000-kilogram design, that carried a radio and four antennas into space. This size was shocking to western scientists as America was designing a much smaller 8-kilogram satellite. This size discrepancy was apparent due to the gap in weapon technology as the United States was able to develop much smaller nuclear warheads than their Soviet counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union later launched <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_2" title="Sputnik 2">Sputnik 2</a> less than a month later.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet's satellite success caused a stir in America as people question why the United States had fallen behind the Soviet Union and if they could launch nuclear missiles at large American cities i.e. Chicago, Seattle, and Atlanta. President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> responded by creating the <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisory_Committee" title="President's Science Advisory Committee">President's Science Advisory Committee</a> (PSAC). This committee was appointed to lead the United States in policy for scientific and defense strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another United States response to the Soviets' successful satellite mission was a Navy led attempt to launch the first American satellite into space using its <a href="/wiki/Vanguard_TV3" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanguard TV3">Vanguard TV3</a> missile.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effort resulted in complete failure however, with the missile exploding on the launch pad. These developments resulted in a media frenzy, a frustrated and perplexed American public, and a struggle between the United States Army and Navy for control of the efforts to launch an American satellite into space. To resolve this, President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> appointed his <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisor" class="mw-redirect" title="President's Science Advisor">President's Science Advisor</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Rhyne_Killian" title="James Rhyne Killian">James Rhyne Killian</a>, to consult with the PSAC to develop a solution.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_of_NASA">Creation of NASA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Creation of NASA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Creation_of_NASA" title="Creation of NASA">Creation of NASA</a></div> <p>In reaction to the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union, the President's Science Advisory Committee advised President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> to convert <a href="/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics" title="National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics">National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics</a> into a new organization that would be more progressive in the United States' efforts for space exploration and research.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This organization was to be named the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (<a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>). This agency would effectively shift the control of space research and travel from the military into the hands of NASA, which was to be a civilian-government administration.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NASA was to be in charge of all non-military space activity, while another organization (<a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a>) was to be responsible for space travel and technology intended for military use.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On April 2, 1958, Eisenhower presented legislation to Congress to implement the creation of the National Aeronautics and Space Agency. Congress responded by supplementing the creation of NASA, with an additional committee to be called the <a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="National Aeronautics and Space Council">National Aeronautics and Space Council</a> (NASC). The NASC would include the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, the head of the Atomic Energy Commission, and the administrator of NASA. Legislation was passed by Congress, and then signed by President Eisenhower on July 29, 1958. NASA began operations on October 1, 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kennedy's_space_administration"><span id="Kennedy.27s_space_administration"></span>Kennedy's space administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Kennedy's space administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seamans,_von_Braun_and_President_Kennedy_at_Cape_Canaveral_-_GPN-2000-001843.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Seamans%2C_von_Braun_and_President_Kennedy_at_Cape_Canaveral_-_GPN-2000-001843.jpg/220px-Seamans%2C_von_Braun_and_President_Kennedy_at_Cape_Canaveral_-_GPN-2000-001843.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Seamans%2C_von_Braun_and_President_Kennedy_at_Cape_Canaveral_-_GPN-2000-001843.jpg/330px-Seamans%2C_von_Braun_and_President_Kennedy_at_Cape_Canaveral_-_GPN-2000-001843.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Seamans%2C_von_Braun_and_President_Kennedy_at_Cape_Canaveral_-_GPN-2000-001843.jpg/440px-Seamans%2C_von_Braun_and_President_Kennedy_at_Cape_Canaveral_-_GPN-2000-001843.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Space architect <a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a> with President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, 1963</figcaption></figure><p> Since the conception of <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>, there had been considerations about the possibility of flying a man to the Moon. On July 5, 1961, the "Research Steering Committee on Manned Spaceflight", led by <a href="/wiki/George_Low" title="George Low">George Low</a> presented the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a> to the NASA "Space Exploration Council". Although under the <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> presidential administration <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> was given very little authority to further explore space travel, it was proposed that after the crewed Earth-orbiting missions, <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a>, that the government-civilian administration should make efforts to successfully complete a crewed lunar spaceflight mission. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> administrator <a href="/wiki/T._Keith_Glennan" title="T. Keith Glennan">T. Keith Glennan</a> explained that President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>, restricted any further space exploration beyond <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a>. After <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> had been elected as president the previous November, policy for space exploration underwent a revolutionary change.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>"This nation should commit itself to the achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth" -<a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a><sup id="cite_ref-:1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>After President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> made this proposal to Congress on May 25, 1961, he remained true to this commitment to send a crewed lunar spaceflight in the ensuing 30 months prior to his assassination. Directly after his proposal, there was an 89% increase in government funding for <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>, followed by a 101% increase in funding the subsequent year.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This marked the beginning of the United States' mission to the Moon. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Soviet_Union_in_the_Space_Race">The Soviet Union in the Space Race</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Soviet Union in the Space Race"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In August 1957 the Soviet Union tested the world's first successful <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">Intercontinental ballistic missile</a> (ICBM), the <a href="/wiki/R7_Semyorka" class="mw-redirect" title="R7 Semyorka">R7 Semyorka</a>. Within only two months of the launch of the Semyorka, <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> became the first human made object in Earth's orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was followed by the launch of Sputnik II which carried <a href="/wiki/Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a> the first living space traveler though she did not survive the trip. This led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok programme</a> in 1960 and the first living creatures to survive the trip to space, Belka and Strelka the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs" title="Soviet space dogs">Soviet space dogs</a>. The Vostok Program was responsible for placing the first human in space, yet another task that the Soviet Union would complete before the United States. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_R7_ICBM">The R7 ICBM</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The R7 ICBM"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to the start of the space race, the Soviet Union and the United States were struggling to build and obtain a missile that could not only carry nuclear cargo, but could also travel effectively from one country to another. These missiles, also known as ICBMs or <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_Ballistic_Missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Intercontinental Ballistic Missile">Intercontinental Ballistic Missile</a>, were key for either country to gain a major strategical advantage in the early years of the Cold War. However, where the U.S. failed in their initial ICBM flight tests, the Soviets proved to be years ahead in ICBM technology with their R7 program. The R7 missile, first tested in October 1953, originally was designed to carry a nose cone plus nuclear cargo equal to 3 tons, maintain a flight range of 7000 to 8000 km, a launch weight of 170 tons, and a two-stage launch and flight system.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, during the initial testing, the R7 ICBM proved too small for the required cargo and major changes were approved and implemented in May 1954. These changes consisted of a heavier nose that could carry 3 tons of nuclear payload and a design change that would allow for a controlled take off and flight due to the new launch weight being 280 tons. This rocket proved effective in testing in May 1957 and was then slightly adjusted to support space flight.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sputnik_1_and_Sputnik_2">Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Soviet_Union_1969_CPA_3731_stamp_(Sergei_Korolev).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/The_Soviet_Union_1969_CPA_3731_stamp_%28Sergei_Korolev%29.jpg/220px-The_Soviet_Union_1969_CPA_3731_stamp_%28Sergei_Korolev%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/The_Soviet_Union_1969_CPA_3731_stamp_%28Sergei_Korolev%29.jpg/330px-The_Soviet_Union_1969_CPA_3731_stamp_%28Sergei_Korolev%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/The_Soviet_Union_1969_CPA_3731_stamp_%28Sergei_Korolev%29.jpg/440px-The_Soviet_Union_1969_CPA_3731_stamp_%28Sergei_Korolev%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2521" data-file-height="1818" /></a><figcaption>Soviet rocket engineer <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Korolev" title="Sergei Korolev">Sergei Korolev</a> and Sputnik 1 on a 1969 Soviet stamp</figcaption></figure> <p>On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched the first Earth satellite into space. Sputnik 1's official mission was to send back data from space, however the effects of this launch were monumental for both the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. For both countries, the launch of Sputnik 1 sparked the start of the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Space_Race" title="Timeline of the Space Race">Timeline of the Space Race</a>. It created a curiosity for space flight and a relatively peaceful competition to the Moon. However the initial effects of Sputnik 1 for the United States was not a matter of exploration, but a matter of national security. What the USSR proved to the world, and mainly the United States, was that they were capable of launching a missile into space and potentially an ICBM carrying nuclear cargo at the United States. The fear of the unknown capability of Sputnik sparked fear in the Americans and many government officials went on record giving their thoughts on the matter. Senator Jackson of Seattle said the launch of Sputnik "was a devastating blow", and that "[President] Eisenhower should declare a week of shame and danger".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the Russians' the launch of Sputnik 1 proved to be a major advantage in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, because it secured their current leading position in the war, created a retaliation force in the event of a U.S. nuclear strike, and allowed for a competitive advantage in ICBM technology. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_2" title="Sputnik 2">Sputnik 2</a> launched almost a month later on November 3, 1957, with a mission goal of carrying the first dog, <a href="/wiki/Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a>, into Earth orbit. This mission, though unsuccessful in the sense that Laika did not survive the mission, further established the USSR's position in the Cold War. Not only were the Soviets capable of launching a missile into space, but they could continue to complete successful space launches before the United States could complete one launch. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lunar_missions">Lunar missions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Lunar missions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The USSR launched three Lunar missions in 1959. The Lunar missions were the Russian equivalent to the United States <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a> and <a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a> space programs, whose primary mission was to prepare to put the first human on the Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-Soviets_in_Space_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviets_in_Space-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of the Lunar missions was <a href="/wiki/Luna_1" title="Luna 1">Luna 1</a>, which launched on January 2, 1959. Its successful mission established the first rocket engine restart within Earth orbit and the first man-made object to establish <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric_orbit" title="Heliocentric orbit">heliocentric orbit</a>. <a href="/wiki/Luna_2" title="Luna 2">Luna 2</a>, which launched on September 14, 1959, established the first impact into another celestial body (the Moon). Finally, <a href="/wiki/Luna_3" title="Luna 3">Luna 3</a> launched on October 7, 1959, and took the first pictures of the dark side of the Moon. After these three missions in 1959, the Soviets continued their exploration of the Moon and its environment in 21 other Luna missions.<sup id="cite_ref-Soviets_in_Space_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviets_in_Space-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Soviet_space_travel_from_1960–1962"><span id="Soviet_space_travel_from_1960.E2.80.931962"></span>Soviet space travel from 1960–1962</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Soviet space travel from 1960–1962"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Luna_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Luna program">Luna ("Moon") program</a> was a giant step forward for the Soviets in achieving the goal of putting the first man on the Moon. It also "planted the building blocks" of a program for the Soviets to "sustain human beings safely and productively in low Earth orbit" with the creation of the Soviet "equivalent to the Apollo command module, the <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)" title="Soyuz (spacecraft)">Soyuz</a> space capsule".<sup id="cite_ref-Soviets_in_Space_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviets_in_Space-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over this two-year period, the Soviets were taking major steps forward in getting to the Moon with one mission set back, <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik 4">Sputnik 4</a>. This mission was launched officially as a test of life support systems for future <a href="/wiki/Cosmonauts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmonauts">cosmonauts</a> on May 15, 1960. However, on May 19, "an attempt to deorbit a space cabin failed" and sent the cabin into high Earth orbit, only for it to crash into the Earth in September of the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviets continued their space program, however by launching <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_5" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik 5">Sputnik 5</a> on August 19, 1960, which carried the first animals and plants to space and return them safely to Earth. </p><p>Other notable launches include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a>: Launched on April 12, 1961. Successfully carried the first human into space, <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>, and completed the first crewed orbital flight.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_2" title="Vostok 2">Vostok 2</a>: Launched August 6, 1961. Successfully carried the first crewed mission lasting one day carrying <a href="/wiki/Gherman_Titov" title="Gherman Titov">Gherman Titov</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok 3">Vostok 3</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vostok_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok 4">Vostok 4</a>: Launched August 12, 1962. Vostok 3 carried <a href="/wiki/Andriyan_Nikolayev" title="Andriyan Nikolayev">Andriyan Nikolayev</a> and Vostok 4 carried <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Popovich" title="Pavel Popovich">Pavel Popovich</a>. Successfully completed the first dual crewed space flight, the first ship-to-ship radio contact and first simultaneous flight of crewed spacecraft.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_race_continues">The race continues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: The race continues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Soviet Union continued to extend its lead in the space race with its mission on April 12, 1961, which made Soviet cosmonaut <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> the first human being to leave Earth's atmosphere and enter space. The United States gained some ground a month later, on May 15, 1961, when they sent <a href="/wiki/Alan_Shepard" title="Alan Shepard">Alan Shepard</a> on a fifteen-minute flight outside of Earth's atmosphere during the <i><a href="/wiki/Freedom_7" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom 7">Freedom 7</a></i> project. On February 20, 1962, America made further progress as John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth in his Mercury mission <i><a href="/wiki/Friendship_7" class="mw-redirect" title="Friendship 7">Friendship 7</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soviet_strategy">Soviet strategy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Soviet strategy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_strategy" title="Nuclear strategy">Nuclear strategy</a></div> <p>In 1960 and 1961, Khrushchev tried to impose the concept of nuclear deterrence on the military. Nuclear deterrence holds that the reason for having nuclear weapons is to discourage their use by a potential enemy, with each side deterred from war because of the threat of its escalation into a nuclear conflict, Khrushchev believed, "peaceful coexistence" with capitalism would become permanent and allow the inherent superiority of socialism to emerge in economic and cultural competition with the West. </p><p>Khrushchev hoped that exclusive reliance on the nuclear firepower of the newly created <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Rocket_Forces" title="Strategic Rocket Forces">Strategic Rocket Forces</a> would remove the need for increased defense expenditures. He also sought to use nuclear deterrence to justify his massive troop cuts; his downgrading of the Ground Forces, traditionally the "fighting arm" of the Soviet armed forces; and his plans to replace bombers with missiles and the surface fleet with nuclear missile submarines.<sup id="cite_ref-lcweb2_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lcweb2-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, during the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a> the USSR had only four <a href="/wiki/R-7_Semyorka" title="R-7 Semyorka">R-7 Semyorkas</a> and a few <a href="/wiki/R-16_(missile)" title="R-16 (missile)">R-16s</a> intercontinental missiles deployed in vulnerable surface launchers.<sup id="cite_ref-Races_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Races-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1962 the <a href="/wiki/Hotel-class_submarine" title="Hotel-class submarine">Soviet submarine fleet</a> had only 8 submarines with <a href="/wiki/R-13_(missile)" title="R-13 (missile)">short range missiles</a>, which could be launched only from submarines that surfaced and lost their hidden submerged status. </p><p>Khrushchev's attempt to introduce a nuclear 'doctrine of deterrence' into Soviet military thought failed. Discussion of nuclear war in the first authoritative Soviet monograph on strategy since the 1920s, Marshal <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Sokolovsky" title="Vasily Sokolovsky">Vasilii Sokolovskii's</a> "Military Strategy" (published in 1962, 1963, and 1968) and in the 1968 edition of <i>Marxism-Leninism on War and the Army</i>, focused upon the use of nuclear weapons for fighting rather than for deterring a war. Should such a war break out, both sides would pursue the most decisive aims with the most forceful means and methods. Intercontinental ballistic missiles and aircraft would deliver massed nuclear strikes on the enemy's military and civilian objectives. The war would assume an unprecedented geographical scope, but Soviet military writers argued that the use of nuclear weapons in the initial period of the war would decide the course and outcome of the war as a whole. Both in doctrine and in strategy, the nuclear weapon reigned supreme.<sup id="cite_ref-lcweb2_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lcweb2-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mutual_assured_destruction">Mutual assured destruction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Mutual assured destruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jupiter_on_its_launch_pad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Jupiter_on_its_launch_pad.jpg/220px-Jupiter_on_its_launch_pad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Jupiter_on_its_launch_pad.jpg/330px-Jupiter_on_its_launch_pad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Jupiter_on_its_launch_pad.jpg/440px-Jupiter_on_its_launch_pad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="561" /></a><figcaption>More than 100 U.S.-built missiles having the capability to strike Moscow with nuclear warheads were <a href="/wiki/PGM-19_Jupiter#Military_deployment" title="PGM-19 Jupiter">deployed in Italy and Turkey</a> in 1961</figcaption></figure> <p>An important part of developing stability was based on the concept of Mutual assured destruction (MAD). While the Soviets acquired atomic weapons in 1949, it took years for them to reach parity with the United States. In the meantime, the Americans developed the <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">hydrogen bomb</a>, which the Soviets matched during the era of Khrushchev. New methods of delivery such as <a href="/wiki/Submarine-launched_ballistic_missile" title="Submarine-launched ballistic missile">Submarine-launched ballistic missiles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">Intercontinental ballistic missiles</a> with <a href="/wiki/MIRV" class="mw-redirect" title="MIRV">MIRV</a> warheads meant that both superpowers could easily devastate the other, even after <a href="/wiki/Pre-emptive_nuclear_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-emptive nuclear strike">attack</a> by an enemy. </p><p>This fact often made leaders on both sides extremely reluctant to take risks, fearing that some small flare-up could ignite a war that would wipe out all of human civilization. Nonetheless, leaders of both nations pressed on with military and espionage plans to prevail over the other side. At the same time, different avenues were pursued to try to advance their causes; these began to encompass <a href="/wiki/Sport" title="Sport">athletics</a> (with the <a href="/wiki/Olympics" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympics">Olympics</a> becoming a battleground between ideologies as well as athletes) and culture (with respective countries supporting <a href="/wiki/Pianist" title="Pianist">pianists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a> players, and <a href="/wiki/Movie_director" class="mw-redirect" title="Movie director">movie directors</a>). </p><p>One of the most important forms of <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolent</a> competition was the <a href="/wiki/Space_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Space race">space race</a>. The Soviets jumped out to an early lead in 1957 with the launching of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik">Sputnik</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">artificial satellite</a>, followed by the first crewed flight. The success of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a> was a great shock to the United States, which had believed itself to be ahead technologically. The ability to launch objects into orbit was especially ominous because it showed Soviet missiles could target anywhere on the planet. </p><p>Soon the Americans had a space program of their own but remained behind the Soviets until the mid-1960s. American President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> launched an unprecedented effort, promising that by the end of the 1960s Americans would land a man on the Moon, which they did, thus beating the Soviets to one of the more important objectives in the space race. </p><p>Another alternative to outright battle was the shadow war that was taking place in the world of espionage. There was a series of shocking spy scandals in the west, most notably that involving the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Five" title="Cambridge Five">Cambridge Five</a>. The Soviets had several high-profile defections to the west, such as the <a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a>. Funding for the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a>, <a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a> and smaller organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a> increased greatly as their agents and influence spread around the world. </p><p>In 1957 the CIA started the program of reconnaissance flights over the USSR using <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_U-2" title="Lockheed U-2">Lockheed U-2</a> spy planes. When such a plane was brought down over the Soviet Union on May 1, 1960 (<a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a>) at first the United States government denied the plane's purpose and mission, but was forced to admit its role as a <a href="/wiki/Surveillance" title="Surveillance">surveillance</a> aircraft when the Soviet government revealed that it had captured the pilot, <a href="/wiki/Gary_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gary Powers">Gary Powers</a>, alive and was in possession of its largely intact remains. Coming just over two weeks before a scheduled <a href="/wiki/1960_Paris_Summit" class="mw-redirect" title="1960 Paris Summit">East-West Summit in Paris</a>, the incident caused a collapse in the talks and a marked deterioration in relations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eastern_Bloc_events">Eastern Bloc events</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Eastern Bloc events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the Cold War became an accepted element of the international system, the battlegrounds of the earlier period began to stabilize. A <i>de facto</i> <a href="/wiki/Buffer_zone" title="Buffer zone">buffer zone</a> between the two camps was set up in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>. In the south, <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> became heavily allied with the other European communist states. Meanwhile, Austria had become neutral. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1953_East_Germany_uprising">1953 East Germany uprising</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: 1953 East Germany uprising"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></div> <p>Following large numbers of East Germans traveling west through the only "loophole" left in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_emigration_and_defection" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Bloc emigration and defection">Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions</a>, the Berlin sector border,<sup id="cite_ref-crampton278_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crampton278-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the East German government then raised "norms"—the amount each worker was required to produce—by 10%.<sup id="cite_ref-crampton278_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crampton278-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was an attempt to transform <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a> into a satellite state of the Soviet Union. Already disaffected East Germans, who could see the relative economic successes of West Germany within Berlin, became enraged,<sup id="cite_ref-crampton278_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crampton278-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provoking large street demonstrations and strikes.<sup id="cite_ref-crampton279_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crampton279-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nearly a million Germans partook in the protests and riots that took place at this time. A major emergency was declared and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a> intervened.<sup id="cite_ref-crampton279_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crampton279-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_of_the_Warsaw_Pact">Creation of the Warsaw Pact</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Creation of the Warsaw Pact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-34150-0001,_Bonn,_Theodor_Blank,_Bundeswehrfreiwillige.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-34150-0001%2C_Bonn%2C_Theodor_Blank%2C_Bundeswehrfreiwillige.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-34150-0001%2C_Bonn%2C_Theodor_Blank%2C_Bundeswehrfreiwillige.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-34150-0001%2C_Bonn%2C_Theodor_Blank%2C_Bundeswehrfreiwillige.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-34150-0001%2C_Bonn%2C_Theodor_Blank%2C_Bundeswehrfreiwillige.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-34150-0001%2C_Bonn%2C_Theodor_Blank%2C_Bundeswehrfreiwillige.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-34150-0001%2C_Bonn%2C_Theodor_Blank%2C_Bundeswehrfreiwillige.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="581" /></a><figcaption>Generals <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Heusinger" title="Adolf Heusinger">Adolf Heusinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Speidel" title="Hans Speidel">Hans Speidel</a> sworn into the newly founded West German <i><a href="/wiki/Bundeswehr" title="Bundeswehr">Bundeswehr</a></i> on 12 November 1955</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1955, the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> was formed partly in response to <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>'s inclusion of <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> and partly because the Soviets needed an excuse to retain <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> units in potentially problematic <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Hungary">Hungary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-crampton240_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crampton240-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For 35 years, the Pact perpetuated the Stalinist concept of Soviet national security based on imperial expansion and control over satellite regimes in Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-michta31_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-michta31-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through its institutional structures, the Pact also compensated in part for the absence of Joseph Stalin's personal leadership, which had manifested itself since his death in 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-michta31_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-michta31-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Europe remained a central concern for both sides throughout the Cold War, by the end of the 1950s the situation was frozen. Alliance obligations and the concentration of forces in the region meant that any incident could potentially lead to an all-out war, and both sides thus worked to maintain the status quo. Both the Warsaw Pact and NATO maintained large militaries and modern weapons to possibly defeat the other military alliance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1956_Polish_protests">1956 Polish protests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 1956 Polish protests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the death of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, the communist regime in Poland relaxed some of its policies. This led to a desire within the Polish public for more radical reforms of this kind, though the majority of Polish officials did not share this desire and were hesitant to reform. This caused impatience among industrial workers who began to strike; demanding better wages, lower work quotas, and cheaper food. 30,000 demonstrators carried banners demanding "Bread and Freedom".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Gomu%C5%82ka" title="Władysław Gomułka">Władysław Gomułka</a> headed up the protests as the new leader of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Communist_Party_(Marxist-Leninist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist)">Polish Communist party</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_1956_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="Poznań 1956 protests">demonstrations by workers demanding better conditions</a> began on June 28, 1956, at <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cegielski_Factories" class="mw-redirect" title="Cegielski Factories">Cegielski Factories</a> and were met with violent repression after Soviet Officer <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Rokossovsky" title="Konstantin Rokossovsky">Konstantin Rokossovsky</a> ordered the military to suppress the uprising. A crowd of approximately 100,000 gathered in the city center near the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Security_(Poland)" title="Ministry of Public Security (Poland)">UB</a> <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a> building. 400 tanks and 10,000 soldiers of the Polish Army under General <a href="/wiki/Stanislav_Poplavsky" title="Stanislav Poplavsky">Stanislav Poplavsky</a> were ordered to suppress the demonstration and during the <a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">pacification</a> fired at the protesting civilians. The death toll was placed between 57<sup id="cite_ref-Paczkowski_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paczkowski-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 78 people,<sup id="cite_ref-Jastrząb_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jastrząb-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wójtowocz_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wójtowocz-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including 13-year-old <a href="/wiki/Romek_Strza%C5%82kowski" title="Romek Strzałkowski">Romek Strzałkowski</a>. There were also hundreds of people who sustained a variety of injuries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Hungarian Revolution of 1956"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></div> <p>After Stalinist dictator Mátyás Rákosi was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Imre_Nagy" title="Imre Nagy">Imre Nagy</a> following Stalin's death<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (April 2018)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> and <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Poland">Polish</a> reformist <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Gomu%C5%82ka" title="Władysław Gomułka">Władysław Gomułka</a> was able to enact some reformist requests,<sup id="cite_ref-satellite_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-satellite-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> large numbers of protesting Hungarians compiled a list of <a href="/wiki/Demands_of_Hungarian_Revolutionaries_of_1956" title="Demands of Hungarian Revolutionaries of 1956">Demands of Hungarian Revolutionaries of 1956</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-sixteen_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sixteen-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including free secret-ballot elections, independent tribunals, and inquiries into Stalin and Rákosi Hungarian activities. Under the orders of Soviet defense minister <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Zhukov" title="Georgy Zhukov">Georgy Zhukov</a>, Soviet tanks entered Budapest.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protester attacks at the Parliament forced the collapse of the government.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new government that came to power during the revolution formally disbanded the <a href="/wiki/State_Protection_Authority" title="State Protection Authority">Hungarian secret police</a>, declared its intention to withdraw from the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> and pledged to re-establish free elections. The <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Soviet Politburo</a> thereafter moved to crush the revolution with a large Soviet force invading Budapest and other regions of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-troops_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-troops-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary,<sup id="cite_ref-Cseresneyes_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cseresneyes-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some 26,000 Hungarians were put on trial by the new Soviet-installed <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_K%C3%A1d%C3%A1r" title="János Kádár">János Kádár</a> government and, of those, 13,000 were imprisoned.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Imre Nagy was executed, along with <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1l_Mal%C3%A9ter" title="Pál Maléter">Pál Maléter</a> and Miklós Gimes, after secret trials in June 1958. By January 1957, the Hungarian government had suppressed all public opposition. These Hungarian government's violent oppressive actions alienated many Western <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxists</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (August 2010)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> yet strengthened communist control in all the European communist states, cultivating the perception that communism was both irreversible and monolithic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1960_U-2_incident">1960 U-2 incident</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: 1960 U-2 incident"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></div> <p>The United States sent pilot Francis Gary Powers in a U-2 spy plane on a mission over Russian airspace to accumulate intelligence on the Soviet Union on 1 May 1960. The spy plan had taken off from <a href="/wiki/Peshawar" title="Peshawar">Peshawar</a>, Pakistan. Eisenhower administration authorized multiple such flights into Russian airspace, however, this one increased the tension on American-Soviet relations. On this day, Powers' plane was shot down and recovered by the Soviet Union. President Eisenhower and the United States tried to claim the plane was only used for weather purposes. The incident occurred just weeks before the two countries were supposed to attend a summit along with France and Great Britain. Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> would not release any information about the plane or its pilot in the days leading up to the summit so that the United States would continue its "weather plane" lie, though eventually Eisenhower would be forced to admit that the CIA had been conducting such surveillance missions for years. This was because, at the summit, Khrushchev admitted that the Soviets had captured the pilot alive and recovered undamaged sections of the spy plane. He demanded that President Eisenhower apologize at the summit. Eisenhower did agree to bring the intelligence gathering excursions to an end but would not apologize for the incident. Upon Eisenhower's refusal to apologize, the summit came to an end as Khrushchev would no longer contribute to the discussion. One of Eisenhower's primary goals as president was to improve the American-Soviet relationship, however, this exchange proved to damage such relations. The summit was also an opportunity for the two leaders to finalize a limited nuclear test ban treaty, but this was no longer a possibility after the United States handling of the incident.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khrushchev threatened to drop a nuclear bomb on Peshawar,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus warning Pakistan that it had become a target of Soviet nuclear forces.<sup id="cite_ref-PakUSSRrelations2_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PakUSSRrelations2-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Berlin_Crisis_of_1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Berlin Crisis of 1961"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Special:EditPage/Cold War (1953–1962)">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Checkpoint_Charlie_1961-10-27.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Checkpoint_Charlie_1961-10-27.jpg/300px-Checkpoint_Charlie_1961-10-27.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Checkpoint_Charlie_1961-10-27.jpg/450px-Checkpoint_Charlie_1961-10-27.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Checkpoint_Charlie_1961-10-27.jpg 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="377" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> tanks face <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a> tanks at <a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie" title="Checkpoint Charlie">Checkpoint Charlie</a>, October 27, 1961</figcaption></figure> <p>The crucial sticking point was still <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Germany</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> merged their occupation zones to form the <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Federal Republic of Germany</a> in 1949. In response Soviets declared their section, the <a href="/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="German Democratic Republic">German Democratic Republic</a>, an independent nation. Neither side acknowledged the division, however, and on the surface both maintained a commitment to a united Germany under their respective governments. </p><p>Germany was an important issue because it was regarded as the power center of the continent, and both sides believed that it could be crucial to the world balance of power. While both might have preferred a united neutral Germany, the risks of it falling into the enemy's camp for either side were too high, and thus the temporary post-war occupation zones became permanent borders. </p><p>In November 1958, Soviet first secretary Khrushchev issued an ultimatum giving the Western powers six months to agree to withdraw from <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> and make it a free, demilitarized city. At the end of that period, Khrushchev declared, the Soviet Union would turn over to East Germany complete control of all lines of communication with West Berlin; the western powers then would have access to West Berlin only by permission of the East German government. The United States, Britain, and France replied to this ultimatum by firmly asserting their determination to remain in <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a> and to maintain their legal right of free access to that city. </p><p>In 1959, the Soviet Union withdrew its deadline and instead met with the Western powers in a Big Four foreign ministers' conference. Although the three-month-long sessions failed to reach any important agreements, they did open the door to further negotiations and led to Soviet leader Khrushchev's <a href="/wiki/State_visit_by_Nikita_Khrushchev_to_the_United_States" title="State visit by Nikita Khrushchev to the United States">visit to the United States</a> in September 1959. At the end of this visit, Khrushchev and President Eisenhower stated jointly that the most important issue in the world was general disarmament and that the problem of Berlin and "all outstanding international questions should be settled, not by the application of force, but by peaceful means through negotiations." </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Kennedy,_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg/220px-John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg/330px-John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg/440px-John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2894" data-file-height="2315" /></a><figcaption>John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev meet in Vienna, June 3, 1961.</figcaption></figure> <p>However, in June 1961 Soviet first secretary Khrushchev created a new crisis over the status of West Berlin when he again threatened to sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany, which he said, would end existing four-power agreements guaranteeing American, British, and French access rights to West Berlin. The three powers replied that no unilateral treaty could abrogate their responsibilities and rights in West Berlin, including the right of unobstructed access to the city. </p><p>As the confrontation over Berlin escalated, on 25 July President Kennedy requested an increase in the Army's total authorized strength from 875,000 to approximately 1 million men, along with an increase of 29,000 and 63,000 men in the active duty strength of the Navy and the Air Force. Additionally, he ordered that draft calls be doubled, and asked Congress for authority to order to active duty certain ready reserve units and individual reservists. He also requested new funds to identify and mark space in existing structures that could be used for fall-out shelters in case of attack, to stock those shelters with food, water, first-aid kits and other minimum essentials for survival, and to improve air-raid warning and fallout detection systems. </p><p>During the early months of 1961, the government actively sought a means of halting the emigration of its population to the West. By the early summer of 1961, East German President Walter Ulbricht apparently had persuaded the Soviets that an immediate solution was necessary and that the only way to stop the exodus was to use force. This presented a delicate problem for the Soviet Union because the four-power status of Berlin specified free travel between zones and specifically forbade the presence of German troops in Berlin. </p><p>During the spring and early summer, the East German regime procured and stockpiled building materials for the erection of the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a>. Although this extensive activity was widely known, few outside the small circle of Soviet and East German planners believed that East Germany would be sealed off. </p><p>On June 15, 1961, two months before the construction of the Berlin Wall started, First Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">Socialist Unity Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Staatsrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Staatsrat">Staatsrat</a> chairman <a href="/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht" title="Walter Ulbricht">Walter Ulbricht</a> stated in an international press conference, <i>"Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten!" (No one has the intention to erect a wall)</i>. It was the first time the colloquial term <i>Mauer</i> (wall) had been used in this context. </p><p>On Saturday, August 12, 1961, the leaders of East Germany attended a garden party at a government guesthouse in Döllnsee, in a wooded area to the north of East Berlin, and Walter Ulbricht signed the order to close the border and erect a Wall. </p><p>At midnight the army, police, and units of the East German army began to close the border and by morning on Sunday, August 13, 1961, the border to West Berlin had been shut. East German troops and workers had begun to tear up streets running alongside the barrier to make them impassable to most vehicles, and to install barbed wire entanglements and fences along the 156 km (97 mi) around the three western sectors and the 43 km (27 mi) which actually divided West and East Berlin. Approximately 32,000 combat and engineer troops were used in building the Wall. Once their efforts were completed, the Border Police assumed the functions of manning and improving the barrier. East German tanks and artillery were present to discourage interference by the West and presumably to assist in the event of large-scale riots. </p><p>On 30 August 1961, President John F. Kennedy ordered 148,000 Guardsmen and Reservists to active duty in response to East German moves to cut off allied access to Berlin. The Air Guard's share of that mobilization was 21,067 individuals. ANG units mobilized in October included 18 tactical fighter squadrons, 4 tactical reconnaissance squadrons, 6 air transport squadrons, and a tactical control group. On 1 November; the Air Force mobilized three more ANG fighter interceptor squadrons. In late October and early November, eight of the tactical fighter units flew to Europe with their 216 aircraft in operation "Stair Step", the largest jet deployment in the Air Guard's history. Because of their short range, 60 Air Guard F-104 interceptors were airlifted to Europe in late November. The United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) lacked spare parts needed for the ANG's aging F-84s and F-86s. Some units had been trained to deliver tactical nuclear weapons, not conventional bombs and bullets. They had to be retrained for conventional missions once they arrived on the continent. The majority of mobilized Air Guardsmen remained in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-globalsecurity.org_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-globalsecurity.org-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The four powers governing Berlin (<a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>) had agreed at the 1945 <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a> that Allied personnel would not be stopped by East German police in any sector of Berlin. But on 22 October 1961, just two months after the construction of the Wall, the U.S. Chief of Mission in West Berlin, E. Allan Lightner, was stopped in his car (which had occupation forces license plates) while going to a theater in East Berlin. Army General <a href="/wiki/Lucius_D._Clay" title="Lucius D. Clay">Lucius D. Clay</a> (retired), U.S. President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>'s Special Advisor in West Berlin, decided to demonstrate American resolve. </p><p>The attempts of a U.S. diplomat to enter East Berlin were backed by U.S. troops. This led to the stand-off between US and Soviet tanks at <a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie" title="Checkpoint Charlie">Checkpoint Charlie</a> on 27–28 October 1961. The stand-off was resolved only after direct talks between Ulbricht and Kennedy. </p><p>The Berlin Crisis saw US Army troops facing East German Army troops in a stand-off, until the East German government backed down. The crisis ended in the summer of 1962 and the personnel returned to the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-globalsecurity.org_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-globalsecurity.org-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the crisis <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> prepared an elaborate subversion and disinformation plan "to create a situation in various areas of the world which would favor dispersion of attention and forces by the U.S. and their satellites, and would tie them down during the settlement of the question of a German peace treaty and West Berlin". On 1 August 1961 this plan was approved by <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">CPSU Central Committee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Third_World_arena_of_conflict">Third World arena of conflict</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Third World arena of conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> marked a shift in the focal point of the Cold War, from postwar Europe to East Asia. After this point, in the wake of the disintegration of Europe's colonial empires, proxy battles in the Third World became an important arena of superpower competition in the establishment of alliances and jockeying for influence in these emerging nations. Many Third World nations, however, did not want to align themselves with either of the superpowers. The <a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, and Yugoslavia, attempted to unite the third world against what was seen as imperialism by both the East and the West. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defense_pacts">Defense pacts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Defense pacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">Southeast Asia Treaty Organization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">Northeast Asia Treaty Organization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">Central Treaty Organization</a>, <a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance</a></div> <p>The Eisenhower administration attempted to formalize its alliance system through a series of pacts. Its Southeast Asian allies were joined into the <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">Southeast Asia Treaty Organization</a> (SEATO) while allies in Latin America were placed in the <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance</a> (TIAR). The <a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a> alliance was signed between the <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and the U.S. None of these groupings was as successful as NATO had been in Europe. </p><p>John Foster Dulles, a rigid anti-communist, focused aggressively on Third World politics. He intensified efforts to "integrate" the entire non-communist Third World into a system of mutual defense pacts, traveling almost 500,000 miles in order to cement new alliances. Dulles initiated the Manila Conference in 1954, which resulted in the SEATO pact that united eight nations (either located in Southeast Asia or with interests there) in a neutral defense pact. This treaty was followed in 1955 by the <a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">Middle East Treaty Organization</a> (METO), uniting the United Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> in a defense organization. A <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">Northeast Asia Treaty Organization</a> (NEATO) comprising the U.S., Japan, South Korea, and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> was also considered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decolonization">Decolonization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Decolonization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></div> <p>The combined effects of two great European wars had weakened the political and economic domination of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> by European powers. This led to a series of waves of African and Asian <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a> following World War II; a world that had been dominated for over a century by Western imperialist colonial powers was transformed into a world of emerging African, Middle Eastern, and Asian nations. The sheer number of nation states increased drastically. </p><p>The Cold War started placing immense pressure on developing nations to align with one of the superpower factions. Both promised substantial financial, military, and diplomatic aid in exchange for an alliance, in which issues like corruption and human rights abuses were overlooked or ignored. When an allied government was threatened, the superpowers were often prepared and willing to intervene. </p><p>In such an international setting, the Soviet Union propagated a role as the leader of the "anti-imperialist" camp, currying favor in the Third World as being a more staunch opponent of colonialism than many independent nations in Africa and Asia. Khrushchev broadened Moscow's policy by establishing new relations with India and other key non-aligned, non-communist states throughout the Third World. Many countries in the emerging Non-Aligned Movement developed a close relationship with Moscow. </p><p>Meanwhile, the Eisenhower administration adjusted U.S. policy to the effects of decolonization. This shifted the focus of 1947–1949 away from war-torn Europe. By the early 1950s, the NATO alliance had already integrated Western Europe into the system of mutual defense pacts, providing safeguards against subversion or neutrality in the bloc. The <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> had already rebuilt a functioning Western economic system, thwarting the electoral appeal of the radical left. When economic aid had ended the dollar shortage and stimulated private investment for postwar reconstruction, in turn sparing the U.S. from a crisis of over-production and maintaining demand for U.S. exports, the Eisenhower administration began to focus on other regions. </p><p>In an exercise of the new "rollback" policies, acting on the doctrines of Dulles, Eisenhower thwarted Soviet intervention, using the CIA to overthrow unfriendly governments. In the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, the focus was pan-Arab nationalism. U.S. companies had already invested heavily in the region, which contained the world's largest oil reserves. The U.S. was concerned about the stability and friendliness of governments in the region, upon which the health of the U.S. economy increasingly grew to depend. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Africa">Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Africa would be a major battleground during the Cold War. The U.S. viewed the decolonization movement in Africa as an opportunity to gain access to raw materials that had previously been monopolized by the imperialist powers in Europe. U.S. policymakers also recognized that the poverty and instability that had persisted in Africa because of the colonial empires would provide a breeding ground for communist ideologies, so the U.S. would respond by providing economic assistance to the newly developing nations in Africa. Though the United States championed itself as a beacon of freedom and democracy, it often supported repressive regimes within Africa, such as the <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a> system led by a minority white population in <a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">South Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbook_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbook-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png/250px-British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png/375px-British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png/500px-British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>British <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">decolonization in Africa</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Communist governments also had, sometimes conflicting, policy objectives within Africa. The Soviet Union sought to respond to United States intervention within Africa by establishing alliances with newly born nations against Western <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>. The Soviet Union saw the elimination of colonial capitalism from Africa, and the rest of the Third World, as necessary for the advancement of those nations and by extension the triumph of <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> over <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>. Third World nationalists viewed the command-style economy of the Soviet Union as promising since it allowed that country to advance from an agrarian to an industrial economy. However, Soviet doctrine was not only challenged by the United States but by other communist powers. China also moved to support nationalist movements in Africa in order to challenge imperialism. Though the Soviet Union provided more substantial assistance, Maoist ideology became more alluring than Soviet ideology due to its emphasis on the rural population as opposed to Soviet doctrine which focused more on the urban proletariat. As such, Maoist ideology became popular within the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union" title="Zimbabwe African National Union">Zimbabwe African National Union</a> (ZANU) and the <a href="/wiki/FRELIMO" title="FRELIMO">Front for the Liberation of Mozambique</a> (FRELIMO). Often the Soviet Union and China found themselves supporting opposing liberation movements in Africa. Such as with <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, with the Soviet Union supporting the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union" title="Zimbabwe African People's Union">Zimbabwe African Peoples Union</a> (ZAPU) while China supported the ZANU's breakaway movements.<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbook_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbook-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cuba would also play a major role in the nationalist movements within Africa. Cuba's focus on Africa stemmed from the belief that it provided an arena for the struggle between socialism and capitalism. Another reason cited by the Cuban government for its support of African socialist movements was the shared link between Cuba and Africa due to the fact that one-third of Cubans were of significant African heritage. As such, <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a> and other Cuban revolutionaries wanted to spread the ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> to African independence movements and government's in newly independent African states. Cuba would provide significant support to socialists during the Cold War, such as to the <a href="/wiki/MPLA" title="MPLA">MPLA</a> in Angola, <a href="/wiki/FRELIMO" title="FRELIMO">FRELIMO</a> in Mozambique, and to dictators, including <a href="/wiki/Sekou_Tour%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Sekou Touré">Sekou Touré</a> of Guinea, and <a href="/wiki/Mengistu_Haile_Mariam" title="Mengistu Haile Mariam">Mengistu Haile Mariam</a> of Ethiopia.<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbook_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbook-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congo_Crisis">Congo Crisis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Congo Crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> (DRC), previously known as <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a>, achieved independence from <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> in 1960, after which Western leaders were determined to keep the country, and its enormous quantities of mineral wealth, within the West's sphere of influence. However, in May 1960, the elected government. led by <a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a>, envisioned an economic model that would benefit the citizens of the Congo as opposed to supporting western economic interests. As such western powers sought to replace Lumumba with a more pro-western leader.<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbook_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbook-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 5, five days after independence, Congolese soldiers mutinied after being told by their Belgian officers that there would be no wage increases, promotions, or African officers in the post-colonial army. After which Lumumba dismissed the Belgians, and elevated <a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Joseph Mobutu</a> to army chief of staff. Later on July 11, <a href="/wiki/Mo%C3%AFse_Tshombe" title="Moïse Tshombe">Moïse Tshombe</a>, who was closely associated with Belgian settlers and international mining interests seceded the mineral-rich <a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katanga province</a> from the DRC Convinced that Belgium was attempting to recolonize the Congo, Lumumba appealed for intervention at the United Nations. However the U.N. and U.S. refused to provide support, and thus Lumumba turned to the Soviet Union for aid. The United States government saw this as a threat and thus formulated plans to assassinate Lumumba.<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbook_61-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbook-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On September 5, President <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a> ordered the dismissal of Lumumba and his cabinet over massacres by the armed forces during the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Kasai" title="Invasion of South Kasai">invasion of South Kasai</a> and for allowing Soviets military advisers into the country.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later on September 14, with CIA and Belgian army support, Mobutu staged a coup against Lumumba. Lumumba was captured and transferred to Katanga in January where he was executed by the secessionist forces there. Tshombe then replaced Lumumba as prime minister In July 1964. Despite Tshombe's rule, the Congo would continue to be in crisis throughout the rest of the 20th and early 21st centuries. Though Communist nations would support rebel groups in the Congo, those groups would not succeed in taking power. The Congolese crisis had the effect of alienating from both the West and the East some in the third world who saw the East as weak and impotent, and the West as unethical and unscrupulous.<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbook_61-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbook-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Africa">East Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: East Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau uprising</a> who fought against the British colonists and white settlers in <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, which was dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Kikuyu_people" title="Kikuyu people">Kikuyu</a> which spreads the entire region of <a href="/wiki/Kenya_Colony" title="Kenya Colony">British Kenya</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a> was arrested in 1954 and was released later in 1961. In 1957, <a href="/wiki/Dedan_Kimathi" title="Dedan Kimathi">Dedan Kimathi</a>, the leader of Mau Mau who calls for Kenya's independence from British rule was hanged in the capital <a href="/wiki/Nairobi" title="Nairobi">Nairobi</a> which has laid down by the <a href="/wiki/King%27s_African_Rifles" title="King's African Rifles">King's African Rifles</a> (KAR) when the British lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a> who would later become the dictator of Uganda, has served in the British Army in 1946 which has led <a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_Uganda" title="Protectorate of Uganda">Uganda</a>'s independence from the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> on 9 October 1962 with <a href="/wiki/Milton_Obote" title="Milton Obote">Milton Obote</a> as Prime Minister. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suez_Crisis">Suez Crisis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Suez Crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></div> <p>The Middle East in the Cold War was an area of extreme importance and also great instability. The region lay directly south of the Soviet Union, which traditionally had great influence in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. The area also had vast reserves of oil, not crucial for either superpower in the 1950s (who each held large oil reserves on their own) but essential for the rapidly rebuilding American allies in Europe and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>. The original American plan for the Middle East was to form a defensive perimeter along the north of the region. Thus, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Pakistan signed the Baghdad Pact and joined METO. </p><p>The Eastern response was to seek influence in states such as <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. In accordance with this, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria made arms deals with Egypt, worth up to $225– 50 million in exchange for surplus cotton, giving Warsaw Pact members a strong presence in the region. Egypt, a former British protectorate, was one of the region's most important prizes with a large population and political power throughout the region.<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbook_61-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbook-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>General <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a>'s dealings with the Soviet Union and its allies antagonized the administrations of the West, including the Eisenhower administration in the U.S. In July 1956, the Eisenhower administration balked at funding the massive <a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan Dam</a> project. In response, that same year, Nasser nationalized the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> and ejected British troops from Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbook_61-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbook-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eisenhower persuaded the United Kingdom and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> to retreat from a badly planned <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">invasion</a> with <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> that was launched to regain control of the canal from Egypt for fear of alienating other Arab states, and driving them into the arms of the Soviet Union. While the Americans were forced to operate covertly, so as not to embarrass their allies, the Eastern Bloc nations made loud threats against the "imperialists" and worked to portray themselves as the defenders of the Third World. Nasser was later lauded around the globe, but especially in the Arab world. </p><p>Thus, the Suez stalemate was a turning point heralding an ever-growing rift between the Atlantic Cold War allies, which were becoming far less of a united monolith than they were in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War. Italy, France, Spain, West Germany, Norway, Canada, and Britain developed a <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">common market</a> to be less dependent on the United States. Such rifts mirror changes in global economics. American economic competitiveness faltered in the face of the challenges of Japan and West Germany, which recovered rapidly from the wartime decimation of their respective industrial bases. The 20th-century successor to the UK as the "workshop of the world", the United States found its competitive edge dulled in the international markets while at the same time it faced intensified foreign competition at home. Meanwhile, the Warsaw Pact countries were closely allied both militarily and economically. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Latin America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Eisenhower-Dulles approach sought to overthrow unfriendly governments, but did so in a covert way. Throughout much of Latin America, reactionary oligarchies ruled through their alliances with the military elite and the United States. Although the nature of the U.S. role in the region was established many years before the Cold War, the Cold War gave U.S. interventionism a new ideological tinge. But by the mid-20th century, much of the region passed through a higher state of economic development, which bolstered the power and ranks of the lower classes. This left calls for social change and political inclusion more pronounced, thus posing a challenge to the strong U.S. influence over the region's economies. By the 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxists</a> gained increasing influence throughout the regions, prompting fears in the United States that Latin American instability posed a threat to U.S. national security. </p><p>Future Latin American revolutionaries shifted to <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla tactics</a>, particularly following the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a>. Arbenz fell when his military had deserted him. Since then, some future Latin American social revolutionaries and Marxists, most notably <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sandinista" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandinista">Sandinistas</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a> made the army and governments parts of a single unit and eventually set up single party states. Overthrowing such regimes would require a war, rather than a simple CIA operation, the landing of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">U.S. Marines</a>, or a crude invasion scheme like the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haiti">Haiti</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Haiti"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Duvalier_dynasty" title="Duvalier dynasty">Duvalier dynasty</a></div> <p>After several coups d'état of <a href="/wiki/Dumarsais_Estim%C3%A9" title="Dumarsais Estimé">Dumarsais Estimé</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Eug%C3%A8ne_Magloire" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Eugène Magloire">Paul Magloire</a> which has led to the campaign of <a href="/wiki/1957_Haitian_general_election" title="1957 Haitian general election">1957 Haitian general election</a> with the Haitian voodoo dictator <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Duvalier" title="François Duvalier">Dr. François Duvalier</a> (<i>Papa Doc</i>) wins a landslide victory with the highest black majority population on 22 September 1957, with the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Louis_D%C3%A9joie" title="Louis Déjoie">Louis Déjoie</a> against the mulatto Haitians throughout the country. On 22 October, Duvalier was inaugurated and sworn in as the 34th <a href="/wiki/President_of_Haiti" title="President of Haiti">President of Haiti</a>. In 1958, after taking power as Haiti's new leader, the <a href="/wiki/July_1958_Haitian_coup_attempt" title="July 1958 Haitian coup attempt">July 1958 Haitian coup attempt</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Alix_Pasquet" title="Alix Pasquet">Alix Pasquet</a> who attempted to overthrow the dictator but failed as he was killed by a grenade at the barracks next to the palace. Once he established the <a href="/wiki/Duvalier_dynasty" title="Duvalier dynasty">Duvalier</a> government, he created a new militia and the secret police that used from the Haitian Mythology as the <a href="/wiki/Tonton_Macoute" title="Tonton Macoute">Tonton Macoutes</a> (known as the Volunteers for National Security, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i>Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale</i>) to secure the regime and making sure he is not overthrown like his predecessors, he continued to the use of ideology as <a href="/wiki/Noirism" title="Noirism">Noirisme</a>, with political and cultural movement at the end of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">United States occupation of Haiti</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Guatemala">Guatemala</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Guatemala"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reforma_agraria_1952.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Reforma_agraria_1952.jpg/190px-Reforma_agraria_1952.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Reforma_agraria_1952.jpg/285px-Reforma_agraria_1952.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Reforma_agraria_1952.jpg 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>When democratically elected Guatemalan President <a href="/wiki/Jacobo_%C3%81rbenz_Guzm%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán">Jacobo Árbenz</a> attempted a modest <a href="/wiki/Decree_900" title="Decree 900">redistribution of land</a>, he was overthrown in the 1954 CIA Guatemalan <a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">coup d'état</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout the Cold War years, the U.S. acted as a barrier to socialist revolutions and targeted populist and nationalist governments that were aided by the communists. The CIA overthrew other governments suspected of turning pro-communist, such as <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> in 1954 under <a href="/wiki/Jacobo_Arbenz_Guzman" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobo Arbenz Guzman">Jacobo Arbenz Guzman</a>. The CIA <a href="/wiki/Operation_PBSuccess" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation PBSuccess">Operation PBSuccess</a> eventually led to the 1954 coup that removed Arbnez from power. The operation drew on an initial plan first considered in 1951 to oust Arbenz named <a href="/wiki/Operation_PBFortune" title="Operation PBFortune">Operation PBFortune</a>. Arbenz, who was supported by some local communists, was ousted shortly after he had redistributed 178,000 acres (720 km<sup>2</sup>) of <a href="/wiki/United_Fruit_Company" title="United Fruit Company">United Fruit Company</a> land in <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>. United Fruit had long monopolized the transportation and communications region there, along with the main export commodities, and played a major role in Guatemalan politics. Arbenz was out shortly afterwards, and Guatemala came under control of a repressive military regime. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuba">Cuba</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Cuba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></div> <p>The Castro Regime overthrew the dictatorship of <a href="/wiki/Fulgencio_Batista" title="Fulgencio Batista">Fulgencio Batista</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-britannica1_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who came to power in 1933 through a military revolution, and then again through another military coup. Batista's first revolt was called the "<a href="/wiki/Sergeants%27_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergeants' Revolt">Revolt of the Sergeants</a>". After the revolt Batista ran the government through a number of <a href="/wiki/Puppet_ruler" title="Puppet ruler">puppet rulers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, after a series of failed puppet presidents Batista himself became president from 1940 to 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Batista's first term as president went peacefully and saw large amounts of economic growth due to public works<sup id="cite_ref-britannica1_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> programs he implemented. After his term as president Batista moved to Florida where he lived until he decided to come back to Cuba and run for president in 1952. But, just three months before election day, a military coup put Batista back in power. He justified this coup by claiming the sitting president was planning his own coup in order to remain in power.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Batista dictatorship lasted seven years until 1959 when it was overthrown by <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>. </p><p>Fidel Castro was the first political leader to establish a communist state in the western hemisphere and held control of Cuba for over five decades. Castro's political career started when he entered law school at the University of Havana.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then joined the <a href="/wiki/Partido_Ortodoxo" title="Partido Ortodoxo">Orthodox Party</a> movement, but tried and failed to overthrow the dictator of the Dominican Republic <a href="/wiki/Trujillo_Alto,_Puerto_Rico" title="Trujillo Alto, Puerto Rico">Trujillo</a> in 1947. In 1952 he ran for a seat in Cuba's House of Representatives, but the election failed to happen due to the rise of the dictator. In 1953 Castro launched a coup in an attempt to overthrow Batista, but failed and was jailed soon after. While in jail he renamed his revolutionary group "<a href="/wiki/26th_of_July_Movement" title="26th of July Movement">26th of July Movement</a>" and helped coordinate the group from prison. In 1955 was released from Cuban prison under an amnesty deal,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after which fled to Mexico in order to rally support for his second attempt at overthrowing Batista and dictatorship.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 1956, Castro, along with about 80 of his comrades, landed on Cuba. Though most of his forces were killed or captured for their attempt to overthrow the government during this time, Castro and what was left of his forces escaped into the mountains and began their <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a> campaign. Over the next two years Castro continued his guerrilla warfare while slowly growing his militant forces. In 1959 Castro's forces had key victories at important Cuban strongholds that, combined with Barista's loss of popularity and military power, led to Barista fleeing Cuba and Castro taking power.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fidel_Castro_during_a_visit_to_Washington.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Fidel_Castro_during_a_visit_to_Washington.jpg/220px-Fidel_Castro_during_a_visit_to_Washington.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Fidel_Castro_during_a_visit_to_Washington.jpg/330px-Fidel_Castro_during_a_visit_to_Washington.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Fidel_Castro_during_a_visit_to_Washington.jpg/440px-Fidel_Castro_during_a_visit_to_Washington.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a> during a visit to Washington, D.C., shortly after the Cuban Revolution in 1959</figcaption></figure> <p>Castro was sworn in as Prime Minister of Cuba on February 16, 1959, at this point in time he had control of the Cuban government's 30,000 man army. One of Castro's first acts as leader of Cuba was to nationalize American assets on the island without compensation. Before the fall of the pro-U.S. <a href="/wiki/Fulgencio_Batista" title="Fulgencio Batista">Batista regime</a>, U.S. interests had owned four-fifths of the stakes in the island's utilities, nearly half of its sugar, and nearly all of its mining industries. The U.S. could manipulate the Cuban economy at a whim by tinkering with the island's financial services or by tampering with government quotas and <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> on sugar–the country's staple export commodity. In response to these acts, the U.S. government refused to recognize Castro as the leader of Cuba,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the U.S. government made the first of several attempts of overthrow Castro by launching the infamous <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a>. </p><p>Castro then signed a trade agreement in February 1960 with communist states, which would emerge as a market for the island's agricultural commodities (and a new source for machinery, heavy industrial equipment, and technicians) that could replace the country's traditional patron–the United States. The East garnered a huge victory when they formed an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> after <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>'s successful revolution in 1959. This was a major victory for the Soviet Union, which had garnered an ally in close proximity to the American coast. Overthrowing the new regime became a focus for the CIA. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plans_against_Castro">Plans against Castro</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Plans against Castro"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Fidel Castro's takeover of Cuba, the United States was unsure about the nation's new leader's political ideologies. Potential economic cooperation between Nikita Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in 1959, leaders of the Soviet Union and Cuba, respectively, resulted in the immediate perturbation of the United States. The largest concern at this time was a Soviet satellite just 90 miles from the United States' mainland. The administration then began planning to intervene in this situation. The CIA initially proposed sabotaging the sugar refineries in Cuba, but President Eisenhower felt the threat was Castro and that he was the issue the United States needed to resolve. The CIA then began planning for an overthrow or possible assassination of Castro in December 1959. In February 1960, President Eisenhower requested the CIA develop a formal program to remove Castro from power. The request resulted in a plan for a task force led by <a href="/wiki/Deputy_Director_for_Plans" class="mw-redirect" title="Deputy Director for Plans">Deputy Director for Plans</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Bissell_Jr." title="Richard M. Bissell Jr.">Richard Bissell</a>. The initial stage of this task force was to develop and train a group of Cuban exiles to form a paramilitary group. This group would then deploy to Cuba to organize, train, and lead resistance forces to overthrow the government. With no other plausible alternative, Eisenhower approved the Bissell task force which is also known as <a href="/wiki/Brigade_2506" title="Brigade 2506">Brigade 2506</a>. The force was later transitioned from its original guerrilla infiltration model to a more paramilitary invasion concept due to the difficulty in coordinating with anti-Castro opposition. In Eisenhower's remaining months in office, he pushed the CIA to accelerate its plans for Brigade 2506. Eisenhower did not want the transition of presidency to halt any development. The plans began to finalize in the time between Kennedy's election in November and his inauguration in January. Bissell hoped to train men in Guatemala to be Brigade 2506 and the <a href="/wiki/5412_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="5412 Committee">5412 Committee</a> endorsed this along with the use of an airstrip in Nicaragua, and supply missions from the United States. President Kennedy was faced with the decision of whether or not to follow through with this plan when he ordered a meeting with many department heads in the United States government. Kennedy ultimately decided to fully fund and accelerate the program making the operation and its results his own responsibility.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion_and_the_Cuban_Missile_Crisis">Bay of Pigs Invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Bay of Pigs Invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soviet_empire_1960.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Soviet_empire_1960.png/300px-Soviet_empire_1960.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Soviet_empire_1960.png/450px-Soviet_empire_1960.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Soviet_empire_1960.png/600px-Soviet_empire_1960.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The maximum territorial extent of countries in the world under Soviet <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">influence</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> turned to <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> in 1959 and before the official <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a> of 1961</figcaption></figure> <p>Hoping to copy the success of Guatemala and Iran in 1961, the CIA, noting the large wave of emigration to the U.S. after Castro took power, trained and armed a group of Cuban exiles who landed at the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs" title="Bay of Pigs">Bay of Pigs</a> where they were to attempt to spark an uprising against the Castro regime. The assault failed miserably, however. Afterwards, Castro publicly declared himself a <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxist-Leninst</a> and set up Cuba as the first <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">Communist state</a> in the Americas and continued to nationalize virtually all major industries in the country. </p><p>The Soviet government seized on the abortive invasion as a rationale for the placing of Soviet troops in Cuba. It was also decided to position on Cuba <a href="/wiki/MRBM" class="mw-redirect" title="MRBM">medium-range nuclear missiles</a> which could strike many points in the U.S. at once. </p><p>In response, President John F. Kennedy quarantined the island, and after several intense days the Soviets decided to retreat in return for promises from the U.S. not to invade Cuba and to pull missiles out of Turkey. After this brush with <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">nuclear war</a>, the two leaders banned nuclear tests in the air and underwater after 1962. The Soviets also began a huge military buildup. The retreat undermined Khrushchev, who was ousted soon afterwards and replaced by <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a>. </p><p>The Cuban Revolution led to Kennedy's initiation of the "<a href="/wiki/Alliance_for_Progress" title="Alliance for Progress">Alliance for Progress</a>" program. The program was to provide billions of dollars of loans and aid over the course of the 1960s for economic development in order to stave off <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> revolution. The Alliance also contained counterinsurgency measures, such as the establishment of the Jungle Warfare School in the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone" title="Panama Canal Zone">Panama Canal Zone</a> and the training of police forces. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asia">Asia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mossadegh_and_the_CIA_in_Iran">Mossadegh and the CIA in Iran</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Mossadegh and the CIA in Iran"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></div> <p>The United States reacted with alarm as it watched developments in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, which had been in a state of instability since 1951. </p><p>Through the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iranian_Oil_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Iranian Oil Company">Anglo-Iranian Oil Company</a> (AIOC), the British had a monopoly on the transporting, pumping, and refining of oil in most of Iran. The company paid production royalties to the government of the Shah— placed on the throne by the British in 1941. But the royalties and salaries to Iranian employees were smaller, considering that the company's earnings were ten times greater than its expenses.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iran suffered from poverty, and nationalists insisted that controlling the company could alleviate this. </p><p>Many Iranians demanded that a higher share of the company's earnings be paid. In response, the AIOC replied that it had a binding agreement with the Shah until 1993, and collaborated with some Iranian political forces to draft a report opposing nationalization. In February 1951, the Iranian prime minister, suspected of being involved with the report, was assassinated. He was replaced by nationalist <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddegh" title="Mohammad Mosaddegh">Mohammad Mosaddegh</a>. Later that year the new prime minister nationalized his nation's British-owned oil wells.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As the Iranians moved toward seizing the reserves, the Truman administration attempted to mediate. Later, the Eisenhower administration, convinced that Iran was developing communist ties, used the CIA, joining forces with Iran's military leaders to overthrow Iran's government. Mossadegh drew on the <a href="/wiki/Tudeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudeh">Tudeh</a>, the Communist Party of Iran, for much of his support. However, by 1953 the party had begun to criticize him as a U.S. <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a>. Since the Tudeh was the strongest Communist party in the Middle East, the Eisenhower administration cited a potential communist takeover in the Middle East to justify intervention. Mossadeq invoked the communist threat to gain American concessions. The premier perceived that as Iran's economy suffered and fears of communist takeover gripped the U.S. government, the U.S. would abandon Britain and rescue him from his predicament.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To replace Mossadegh, the U.S. favored the young <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Mohammad Reza Pahlavi</a>. In return, Pahlavi promised to allow U.S. companies to share in the development of his nation's reserves. According to CIA documents made public in 2000, the U.S. provided guns, trucks, armored cars, and radio communications in the CIA-assisted 1953 coup, which elevated Pahlavi from his position as that of a constitutional monarch to that of an absolute ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Mossadeq out of the way, oil profits were then divided between the Shah's regime and a new international consortium. The British were awarded 40% of the country's oil revenues, five U.S. firms (<a href="/wiki/Gulf_Oil" title="Gulf Oil">Gulf</a>, <a href="/wiki/SOCONY-Vacuum" class="mw-redirect" title="SOCONY-Vacuum">SOCONY-Vacuum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil_of_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Oil of California">Standard Oil of California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil_of_New_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Oil of New Jersey">Standard Oil of New Jersey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Texaco" title="Texaco">Texaco</a>) won another 40%, and the rest went to <a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Royal Dutch Shell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compagnie_Fran%C3%A7aise_des_P%C3%A9troles" class="mw-redirect" title="Compagnie Française des Pétroles">Compagnie Française des Pétroles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The profits were divided evenly between the consortium and Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the turn of the 20th century the United States had been trying to get into the Iranian oil fields only to encounter British competition. The breakthrough for the U.S. was made possible by the Cold War-era ties to the Shah and under the guidance of the State Department official <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Hoover, Jr.">Herbert Hoover, Jr.</a>, who had gained a great deal of experience in the complexities of the international oil problem as a private businessman.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indochina">Indochina</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Indochina"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg/220px-Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg/330px-Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg/440px-Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>Captured French soldiers from <a href="/wiki/%C4%90i%E1%BB%87n_Bi%C3%AAn_Ph%E1%BB%A7" title="Điện Biên Phủ">Điện Biên Phủ</a>, escorted by Vietnamese troops, walk to a prisoner-of-war camp</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu" title="Battle of Dien Bien Phu">Battle of Dien Bien Phu</a> (French: Bataille de Diên Biên Phu; Vietnamese: Chiến dịch Điện Biên Phủ) was the climactic battle of the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a> between <a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a> forces of the <a href="/wiki/French_Far_East_Expeditionary_Corps" title="French Far East Expeditionary Corps">French Far East Expeditionary Corps</a>, and Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a> communist revolutionary forces led by <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a>. The battle occurred between March and May 1954, and culminated in a massive French defeat that effectively ended the war. </p><p>Cambodia and Laos both achieved independence from <a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">France</a> which led to the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Kampuchea" title="Communist Party of Kampuchea">Workers' Party of Kampuchea</a>. As a result of blunders in the French decision-making process, the French undertook to create an air-supplied base at Dien Bien Phu, deep in the hills of Vietnam. Its purpose was to cut off Viet Minh supply lines into the neighboring French protectorate of Laos and Cambodia, at the same time drawing the Viet Minh into a battle that would cripple them. Instead, the Viet Minh, under General <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B5_Nguy%C3%AAn_Gi%C3%A1p" title="Võ Nguyên Giáp">Võ Nguyên Giáp</a>, surrounded and besieged the French, who were unaware of the Viet Minh's possession of heavy artillery (including anti-aircraft guns) and their ability to move such weapons to the mountain crests overlooking the French encampment. The Viet Minh occupied the highlands around Dien Bien Phu, and were able to fire down accurately onto French positions. Tenacious fighting on the ground ensued, reminiscent of the trench warfare of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. The French repeatedly repulsed Viet Minh assaults on their positions. Supplies and reinforcements were delivered by air, although as the French positions were overrun and the anti-aircraft fire took its toll, fewer and fewer of those supplies reached them. After a two-month siege, the garrison was overrun and most French surrendered. Despite the loss of most of their best soldiers, the Viet Minh marshaled their remaining forces and pursued those French who did flee into the wilderness, routing them and ending the battle. </p><p>Shortly after the battle, the war ended with the 1954 Geneva accords, under which France agreed to withdraw from its former Indochinese colonies including Cambodia led by <a href="/wiki/Pol_Pot" title="Pol Pot">Pol Pot</a> (Saloth Sar) and Laos by <a href="/wiki/Souphanouvong" title="Souphanouvong">Souphanouvong</a>. The accords partitioned the country in two; fighting later resumed, in 1959, among rival Vietnamese forces as the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> (Second Indochina War).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The U.S. intervention with the greatest ramifications was in <a href="/wiki/Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina">Indochina</a>. Between 1954 and 1961, the administration dispatched economic aid and 695 military advisers to the <a href="/wiki/South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">Republic of Vietnam</a> (RVN), which was battling the <a href="/wiki/National_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam">National Liberation Front</a> (NLF) guerrillas. The <a href="/wiki/NLF_and_PAVN_logistics_and_equipment" title="NLF and PAVN logistics and equipment">NLF</a> drew its ranks from the southern peasantry and was backed by <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a>, which in turn was backed by the Soviet Union and China. The RVN was later absorbed by its communist counterpart to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Today, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> is one of the world's four remaining <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist states</a> (along with <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Indonesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> in February 1958 rebels on <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulawesi" title="Sulawesi">Sulawesi</a> declared the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Indonesia" title="Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia">PRRI</a>-<a href="/wiki/Permesta" title="Permesta">Permesta</a> Movement aimed at overthrowing the government of <a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a>. Due to their anti-communist rhetoric, the rebels received money, weapons, and manpower from the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a>. This support ended when <a href="/wiki/Allen_Lawrence_Pope" title="Allen Lawrence Pope">Allen Lawrence Pope</a>, an American pilot, was shot down after a bombing raid on government-held <a href="/wiki/Ambon,_Maluku" title="Ambon, Maluku">Ambon</a> in April 1958. In April 1958, the central government responded by launching airborne and seaborne military invasions on <a href="/wiki/Padang,_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Padang, Indonesia">Padang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manado" title="Manado">Manado</a>, the rebel capitals. By the end of 1958, the rebels had been militarily defeated, and the last remaining rebel guerrilla bands surrendered in August 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Asia">South Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: South Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There were some strategic reasons to be involved in South Asia. The Americans hoped that the Pakistani armed forces could be used to block any Soviet thrust into the crucial Middle East. It was also felt that as a large and high-profile nation, India would be a notable prize if it fell into either camp. India, a fledgling democracy, was never particularly in any grave danger of falling to insurgents or external pressure from a great power. It also did not wish to ally with the United States. </p><p>A key event in the South Asian arena of Cold War competition was the signing of the Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement between Pakistan and the United States in 1954. This pact would limit the later options of all the major powers in the region. The U.S. committed to remaining closely tied to Pakistan. For Pakistan, the U.S. alliance became a central tenet of its foreign policy, and despite numerous disappointments with it, it was always seen as far too valuable a connection to abandon. After the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Split" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Soviet Split">Sino-Soviet Split</a>, Pakistan also pursued close relations with China. </p><p>Soviet policy towards South Asia had closely paralleled that of the United States. At first the Soviets, like the Americans, had been largely uninterested in the region and maintained a neutral position in the Indo-Pakistani disputes. With the signing of the accords between Pakistan and the United States in 1954, along with the countries enlisting in METO and SEATO, the situation changed. In 1955, Khrushchev and Bulganin toured India and promised large quantities of financial aid and assistance in building industrial infrastructure. In <a href="/wiki/Srinagar" title="Srinagar">Srinagar</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>, the Soviet leaders announced that the Soviet Union would abandon its neutralist position and back India in the ongoing Kashmir dispute. </p><p>Indian prime minister <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a> was skeptical, however, and for many of the same reasons that he had wished to avoid entanglements with the United States he also wished to keep India from being too closely attached to the Soviet Union. Although the USSR sent India some aid, and although Nehru became the first non-communist leader to address the people of the Soviet Union, the two nations remained relatively distant. After Khrushchev's ousting, the Soviets reverted to a neutralist position and moderated the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1965" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Pakistani War of 1965">1965 war</a>. Peace negotiations were held in the Central Asian city of <a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a>. </p><p>By the late 1960s, Indian development efforts had again stalled. A large current accounts deficit had developed and a severe drought hit the agricultural sector hard. As with the downturn of a decade earlier, India again looked to outside assistance. However, relations were at a low ebb with the United States, which was largely preoccupied with Vietnam. On top of that, several smaller issues had turned American indifference into antipathy. Western international organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> were also unwilling to commit money to India's development projects without Indian trade concessions. </p><p>Along with other Warsaw Pact nations, the Soviets began to provide extensive support for India's efforts to create an industrial base. In 1969, the two powers negotiated a treaty of friendship that would make non-alignment little more than a pretext. Two years later, when faced with a growing crisis in <a href="/wiki/East_Pakistan" title="East Pakistan">East Pakistan</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>), India signed the agreement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sino-Soviet_split">Sino-Soviet split</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Sino-Soviet split"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></div> <p>Before the Sino-Soviet split, tensions between China and India complicated the Soviet Union's efforts to maintain close relations with both of Asia's leading emerging nations. In March 1959, China <a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">suppressed a revolt in Tibet</a>, leading to open conflict between China and India. On March 31, the <a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a>, Tibet's spiritual and temporal ruler, fled to India, where he was granted asylum over China's protest. India later backed a move in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> general assembly to enter into a full debate on charges of Chinese suppression of <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> in Tibet over the objections of the Soviet Union, Poland, Yugoslavia, Albania, Romania, Bulgaria, East Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, North Korea, and Mongolia. However, despite the Warsaw Pact's, Mongolia's, and North Korea's objections to the Indian-backed debate in the UN, Mao grew increasingly frustrated with the Soviet Union's rather muted and reluctant backing of Chinese actions in Tibet. Director of Central Intelligence at the time Allen W. Dulles believed that India and Pakistan could best combat communist China politically and economically, but noted that the ruthless suppression of the Tibetan Revolt was likely to cause each country to focus resources on protecting their Himalayan borders militarily. This would likely escalate the contest, and not in favor of India.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>China's active presence in Tibet preceded a much more dangerous confrontation between India and China. Successive Chinese governments had rejected the Sino-Indian border dictated by the British Empire in the early 20th century, called the <a href="/wiki/McMahon_Line" title="McMahon Line">McMahon Line</a>. As China built outposts along what China thought to be its borders, India built more outposts in the disputed area to drive out the Chinese, in what would be known as the <a href="/wiki/Events_leading_to_the_Sino-Indian_War#Forward_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Events leading to the Sino-Indian War">Forward Policy</a>. Charges and counter-charges of border violation and aggression were exchanged along the frontier. On September 9, a few days before his departure for the U.S., Janos Kadar of Hungary attempted to mediate the disputes between China and India, hoping to appeal to his friendly relations with both parties. Khrushchev and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a> of Czechoslovakia also appealed to China and India. However, China's reaction to the Soviet, Hungarian, and Czechoslovakian appeal for "peaceful coexistence" with the West and India was not seen as encouraging; and the fallout of the tensions along the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> caused worldwide speculation over the Warsaw Pact-Chinese alliance, which was based on common ideological, political, and military interests. </p><p>By the time the Sino-Indian border dispute developed into full-fledged fighting in the 1962 <a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a>, the alliance between the world's two leading communist powers was irreparably shattered. Although the Warsaw Pact nations backed China's October 1962 peace offer, urging Nehru to accept it, Albania's and Romania's offer to deliver <a href="/wiki/Mikoyan" title="Mikoyan">MiG</a> fighter planes to India sent Sino-Albanian and Sino-Romanian relations into crisis. This also turned China against other Eastern European communist states. By the end of 1963, the Eastern Bloc and China were engaging in open <a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">polemics</a> against each other, initiating a period of open hostility between the former allies that lasted for the remainder of the Cold War era. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture_and_media">Culture and media</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Culture and media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Culture_during_the_Cold_War" title="Culture during the Cold War">Culture during the Cold War</a></div> <p>In the ensuing years of World War II in the United States, media and culture portrayed a general sense of anxiety and fear of the spread of the Soviet Union's communism in American entertainment, political, social, and scientific sectors. As tensions between the two nations increased over the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, public hysteria over communism subverting American daily life was coined the "Red Scare",<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but more specifically the <a href="/wiki/Second_red_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Second red scare">Second red scare</a> with respect to the 1950s. Media coverage of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> served as a catalyst for acknowledging ideological differences between the two nations. Written and illustrative forms of communication were the main source of information before the 1960s in the United States; political expressions in American newspaper cartoons, fliers, and movie posters with "easily de-codable [text]" and "emotive images" largely served as a casting mold for solidifying American ideals against its Soviet counterpart.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, both US and USSR media succeeded in producing rhetoric and imagery that bolstered the motives of their respective states while establishing a sense of jingoism in their people; which is effectively known as propaganda. The polarization of the Cold War era and the dread resulting from a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a> between the US and USSR, in addition to a politicized system of media distribution, led to the escalated height of sentiments which included statements like "Better Dead Than Red" in American media and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As early as 1947 in the United States entertainment sector, the <a href="/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee" title="House Un-American Activities Committee">House Un-American Activities Committee</a> (HUAC) began holding hearings regarding the political orientation of American entertainment professionals, starting with the famous <a href="/wiki/Hollywood_Ten" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollywood Ten">Hollywood Ten</a><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> trial that resulted in the conviction of 10 Hollywood directors and writers being charged with <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_Congress" title="Contempt of Congress">contempt of Congress</a>, and eventually leading to the broader <a href="/wiki/Hollywood_blacklist" title="Hollywood blacklist">Hollywood blacklist</a>; with the peak of the committee's actions occurring between 1953 and 1956. In the midst of all this included the <a href="/wiki/Mccarthy_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Mccarthy trials">McCarthy trials</a>. Targets of HUAC's entertainment industry blacklist included directors, actors, screenwriters, musicians, and other prominent entertainment professionals, which were ultimately blacklisted from their careers for having been alleged communist members or having communist sympathies.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soviet communistic ideals being propagated into American life was used as justification for the tactics employed by the highly publicized HUAC and McCarthy trials. During this period in America, television stations and motion picture corporations were considerably influential on the minds of the public as associations between federal and private corporations became more intimately associated; a deliberate measure to promote positive consensus for military and intelligence efforts against the Soviet Union in a time of war. </p><p>After the downfall of Senator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/McCarthy_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="McCarthy trials">McCarthy trials</a>, which was due to his demagogic style and unsubstantiated accusations, the <a href="/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee" title="House Un-American Activities Committee">House Un-American Activities Committee</a> shortly after began its descent into ruin by the mid-late 1950s and early 1960s, and later was officially dismantled in 1975.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just prior to the beginning of the 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> proclaimed that the committee was the "most un-American thing in the country today".<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to these events, there had never been such a socially and politically significant issue publicized to the American populace within culture and media regarding domestic threats to United States democracy during the 20th century. </p><p>During this great period, Cold War themes first entered mainstream culture as a public preoccupation. The 1959 film <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Beach_(1959_film)" title="On the Beach (1959 film)">On the Beach</a></i>, for example, depicted a gradually dying, post-apocalyptic world that remained after a nuclear Third World War. </p><p><a href="/wiki/James_Bond" title="James Bond">James Bond</a> first appeared in 1954; the films were loosely connected to the Cold War, but fans loved the beautiful women, exotic locations, tricky gadgets, and death-defying stunts, and probably paid less attention to the politics. Bond movies followed the political climate in depicting Soviets and "Red" Chinese. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Forsyth" title="Frederick Forsyth">Frederick Forsyth</a>'s formula spy novels sold in the hundreds of thousands. His 1984 novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Fourth_Protocol" title="The Fourth Protocol">The Fourth Protocol</a></i>, whose title refers to a series of conventions that, if broken, will lead to nuclear war and that are now all broken except for the fourth and last thread, was made into a major 1987 film starring <a href="/wiki/Michael_Caine" title="Michael Caine">Michael Caine</a>. The point of such novels—like that of American movies of the 1950s, such as <i><a href="/wiki/My_Son_John" title="My Son John">My Son John</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Kiss_Me_Deadly" title="Kiss Me Deadly">Kiss Me Deadly</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Manchurian_Candidate_(1962_film)" title="The Manchurian Candidate (1962 film)">The Manchurian Candidate</a></i>—is to vilify the "enemy within", the treacherous peace movement activists, and simple Labor Party voters who, by 1988, were marching against the Cold War. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Computers_in_the_Cold_War">Computers in the Cold War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Computers in the Cold War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Computer technology began to be influential in the mid-1940s during World War II and continued to increase in use during the 1950s and 1960s. The first computers were designed and built in Great Britain and the United States to store digital programs. The first electronic digital computers were used for large-scale military calculations. These computers would go on to help scientists in the fields of ballistic missiles, nuclear missiles, and anti-missile defense systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computers_in_the_Soviet_Union">Computers in the Soviet Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Computers in the Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Soviet Union faced a dilemma in that Western science was what Soviet scientific progress had been measured against. The dilemma for the Soviets was that while they wanted to surpass and overtake Western science, they had to borrow it in order to further their scientific progress. The results were that many Soviets were denouncing Western science but would turn around and describe a national need for the same theory they just denounced. The Soviet Union first began getting reports about electronically stored digital programs designed and built in Britain and the United States in the 1940s which got great attention from Soviet mathematicians and physicists working on defense projects that needed large amounts of computation.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soviet scientists got information about these computers from publications and survey articles. But they may have also got some of this information through their intelligence channels. One former intelligence officer attached to the Soviet consulate in New York has recently revealed that in 1942-1946 he obtained over 20,000 pages of classified documents from seven agents working at the plants and laboratories of RCA, Western Electric, Westinghouse, General Electric, and two aircraft companies that held military contracts which these documents contained scientific and technical information on radar, sonar, computers, and other electrical equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first electronic digital computers were used for large-scale military calculations. Ballistic missile programs were major clients of Soviet digital computing and were used for calculating missile trajectories which the first problem solved but the large high speed computer M-2, was the calculation of thermodynamic and hydrodynamic parameters for missile design. Anti-missile defenses also pushed for computer developments.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_93-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the first problems solved by a computer was the calculation of the dependency of the target destruction probability on the detonation efficiency of fragmentation warheads.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_93-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Soviet Union got into the game of computers early and further developed them to make them into useful pieces of equipment for military purposes. This was fueled in part by wanting to compete with Western sciences but also this was during the Cold War which meant the United States was also investing in computers which gave the Soviet Union extra motive to keep investing in them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computers_in_the_United_States">Computers in the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Computers in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The U.S. and Britain were some of the first countries to start developing computers and the United States did not stop developing. The U.S. saw that using computers for military purposes would be beneficial and this came during the beginning of the Cold War. The Soviet Union also began to integrate computers into military programs and so the competition between the Soviet Union and the United States with computers began. </p><p>The U.S. quickly started to adapt computers for defense and military purposes. The air force was one of the first military branches to adapt and use computers for their uses. The air force established a Reeves analogue computer at the Wright Air Development Center at Daytona for developing weapons systems.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It had already been used in the Korean War to track enemy shells back to their source which was then destroyed. The U.S. Navy then deployed its Naval Ordnance Research Calculator (NORC) as a means of accurately firing a naval gun at a target, taking into account the multiple variables of ship speed, wind velocity, direction and roll and pitch of the vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the United States knew how computers would impact military programs, they began collecting what information they could on how the Soviet Union was coming on with their own computer program. The information the United States got was that the Soviet Union was not really able to keep up with the U.S. because they had insufficient and poor standards of equipment needed for making computers. A U.S. report of 1959 demonstrated that whereas the Soviets had 400 general-purpose digital computers of all types, the U.S. had produced more than 4000, and while the Soviet computer production in 1958 was at most worth $55 million, that for the U.S. was $1 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This would show that unlike the nuclear programs of each country which was a pretty even race, the United States had a pretty sizable lead in the computer competition with the Soviet Union. </p><p>The U.S. had a good lead in computer development against the Soviet Union. Not only were the military branches using computers avidly but the civilian population also got to be able to use computers. 66% of computers in the United States were used for military purposes while 30% were used for civilian uses.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_94-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computers became a very big role in the military after World War II while also being available to civilians and the U.S. led this change into the technical world through the 1950s and 1960s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)">History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">History of the United States (1945–1964)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_in_the_Cold_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of events in the Cold War">Timeline of events in the Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCloy%E2%80%93Zorin_Accords" title="McCloy–Zorin Accords">McCloy–Zorin Accords</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAlbert2010" class="citation web cs1">Albert, Melissa (January 21, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/de-Stalinization">"De-Stalinization"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 2,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=De-Stalinization&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2010-01-21&rft.aulast=Albert&rft.aufirst=Melissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2Fde-Stalinization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+War+%281953%E2%80%931962%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/milestones/1953-1960/massive-retaliation">"Brinkmanship and Massive Retaliation"</a>. Office of the Historian<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Eisenhower requests funds to present the best American cultural achievements abroad on books.google.com</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.7aso.org/htmldocs/ascronsp.html"><i>7th Army Symphony Chronology - General Palmer authorizes Samuel Adler to found the orchestra in 1952</i> on 7aso.org</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k9SOCgAAQBAJ&dq=Seventh+Army+Symphony+Orchestra+Samuel+Adler&pg=PA311"><i>A Dictionary for the Modern Composer</i></a>, Emily Freeman Brown, Scarecrow Press, Oxford, 2015, p. 311 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8401-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8401-4">978-0-8108-8401-4</a> <i>Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra</i> founded by Samuel Adler in 1952 on <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com">https://books.google.com</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RzxEAQAAIAAJ&q=Seventh+Army+Symphony+Orchestra"><i> Army - "Musical Ambassadors, Soldiers Too"</i> James I. 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Khrushchev: The Crisis Years, 1960–63</i> (1991)</li> <li>Brands, H. W. <i>Cold Warriors. Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy</i> (1988).</li> <li>Brands, H. W. <i>The Wages of Globalism: Lyndon Johnson and the Limits of American Power </i> (1997)</li> <li>Chang, Laurence and Peter Kornbluh, eds., <i>The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962</i> (1992)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrampton1997" class="citation book cs1">Crampton, R. J. (1997). <i>Eastern Europe in the twentieth century and after</i>. 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Wilmington, Delaware, 1993</li> <li>Kolko, Gabriel, <i>The Limits of Power</i> New York, 1971</li> <li>LaFeber, Walter. <i>America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1992</i> 7th ed. (1993)</li> <li>LaFeber, Walter, <i>The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad since 1750</i>. New York, 1992</li> <li>Maus, Derek. "Series and Systems: Russian and American Dystopian Satires of the Cold War" <i>Critical Survey</i>, Vol. 17, 2005</li> <li>Melanson, Richard A. and David Mayers, eds., <i>Reevaluating Eisenhower. American Foreign Policy in the 1950s</i> (1986)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichtaMastny1992" class="citation book cs1">Michta, Andrew A.; <a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Mastny, Vojtech</a> (1992). <i>East Central Europe after the Warsaw Pact: Security Dilemmas in the 1990s</i>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-64-02261-9" title="Special:BookSources/92-64-02261-9"><bdi>92-64-02261-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Central+Europe+after+the+Warsaw+Pact%3A+Security+Dilemmas+in+the+1990s&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=92-64-02261-9&rft.aulast=Michta&rft.aufirst=Andrew+A.&rft.au=Mastny%2C+Vojtech&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+War+%281953%E2%80%931962%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Mitchell, George. <i>The Iron Curtain: The Cold War in Europe</i> (2004)</li> <li>Mulvihill, Jason. "James Bond's Cold War" <i>International Journal of Instructional Media</i>. Volume: 28. Issue: 3. : 2001</li> <li>Paterson, Thomas G. ed., <i>Kennedy's Quest for Victory: American Foreign Policy, 1961–1963</i> (1989)</li> <li>Pruessen, Ronald W. <i>John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power</i> New York, 1982</li> <li>Shaheen, Jack G. <i>Nuclear War Films</i> Southern Illinois University Press, 1978</li> <li>Sivachev, Nikolai and Nikolai Yakolev, <i>Russia and the United States</i> (1979), by Soviet historians</li> <li>Stueck, Jr. William W. <i>The Korean War: An International History</i> (1995)</li> <li>Toulouse, Mark G. <i>The Transformation of John Foster Dulles</i> New York, 1985</li> <li>Watry, David M. <i>Diplomacy at the Brink: Eisenhower, Churchill, and Eden in the Cold War</i>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-5718-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-5718-3">978-0-8071-5718-3</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://histclo.com/essay/war/cold/war-cold.html">Cold War overview</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation <i>Priboi</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation <i>Jungle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation <i>Unthinkable</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation <i>Masterdom</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation <i>Blacklist Forty</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the <i>Tuapse</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation <i>Gladio</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS <i>Pueblo</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%931971_East_Pakistan_communist_insurgency" title="1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency">1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation <i>Condor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological<br />competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and<br />intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dwight_D._Eisenhower" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Template:Dwight D. Eisenhower"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Template talk:Dwight D. Eisenhower"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dwight D. Eisenhower"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dwight_D._Eisenhower" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">34th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1953–1961)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe" title="Supreme Allied Commander Europe">Supreme Allied Commander Europe</a> (1951–1952)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Army">Chief of Staff of the Army</a> (1945–1948)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Headquarters_Allied_Expeditionary_Force#Commander_and_senior_staff" title="Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force">Commander, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force</a> (1943–1945)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Military<br />career</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Military career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_Motor_Transport_Corps_convoy" title="1919 Motor Transport Corps convoy">1919 Motor Transport Corps convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Maneuvers" title="Louisiana Maneuvers">Louisiana Maneuvers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations_United_States_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="European Theater of Operations United States Army">European Theater of Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_6,_1944,_order_of_the_day" title="June 6, 1944, order of the day">June 6, 1944, order of the day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_Western_Europe_speech" title="People of Western Europe speech">People of Western Europe speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Normandy landings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Veritable" title="Operation Veritable">Operation Veritable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Declaration_(1945)" title="Berlin Declaration (1945)">Berlin Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Military Governor, U.S. Occupation Zone in Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disarmed_Enemy_Forces" title="Disarmed Enemy Forces">Disarmed Enemy Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Advisory_Commission" title="European Advisory Commission">European Advisory Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe" title="Supreme Allied Commander Europe">Supreme Commander of NATO, 1951-1952</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Presidency</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_presidency" title="Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidential transition of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower">1953 inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Second inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower">1957 inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union Address</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/February_1953_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="February 1953 State of the Union Address">1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1954 State of the Union Address">1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1955_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1955 State of the Union Address">1955</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1956 State of the Union Address">1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1957_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1957 State of the Union Address">1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1958 State of the Union Address">1958</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1959 State of the Union Address">1959</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1960 State of the Union Address">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_12,_1961_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="January 12, 1961 State of the Union Address">1961</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower#Administration_and_Cabinet" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="List of federal judges appointed by Dwight D. Eisenhower">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower%27s_farewell_address" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisenhower's farewell address">Farewell address</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">Military–industrial complex</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy">Kennedy transition</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Dwight_David_Eisenhower/Executive_Orders" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Dwight David Eisenhower/Executive Orders">Executive Orders</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Dwight_David_Eisenhower/Presidential_Proclamations" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Dwight David Eisenhower/Presidential Proclamations">Presidential Proclamations</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration">Foreign policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> <ul><li>1953; <a href="/wiki/Korean_Armistice_Agreement" title="Korean Armistice Agreement">Korean Armistice Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chance_for_Peace_speech" title="Chance for Peace speech">"Chance for Peace" speech</a> (1953)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War#Crisis_and_escalation_(1953–62)" title="Cold War">Khrushchev, Eisenhower and De-Stalinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Look_(policy)" title="New Look (policy)">New Look policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">1955 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1954" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1954">Atomic Energy Act of 1954</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace" title="Atoms for Peace">Atoms for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restricted_Data" title="Restricted Data">Restricted Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Trade_Development_and_Assistance_Act_of_1954" title="Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954">Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_for_Peace" title="Food for Peace">Food for Peace</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/EURATOM_Cooperation_Act_of_1958" title="EURATOM Cooperation Act of 1958">EURATOM Cooperation Act of 1958</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act" title="National Aeronautics and Space Act">National Aeronautics and Space Act</a> <ul><li>1958; <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_40" title="Operation 40">Operation 40</a> (1960)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Domestic policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_10479" title="Executive Order 10479">Executive Order 10479</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Continental_Shelf" title="Outer Continental Shelf">Outer Continental Shelf Act</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_Relief_Act" title="Refugee Relief Act">Refugee Relief Act</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submerged_Lands_Act" title="Submerged Lands Act">Submerged Lands Act</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Act_of_1954" title="Agricultural Act of 1954">Agricultural Act of 1954</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Wool_Act_of_1954" title="National Wool Act of 1954">National Wool Act of 1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Milk_Program" title="Special Milk Program">Special Milk Program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excise_Tax_Reduction_Act_of_1954" title="Excise Tax Reduction Act of 1954">Excise Tax Reduction Act of 1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code" title="Internal Revenue Code">Internal Revenue Code of 1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watershed_Protection_and_Flood_Prevention_Act_of_1954" title="Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of 1954">Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of 1954</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_Watershed_Program" title="Small Watershed Program">Small Watershed Program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Pollution_Control_Act_of_1955" title="Air Pollution Control Act of 1955">Air Pollution Control Act of 1955</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Act_of_1956" title="Agricultural Act of 1956">Agricultural Act of 1956</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Bank_Act" title="Soil Bank Act">Soil Bank Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Bank_Program" title="Soil Bank Program">Soil Bank Program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Voting_Assistance_Program" title="Federal Voting Assistance Program">Federal Voting Assistance Program</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_Holding_Company_Act" title="Bank Holding Company Act">Bank Holding Company Act</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal-Aid_Highway_Act_of_1956" title="Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956">Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">Interstate Highway System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highway_Trust_Fund" title="Highway Trust Fund">Highway Trust Fund</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_and_Wildlife_Act" title="Fish and Wildlife Act">Fish and Wildlife Act</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_to_People_Student_Ambassador_Program" title="People to People Student Ambassador Program">People to People Student Ambassador Program</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_Council_on_Fitness,_Sports_and_Nutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="President's Council on Fitness, Sports and Nutrition">President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_Civil_Rights" title="United States Commission on Civil Rights">U.S. Commission on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Civil_Rights_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division">U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Plant_Pest_Act_of_1957" title="Federal Plant Pest Act of 1957">Federal Plant Pest Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine intervention</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price%E2%80%93Anderson_Nuclear_Industries_Indemnity_Act" title="Price–Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act">Price–Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Statehood_Act" title="Alaska Statehood Act">Alaska Statehood Act</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humane_Slaughter_Act" title="Humane Slaughter Act">Humane Slaughter Act</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Education_Act" title="National Defense Education Act">National Defense Education Act</a> <ul><li>1958; <a href="/wiki/Federal_Perkins_Loan" title="Federal Perkins Loan">Federal Perkins Loan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_loans_in_the_United_States" title="Student loans in the United States">Student loans in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Admission_Act" title="Hawaii Admission Act">Hawaii Admission Act</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple-Use_Sustained-Yield_Act_of_1960" title="Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960">Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikes_Act" title="Sikes Act">Sikes Act</a> (1960)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_in_Europe" title="Crusade in Europe"><i>Crusade in Europe</i> (1948)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Draft_Eisenhower_movement" title="Draft Eisenhower movement">Draft Eisenhower movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1948 Republican Party presidential primaries">Republican Party presidential primaries (1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Republican Party presidential primaries">1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1956 Republican Party presidential primaries">1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_National_Convention" title="1952 Republican National Convention">Republican National Convention (1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_National_Convention" title="1956 Republican National Convention">1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">United States Presidential election (1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">1956)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Bibliography of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Birthplace_State_Historic_Site" title="Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site">Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Presidential_Library,_Museum_and_Boyhood_Home" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home">Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum, gravesite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Home" title="Eisenhower Home">Boyhood home</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_National_Historic_Site" title="Eisenhower National Historic Site">Eisenhower National Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Memorial" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial">Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Executive_Office_Building" title="Eisenhower Executive Office Building">Eisenhower Executive Office Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wichita_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_National_Airport" title="Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport">Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Fellowships" title="Eisenhower Fellowships">Eisenhower Fellowships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisenhower Institute">Eisenhower Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Monument" title="Eisenhower Monument">Eisenhower Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_dollar" title="Eisenhower dollar">Eisenhower dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Centennial_silver_dollar" title="Eisenhower Centennial silver dollar">Eisenhower Centennial silver dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Army_Medical_Center" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center">Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Medical_Center" title="Eisenhower Medical Center">Eisenhower Medical Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Trophy" title="Eisenhower Trophy">Eisenhower Trophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Golf_Club" title="Eisenhower Golf Club">Eisenhower Golf Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts#Eisenhower_Theater" title="John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts">Eisenhower Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_(U.S._Capitol)" title="Statue of Dwight D. Eisenhower (U.S. Capitol)">Statue of Dwight D. Eisenhower (U.S. Capitol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Eisenhower" title="Fort Eisenhower">Fort Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Eisenhower" title="Mount Eisenhower">Mount Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_for_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="List of places named for Dwight D. Eisenhower">Places named for Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower#Tributes_and_memorials" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Other tributes and memorials</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular<br />culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_jacket" title="Eisenhower jacket">Eisenhower jacket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Tree" title="Eisenhower Tree">Eisenhower Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_in_Europe#TV_series" title="Crusade in Europe"><i>Crusade in Europe</i> (1949 television series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backstairs_at_the_White_House" title="Backstairs at the White House"><i>Backstairs at the White House</i> (1979 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ike_(miniseries)" title="Ike (miniseries)"><i>Ike</i> (1979 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ike:_Countdown_to_D-Day" title="Ike: Countdown to D-Day"><i>Ike: Countdown to D-Day</i> (2004 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_(play)" title="Pressure (play)"><i>Pressure</i> (2014 play)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Family of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamie_Eisenhower" title="Mamie Eisenhower"> Mary "Mamie" Geneva Doud Eisenhower</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Eisenhower" title="John Eisenhower">John Eisenhower</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Eisenhower" title="David Eisenhower">David Eisenhower</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Eisenhower" title="Anne Eisenhower">Anne Eisenhower</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Eisenhower" title="Susan Eisenhower">Susan Eisenhower</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Jean_Eisenhower" title="Mary Jean Eisenhower">Mary Jean Eisenhower</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennie_Eisenhower" title="Jennie Eisenhower">Jennie Eisenhower</a> (great-granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_Stover_Eisenhower" title="Ida Stover Eisenhower">Ida Stover Eisenhower</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Eisenhower">Arthur Eisenhower</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_N._Eisenhower" title="Edgar N. Eisenhower">Edgar N. Eisenhower</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Roy Eisenhower">Roy Eisenhower</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_D._Eisenhower" title="Earl D. Eisenhower">Earl D. Eisenhower</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_S._Eisenhower" title="Milton S. Eisenhower">Milton S. Eisenhower</a> (brother)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_baseball_controversy" title="Eisenhower baseball controversy">Eisenhower baseball controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_David" title="Camp David">Camp David</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/And_I_don%27t_care_what_it_is" title="And I don't care what it is">And I don't care what it is</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace_Award" title="Atoms for Peace Award">Atoms for Peace Award</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_Outer_Space" title="Introduction to Outer Space">Introduction to Outer Space</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddie_Slovik" title="Eddie Slovik">Eddie Slovik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kay_Summersby" title="Kay Summersby">Kay Summersby</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">← Harry S. Truman</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Category:Dwight D. Eisenhower">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="John_F._Kennedy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:John_F._Kennedy" title="Template:John F. Kennedy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:John_F._Kennedy" title="Template talk:John F. Kennedy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:John_F._Kennedy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:John F. Kennedy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="John_F._Kennedy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">35th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1961–1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Massachusetts" title="List of United States senators from Massachusetts">U.S. Senator from Massachusetts</a> (1953–1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Massachusetts" title="List of United States representatives from Massachusetts">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_11th_congressional_district" title="Massachusetts's 11th congressional district">MA–11</a> (1947–1953)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">Presidency</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_presidency" title="Timeline of the John F. Kennedy presidency">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Inauguration of John F. Kennedy">Inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy#Administration,_Cabinet,_and_judicial_appointments_1961–63" title="John F. Kennedy">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_John_F._Kennedy" title="List of federal judges appointed by John F. Kennedy">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="John F. Kennedy Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy/Executive_orders" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:John Fitzgerald Kennedy/Executive orders">Executive Orders</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy/Presidential_Proclamations" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:John Fitzgerald Kennedy/Presidential Proclamations">Presidential Proclamations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_pardoned_or_granted_clemency_by_the_President_of_the_United_States#John_F._Kennedy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the President of the United States">Presidential pardons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS-100-X" class="mw-redirect" title="SS-100-X">Presidential limousine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S/Y_Manitou" class="mw-redirect" title="S/Y Manitou">Presidential yacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resolute_desk" title="Resolute desk"><i>Resolute</i> desk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_Room" title="Situation Room">Situation Room</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_administration" title="Foreign policy of the John F. Kennedy administration">Foreign policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_for_Progress" title="Alliance for Progress">Alliance for Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arms_Control_and_Disarmament_Agency" title="Arms Control and Disarmament Agency">Arms Control and Disarmament Agency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible_response" title="Flexible response">Flexible response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Corps" title="Peace Corps">Peace Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_Expansion_Act" title="Trade Expansion Act">Trade Expansion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_and_Refugee_Assistance_Act" title="Migration and Refugee Assistance Act">Migration and Refugee Assistance Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development" title="United States Agency for International Development">USAID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War#The_Kennedy_years,_1961–63" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li>Cuba: <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban Project">Cuban Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EXCOMM" title="EXCOMM">ExComm</a></li></ul></li> <li>Soviet Union: <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow%E2%80%93Washington_hotline" title="Moscow–Washington hotline">Moscow–Washington hotline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_summit" title="Vienna summit">Vienna summit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_Frontier" title="New Frontier">New Frontier</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communications_Satellite_Act_of_1962" title="Communications Satellite Act of 1962">Communications Satellite Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_Mental_Health_Act" title="Community Mental Health Act">Community Mental Health Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_of_1963" title="Equal Pay Act of 1963">Equal Pay Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_11110" title="Executive Order 11110">Executive Order 11110</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_10925" title="Executive Order 10925">Federal affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_11063" title="Executive Order 11063">Federal housing segregation ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_march" title="Kennedy march">Fifty-mile hikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_for_Peace" title="Food for Peace">Food for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_Nutrition_Assistance_Program#Pilot_Food_Stamp_Program_(1961–1964)" title="Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program">Pilot Food Stamp Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom" title="Presidential Medal of Freedom">Presidential Medal of Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Kennedy_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Space policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Commission_on_the_Status_of_Women" title="Presidential Commission on the Status of Women">Status of Women (Presidential Commission)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">University of Alabama integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-Channel_Receiver_Act" title="All-Channel Receiver Act">All-Channel Receiver Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1961" title="Oil Pollution Act of 1961">Oil Pollution Act of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1962" title="Revenue Act of 1962">Revenue Act of 1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Farm_and_Rural_Development_Act_of_1961" title="Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act of 1961">Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetlands_Loan_Act" title="Wetlands Loan Act">Wetlands Loan Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg/90px-John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg/135px-John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg/180px-John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="970" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidential<br />speeches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_John_F._Kennedy#The_inaugural_address" title="Inauguration of John F. Kennedy">Inaugural address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_University_speech" title="American University speech">American University speech</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_choose_to_go_to_the_Moon" title="We choose to go to the Moon">We choose to go to the Moon</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">Report to the American People on Civil Rights</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner" title="Ich bin ein Berliner">Ich bin ein Berliner</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/A_rising_tide_lifts_all_boats" title="A rising tide lifts all boats">A rising tide lifts all boats</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remarks_at_Amherst_College_on_the_Arts" title="Remarks at Amherst College on the Arts">Remarks at Amherst College on the Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union Address</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/January_30,_1961_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="January 30, 1961 State of the Union Address">1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1962_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1962 State of the Union Address">1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1963 State of the Union Address">1963</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Electoral history of John F. Kennedy">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>U.S. House of Representatives elections: <a href="/wiki/1946_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1946 United States House of Representatives elections">1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1948 United States House of Representatives elections">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1950 United States House of Representatives elections">1950</a></li> <li>U.S. Senate elections in Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_Senate_election_in_Massachusetts" title="1952 United States Senate election in Massachusetts">1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_United_States_Senate_election_in_Massachusetts" title="1958 United States Senate election in Massachusetts">1958</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1960 Democratic Party presidential primaries">1960 presidential primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_1960_presidential_campaign" title="John F. Kennedy 1960 presidential campaign">1960 presidential campaign</a></li> <li>Democratic National Conventions: <a href="/wiki/1956_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1956 Democratic National Convention">1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1960 Democratic National Convention">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">U.S. presidential election 1960</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_debates" title="1960 United States presidential debates">debates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personal life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_National_Historic_Site" title="John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site">Birthplace and childhood home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Compound" title="Kennedy Compound">Kennedy Compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hickory_Hill_(McLean,_Virginia)" title="Hickory Hill (McLean, Virginia)">Hickory Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Querida_(mansion)" title="La Querida (mansion)">La Querida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wexford_(Marshall,_Virginia)" title="Wexford (Marshall, Virginia)">Wexford</a></li> <li>Navy service: <a href="/wiki/Patrol_torpedo_boat_PT-109" title="Patrol torpedo boat PT-109"><i>PT-109</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biuku_Gasa_and_Eroni_Kumana" title="Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana">Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Reginald_Evans" title="Arthur Reginald Evans">Arthur Evans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrol_torpedo_boat_PT-59" title="Patrol torpedo boat PT-59"><i>PT-59</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle_Hot_Springs_(Arizona)" title="Castle Hot Springs (Arizona)">Castle Hot Springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammersmith_Farm" title="Hammersmith Farm">Hammersmith Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King#John_F._Kennedy_phone_call" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King phone call</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Happy_Birthday,_Mr._President" title="Happy Birthday, Mr. President">Happy Birthday, Mr. President</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_document_hoax" title="John F. Kennedy document hoax">John F. Kennedy document hoax</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Why_England_Slept" title="Why England Slept"><i>Why England Slept</i> <small>(1940)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profiles_in_Courage" title="Profiles in Courage"><i>Profiles in Courage</i> <small>(1956)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Nation_of_Immigrants" title="A Nation of Immigrants"><i>A Nation of Immigrants</i> <small>(1958)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Death</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_assassination" title="Timeline of the John F. Kennedy assassination">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Media coverage of the assassination of John F. Kennedy">media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_the_assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Reactions to the assassination of John F. Kennedy">reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy_in_popular_culture" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy in popular culture">in popular culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_funeral_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="State funeral of John F. Kennedy">State funeral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Jack_(horse)" title="Black Jack (horse)">Riderless horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dignitaries_at_the_state_funeral_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="List of dignitaries at the state funeral of John F. Kennedy">attending dignitaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Eternal_Flame" title="John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame">Gravesite and Eternal Flame</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Bibliography of John F. Kennedy">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum">John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Profile_in_Courage_Award" title="Profile in Courage Award">Profile in Courage Award</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11 Moon landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Kennedy Space Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Round" title="Kennedy Round">Kennedy Round</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" title="United States Department of Housing and Urban Development">U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AmeriCorps_VISTA" title="AmeriCorps VISTA">VISTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Cultural depictions of John F. Kennedy">Cultural depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Films_about_John_F._Kennedy" title="Category:Films about John F. Kennedy">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_half_dollar" title="Kennedy half dollar">Kennedy half dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_cents_John_Kennedy" title="Five cents John Kennedy">U.S. five cent stamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Kennedy_coincidences_urban_legend" title="Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences urban legend">Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sail" title="Operation Sail">Operation Sail</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_John_F._Kennedy" title="List of things named after John F. Kennedy">Memorials,<br />namesakes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School" title="Harvard Kennedy School">Harvard Kennedy School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts" title="John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts">Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Federal_Building" title="John F. Kennedy Federal Building">John F. Kennedy Federal Building (Boston)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_International_Airport" title="John F. Kennedy International Airport">John F. Kennedy International Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_John_F._Kennedy_(Boston)" title="Statue of John F. Kennedy (Boston)">Boston statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Memorial_(Brooklyn)" title="John F. Kennedy Memorial (Brooklyn)">Brooklyn bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_Memorial" title="John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial">Dallas memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Memorial_(Hyannis,_Massachusetts)" title="John F. Kennedy Memorial (Hyannis, Massachusetts)">Hyannis memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Memorial,_London" title="John F. Kennedy Memorial, London">London bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_John_F._Kennedy_(Nashua,_New_Hampshire)" title="Bust of John F. Kennedy (Nashua, New Hampshire)">Nashua bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_Memorial_(Portland,_Oregon)" title="John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial (Portland, Oregon)">Portland memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runnymede#John_F._Kennedy_Memorial" title="Runnymede">Runnymede memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Arboretum" title="John F. Kennedy Arboretum">John F. Kennedy Arboretum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Memorial_Bridge" title="John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge">John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Special_Warfare_Center_and_School" title="John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School">John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_University" title="John F. Kennedy University">John F. Kennedy University (defunct)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Stadium_(Philadelphia)" title="John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)">John F. Kennedy Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Expressway" title="Kennedy Expressway">Kennedy Expressway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Kennedy" title="Mount Kennedy">Mount Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MV_John_F._Kennedy" title="MV John F. Kennedy">MV <i>John F. Kennedy</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_John_F._Kennedy_(CV-67)" title="USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)">USS <i>John F. Kennedy</i> (CV-67)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_John_F._Kennedy_(CVN-79)" title="USS John F. Kennedy (CVN-79)">USS <i>John F. Kennedy</i> (CVN-79)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yad_Kennedy" title="Yad Kennedy">Yad Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_family" title="Kennedy family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_Kennedy_Onassis" title="Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis">Jacqueline Bouvier</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Kennedy" title="Caroline Kennedy">Caroline Kennedy</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Jr." title="John F. Kennedy Jr.">John F. Kennedy Jr.</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bouvier_Kennedy" title="Patrick Bouvier Kennedy">Patrick Bouvier Kennedy</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Schlossberg" title="Rose Schlossberg">Rose Schlossberg</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatiana_Schlossberg" title="Tatiana Schlossberg">Tatiana Schlossberg</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Schlossberg" title="Jack Schlossberg">Jack Schlossberg</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Kennedy_Sr." title="Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.">Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Kennedy" title="Rose Kennedy">Rose Fitzgerald</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Kennedy_Jr." title="Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.">Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosemary_Kennedy" title="Rosemary Kennedy">Rosemary Kennedy</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cavendish,_Marchioness_of_Hartington" title="Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington">Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunice_Kennedy_Shriver" title="Eunice Kennedy Shriver">Eunice Kennedy Shriver</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Kennedy_Lawford" title="Patricia Kennedy Lawford">Patricia Kennedy Lawford</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Kennedy_Smith" title="Jean Kennedy Smith">Jean Kennedy Smith</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Kennedy" title="Ted Kennedy">Ted Kennedy</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._J._Kennedy" title="P. J. Kennedy">P. J. Kennedy</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Fitzgerald" title="John F. Fitzgerald">John F. Fitzgerald</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushinka" title="Pushinka">Pushinka</a> (dog)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billie_and_Debbie" title="Billie and Debbie">Billie and Debbie</a> (hamsters)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardar_(horse)" title="Sardar (horse)">Sardar</a> (horse)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">← Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:John_F._Kennedy" title="Category:John F. Kennedy">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953–1962)&oldid=1257896290">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cold_War_(1953–1962)&oldid=1257896290</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War_by_period" title="Category:Cold War by period">Cold War by period</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1953_in_international_relations" title="Category:1953 in international relations">1953 in international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1954_in_international_relations" title="Category:1954 in international relations">1954 in international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1955_in_international_relations" title="Category:1955 in international relations">1955 in international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1956_in_international_relations" title="Category:1956 in international relations">1956 in international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1957_in_international_relations" title="Category:1957 in international relations">1957 in international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1958_in_international_relations" title="Category:1958 in international relations">1958 in international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1959_in_international_relations" title="Category:1959 in international relations">1959 in international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1960_in_international_relations" title="Category:1960 in international relations">1960 in international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1961_in_international_relations" title="Category:1961 in international relations">1961 in international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1962_in_international_relations" title="Category:1962 in international relations">1962 in international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Category:Presidency of Dwight D. 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