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<span>Calendars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calendars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Astronomers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instruments_used" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instruments_used"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Instruments used</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instruments_used-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_discourse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_discourse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>International discourse</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-International_discourse-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle International discourse subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-International_discourse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indian_and_Greek_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_and_Greek_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Indian and Greek astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_and_Greek_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_and_Chinese_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_and_Chinese_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Indian and Chinese astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_and_Chinese_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_and_Islamic_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_and_Islamic_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Indian and Islamic astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_and_Islamic_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_astronomy_and_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_astronomy_and_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Indian astronomy and Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_astronomy_and_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schools_and_organisations_of_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools_and_organisations_of_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Schools and organisations of astronomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Schools_and_organisations_of_astronomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Schools and organisations of astronomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Schools_and_organisations_of_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jantar_Mantar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jantar_Mantar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Jantar Mantar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jantar_Mantar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_and_21st_Century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_and_21st_Century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>20th and 21st Century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_and_21st_Century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 20th and 21st Century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-20th_and_21st_Century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Astronomers_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomers_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Astronomers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomers_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_programmes_and_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_programmes_and_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Space programmes and research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_programmes_and_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian astronomy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D9%83_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="علم الفلك الهندي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الفلك الهندي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ভারতীয় জ্যোতির্বিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভারতীয় জ্যোতির্বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_%C3%ADndia" title="Astronomia índia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Astronomia índia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indische_Astronomie" title="Indische Astronomie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Indische Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ινδική αστρονομία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ινδική αστρονομία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronom%C3%ADa_india" title="Astronomía india – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Astronomía india" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiar_astronomia" title="Indiar astronomia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Indiar astronomia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie_indienne" title="Astronomie indienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Astronomie indienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="भारतीय खगोलिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भारतीय खगोलिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi_India" title="Astronomi India – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Astronomi India" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_indiana" title="Astronomia indiana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Astronomia indiana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF_%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഭാരതീയ ജ്യോതിശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭാരതീയ ജ്യോതിശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भारतीय खगोलशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भारतीय खगोलशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi_India" title="Astronomi India – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Astronomi India" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indisk_astronomi" title="Indisk astronomi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Indisk astronomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_indiana" title="Astronomia indiana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Astronomia indiana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Индийская астрономия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Индийская астрономия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indijska_astronomija" title="Indijska astronomija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Indijska astronomija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indijska_astronomija" title="Indijska astronomija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Indijska astronomija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hint_astronomisi" title="Hint astronomisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hint astronomisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Індійська астрономія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Індійська астрономія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thi%C3%AAn_v%C4%83n_h%E1%BB%8Dc_%E1%BA%A4n_%C4%90%E1%BB%99" title="Thiên văn học Ấn Độ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thiên văn học Ấn Độ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="印度天文學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="印度天文學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1292962#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Astronomy on the Indian subcontinent</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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#aabaaa;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Details_of_the_top_of_iron_pillar,_Qutub_Minar,_Delhi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The Iron Pillar of Delhi." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Details_of_the_top_of_iron_pillar%2C_Qutub_Minar%2C_Delhi.jpg/100px-Details_of_the_top_of_iron_pillar%2C_Qutub_Minar%2C_Delhi.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Details_of_the_top_of_iron_pillar%2C_Qutub_Minar%2C_Delhi.jpg/150px-Details_of_the_top_of_iron_pillar%2C_Qutub_Minar%2C_Delhi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Details_of_the_top_of_iron_pillar%2C_Qutub_Minar%2C_Delhi.jpg/200px-Details_of_the_top_of_iron_pillar%2C_Qutub_Minar%2C_Delhi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background: #cb4154;"><a 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class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top: 0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_national_calendar" title="Indian national calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement_systems_in_India" title="History of measurement systems in India">Measurement systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_units_of_measurement" title="Indian units of measurement">Units of measurement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_India" title="Cartography of India">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_printing#In_India" title="History of printing">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_coinage" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Indian Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Traditional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="History of agriculture in India">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of education in the Indian subcontinent">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bridges_in_India" title="List of bridges in India">Bridges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_India" title="Transport in India">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval history of India">Navigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science_and_technology_in_India" title="Template:Science and technology in India"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science_and_technology_in_India" title="Template talk:Science and technology in India"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science_and_technology_in_India" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science and technology in India"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Indian astronomy</b> refers to <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> practiced in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. It has a long history stretching from <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">pre-historic</a> to <a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">modern times</a>. Some of the earliest roots of Indian astronomy can be dated to the period of <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a> or earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-question_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-question-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wiley_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wiley-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Astronomy later developed as a discipline of <a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a>, or one of the "auxiliary disciplines" associated with the study of the <a href="/wiki/Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Veda">Vedas</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarma2008a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dating 1500 BCE or older.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest known text is the <i><a href="/wiki/Vedanga_Jyotisha" title="Vedanga Jyotisha">Vedanga Jyotisha</a></i>, dated to 1400–1200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700 to 600 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-Cosmic_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cosmic-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indian astronomy was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek astronomy</a> beginning in the 4th century BCE<sup id="cite_ref-Andersen_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andersen-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leverington_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leverington-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Evans_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the <a href="/wiki/Yavanajataka" title="Yavanajataka">Yavanajataka</a><sup id="cite_ref-Andersen_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andersen-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Romaka_Siddhanta" title="Romaka Siddhanta">Romaka Siddhanta</a></i>, a Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.<sup id="cite_ref-Naskar_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naskar-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th–6th century, with <a href="/wiki/Aryabhata" title="Aryabhata">Aryabhata</a>, whose work, <i><a href="/wiki/Aryabhatiya" title="Aryabhatiya">Aryabhatiya</a>,</i> represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. The Aryabhatiya is composed of four sections, covering topics such as units of time, methods for determining the positions of planets, the cause of day and night, and several other cosmological concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, Indian astronomy significantly influenced <a href="/wiki/Muslim_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim astronomy">Muslim astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomy</a>, European astronomy and others.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other astronomers of the classical era who further elaborated on Aryabhata's work include <a href="/wiki/Brahmagupta" title="Brahmagupta">Brahmagupta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varahamihira" class="mw-redirect" title="Varahamihira">Varahamihira</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lalla" title="Lalla">Lalla</a>. </p><p>An identifiable native Indian astronomical tradition remained active throughout the medieval period and into the 16th or 17th century, especially within the <a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Jantar_Mantar_Delhi_27-05-2005.jpg/101px-Jantar_Mantar_Delhi_27-05-2005.jpg" decoding="async" width="101" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Jantar_Mantar_Delhi_27-05-2005.jpg/152px-Jantar_Mantar_Delhi_27-05-2005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Jantar_Mantar_Delhi_27-05-2005.jpg/202px-Jantar_Mantar_Delhi_27-05-2005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:208px;max-width:208px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:75px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1st_verse_of_the_1st_chapter_of_the_Surya_Siddhanta_Hindu_astronomy,_1847_Sanskrit_manuscript_edition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1st_verse_of_the_1st_chapter_of_the_Surya_Siddhanta_Hindu_astronomy%2C_1847_Sanskrit_manuscript_edition.jpg/206px-1st_verse_of_the_1st_chapter_of_the_Surya_Siddhanta_Hindu_astronomy%2C_1847_Sanskrit_manuscript_edition.jpg" decoding="async" width="206" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1st_verse_of_the_1st_chapter_of_the_Surya_Siddhanta_Hindu_astronomy%2C_1847_Sanskrit_manuscript_edition.jpg/309px-1st_verse_of_the_1st_chapter_of_the_Surya_Siddhanta_Hindu_astronomy%2C_1847_Sanskrit_manuscript_edition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1st_verse_of_the_1st_chapter_of_the_Surya_Siddhanta_Hindu_astronomy%2C_1847_Sanskrit_manuscript_edition.jpg/412px-1st_verse_of_the_1st_chapter_of_the_Surya_Siddhanta_Hindu_astronomy%2C_1847_Sanskrit_manuscript_edition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="944" data-file-height="348" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">(From left to right): <a href="/wiki/Aryabhatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryabhatta">Aryabhatta</a>, A great indian mathematician and astronomer; <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar" title="Jantar Mantar">Jantar Mantar</a>, astronomical observatory made by Raja Jai Singh; <a href="/wiki/Suryasiddhanta" class="mw-redirect" title="Suryasiddhanta">Suryasiddhanta</a>, an astronomical treatise.</div></div></div></div> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the earliest forms of astronomy can be dated to the period of <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a>, or earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-question_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-question-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wiley_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wiley-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some cosmological concepts are present in the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, as are notions of the movement of heavenly bodies and the course of the year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarma2008a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Rig Veda is one of the oldest pieces of Indian literature. Rig Veda 1-64-11 & 48 describes time as a wheel with 12 parts and 360 spokes (days), with a remainder of 5, making reference to the solar calendar.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As in other traditions, there is a close association of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_and_religion" title="Astronomy and religion">astronomy and religion</a> during the early history of the science, astronomical observation being necessitated by spatial and temporal requirements of <a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">correct performance</a> of religious ritual. Thus, the <i><a href="/wiki/Shulba_Sutras" title="Shulba Sutras">Shulba Sutras</a></i>, texts dedicated to altar construction, discusses advanced mathematics and basic astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-abraham08_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abraham08-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Vedanga_Jyotisha" title="Vedanga Jyotisha">Vedanga Jyotisha</a></i> is another of the earliest known Indian texts on astronomy,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it includes the details about the Sun, Moon, <a href="/wiki/Nakshatra" title="Nakshatra">nakshatras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">lunisolar calendar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vedanga Jyotisha describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual. According to the Vedanga Jyotisha, in a <i>yuga</i> or "era", there are 5 solar years, 67 lunar sidereal cycles, 1,830 days, 1,835 <a href="/wiki/Sidereal_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidereal day">sidereal days</a> and 62 <a href="/wiki/Synodic_month" class="mw-redirect" title="Synodic month">synodic</a> months.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Greek astronomical ideas began to enter India in the 4th century BCE following the <a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">conquests of Alexander the Great</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Andersen_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andersen-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leverington_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leverington-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Evans_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Naskar_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naskar-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early centuries of the Common Era, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a> influence on the astronomical tradition is visible, with texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Yavanajataka" title="Yavanajataka">Yavanajataka</a><sup id="cite_ref-Andersen_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andersen-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Romaka_Siddhanta" title="Romaka Siddhanta">Romaka Siddhanta</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Naskar_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naskar-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later astronomers mention the existence of various <a href="/wiki/Siddhanta" title="Siddhanta">siddhantas</a> during this period, among them a text known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Surya_Siddhanta" title="Surya Siddhanta">Surya Siddhanta</a></i>. These were not fixed texts but rather an oral tradition of knowledge, and their content is not extant. The text today known as <i>Surya Siddhanta</i> dates to the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Gupta period">Gupta period</a> and was received by <a href="/wiki/Aryabhata" title="Aryabhata">Aryabhata</a>. </p><p>The classical era of Indian astronomy begins in the late Gupta era, in the 5th to 6th centuries. The <i><a href="/wiki/Pancha-Siddhantika" class="mw-redirect" title="Pancha-Siddhantika">Pañcasiddhāntikā</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Var%C4%81hamihira" title="Varāhamihira">Varāhamihira</a> (505 CE) approximates the method for determination of the meridian direction from any three positions of the shadow using a <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-abraham08_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abraham08-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time of <a href="/wiki/Aryabhata" title="Aryabhata">Aryabhata</a> the motion of planets was treated to be elliptical rather than circular.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi08Aryabhata_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08Aryabhata-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other topics included definitions of different units of time, <a href="/wiki/Eccentricity_(mathematics)" title="Eccentricity (mathematics)">eccentric</a> models of planetary motion, <a href="/wiki/Epicycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicycle">epicyclic</a> models of planetary motion, and planetary longitude corrections for various terrestrial locations.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi08Aryabhata_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08Aryabhata-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindu_calendar_1871-72.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Hindu_calendar_1871-72.jpg/250px-Hindu_calendar_1871-72.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="676" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Hindu_calendar_1871-72.jpg/375px-Hindu_calendar_1871-72.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Hindu_calendar_1871-72.jpg/500px-Hindu_calendar_1871-72.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1731" /></a><figcaption>A page from the Hindu calendar 1871–72.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calendars">Calendars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Calendars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu calendar</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_basis_of_the_Hindu_calendar" title="Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar">Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar</a></div> <p>The divisions of the year were on the basis of religious rites and seasons (<i><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9At%C3%BA" title="Ṛtú">Ṛtú</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-van_Buitenen08_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Buitenen08-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The duration from mid March—mid May was taken to be spring (<i><a href="/wiki/Vasanta_(season)" title="Vasanta (season)">vasanta</a></i>), mid May—mid July: summer (<i><a href="/wiki/Grishma" title="Grishma">grishma</a></i>), mid July—mid September: rains (<i><a href="/wiki/Varsha_(season)" title="Varsha (season)">varsha</a></i>), mid September—mid November: autumn (<i><a href="/wiki/Sharada_(season)" title="Sharada (season)">sharada</a></i>), mid November—mid January: winter (<i><a href="/wiki/Hemanta_(season)" title="Hemanta (season)">hemanta</a></i>), mid January—mid March: the dews (<i><a href="/wiki/Shishira_(season)" title="Shishira (season)">shishira</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-van_Buitenen08_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Buitenen08-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vedānga Jyotiṣa</i></span></i>, the year begins with the winter solstice.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hindu calendars have several <a href="/wiki/Calendar_era" title="Calendar era">eras</a>: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu calendar</a>, counting from the start of the <a href="/wiki/Kali_Yuga" title="Kali Yuga">Kali Yuga</a>, has its epoch on 18 February <a href="/wiki/4th_millennium_BC" title="4th millennium BC">3102 BCE</a> Julian (23 January 3102 BCE Gregorian).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Vikram_Samvat" title="Vikram Samvat">Vikram Samvat</a> calendar, introduced about the 12th century, counts from 56 to 57 BCE.</li> <li>The "<a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka Era</a>", used in some <a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu calendars</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_national_calendar" title="Indian national calendar">Indian national calendar</a>, has its epoch near the vernal equinox of year 78.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Saptarishi" class="mw-redirect" title="Saptarishi">Saptarishi</a> calendar traditionally has its epoch at 3076 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008) reports on the <a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">calendars</a> in India: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The oldest system, in many respects the basis of the classical one, is known from texts of about 1000 BCE. It divides an approximate solar year of 360 days into 12 lunar months of 27 (according to the early Vedic text <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Taittirīya Saṃhitā</i></span> 4.4.10.1–3) or 28 (according to the <i><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i>, the fourth of the Vedas, 19.7.1.) days. The resulting discrepancy was resolved by the intercalation of a leap month every 60 months. Time was reckoned by the position marked off in constellations on the ecliptic in which the Moon rises daily in the course of one lunation (the period from <a href="/wiki/New_Moon" class="mw-redirect" title="New Moon">New Moon</a> to New Moon) and the Sun rises monthly in the course of one year. These <a href="/wiki/Constellations" class="mw-redirect" title="Constellations">constellations</a> (<span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">nakṣatra</i></span>) each measure an arc of 13° 20<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.15em;">′</span> of the ecliptic circle. The positions of the Moon were directly observable, and those of the Sun inferred from the Moon's position at Full Moon, when the Sun is on the opposite side of the Moon. The position of the Sun at midnight was calculated from the <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">nakṣatra</i></span> that culminated on the meridian at that time, the Sun then being in opposition to that <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">nakṣatra</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-van_Buitenen08_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Buitenen08-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Astronomers">Astronomers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Astronomers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Vedanga_Jyotisha" title="Vedanga Jyotisha">Lagadha</a> (1st millennium BCE)</b>: The earliest astronomical text—named <i><a href="/wiki/Vedanga_Jyotisha" title="Vedanga Jyotisha"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vedānga Jyotiṣa</i></span></a></i> details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.<sup id="cite_ref-Subbaarayappa_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Subbaarayappa-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vedānga Jyotiṣa</i></span></i> also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation.<sup id="cite_ref-Subbaarayappa_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Subbaarayappa-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the texts written by 1200 BCE were largely religious compositions the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vedānga Jyotiṣa</i></span></i> has connections with <a href="/wiki/Indian_astrology" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian astrology">Indian astrology</a> and details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of <i>Adhimāsa</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tripathi08_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tripathi08-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Ritu_(Indian_season)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ritu (Indian season)">Ṛtús</a></i> are also described as <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yug%C4%81%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yugāṃśa (page does not exist)">yugāṃśas</a></i> (or parts of the <i><a href="/wiki/Yuga" title="Yuga">yuga</a></i>, i.e. conjunction cycle).<sup id="cite_ref-Tripathi08_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tripathi08-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tripathi (2008) holds that 'Twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time.'<sup id="cite_ref-Tripathi08_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tripathi08-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Aryabhata" title="Aryabhata">Āryabhaṭa</a> (476–550 CE)</b>: Āryabhaṭa was the author of the <i><a href="/wiki/Aryabhatiya" title="Aryabhatiya">Āryabhatīya</a></i> and the <i>Āryabhaṭasiddhānta</i>, which, according to Hayashi (2008), "circulated mainly in the northwest of India and, through the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dynasty" title="Sasanian dynasty">Sasanian dynasty</a> (224–651) of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, had a profound influence on the development of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">Islamic astronomy</a>. Its contents are preserved to some extent in the works of Varāhamihira (flourished c. 550), Bhāskara I (flourished c. 629), Brahmagupta (598–c. 665), and others. It is one of the earliest astronomical works to assign the start of each day to midnight."<sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi08Aryabhata_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08Aryabhata-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aryabhata explicitly mentioned that the Earth rotates about its axis, thereby causing what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi08Aryabhata_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08Aryabhata-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his book, Aryabhata, he suggested that the Earth was sphere, containing a circumference of 24,835 miles (39,967 km).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aryabhata also mentioned that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi08Aryabhata_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08Aryabhata-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aryabhata's followers were particularly strong in <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>, where his principles of the diurnal rotation of the Earth, among others, were followed and a number of secondary works were based on them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarma2008a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Brahmagupta" title="Brahmagupta">Brahmagupta</a> (598–668 CE)</b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Br%C4%81hmasphu%E1%B9%ADasiddh%C4%81nta" title="Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta">Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta</a></i> (Correctly Established Doctrine of Brahma, 628 CE) dealt with both <a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Indian mathematics</a> and astronomy. Hayashi (2008) writes: "It was translated into Arabic in Baghdad about 771 and had a major impact on <a href="/wiki/Islamic_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic mathematics">Islamic mathematics</a> and astronomy".<sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi08-Brhgupt_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08-Brhgupt-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Khandakhadyaka</i> (A Piece Eatable, 665 CE) Brahmagupta reinforced Aryabhata's idea of another day beginning at midnight.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi08-Brhgupt_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08-Brhgupt-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Brahmagupta</i> also calculated the instantaneous motion of a planet, gave correct equations for <a href="/wiki/Parallax" title="Parallax">parallax</a>, and some information related to the computation of eclipses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarma2008a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His works introduced the Indian concept of mathematics based astronomy into the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarma2008a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also theorized that all bodies with mass are <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">attracted</a> to the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Varahamihira" class="mw-redirect" title="Varahamihira">Varāhamihira</a> (505 CE)</b>: Varāhamihira was an astronomer and mathematician who studied and Indian astronomy as well as the many principles of Greek, Egyptian, and Roman astronomical sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-Vhmr_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vhmr-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <i>Pañcasiddhāntikā </i> is a treatise and compendium drawing from several knowledge systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Vhmr_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vhmr-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bhaskara_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhaskara I">Bhāskara I</a> (629 CE)</b>: Authored the astronomical works <i>Mahābhāskariya</i> (Great Book of Bhāskara), <i>Laghubhaskariya</i> (Small Book of Bhaskara), and the <i>Aryabhatiyabhashya</i> (629 CE)—a commentary on the <i>Āryabhatīya</i> written by Aryabhata.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi08-BhI_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08-BhI-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hayashi (2008) writes 'Planetary longitudes, <a href="/wiki/Heliacal_rising" title="Heliacal rising">heliacal rising</a> and setting of the planets, conjunctions among the planets and stars, solar and lunar eclipses, and the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phase" title="Lunar phase">phases of the Moon</a> are among the topics Bhāskara discusses in his astronomical treatises.'<sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi08-BhI_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08-BhI-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bhāskara I's works were followed by Vateśvara (880 CE), who in his eight chapter <i>Vateśvarasiddhānta</i> devised methods for determining the parallax in longitude directly, the motion of the <a href="/wiki/Equinox" title="Equinox">equinoxes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Solstice" title="Solstice">solstices</a>, and the quadrant of the Sun at any given time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarma2008a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lalla" title="Lalla">Lalla</a> (8th century CE)</b>: Author of the <i>Śiṣyadhīvṛddhida</i> (Treatise Which Expands the Intellect of Students), which corrects several assumptions of Āryabhaṭa.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma08-Lalla-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Śisyadhīvrddhida</i> of Lalla itself is divided into two parts: <i>Grahādhyāya</i> and <i>Golādhyāya</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma08-Lalla-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Grahādhyāya</i> (Chapter I-XIII) deals with planetary calculations, determination of the mean and true planets, three problems pertaining to diurnal motion of Earth, eclipses, rising and setting of the planets, the various cusps of the Moon, planetary and astral conjunctions, and complementary situations of the Sun and the Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma08-Lalla-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second part—titled <i>Golādhyāya</i> (chapter XIV–XXII)—deals with graphical representation of planetary motion, astronomical instruments, spherics, and emphasizes on corrections and rejection of flawed principles.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma08-Lalla-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lalla shows influence of Āryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhāskara I.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma08-Lalla-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His works were followed by later astronomers Śrīpati, Vateśvara, and <a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II" title="Bhāskara II">Bhāskara</a> II.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma08-Lalla-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lalla also authored the <i>Siddhāntatilaka</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma08-Lalla-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aat%C4%81nanda" title="Śatānanda">Śatānanda</a> (1068–1099 CE)</b>: Authored <i>Bhāsvatī</i> (1099) – estimated <a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">precession</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II" title="Bhāskara II">Bhāskara II</a> (1114 CE)</b>: Authored <i><a href="/wiki/Siddh%C4%81nta_Shiromani" title="Siddhānta Shiromani"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Siddhāntaśiromaṇi</i></span></a></i> (Head Jewel of Accuracy) and <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kara%E1%B9%87akut%C5%ABhala" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaṇakutūhala">Karaṇakutūhala</a></i></span></i> (Calculation of Astronomical Wonders) and reported on his observations of planetary positions, conjunctions, eclipses, <a href="/wiki/Cosmography" title="Cosmography">cosmography</a>, geography, mathematics, and astronomical equipment used in his research at the <a href="/wiki/Observatory" title="Observatory">observatory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ujjain" title="Ujjain">Ujjain</a>, which he headed<sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi08-BhII_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08-BhII-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Shripati" class="mw-redirect" title="Shripati">Śrīpati</a> (1045 CE)</b>: Śrīpati was an astronomer and mathematician who followed the Brahmagupta school and authored the <i>Siddhāntaśekhara</i> (The Crest of Established Doctrines) in 20 chapters, thereby introducing several new concepts, including Moon's second <a href="/wiki/Evection" title="Evection">inequality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarma2008a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi-Shripati_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi-Shripati-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mahendra_S%C5%ABri" title="Mahendra Sūri">Mahendra Sūri</a> (14th century CE)</b>: Mahendra Sūri authored the <i>Yantra-rāja</i> (The King of Instruments, written in 1370 CE)—a Sanskrit work on the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a>, itself introduced in India during the reign of the 14th century <a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tughlaq dynasty</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Firuz_Shah_Tughlaq" title="Firuz Shah Tughlaq">Firuz Shah Tughlaq</a> (1351–1388 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sūri seems to have been a <a href="/wiki/Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain">Jain</a> astronomer in the service of Firuz Shah Tughluq.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 182 verse <i>Yantra-rāja</i> mentions the astrolabe from the first chapter onwards, and also presents a fundamental formula along with a numerical table for drawing an astrolabe although the proof itself has not been detailed.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Longitudes of 32 stars as well as their latitudes have also been mentioned.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mahendra Sūri also explained the <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">Gnomon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equatorial_coordinate_system" title="Equatorial coordinate system">equatorial co-ordinates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elliptic_coordinate_system" title="Elliptic coordinate system">elliptical co-ordinates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The works of Mahendra Sūri may have influenced later astronomers like Padmanābha (1423 CE)—author of the <i>Yantra-rāja-adhikāra</i>, the first chapter of his <i>Yantra-kirṇāvali</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Makaranda" title="Makaranda">Makarandacarya</a> (1438–1478 CE)</b>: Author of the <i>Makaranda sāriṇī</i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Parameshvara_Nambudiri" title="Parameshvara Nambudiri">Parameshvara Nambudiri</a> (1380 – 1460 CE)</b>: Creator of the <i>Drgganita</i> or <a href="/wiki/Drig_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Drig system">Drig system</a>, Parameshvara belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</a>. Parameshvara was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">medieval India</a> and he himself had made a series of <a href="/wiki/Eclipse" title="Eclipse">eclipse</a> observations to verify the accuracy of the computational methods then in use. Based on his eclipse observations, Parameshvara proposed several corrections to the astronomical parameters which had been in use since the times of <a href="/wiki/Aryabhata" title="Aryabhata">Aryabhata</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nilakantha_Somayaji" title="Nilakantha Somayaji">Nilakantha Somayaji</a> (1444–1544 CE)</b>: In 1500, Nilakantha Somayaji of the <a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</a>, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Tantrasangraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantrasangraha">Tantrasangraha</a></i>, revised Aryabhata's model for the planets <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>. His equation of the <a href="/wiki/Center_of_mass" title="Center of mass">centre</a> for these planets remained the most accurate until the time of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Joseph408_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joseph408-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nilakantha Somayaji, in his <i>Āryabhaṭīyabhāṣya</i>, a commentary on Āryabhaṭa's <i>Āryabhaṭīya</i>, developed his own computational system for a partially <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a> orbit the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, which in turn orbits the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, similar to the <a href="/wiki/Tychonic_system" title="Tychonic system">Tychonic system</a> later proposed by <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudinal</a> motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the <a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</a> who followed him accepted his planetary model.<sup id="cite_ref-Joseph408_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joseph408-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also authored a treatise titled <i><a href="/wiki/Jyotirmimamsa" title="Jyotirmimamsa">Jyotirmīmāṁsā</a></i> stressing the necessity and importance of astronomical observations to obtain correct parameters for computations.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Da%C5%9Babala" title="Daśabala">Daśabala</a> (<abbr title="floruit ('flourished' – known to have been active at a particular time or during a particular period)">fl.</abbr> 1055–1058 CE)</b>: Author of <i>Cintāmanṇisāraṇikā</i> (1055) and the <i>Karaṇakamalamārtaṇḍa</i> (1058).</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Achyuta_Pisharati" class="mw-redirect" title="Achyuta Pisharati">Acyuta Piṣāraṭi</a> (1550–1621 CE)</b>: <i>Sphuṭanirṇaya</i> (Determination of True Planets) details an elliptical correction to existing notions.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma-A.P._36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma-A.P.-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Sphuṭanirṇaya</i> was later expanded to <i>Rāśigolasphutānīti</i> (True Longitude Computation of the Sphere of the Zodiac).<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma-A.P._36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma-A.P.-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another work, <i>Karanottama</i> deals with eclipses, complementary relationship between the Sun and the Moon, and 'the derivation of the mean and true planets'.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma-A.P._36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma-A.P.-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Uparāgakriyākrama</i> (Method of Computing Eclipses), Acyuta Piṣāraṭi suggests improvements in methods of calculation of eclipses.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma-A.P._36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma-A.P.-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dinakara" title="Dinakara">Dinakara</a> (1550 CE)</b>: Author of a popular work, the Candrārkī with 33 verses to produce calendars, calculate lunar, solar, and star positions.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mathuranatha_Sarman" title="Mathuranatha Sarman">Mathurānātha Śarman</a> (1609 CE)</b>: Author of <i>Ravisiddhāntamañjarī</i> or <i>Sūryasiddhāntamañjarī</i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pathani_Samanta" title="Pathani Samanta">Pathani Samanta</a> (1835 - 1904 )</b> the last in chain of naked eye astronomers of India belonging to Siddhantic Era. Was born in Kahndapada, a feudatory state of Odisha. He studied various Siddhantas and found them to be erroneous as the planets were either not found at the right places or at right time. He made more studies, observed deeply and made several instruments to perfect his analysis of his observation. He composed his findings into a voluminous treatise name <i>Siddhanta Darpan</i> giving new formulaes to predict celestial occurrences. His almanac was adopted by the Jagannath Temple of Puri. He was awarded the title of Mahamahopadhyaya by the Viceroy of India Mr.Lansdowne and also a title <i>Harichandan Mahapatra</i> by Gajapati King of Puri. The instruments designed by him were for measurement of time and position of stellar bodies and were named Chapa Yantra, Mana Yantra, Golardha Yantra, Dhanu Yantra, Chakra Yantra, Swayambha Yantra, Gola Yantra etc. A postage stamp has been issued by the government of India in his honor.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Instruments_used">Instruments used</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Instruments used"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg/220px-Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg/330px-Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg/440px-Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1984" data-file-height="1248" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jai_Singh_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Jai Singh II">Sawai Jai Singh</a> (1688–1743 CE) initiated the construction of several observatories. Shown here is the <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar_(Jaipur)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jantar Mantar (Jaipur)">Jantar Mantar (Jaipur)</a> observatory.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jantar_Delhi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Jantar_Delhi.jpg/220px-Jantar_Delhi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Jantar_Delhi.jpg/330px-Jantar_Delhi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Jantar_Delhi.jpg/440px-Jantar_Delhi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yantra_Mandir" class="mw-redirect" title="Yantra Mandir">Yantra Mandir</a> (completed by 1743 CE), <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c7/Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg/220px-Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c7/Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg/330px-Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c7/Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg/440px-Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Astronomical instrument with graduated scale and notation in <a href="/wiki/Hindu-Arabic_numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu-Arabic numerals">Hindu-Arabic numerals</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Among the devices used for astronomy was <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a>, known as <i>Sanku</i>, in which the shadow of a vertical rod is applied on a horizontal plane in order to ascertain the cardinal directions, the latitude of the point of observation, and the time of observation.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This device finds mention in the works of Varāhamihira, Āryabhata, Bhāskara, Brahmagupta, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-abraham08_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abraham08-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Cross-staff" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-staff">Cross-staff</a>, known as <i>Yasti-yantra</i>, was used by the time of <a href="/wiki/Bhaskara_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhaskara II">Bhaskara II</a> (1114–1185 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This device could vary from a simple stick to V-shaped staffs designed specifically for determining angles with the help of a calibrated scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">clepsydra</a> (<i>Ghatī-yantra</i>) was used in India for astronomical purposes until recent times.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ōhashi (2008) notes that: "Several astronomers also described water-driven instruments such as the model of fighting sheep."<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">armillary sphere</a> was used for observation in India since early times, and finds mention in the works of Āryabhata (476 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma08_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma08-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Goladīpikā</i>—a detailed treatise dealing with globes and the armillary sphere was composed between 1380 and 1460 CE by <a href="/wiki/Parame%C5%9Bvara" class="mw-redirect" title="Parameśvara">Parameśvara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma08_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma08-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the subject of the usage of the armillary sphere in India, Ōhashi (2008) writes: "The Indian armillary sphere (<i>gola-yantra</i>) was based on equatorial coordinates, unlike the Greek armillary sphere, which was based on ecliptical coordinates, although the Indian armillary sphere also had an ecliptical hoop. Probably, the celestial coordinates of the junction stars of the lunar mansions were determined by the armillary sphere since the seventh century or so. There was also a celestial globe rotated by flowing water."<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An instrument invented by the mathematician and astronomer Bhaskara II (1114–1185 CE) consisted of a rectangular board with a pin and an index arm.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This device—called the <i>Phalaka-yantra</i>—was used to determine time from the Sun's altitude.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Kapālayantra</i> was an <a href="/wiki/Equatorial_sundial" class="mw-redirect" title="Equatorial sundial">equatorial sundial</a> instrument used to determine the Sun's <a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">azimuth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Kartarī-yantra</i> combined two semicircular board instruments to give rise to a 'scissors instrument'.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Introduced from the Islamic world and first finding mention in the works of <a href="/wiki/Mahendra_Suri" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahendra Suri">Mahendra Sūri</a>—the court astronomer of <a href="/wiki/Firuz_Shah_Tughluq" class="mw-redirect" title="Firuz Shah Tughluq">Firuz Shah Tughluq</a> (1309–1388 CE)—the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a> was further mentioned by Padmanābha (1423 CE) and Rāmacandra (1428 CE) as its use grew in India.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Invented by <i>Padmanābha</i>, a nocturnal polar rotation instrument consisted of a rectangular board with a slit and a set of pointers with concentric graduated circles.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Time and other astronomical quantities could be calculated by adjusting the slit to the directions of α and β <a href="/wiki/Ursa_Minor" title="Ursa Minor">Ursa Minor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ōhashi (2008) further explains that: "Its backside was made as a quadrant with a plumb and an index arm. Thirty parallel lines were drawn inside the quadrant, and trigonometrical calculations were done graphically. After determining the sun's altitude with the help of the plumb, time was calculated graphically with the help of the index arm."<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ōhashi (2008) reports on the observatories constructed by <a href="/wiki/Jai_Singh_II_of_Amber" class="mw-redirect" title="Jai Singh II of Amber">Jai Singh II of Amber</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Mahārāja of Jaipur, <a href="/wiki/Jai_Singh_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Jai Singh II">Sawai Jai Singh</a> (1688–1743 CE), constructed five astronomical observatories at the beginning of the eighteenth century. The observatory in <a href="/wiki/Mathura,_Uttar_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathura, Uttar Pradesh">Mathura</a> is not extant, but those in Delhi, <a href="/wiki/Jaipur" title="Jaipur">Jaipur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ujjain" title="Ujjain">Ujjain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Banaras" class="mw-redirect" title="Banaras">Banaras</a> are. There are several huge instruments based on Hindu and Islamic astronomy. For example, the samrāt.-yantra (emperor instrument) is a huge sundial which consists of a triangular gnomon wall and a pair of quadrants toward the east and west of the gnomon wall. Time has been graduated on the quadrants.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohashiast-inst_39-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohashiast-inst-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The seamless <a href="/wiki/Celestial_globe" title="Celestial globe">celestial globe</a> invented in <a href="/wiki/Mughal_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal India">Mughal India</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Lahore" title="Lahore">Lahore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>, is considered to be one of the most impressive astronomical instruments and remarkable feats in <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> and engineering. All <a href="/wiki/Globe" title="Globe">globes</a> before and after this were seamed, and in the 20th century, it was believed by metallurgists to be technically impossible to create a metal globe without any <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/seam" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:seam">seams</a>, even with modern technology. It was in the 1980s, however, that <a href="/wiki/Emilie_Savage-Smith" title="Emilie Savage-Smith">Emilie Savage-Smith</a> discovered several celestial globes without any seams in Lahore and Kashmir. The earliest was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 1589–90 CE during <a href="/wiki/Akbar_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Akbar the Great">Akbar the Great</a>'s reign; another was produced in 1659–60 CE by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi with Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions; and the last was produced in Lahore by a Hindu metallurgist Lala Balhumal Lahuri in 1842 during <a href="/wiki/Jagatjit_Singh_Bahadur" class="mw-redirect" title="Jagatjit Singh Bahadur">Jagatjit Singh Bahadur</a>'s reign. 21 such globes were produced, and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes. These Mughal metallurgists developed the method of <a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">lost-wax casting</a> in order to produce these globes.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_discourse">International discourse</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: International discourse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AiKhanoumSunDial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/AiKhanoumSunDial.jpg/200px-AiKhanoumSunDial.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/AiKhanoumSunDial.jpg/300px-AiKhanoumSunDial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/AiKhanoumSunDial.jpg/400px-AiKhanoumSunDial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="916" data-file-height="908" /></a><figcaption>Greek equatorial <a href="/wiki/Sun_dial" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun dial">sun dial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ai-Khanoum" title="Ai-Khanoum">Ai-Khanoum</a>, Afghanistan 3rd–2nd century BCE.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_and_Greek_astronomy">Indian and Greek astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Indian and Greek astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/David_Pingree" title="David Pingree">David Pingree</a>, there are a number of Indian astronomical texts dated to the sixth century CE or later with a high degree of certainty. There is substantial similarity between these and pre-Ptolemaic Greek astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Pingree_(1976)_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pingree_(1976)-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pingree believes that these similarities suggest a Greek origin for certain aspects of Indian astronomy. One of the direct proofs for this approach is the fact quoted that many Sanskrit words related to astronomy, astrology and calendar are either direct phonetical borrowings from the Greek language, or translations, assuming complex ideas, like the names of the days of the week which presuppose a relation between those days, planets (including Sun and Moon) and gods.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>With the rise of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Greek culture in the east</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy#Hellenistic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Hellenistic astronomy</a> filtered eastwards to India, where it profoundly influenced the local astronomical tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-Andersen_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andersen-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leverington_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leverington-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Evans_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Naskar_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naskar-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f._43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f.-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic</a> astronomy is known to have been practised near India in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Ai-Khanoum" title="Ai-Khanoum">Ai-Khanoum</a> from the 3rd century BCE. Various sun-dials, including an equatorial sundial adjusted to the latitude of <a href="/wiki/Ujjain" title="Ujjain">Ujjain</a> have been found in archaeological excavations there.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous interactions with the <a href="/wiki/Mauryan_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauryan Empire">Mauryan Empire</a>, and the later expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greeks</a> into India suggest that transmission of Greek astronomical ideas to India occurred during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek concept of a spherical Earth surrounded by the spheres of planets, further influenced the astronomers like <a href="/wiki/Varahamihira" class="mw-redirect" title="Varahamihira">Varahamihira</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brahmagupta" title="Brahmagupta">Brahmagupta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f._43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f.-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Clemency_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clemency-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several Greco-Roman astrological treatises are also known to have been exported to India during the first few centuries of the present era. The <i><a href="/wiki/Yavanajataka" title="Yavanajataka">Yavanajataka</a></i> is a Sanskrit text of the 3rd century CE on Greek horoscopy and mathematical astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Andersen_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andersen-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rudradaman_I" title="Rudradaman I">Rudradaman</a>'s capital at Ujjain "became the Greenwich of Indian astronomers and the Arin of the Arabic and Latin astronomical treatises; for it was he and his successors who encouraged the introduction of Greek horoscopy and astronomy into India."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later in the 6th century, the <i><a href="/wiki/Romaka_Siddhanta" title="Romaka Siddhanta">Romaka Siddhanta</a></i> ("Doctrine of the Romans"), and the <i><a href="/wiki/Paulisa_Siddhanta" title="Paulisa Siddhanta">Paulisa Siddhanta</a></i> ("Doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Paulus_Alexandrinus" title="Paulus Alexandrinus">Paul</a>") were considered as two of the five main astrological treatises, which were compiled by <a href="/wiki/Var%C4%81hamihira" title="Varāhamihira">Varāhamihira</a> in his <i>Pañca-siddhāntikā</i> ("Five Treatises"), a compendium of Greek, Egyptian, Roman and Indian astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Varāhamihira goes on to state that "The Greeks, indeed, are foreigners, but with them this science (astronomy) is in a flourishing state."<sup id="cite_ref-Naskar_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naskar-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another Indian text, the <i>Gargi-Samhita</i>, also similarly compliments the Yavanas (Greeks) noting they, though barbarians, must be respected as seers for their introduction of astronomy in India.<sup id="cite_ref-Naskar_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naskar-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_and_Chinese_astronomy">Indian and Chinese astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Indian and Chinese astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indian astronomy reached China with the expansion of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Han (Five Dynasties)">Later Han</a> (25–220 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-OhashiChina_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OhashiChina-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further translation of Indian works on astronomy was completed in China by the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms era</a> (220–265 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-OhashiChina_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OhashiChina-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the most detailed incorporation of Indian astronomy occurred only during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907 CE) when a number of Chinese scholars—such as <a href="/wiki/Yi_Xing" title="Yi Xing">Yi Xing</a>— were versed both in Indian and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OhashiChina_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OhashiChina-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A system of Indian astronomy was recorded in China as <i>Jiuzhi-li</i> (718 CE), the author of which was an Indian by the name of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Siddha" title="Gautama Siddha">Qutan Xida</a>—a translation of Devanagari Gotama Siddha—the director of the Tang dynasty's national astronomical observatory.<sup id="cite_ref-OhashiChina_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OhashiChina-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fragments of texts during this period indicate that <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arabs</a> adopted the <a href="/wiki/Trigonometric_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigonometric function">sine function</a> (inherited from Indian mathematics) instead of the <a href="/wiki/Chord_(geometry)" title="Chord (geometry)">chords</a> of <a href="/wiki/Arc_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arc (geometry)">arc</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Hellenistic mathematics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dallal162_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dallal162-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for timekeeping by <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Muslim astronomers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through Islamic astronomy, Indian astronomy had an influence on European astronomy via <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> translations. During the <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Latin translations of the 12th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Fazari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad al-Fazari">Muhammad al-Fazari</a>'s <i>Great Sindhind</i> (based on the <i><a href="/wiki/Surya_Siddhanta" title="Surya Siddhanta">Surya Siddhanta</a></i> and the works of <a href="/wiki/Brahmagupta" title="Brahmagupta">Brahmagupta</a>), was translated into <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> in 1126 and was influential at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_and_Islamic_astronomy">Indian and Islamic astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Indian and Islamic astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many Indian works on astronomy and astrology were translated into <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gundeshapur" title="Gundeshapur">Gundeshapur</a> the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> and later translated from Middle Persian into Arabic.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="There is reason to believe the Bayt al-Ḥikmah translated many sanskrit works into arabic, but we need good citations to confirm that (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the 17th century, the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques. While there appears to have been little concern for planetary theory, Muslim and Hindu astronomers in India continued to make advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred <i><a href="/wiki/Zij" title="Zij">Zij</a></i> treatises. <a href="/wiki/Humayun" title="Humayun">Humayun</a> built a personal observatory near <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Jahangir" title="Jahangir">Jahangir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a> were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, it was a Hindu king, <a href="/wiki/Jai_Singh_II_of_Amber" class="mw-redirect" title="Jai Singh II of Amber">Jai Singh II of Amber</a>, who attempted to revive both the Islamic and Hindu traditions of astronomy which were stagnating in his time. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called <a href="/wiki/Yantra_Mandir" class="mw-redirect" title="Yantra Mandir">Yantra Mandirs</a> in order to rival <a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Beg" title="Ulugh Beg">Ulugh Beg</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Beg_Observatory" title="Ulugh Beg Observatory">observatory</a> and in order to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the <i>Siddhantas</i> and Islamic observations in <i><a href="/wiki/Zij-i-Sultani" class="mw-redirect" title="Zij-i-Sultani">Zij-i-Sultani</a></i>. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_astronomy_and_Europe">Indian astronomy and Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Indian astronomy and Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some scholars have suggested that knowledge of the results of the <a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</a> may have been transmitted to Europe through the trade route from <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> by traders and <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> missionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-almeida_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-almeida-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kerala was in continuous contact with China, <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a> and Europe. The existence of circumstantial evidence<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as communication routes and a suitable chronology certainly make such a transmission a possibility. However, there is no direct evidence by way of relevant manuscripts that such a transmission took place.<sup id="cite_ref-almeida_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-almeida-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Jai_Singh_II_of_Amber" class="mw-redirect" title="Jai Singh II of Amber">Jai Singh II of Amber</a> invited European <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> astronomers to one of his <a href="/wiki/Yantra_Mandir" class="mw-redirect" title="Yantra Mandir">Yantra Mandir</a> observatories, who had bought back the astronomical tables compiled by <a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_La_Hire" title="Philippe de La Hire">Philippe de La Hire</a> in 1702. After examining La Hire's work, Jai Singh concluded that the observational techniques and instruments used in European astronomy were inferior to those used in India at the time – it is uncertain whether he was aware of the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a> via the Jesuits.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did, however, employ the use of <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopes</a>. In his <i>Zij-i Muhammad Shahi</i>, he states: "telescopes were constructed in my kingdom and using them a number of observations were carried out".<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the arrival of the British <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> in the 18th century, the Hindu and Islamic traditions were slowly displaced by European astronomy, though there were attempts at harmonising these traditions. The Indian scholar <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mir_Muhammad_Hussain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mir Muhammad Hussain (page does not exist)">Mir Muhammad Hussain</a> had travelled to England in 1774 to study Western science and, on his return to India in 1777, he wrote a Persian treatise on astronomy. He wrote about the heliocentric model, and argued that there exists an infinite number of <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universes</a> (<i>awalim</i>), each with their own planets and stars, and that this demonstrates the <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">omnipotence</a> of God, who is not confined to a single universe.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last known <i>Zij</i> treatise was the <i>Zij-i Bahadurkhani</i>, written in 1838 by the Indian astronomer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ghulam_Hussain_Jaunpuri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ghulam Hussain Jaunpuri (page does not exist)">Ghulam Hussain Jaunpuri</a> (1760–1862) and printed in 1855, dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Bahadur_Khan" title="Bahadur Khan">Bahadur Khan</a>. The treatise incorporated the heliocentric system into the <i>Zij</i> tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Schools_and_organisations_of_astronomy">Schools and organisations of astronomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Schools and organisations of astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jantar_Mantar">Jantar Mantar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Jantar Mantar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar" title="Jantar Mantar">Jantar Mantar</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_Jaipur" title="Jantar Mantar, Jaipur">Jantar Mantar, Jaipur</a></div> <p>Jantar (means yantra, machine); mantar (means calculate). <a href="/wiki/Jai_Singh_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Jai Singh II">Jai Singh II</a> in the 18th century took great interest in science and astronomy. He made various <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar" title="Jantar Mantar">Jantar Mantars</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jaipur" title="Jaipur">Jaipur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_New_Delhi" title="Jantar Mantar, New Delhi">Delhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_Ujjain" title="Jantar Mantar, Ujjain">Ujjain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_Varanasi" title="Jantar Mantar, Varanasi">Varanasi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathura" title="Mathura">Mathura</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_Jaipur" title="Jantar Mantar, Jaipur">Jaipur instance</a> has 19 different astronomical calculators. These comprise live and forward-calculating astronomical clocks (calculators) for days, eclipses, visibility of key constellations which are not year-round northern polar ones thus principally but not exclusively those of the zodiac. <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">Astronomers</a> abroad were invited and admired complexity of certain devices. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jantar_Delhi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Jantar_Delhi.jpg/220px-Jantar_Delhi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Jantar_Delhi.jpg/330px-Jantar_Delhi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Jantar_Delhi.jpg/440px-Jantar_Delhi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yantra_Mandir" class="mw-redirect" title="Yantra Mandir">Yantra Mandir</a> (completed by 1743 CE), <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c7/Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg/220px-Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c7/Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg/330px-Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c7/Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg/440px-Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Samrat yantra with divisions of hours, minutes and seconds</figcaption></figure> <p>As brass time-calculators are imperfect, and to help in their precise re-setting so as to match true locally experienced time, there remains equally his Samrat Yantra, the largest sundial in the world. It divides each daylit hour as to solar 15-minute, 1-minute and 6-second subunits.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other notable include: </p> <ul><li>Nadivalaya yantra<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Rama Yantra<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Daksinottara Bhitti<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Unnatamsha Yantra<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Jai Prakash yantra<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kapali_Yantra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Kapali_Yantra.jpg/220px-Kapali_Yantra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Kapali_Yantra.jpg/330px-Kapali_Yantra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Kapali_Yantra.jpg/440px-Kapali_Yantra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Kapali Yantra at Jantar Mantar, Jaipur</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laghu_samrat_yantra.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Laghu_samrat_yantra.JPG/220px-Laghu_samrat_yantra.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Laghu_samrat_yantra.JPG/330px-Laghu_samrat_yantra.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Laghu_samrat_yantra.JPG/440px-Laghu_samrat_yantra.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Laghu samrat yantra</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</a></div> <p>Models of the Kerala school (active 1380 to 1632) involved higher order <a href="/wiki/Polynomial" title="Polynomial">polynomials</a> and other cutting-edge algebra; many neatly were put to use, principally for predicting motions and alignments within the Solar System.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_and_21st_Century">20th and 21st Century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 20th and 21st Century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomers_2">Astronomers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Astronomers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During 1920, astronomers like <a href="/wiki/Sisir_Kumar_Mitra" title="Sisir Kumar Mitra">Sisir Kumar Mitra</a>, <a href="/wiki/C.V._Raman" class="mw-redirect" title="C.V. Raman">C.V. Raman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meghnad_Saha" title="Meghnad Saha">Meghnad Saha</a> worked on various projects such as sounding of the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a> through ground-based radio and the <a href="/wiki/Saha_ionisation_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Saha ionisation equation">Saha ionisation equation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Homi_J._Bhabha" title="Homi J. Bhabha">Homi J. Bhaba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vikram_Sarabhai" title="Vikram Sarabhai">Vikram Sarabhai</a> made significant contributions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1992_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1992-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/A._P._J._Abdul_Kalam" title="A. P. J. Abdul Kalam">A. P. J. Abdul Kalam</a> also known as <i>Missile Man of India</i> assisted in development and research for the <a href="/wiki/Defence_Research_and_Development_Organisation" title="Defence Research and Development Organisation">Defence Research and Development Organisation</a> and the Indian Space Research Organisation's (ISRO) civilian space programme and <a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicle</a> technology.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizations">Organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bhaba established the <a href="/wiki/Tata_Institute_of_Fundamental_Research" title="Tata Institute of Fundamental Research">Tata Institute of Fundamental Research</a> and Vikram Sarabhai established the <a href="/wiki/Physical_Research_Laboratory" title="Physical Research Laboratory">Physical Research Laboratory</a>. These organisations researched <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic radiation">cosmic radiation</a> and conducted studies of the <a href="/wiki/Upper_atmosphere" title="Upper atmosphere">upper atmosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1992_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1992-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1950, the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Atomic_Energy" title="Department of Atomic Energy">Department of Atomic Energy</a> was founded with Bhaba as secretary and provided funding to space researches in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1992_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1992-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Committee_for_Space_Research" title="Indian National Committee for Space Research">Indian National Committee for Space Research</a> (INCOSPAR) was founded in 1962 on the urging of Sarabhai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESadeh2013_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadeh2013-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhargavaChakrabarti2003_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhargavaChakrabarti2003-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ISRO succeeded INCOSPAR and the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Space" title="Department of Space">Department of Space</a> (under <a href="/wiki/Indira_Gandhi" title="Indira Gandhi">Indira Gandhi</a>) was established, thereby institutionalising astronomical research in India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhargavaChakrabarti2003_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhargavaChakrabarti2003-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organisations like <a href="/wiki/SPARRSO" class="mw-redirect" title="SPARRSO">SPARRSO</a> in Bangladesh,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/SUPARCO" title="SUPARCO">SUPARCO</a> in Pakistan<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others were founded shortly after. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_programmes_and_research">Space programmes and research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Space programmes and research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>ISRO played a role in the discovery of three species of extremophile bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude between 20–40 km which are highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, which are named as <i><a href="/wiki/Bacillus_isronensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus isronensis">Bacillus isronensis</a></i>, <i>Bacillus aryabhattai</i> (in recognition of ISRO's contribution) and <a href="/wiki/Janibacter_hoylei" title="Janibacter hoylei">Janibacter hoylei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosat" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrosat">Astrosat</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Space_observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Space observatory">space observatory</a> launched in 2015 by ISRO, detected a <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">gamma-ray burst</a> in January 2017, captured a rare phenomenon of a 6 billion year old <a href="/wiki/Blue_straggler" title="Blue straggler">blue straggler</a> feeding off and sucking out mass and energy out of a bigger star and detected a rare <a href="/wiki/X-ray_burster" title="X-ray burster">X-ray outburst</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Be/X-ray_binary" title="Be/X-ray binary">Be/X-ray binary</a> system RX J0209.6-7427.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrayaan-3" title="Chandrayaan-3">Chandrayaan-3</a> is the third mission in the <a href="/wiki/Chandrayaan_programme" title="Chandrayaan programme">Chandrayaan programme</a>, a series of <a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_the_Moon" title="Exploration of the Moon">lunar-exploration</a> missions developed by the ISRO.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It objectivized to conduct soft landing on <a href="/wiki/Lunar_south_pole" title="Lunar south pole">Lunar south pole</a>, observing & demonstrating the rover's driving capabilities on the Moon and conducting experiments on the materials available on the lunar surface to better understand the composition of the Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The launch was done on 14 July 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Satish_Dhawan_Space_Centre" title="Satish Dhawan Space Centre">Satish Dhawan Space Centre</a>. The lander and rover successfully landed at the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_south_pole" title="Lunar south pole">south pole of moon</a> on 23 August 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_cosmology" title="Hindu cosmology">Hindu cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History of astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_cosmology" title="Jain cosmology">Jain cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_numbers_in_Hindu_scriptures" title="List of numbers in Hindu scriptures">List of numbers in Hindu scriptures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirayana_system" title="Nirayana system">Nirayana system</a></li></ul> </div><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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.reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-question-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-question_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-question_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration 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.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPierre-Yves_BelyCarol_ChristianJean-René_Roy2010" class="citation book cs1">Pierre-Yves Bely; Carol Christian; Jean-René Roy (11 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PbLPel3zRdEC&q=%22Indian+astronomy%22&pg=PA197"><i>A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521180665" title="Special:BookSources/9780521180665"><bdi>9780521180665</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Question+and+Answer+Guide+to+Astronomy&rft.pages=197&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010-03-11&rft.isbn=9780521180665&rft.au=Pierre-Yves+Bely&rft.au=Carol+Christian&rft.au=Jean-Ren%C3%A9+Roy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPbLPel3zRdEC%26q%3D%2522Indian%2Bastronomy%2522%26pg%3DPA197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wiley-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wiley_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wiley_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshfaque1977" class="citation journal cs1">Ashfaque, Syed Mohammad (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x">"Astronomy in the Indus Valley Civilization A Survey of the Problems and Possibilities of the Ancient Indian Astronomy and Cosmology in the Light of Indus Script Decipherment by the Finnish Scholars"</a>. <i>Centaurus</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 149–193. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977Cent...21..149A">1977Cent...21..149A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x">10.1111/j.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Centaurus&rft.atitle=Astronomy+in+the+Indus+Valley+Civilization+A+Survey+of+the+Problems+and+Possibilities+of+the+Ancient+Indian+Astronomy+and+Cosmology+in+the+Light+of+Indus+Script+Decipherment+by+the+Finnish+Scholars&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=149-193&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977Cent...21..149A&rft.aulast=Ashfaque&rft.aufirst=Syed+Mohammad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESarma2008a-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarma2008a_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSarma2008a">Sarma 2008a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts, Roshen Dalal, p.188</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cosmic-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cosmic_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubbarayappa1989" class="citation book cs1">Subbarayappa, B. V. (14 September 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PFTGKi8fjvoC&pg=FA25">"Indian astronomy: An historical perspective"</a>. In Biswas, S. K.; Mallik, D. C. V.; <a href="/wiki/C._V._Vishveshwara" title="C. V. Vishveshwara">Vishveshwara, C. V.</a> (eds.). <i>Cosmic Perspectives</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34354-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34354-1"><bdi>978-0-521-34354-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indian+astronomy%3A+An+historical+perspective&rft.btitle=Cosmic+Perspectives&rft.pages=25-40&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989-09-14&rft.isbn=978-0-521-34354-1&rft.aulast=Subbarayappa&rft.aufirst=B.+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPFTGKi8fjvoC%26pg%3DFA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andersen-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Andersen_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andersen_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andersen_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andersen_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andersen_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andersen_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B: As presented at the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the IAU, 1997. Johannes Andersen Springer, 31 January 1999 – Science – 616 pages. page 721 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gQYscrT0fgQC&dq=yavanajataka&pg=PA721">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leverington-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leverington_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leverington_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leverington_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy. David Leverington. Cambridge University Press, 29 May 2010 – Science – 568 pages. page 41 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Hpi202ybn8C&dq=greek+astronomy+india&pg=PA41">[2]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Evans-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Evans_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evans_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evans_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. James Evans. Oxford University Press, 1 October 1998 – History – 496 pages. Page 393 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LVp_gkwyvC8C&dq=greek+astronomy+india&pg=PA393">[3]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Naskar-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Naskar_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Naskar_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Naskar_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Naskar_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Naskar_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Naskar_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to C. 300 A.D.). Satyendra Nath Naskar. Abhinav Publications, 1 January 1996 – History – 253 pages. Pages 56–57 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SuEBGgRHHuIC&dq=greek+astronomy+india&pg=PA57">[4]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1930" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Walter (1930). <i>Aryabhatiya: An Ancient Indian Work on Mathematics and Astronomy – An English Translation</i>. The University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aryabhatiya%3A+An+Ancient+Indian+Work+on+Mathematics+and+Astronomy+%E2%80%93+An+English+Translation&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1930&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography", p. 17, by Nick Kanas, 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSidharth1998" class="citation journal cs1">Sidharth, B.G (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1998BASI...26..107S/0000108.000.html">"The Calendric Astronomy of the Vedas"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India</i>. <b>26</b>: 108. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998BASI...26..107S">1998BASI...26..107S</a> – via NASA Astrophysics Data System.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Astronomical+Society+of+India&rft.atitle=The+Calendric+Astronomy+of+the+Vedas&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=108&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998BASI...26..107S&rft.aulast=Sidharth&rft.aufirst=B.G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farticles.adsabs.harvard.edu%2F%2Ffull%2F1998BASI...26..107S%2F0000108.000.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-abraham08-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-abraham08_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-abraham08_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-abraham08_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Abraham (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN._P._Subramania_Iyer" class="citation book cs1">N. 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"The Astronomy of the Age of Geometric Altars". <i>Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society</i>. <b>36</b>: 385–395. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995QJRAS..36..385K">1995QJRAS..36..385K</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Astronomy+of+the+Age+of+Geometric+Altars&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=385-395&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995QJRAS..36..385K&rft.aulast=Kak&rft.aufirst=Shubash&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hayashi08Aryabhata-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi08Aryabhata_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi08Aryabhata_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi08Aryabhata_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi08Aryabhata_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi08Aryabhata_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hayashi (2008), <i>Aryabhata I</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-van_Buitenen08-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-van_Buitenen08_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-van_Buitenen08_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-van_Buitenen08_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bryant (2001), 253</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See A. Cunningham (1883), <i>A Book of Indian Eras</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Subbaarayappa-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Subbaarayappa_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Subbaarayappa_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Subbaarayappa (1989)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tripathi08-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tripathi08_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tripathi08_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tripathi08_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tripathi (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Indian Astronomy. (2013). In D. Leverington, <i>Encyclopedia of the history of Astronomy and Astrophysics</i>. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/cupaaa/indian_astronomy/0">http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/cupaaa/indian_astronomy/0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hayashi08-Brhgupt-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi08-Brhgupt_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi08-Brhgupt_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hayashi (2008), Brahmagupta</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brahmagupta, <i>Brahmasphutasiddhanta</i> (628) (<a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf.</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a> (1030), <i>Indica</i>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vhmr-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vhmr_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vhmr_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Varāhamihira</i>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hayashi08-BhI-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi08-BhI_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi08-BhI_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hayashi (2008), <i>Bhaskara I</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sarma08-Lalla-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma08-Lalla_29-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarma (2008), <i>Lalla</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanda,_Sudhira2019" class="citation journal cs1">Panda, Sudhira (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdsads.u-strasbg.fr/pdf/2019JAHH...22..536P">"The Bhāsvatī astronomical handbook of Śatānanda"</a>. <i>Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage</i>. <b>22</b> (3): 536–544. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3724%2FSP.J.1440-2807.2019.03.12">10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2019.03.12</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256574558">256574558</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Astronomical+History+and+Heritage&rft.atitle=The+Bh%C4%81svat%C4%AB+astronomical+handbook+of+%C5%9Aat%C4%81nanda&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=536-544&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3724%2FSP.J.1440-2807.2019.03.12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256574558%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Panda%2C+Sudhira&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdsads.u-strasbg.fr%2Fpdf%2F2019JAHH...22..536P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hayashi08-BhII-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi08-BhII_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hayashi (2008), <i>Bhaskara II</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hayashi-Shripati-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi-Shripati_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hayashi (2008), <i>Shripati</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ohashi1997-Astrolabe_33-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ōhashi (1997)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joseph408-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Joseph408_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Joseph408_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph, 408</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ramasubramanian etc. (1994)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sarma-A.P.-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma-A.P._36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma-A.P._36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma-A.P._36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma-A.P._36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarma (2008), <i>Acyuta Pisarati</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolachana,_AdityaMontelle,_ClemencyDhammaloka,_J.Melnad,_K.2018" class="citation journal cs1">Kolachana, Aditya; Montelle, Clemency; 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"The Recovery of early Greek Astronomy from India". <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>. <b>7</b> (19). Science History Publications Ltd.: 109–123. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976JHA.....7..109P">1976JHA.....7..109P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182867600700202">10.1177/002182867600700202</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:68858864">68858864</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=The+Recovery+of+early+Greek+Astronomy+from+India&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=109-123&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A68858864%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002182867600700202&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976JHA.....7..109P&rft.aulast=Pingree&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f.-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f._43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f._43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Pingree: "History of Mathematical Astronomy in India", <i>Dictionary of Scientific Biography</i>, Vol. 15 (1978), pp. 533–633 (533, 554f.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pierre Cambon, Jean-François Jarrige. "Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés: Collections du Musée national de Kaboul". Éditions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 2006 – 297 pages. p269 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xJFtQgAACAAJ&q=afghanistan,+les+tresors+retrouves">[5]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pierre Cambon, Jean-François Jarrige. "Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés: Collections du Musée national de Kaboul". Éditions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 2006 – 297 pages. p269 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xJFtQgAACAAJ&q=afghanistan,+les+tresors+retrouves">[6]</a> "Les influences de l'astronomie grecques sur l'astronomie indienne auraient pu commencer de se manifester plus tot qu'on ne le pensait, des l'epoque Hellenistique en fait, par l'intermediaire des colonies grecques des Greco-Bactriens et Indo-Grecs" (French) Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés", p269. Translation: "The influence of Greek astronomy on Indian astronomy may have taken place earlier than thought, as soon as the Hellenistic period, through the agency of the Greek colonies of the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greeks.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clemency-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clemency_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsKnudsen2005" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Clemency; Knudsen, Toke (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC&pg=FA463">"South-Central Asian Science"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Glick" title="Thomas F. Glick">Glick, Tomas F.</a>; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (eds.). <i>Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia</i>. Routledge. p. 463. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96930-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96930-7"><bdi>978-0-415-96930-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=South-Central+Asian+Science&rft.btitle=Medieval+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=463&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-96930-7&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Clemency&rft.au=Knudsen%2C+Toke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSaJlbWK_-FcC%26pg%3DFA463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pingree, David "Astronomy and Astrology in India and Iran" <i>Isis</i>, Vol. 54, No. 2 (Jun. 1963), pp. 229–246</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Varahamihira">"Varahamihira"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <q>Varāhamihira's knowledge of Western astronomy was thorough. In five sections, his monumental work progresses through native Indian astronomy and culminates in two treatises on Western astronomy, showing calculations based on Greek and Alexandrian reckoning and even giving complete Ptolemaic mathematical charts and tables.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Varahamihira&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FVarahamihira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OhashiChina-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OhashiChina_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OhashiChina_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OhashiChina_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OhashiChina_49-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">See Ōhashi (2008) in <i>Astronomy: Indian Astronomy in China</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dallal162-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dallal162_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dallal, 162</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, 240</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph, 306</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharma (1995), 8–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baber, 82–89</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-almeida-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-almeida_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-almeida_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Almeida etc. (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raju (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baber, 89–90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._M._Razaullah_Ansari2002" class="citation book cs1">S. 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color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jantarmantar.org/learn/observatories/instruments/unnatamsha/index.html">"Unnatamsha Yantra"</a>. <i>Jantar Mantar</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jantar+Mantar&rft.atitle=Unnatamsha+Yantra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jantarmantar.org%2Flearn%2Fobservatories%2Finstruments%2Funnatamsha%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jantarmantar.org/learn/observatories/instruments/jaiPrakash/index.html">"Jai Prakash"</a>. <i>Jantar Mantar</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jantar+Mantar&rft.atitle=Jai+Prakash&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jantarmantar.org%2Flearn%2Fobservatories%2Finstruments%2FjaiPrakash%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neugebauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Neugebauer">Otto Neugebauer</a> (1952) "Tamil Astronomy", <a href="/wiki/Osiris_(journal)" title="Osiris (journal)">Osiris</a> 10: 252–76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamasubramanianSrinivasSriram1994" class="citation journal cs1">Ramasubramanian, K.; 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(25 May 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24098820">"Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Current_Science" title="Current Science">Current Science</a></i>. <b>66</b> (10): 784–790. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-3891">0011-3891</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24098820">24098820</a> – via <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Science&rft.atitle=Modification+of+the+earlier+Indian+planetary+theory+by+the+Kerala+astronomers+%28c.+1500+AD%29+and+the+implied+heliocentric+picture+of+planetary+motion&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=784-790&rft.date=1994-05-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24098820%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0011-3891&rft.aulast=Ramasubramanian&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Srinivas%2C+M.+D.&rft.au=Sriram%2C+M.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24098820&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren1825" class="citation book cs1">Warren, John (1825). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nttCAAAAcAAJ"><i>A Collection of Memoirs on the Various Modes According to which the Nations of the Southern Parts of India Divide Time</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Collection+of+Memoirs+on+the+Various+Modes+According+to+which+the+Nations+of+the+Southern+Parts+of+India+Divide+Time&rft.date=1825&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnttCAAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1992-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1992_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1992_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1992_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniel1992">Daniel 1992</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamchandani2000" class="citation book cs1">Ramchandani (2000). 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Anmol Publications. pp. 61–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-261-1344-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-261-1344-6"><bdi>978-81-261-1344-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+4.+Missile+Man+of+India&rft.btitle=President+A.P.J.+Abdul+Kalam&rft.pages=61-76&rft.pub=Anmol+Publications&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-81-261-1344-6&rft.aulast=Pruthi&rft.aufirst=R.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEe3PR5HFBCAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torontosun.com/2015/07/29/indias-mr-missile-a-man-of-the-people?token=8bebcb17cfd851eb0bc06642519e8767">"India's 'Mr. Missile': A man of the people"</a>. 30 July 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925135024/http://www.torontosun.com/2015/07/29/indias-mr-missile-a-man-of-the-people?token=8bebcb17cfd851eb0bc06642519e8767">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=India%27s+%27Mr.+Missile%27%3A+A+man+of+the+people&rft.date=2015-07-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.torontosun.com%2F2015%2F07%2F29%2Findias-mr-missile-a-man-of-the-people%3Ftoken%3D8bebcb17cfd851eb0bc06642519e8767&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESadeh2013-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESadeh2013_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSadeh2013">Sadeh 2013</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhargavaChakrabarti2003-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhargavaChakrabarti2003_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhargavaChakrabarti2003_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBhargavaChakrabarti2003">Bhargava & Chakrabarti 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.isro.gov.in/about-isro/department-of-space-and-isro-hq">"Department of Space and ISRO HQ – ISRO"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190328053630/https://www.isro.gov.in/about-isro/department-of-space-and-isro-hq">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+Space+and+ISRO+HQ+%E2%80%93+ISRO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.isro.gov.in%2Fabout-isro%2Fdepartment-of-space-and-isro-hq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sparrso.gov.bd/">"বাংলাদেশ মহাকাশ গবেষণা ও দূর অনুধাবন"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6+%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6+%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BE+%E0%A6%93+%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B0+%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sparrso.gov.bd%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402152438/http://suparco.gov.pk/">"SUPARCO"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.suparco.gov.pk/">the original</a> on 2 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SUPARCO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.suparco.gov.pk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrisWickramasingheLloyd2002" class="citation journal cs1">Harris, Melanie J.; Wickramasinghe, N.C.; Lloyd, David; et al. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.iucaa.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/11007/1631/1/295aB_2002.pdf">"Detection of living cells in stratospheric samples"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proc. SPIE</i>. Instruments, Methods, and Missions for Astrobiology IV. <b>4495</b> (Instruments, Methods, and Missions for Astrobiology IV): 192. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002SPIE.4495..192H">2002SPIE.4495..192H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.454758">10.1117/12.454758</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129736236">129736236</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170922023031/http://repository.iucaa.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/11007/1631/1/295aB_2002.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 22 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+SPIE&rft.atitle=Detection+of+living+cells+in+stratospheric+samples&rft.volume=4495&rft.issue=Instruments%2C+Methods%2C+and+Missions+for+Astrobiology+IV&rft.pages=192&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129736236%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.454758&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002SPIE.4495..192H&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Melanie+J.&rft.au=Wickramasinghe%2C+N.C.&rft.au=Lloyd%2C+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepository.iucaa.in%3A8080%2Fjspui%2Fbitstream%2F11007%2F1631%2F1%2F295aB_2002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShivajiChaturvediBegum2009" class="citation journal cs1">Shivaji, S.; Chaturvedi, P.; Begum, Z.; et al. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=India+Moon+Landing%3A+In+Latest+Moon+Race%2C+India+Lands+First+in+Southern+Polar+Region&rft.date=2023-08-23&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Hari&rft.au=Travelli%2C+Alex&rft.au=Mashal%2C+Mujib&rft.au=Chang%2C+Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Flive%2F2023%2F08%2F23%2Fscience%2Findia-moon-landing-chandrayaan-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3_Details.html">"Chandrayaan-3 Details"</a>. <i>Indian Space Research Organisation</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230823165138/https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3_Details.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Indian+Space+Research+Organisation&rft.atitle=Chandrayaan-3+Details&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.isro.gov.in%2FChandrayaan3_Details.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/23/science/chandrayaan-3-india-moon-landing.html">"India Is on the Moon: Lander's Success Moves Nation to Next Space Chapter"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 23 August 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230823172509/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/23/science/chandrayaan-3-india-moon-landing.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=India+Is+on+the+Moon%3A+Lander%27s+Success+Moves+Nation+to+Next+Space+Chapter&rft.date=2023-08-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F08%2F23%2Fscience%2Fchandrayaan-3-india-moon-landing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Abraham, G. (2008), "Gnomon in India", <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_History_of_Science,_Technology,_and_Medicine_in_Non-Western_Cultures" title="Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures">Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</a> (2nd edition) edited by <a href="/wiki/Helaine_Selin" title="Helaine Selin">Helaine Selin</a>, pp. 1035–1037, Springer, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2">978-1-4020-4559-2</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmeida2001" class="citation journal cs1">Almeida, D. F.; et al. (2001). "Keralese Mathematics: Its Possible Transmission to Europe and the Consequential Educational Implications". <i>Journal of Natural Geometry</i>. <b>20</b>: 77–104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Natural+Geometry&rft.atitle=Keralese+Mathematics%3A+Its+Possible+Transmission+to+Europe+and+the+Consequential+Educational+Implications&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=77-104&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Almeida&rft.aufirst=D.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Baber, Zaheer (1996), <i>The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India</i>, State University of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-2919-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-2919-9">0-7914-2919-9</a>.</li> <li>Dallal, Ahmad (1999), "Science, Medicine and Technology", <i>The Oxford History of Islam</i> edited by John Esposito, Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Hayashi, Takao (2008), <i>Aryabhata I</i>, Encyclopædia Britannica.</li> <li>Hayashi, Takao (2008), <i>Bhaskara I</i>, Encyclopædia Britannica.</li> <li>Hayashi, Takao (2008), <i>Brahmagupta</i>, Encyclopædia Britannica.</li> <li>Hayashi, Takao (2008), <i>Shripati</i>, Encyclopædia Britannica.</li> <li>J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008), <i>calendar</i>, Encyclopædia Britannica.</li> <li>Joseph, George G. (2000), <i>The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics</i>, Penguin Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00659-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-00659-8">0-691-00659-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2002" class="citation journal cs1">King, David A (2002). "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus". <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 237–255. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002JHA....33..237K">2002JHA....33..237K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182860203300302">10.1177/002182860203300302</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:125329755">125329755</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=A+Vetustissimus+Arabic+Text+on+the+Quadrans+Vetus&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=237-255&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A125329755%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002182860203300302&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002JHA....33..237K&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Klostermaier" title="Klaus Klostermaier">Klostermaier, Klaus K.</a> (2003), "Hinduism, History of Science and Religion", <i>Encyclopedia of Science and Religion</i> edited by J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen, pp. 405–410, Macmillan Reference USA, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-865704-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-865704-7">0-02-865704-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaju2001" class="citation journal cs1">Raju, C. K. (2001). "Computers, Mathematics Education, and the Alternative Epistemology of the Calculus in the Yuktibhasa". <i>Philosophy East and West</i>. <b>51</b> (3): 325–362. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fpew.2001.0045">10.1353/pew.2001.0045</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170341845">170341845</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Computers%2C+Mathematics+Education%2C+and+the+Alternative+Epistemology+of+the+Calculus+in+the+Yuktibhasa&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=325-362&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fpew.2001.0045&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170341845%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Raju&rft.aufirst=C.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamasubramanian1994" class="citation journal cs1">Ramasubramanian (1994). "Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 CE) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion". <i>Current Science</i>. <b>66</b>: 784–790.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Science&rft.atitle=Modification+of+the+earlier+Indian+planetary+theory+by+the+Kerala+astronomers+%28c.+1500+CE%29+and+the+implied+heliocentric+picture+of+planetary+motion&rft.volume=66&rft.pages=784-790&rft.date=1994&rft.au=Ramasubramanian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarma2008a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/K.V._Sarma" class="mw-redirect" title="K.V. Sarma">Sarma, K.V.</a> (2008a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kt9DIY1g9HYC&pg=PA317">"Astronomy in India"</a>. In Helaine Selin (ed.). <i>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</i> (2nd ed.). 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Springer. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_9546">10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9546</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-4559-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Acyuta+Pi%E1%B9%A3%C4%81ra%E1%B9%ADi&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.pages=19&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_9546&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2&rft.aulast=Sarma&rft.aufirst=K.V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkt9DIY1g9HYC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarma2008d" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/K.V._Sarma" class="mw-redirect" title="K.V. Sarma">Sarma, K.V.</a> (2008d). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kt9DIY1g9HYC&pg=PA243">"Armillary Spheres in India"</a>. In Helaine Selin (ed.). <i>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</i> (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 243. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_9552">10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9552</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-4559-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Armillary+Spheres+in+India&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.pages=243&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_9552&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2&rft.aulast=Sarma&rft.aufirst=K.V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkt9DIY1g9HYC%26pg%3DPA243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarma2000" class="citation journal cs1">Sarma, Nataraja (2000). "Diffusion of Astronomy in the Ancient World". <i>Endeavour</i>. <b>24</b> (4): 157–164. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0160-9327%2800%2901327-2">10.1016/s0160-9327(00)01327-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11196987">11196987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Endeavour&rft.atitle=Diffusion+of+Astronomy+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=157-164&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0160-9327%2800%2901327-2&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11196987&rft.aulast=Sarma&rft.aufirst=Nataraja&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sharma, V.N. (1995), <i>Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy</i>, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1256-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1256-5">81-208-1256-5</a>.</li> <li>Sharma, V.N. (2008), "Observatories in India", <i>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition)</i> edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 1785–1788, Springer, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2">978-1-4020-4559-2</a>.</li> <li>Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), <i>Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use</i>, Smithsonian Institution Press.</li> <li>Subbaarayappa, B.V. (1989), "Indian astronomy: an historical perspective", <i>Cosmic Perspectives</i> edited by Biswas etc., pp. 25–41. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-34354-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-34354-2">0-521-34354-2</a>.</li> <li>Tripathi, V.N. (2008), "Astrology in India", <i>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition)</i> edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 264–267, Springer, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2">978-1-4020-4559-2</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel1992" class="citation journal cs1">Daniel, R.R. (1992). "Space Science in India". <i>Indian Journal of History of Science</i>. <b>27</b> (4). New Delhi: <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Science_Academy" title="Indian National Science Academy">Indian National Science Academy</a>: 485–499.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Journal+of+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Space+Science+in+India&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=485-499&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Daniel&rft.aufirst=R.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadeh2013" class="citation book cs1">Sadeh, Eligar (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u4nXqDvgGrIC&pg=PA303"><i>Space Strategy in the 21st Century: Theory and Policy</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-22623-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-22623-6"><bdi>978-1-136-22623-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306161252/https://books.google.com/books?id=u4nXqDvgGrIC&pg=PA303">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space+Strategy+in+the+21st+Century%3A+Theory+and+Policy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-22623-6&rft.aulast=Sadeh&rft.aufirst=Eligar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du4nXqDvgGrIC%26pg%3DPA303&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhargavaChakrabarti2003" class="citation book cs1">Bhargava, Pushpa M.; Chakrabarti, Chandana (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g7crHmSeI5kC&pg=PA39"><i>The Saga of Indian Science Since Independence: In a Nutshell</i></a>. Universities Press. pp. 39–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7371-435-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7371-435-1"><bdi>978-81-7371-435-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160513184438/https://books.google.com/books?id=g7crHmSeI5kC&pg=PA39">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Saga+of+Indian+Science+Since+Independence%3A+In+a+Nutshell&rft.pages=39-&rft.pub=Universities+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-81-7371-435-1&rft.aulast=Bhargava&rft.aufirst=Pushpa+M.&rft.au=Chakrabarti%2C+Chandana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg7crHmSeI5kC%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_of_History_of_Indian_Science,_Philosophy_and_Culture" title="Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture">Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and culture</a>, Monograph series, Volume 3. <i>Mathematics, Astronomy and Biology in Indian Tradition</i> edited by D. P. Chattopadhyaya and Ravinder Kumar</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrennand1896" class="citation cs2">Brennand, William (1896), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/hinduastronomy00brenuoft#page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Hindu Astronomy</i></a>, Chas.Straker & Sons, London</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hindu+Astronomy&rft.pub=Chas.Straker+%26+Sons%2C+London&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Brennand&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fhinduastronomy00brenuoft%23page%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaunder1899" class="citation cs2">Maunder, E. Walter (1899), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/indianeclipserep00britrich#page/n7/mode/2up"><i>The Indian Eclipse 1898</i></a>, Hazell Watson and Viney Ltd., London</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indian+Eclipse+1898&rft.pub=Hazell+Watson+and+Viney+Ltd.%2C+London&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Maunder&rft.aufirst=E.+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Findianeclipserep00britrich%23page%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subhash_Kak" title="Subhash Kak">Kak, Subhash</a>. <i>Birth and early development of Indian astronomy</i>. Kluwer, 2000.</li> <li>Kak, S. (2000). <i>The astronomical code of the R̥gveda</i>. New Delhi: <a href="/wiki/Munshiram_Manoharlal" title="Munshiram Manoharlal">Munshiram Manoharlal</a> Publishers.</li> <li>Kak, Subhash C. "The astronomy of the age of geometric altars." <i><a href="/wiki/Quarterly_Journal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society">Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society</a></i> 36 (1995): 385.</li> <li>Kak, Subhash C. "Knowledge of planets in the third millennium BC." <i><a href="/wiki/Quarterly_Journal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society">Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society</a></i> 37 (1996): 709.</li> <li>Kak, S. C. (1 January 1993). Astronomy of the vedic altars. <i>Vistas in Astronomy: Part 1</i>, 36, 117–140.</li> <li>Kak, Subhash C. "Archaeoastronomy and literature." <i>Current Science</i> 73.7 (1997): 624–627.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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title="Brahmagupta">Brahmagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandip_Chakrabarti" title="Sandip Chakrabarti">Sandip Chakrabarti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radhagobinda_Chandra" class="mw-redirect" title="Radhagobinda Chandra">Radhagobinda Chandra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amil_Kumar_Das" class="mw-redirect" title="Amil Kumar Das">Amil Kumar Das</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P_Devadas" class="mw-redirect" title="P Devadas">P. Devadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Siddha" title="Gautama Siddha">Gautama Siddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M_K_Das_Gupta" class="mw-redirect" title="M K Das Gupta">M. K. Das Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyesthadeva" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyesthadeva">Jyesthadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamalakara" title="Kamalakara">Kamalakara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyayana">Katyayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagadha" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagadha">Lagadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lalla" title="Lalla">Lalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhava_of_Sangamagrama" title="Madhava of Sangamagrama">Madhava of Sangamagrama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prasanta_Chandra_Mahalanobis" title="Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis">Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira_(mathematician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavira (mathematician)">Mahavira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manava" title="Manava">Manava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayant_Narlikar" title="Jayant Narlikar">Jayant Narlikar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parameshvara" class="mw-redirect" title="Parameshvara">Parameshvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achyuta_Pisharati" class="mw-redirect" title="Achyuta Pisharati">Achyuta Pisharati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venkatraman_Radhakrishnan" title="Venkatraman Radhakrishnan">Venkatraman Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Rawal" class="mw-redirect" title="J. J. Rawal">J. J. Rawal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megh_Nad_Saha" class="mw-redirect" title="Megh Nad Saha">Megh Nad Saha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagannatha_Samrat" title="Jagannatha Samrat">Jagannatha Samrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bapudeva_Sastri" title="Bapudeva Sastri">Bapudeva Sastri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jai_Singh_II_of_Amber" class="mw-redirect" title="Jai Singh II of Amber">Jai Singh II of Amber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilakantha_Somayaji" title="Nilakantha Somayaji">Nilakantha Somayaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sripati" class="mw-redirect" title="Sripati">Sripati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahendra_Suri" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahendra Suri">Mahendra Suri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Govind_Swarup" title="Govind Swarup">Govind Swarup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utpala_(astronomer)" title="Utpala (astronomer)">Utpala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varahamihira" class="mw-redirect" title="Varahamihira">Varahamihira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shankara_Variyar" class="mw-redirect" title="Shankara Variyar">Shankara Variyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasistha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasistha">Vasistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yajnavalkya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathani_Samanta" title="Pathani Samanta">Pathani Samanta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aryabhatiya" title="Aryabhatiya">Aryabhatiya</a></i></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmanas</a></b></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Brahmana" title="Aitareya Brahmana">Aitareya Brahmana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shatapatha_Brahmana" title="Shatapatha Brahmana">Shatapatha Brahmana</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/B%E1%B9%9Bhat_Sa%E1%B9%83hit%C4%81" title="Bṛhat Saṃhitā">Bṛhat Saṃhitā</a></i></span></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganitagannadi" title="Ganitagannadi">Ganitagannadi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jyotirmimamsa" title="Jyotirmimamsa">Jyotirmimamsa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shulba_Sutras" title="Shulba Sutras">Shulba Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panchangam" title="Panchangam">Panchangam</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Khandakhadyaka" title="Khandakhadyaka">Khandakhadyaka</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahadevi_(astronomy_book)" title="Mahadevi (astronomy book)">Mahādevī</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Makarandasarini" title="Makarandasarini">Makarandasarini</a></i></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Siddhanta_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhanta (astronomy)">Siddhantas</a></b></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Br%C4%81hmasphu%E1%B9%ADasiddh%C4%81nta" title="Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta">Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maha-Siddhanta" class="mw-redirect" title="Maha-Siddhanta">Maha-Siddhanta</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pancha-siddhantika" title="Pancha-siddhantika">Pancha-Siddhantika</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paulisa_Siddhanta" title="Paulisa Siddhanta">Paulisa Siddhanta</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paitamaha_Siddhanta" class="mw-redirect" title="Paitamaha Siddhanta">Paitamaha Siddhanta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81jam%E1%B9%9Bg%C4%81%E1%B9%85ka_(astronomy_book)" title="Rājamṛgāṅka (astronomy book)">Rājamṛgāṅka (astronomy book)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Romaka_Siddhanta" title="Romaka Siddhanta">Romaka Siddhanta</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Surya_Siddhanta" title="Surya Siddhanta">Surya Siddhanta</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vasishtha_Siddhanta" title="Vasishtha Siddhanta">Vasishtha Siddhanta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tantrasangraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantrasangraha">Tantrasangraha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Astrology_of_the_Kaiyuan_Era" title="Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era">Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81kyakara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vākyakaraṇa">Vākyakaraṇa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vedanga_Jyotisha" title="Vedanga Jyotisha">Vedanga Jyotisha</a></i></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></b></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yavanajataka" title="Yavanajataka">Yavanajataka</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zij" title="Zij">Zij</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instruments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">Armillary sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">Astrolabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">Celestial globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">Compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob%27s_staff" title="Jacob's staff">Cross-staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioptra" title="Dioptra">Dioptra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_ring" title="Equatorial ring">Equatorial ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_sundial" class="mw-redirect" title="Equatorial sundial">Equatorial sundial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe" title="Globe">Globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">Gnomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mural_instrument" title="Mural instrument">Mural instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)" title="Quadrant (instrument)">Quadrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextant_(astronomical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sextant (astronomical)">Sextant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">Sundial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triquetrum_(astronomy)" title="Triquetrum (astronomy)">Triquetrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">Water clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yantraraja" title="Yantraraja">Yantraraja</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">Axial tilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">Azimuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_direction" title="Cardinal direction">Cardinal direction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_equator" title="Celestial equator">Celestial equator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">Celestial sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">Celestial spheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_mass" title="Center of mass">Center of mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_orbit" title="Circular orbit">Circular orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferent_and_epicycle" title="Deferent and epicycle">Deferent and epicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">Earth's rotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">Eccentricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecliptic" title="Ecliptic">Ecliptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliptic_orbit" title="Elliptic orbit">Elliptic orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equant" title="Equant">Equant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">Geocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tychonic_system" title="Tychonic system">Geoheliocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe" title="Globe">Globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">Heliocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu units of time</a></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Jyoti%E1%B9%A3a" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotiṣa">Jyotiṣa</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali_ahargana" title="Kali ahargana">Kali ahargaṇa</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(aeon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalpa (aeon)">Kalpa</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karana_(pancanga)" class="mw-redirect" title="Karana (pancanga)">Karana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manvantara" title="Manvantara">Manvantara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakshatra" title="Nakshatra">Nakshatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nityayoga" title="Nityayoga">Nityayoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallax" title="Parallax">Parallax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">Precession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritu_(Indian_season)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ritu (Indian season)">Ritu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">Spherical Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithi" title="Tithi">Tithi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81ra_(astronomy)" title="Vāra (astronomy)">Vāra</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Yuga" title="Yuga">Yuga</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrological_sign" title="Astrological sign">Zodiacal sign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar" title="Jantar Mantar">Jantar Mantar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_Jaipur" title="Jantar Mantar, Jaipur">Jaipur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_New_Delhi" title="Jantar Mantar, New Delhi">New Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_Ujjain" title="Jantar Mantar, Ujjain">Ujjain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_Varanasi" title="Jantar Mantar, Varanasi">Varanasi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Ancient Greek astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy#Hellenistic_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Hellenistic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Islamic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_Medieval_Western_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in Medieval Western Europe">European astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Months of the<br /><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Vedic calendar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Chaitra" title="Chaitra">Chaitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisakha" title="Vaisakha">Vaisakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyeshtha_(month)" title="Jyeshtha (month)">Jyeshta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aashaadha" class="mw-redirect" title="Aashaadha">Aashaadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shraavana" class="mw-redirect" title="Shraavana">Shraavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaadra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhaadra">Bhadrapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashvin_(month)" title="Ashvin (month)">Ashvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartika_(month)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kartika (month)">Kartik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrahayana" title="Agrahayana"> Margashirsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausha" title="Pausha">Pausha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maagha" class="mw-redirect" title="Maagha">Maagha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalguna" title="Phalguna">Phalguna</a></li></ol> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="India_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:India_topics" title="Template:India topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:India_topics" title="Template talk:India topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:India_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:India topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="India_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">India topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_India" title="List of years in India">Years</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in India">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_history_of_India" title="Linguistic history of India">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paper_currency_in_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of paper currency in Indian subcontinent">Paper currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_India" title="Postage stamps and postal history of India">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_on_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of science and technology on the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient </a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavana_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavana Kingdom">Yavana Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Mauryan_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid–Mauryan war">Seleucid–Mauryan war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Marathas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">European trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_War" title="Bengal War">Bengal War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Late modern">Late modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">Princely state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Plassey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">1857 rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India#History" title="Rail transport in India">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India_under_the_British_Raj" title="Economy of India under the British Raj">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief,_India" title="Commander-in-Chief, India">Commander-in-Chief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamindar#British_era" title="Zamindar">Zamindari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Renaissance" title="Bengal Renaissance">Bengal Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1909" title="Indian Councils Act 1909">Political reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">Partition of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">1943 famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Republic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_integration_of_India" title="Political integration of India">Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="India and the Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-Year_Plans_of_India" title="Five-Year Plans of India">Five-Year Plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts" title="Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts">Indo-Pakistani wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India" title="Green Revolution in India">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Flood">White Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxalite">Naxal Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smiling_Buddha" title="Smiling Buddha">Smiling Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Space programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(India)" title="The Emergency (India)">The Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Peace_Keeping_Force" title="Indian Peace Keeping Force">Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">History of India (1947–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Economic liberalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pokhran-II" title="Pokhran-II">Pokhran-II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="COVID-19 pandemic in India">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_India" title="Geography of India">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology_of_India" title="Category:Geology of India">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_Parks_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil Parks of India">Fossil Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Plate">Indian Plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heritage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Geological_Monuments_of_India" title="National Geological Monuments of India">National Geological Monuments of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_groves_of_India" title="Sacred groves of India">Sacred groves of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains#India" title="Sacred mountains">Sacred mountains of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River#Sacred" title="River">Sacred rivers of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stones_of_India" title="Stones of India">Stones of India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_India" title="Environment of India">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_classification_of_India" title="Biogeographic classification of India">Biogeographic classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere_reserves_of_India" title="Biosphere reserves of India">Biosphere reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_India" title="Climate of India">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_India" title="Climate change in India">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_India" title="List of earthquakes in India">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_India" title="List of ecoregions in India">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_India" title="Environmental issues in India">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_India" title="Fauna of India">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forests_in_India" title="List of forests in India">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_India" title="Flora of India">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India" title="List of national parks of India">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_India" title="Protected areas of India">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_India" title="Wildlife of India">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wildlife_sanctuaries_of_India" title="List of wildlife sanctuaries of India">sanctuaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_India" title="List of beaches in India">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_India" title="List of canals in India">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_India" title="Coastal India">Coasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_India" title="Exclusive economic zone of India">ECZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_India" title="List of extreme points of India">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of glaciers of India">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_and_union_territories_by_highest_point" title="List of Indian states and union territories by highest point">Highest point by states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_India" title="List of islands of India">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_India" title="List of lakes of India">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_India" title="List of mountains in India">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_passes_of_India" title="List of mountain passes of India">Mountain passes</a></li> <li>Plains <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Coastal_Plains" title="Eastern Coastal Plains">Eastern coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Coastal_Plains" title="Western Coastal Plains">Western coastal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_India" title="List of rivers of India">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_in_India" title="List of valleys in India">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_India" title="List of volcanoes in India">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of waterfalls of India">Waterfalls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_India" title="Central India">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India" title="East India">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_India" title="Northwest India">Northwest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest India">Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeast India">Southeast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_India" title="Western India">West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Autonomous administrative divisions of India">Autonomous administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_India" title="Template:Borders of India">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_India_by_population" title="List of towns in India by population">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_India_by_population" title="List of cities in India by population">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_India" title="List of districts in India">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_governance_in_India" title="Municipal governance in India">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">States and union territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monuments_of_National_Importance_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Monuments of National Importance of India">National monuments of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India" title="List of national parks of India">National parks of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature worship</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian-origin religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="World Heritage Sites in India">World Heritage Sites in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Culture of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_India" title="Tourism in India">Tourism in India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agencies_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of agencies of the government of India">Agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_India" title="Energy policy of India">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_India" title="Foreign relations of India">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_India" title="Parliament of India">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lok_Sabha" title="Lok Sabha">Lok Sabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajya_Sabha" title="Rajya Sabha">Rajya Sabha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_India" title="Vice President of India">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India" title="Prime Minister of India">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Council_of_Ministers" title="Union Council of Ministers">Union Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Services_of_India" title="Civil Services of India">Civil Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Secretary_(India)" title="Cabinet Secretary (India)">Cabinet Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_India" title="State governments of India">State governments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_India" title="State legislative assemblies of India">State legislative assemblies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_councils_of_India" title="State legislative councils of India">State legislative councils</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(India)" title="Governor (India)">Governors, Lieutenant Governors and Administrators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_minister_(India)" title="Chief minister (India)">Chief Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_secretary_(India)" title="Chief secretary (India)">Chief Secretaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code" title="Indian Penal Code">Penal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India" title="Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India">Fundamental rights, principles and duties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_India" title="Human rights in India">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in India">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_courts_of_India" title="High courts of India">High Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_courts_of_India" title="District courts of India">District Courts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_India" title="Law enforcement in India">Enforcement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Federal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_Security_Force" title="Border Security Force">Border Security Force (BSF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Industrial_Security_Force" title="Central Industrial Security Force">Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Reserve_Police_Force" title="Central Reserve Police Force">Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Tibetan_Border_Police" title="Indo-Tibetan Border Police">Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Guard" title="National Security Guard">National Security Guard (NSG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Force" title="Railway Protection Force">Railway Protection Force (RPF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sashastra_Seema_Bal" title="Sashastra Seema Bal">Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Protection_Group" title="Special Protection Group">Special Protection Group (SPG)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_intelligence_agencies" title="List of Indian intelligence agencies">Intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Police_Research_and_Development" title="Bureau of Police Research and Development">Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Central Bureau of Investigation">Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorate_of_Revenue_Intelligence" title="Directorate of Revenue Intelligence">Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate" title="Enforcement Directorate">Enforcement Directorate (ED)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_Bureau_(India)" title="Intelligence Bureau (India)">Intelligence Bureau (IB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Council_(India)" title="National Security Council (India)">Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotics_Control_Bureau" title="Narcotics Control Bureau">Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Investigation_Agency" title="National Investigation Agency">National Investigation Agency (NIA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_and_Analysis_Wing" title="Research and Analysis Wing">Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forces" title="Indian Armed Forces">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Navy" title="Indian Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Air_Force" title="Indian Air Force">Air Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_India" title="Censorship in India">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationality_law" title="Indian nationality law">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_India" title="Elections in India">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_India" title="Democracy in India">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationalism" title="Indian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India" title="List of political parties in India">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scandals_in_India" title="List of scandals in India">Scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">Scheduled groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_India" title="Secularism in India">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_political_participation_in_India" title="Women's political participation in India">Women in politics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India" title="Economy of India">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_India" title="List of companies of India">Companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BSE_SENSEX" title="BSE SENSEX">BSE SENSEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIFTY_50" title="NIFTY 50">NIFTY 50</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(India)" title="Ministry of Finance (India)">Ministry of Finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_(India)" title="Minister of Finance (India)">Finance ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(India)" title="Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)">Ministry of Commerce and Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finance_Commission" title="Finance Commission">Finance Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Advisory_Council" title="Economic Advisory Council">Economic Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Statistics_Office_(India)" title="Central Statistics Office (India)">Central Statistical Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Board_of_India" title="Securities and Exchange Board of India">Securities and Exchange Board of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate" title="Enforcement Directorate">Enforcement Directorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_debt_of_India" title="External debt of India">External debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_India" title="Foreign trade of India">Foreign trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_India" title="Foreign direct investment in India">Foreign direct investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign-exchange_reserves_of_India" title="Foreign-exchange reserves of India">Foreign exchange reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remittances_to_India" title="Remittances to India">Remittances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_India" title="Taxation in India">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidies_in_India" title="Subsidies in India">Subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_licensing_in_India" title="Industrial licensing in India">Industrial licensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voluntary_Guidelines_on_Social,_Environmental_and_Economic_Responsibilities_of_Business" title="National Voluntary Guidelines on Social, Environmental and Economic Responsibilities of Business">Voluntary guidelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NITI_Aayog" title="NITI Aayog">NITI Aayog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make_in_India" title="Make in India">Make in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmanirbhar_Bharat" title="Atmanirbhar Bharat">Atmanirbhar Bharat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee" title="Indian rupee">Indian rupee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee_sign" title="Indian rupee sign">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_rupee" title="History of the rupee">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_rate_history_of_the_Indian_rupee" title="Exchange rate history of the Indian rupee">Historical Forex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rupee" title="Digital rupee">Digital rupee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_paisa" title="Indian paisa">Paisa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="Reserve Bank of India">Reserve Bank of India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_the_Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="List of governors of the Reserve Bank of India">Governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_Government_Mint" title="India Government Mint">Mint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflation_in_India" title="Inflation in India">Inflation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Financial services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_India" title="Banking in India">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_India" title="Insurance in India">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi_Commodity_Exchange" title="Multi Commodity Exchange">Multi Commodity Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gold_(Control)_Act,_1968" title="The Gold (Control) Act, 1968">Bullion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_black_money" title="Indian black money">Black money</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombay_Stock_Exchange" title="Bombay Stock Exchange">Bombay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Stock_Exchange_of_India" title="National Stock Exchange of India">National</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development_in_India" title="Economic development in India">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Liberalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licence_Raj" title="Licence Raj">Licence Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India" title="Green Revolution in India">Green revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schemes_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of schemes of the government of India">Government initiatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_numbering_system" title="Indian numbering system">Numbering system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indians_by_net_worth" title="List of Indians by net worth">By net worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_in_India" title="Income in India">Income</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">Poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_labour_law" title="Indian labour law">Labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_India" title="Pensions in India">Pensions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Employees%27_Provident_Fund_Organisation" title="Employees' Provident Fund Organisation">EPFO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pension_Scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="National Pension Scheme">NPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Provident_Fund_(India)" title="Public Provident Fund (India)">PPF</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Andhra_Pradesh" title="Economy of Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Assam" title="Economy of Assam">Assam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Bihar" title="Economy of Bihar">Bihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Delhi" title="Economy of Delhi">Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Goa" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Goa">Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Gujarat" title="Economy of Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Haryana" title="Economy of Haryana">Haryana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Himachal_Pradesh" title="Economy of Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Jammu and Kashmir">Jammu and Kashmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Jharkhand" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Karnataka" title="Economy of Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Kerala" title="Economy of Kerala">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Ladakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Ladakh">Ladakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Madhya_Pradesh" title="Economy of Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Maharashtra" title="Economy of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Mizoram" title="Economy of Mizoram">Mizoram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Odisha" title="Economy of Odisha">Odisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Punjab,_India" title="Economy of Punjab, India">Punjab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Rajasthan" title="Economy of Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Economy of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Telangana" title="Economy of Telangana">Telangana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Uttarakhand" title="Economy of Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Economy of Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_West_Bengal" title="Economy of West Bengal">West Bengal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sectors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_India" title="Agriculture in India">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry_in_India" title="Animal husbandry in India">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_in_India" title="Fishing in India">Fishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_India" title="Automotive industry in India">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_India" title="Chemical industry in India">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_India" title="Construction industry of India">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_industry_of_India" title="Defence industry of India">Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_India" title="Energy in India">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India" title="Electricity sector in India">Electricity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India" title="Nuclear power in India">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_and_gas_industry_in_India" title="Oil and gas industry in India">Oil and gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_India" title="Wind power in India">Wind</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_and_semiconductor_manufacturing_industry_in_India" title="Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing industry in India">Electronics and semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_industry_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Entertainment industry in India">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_India" title="Forestry in India">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_India" title="Gambling in India">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_India" title="Healthcare in India">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_India" title="List of hospitals in India">Hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology_in_India" title="Information technology in India">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of India">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_India" title="Cinema of India">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting_in_India" title="FM broadcasting in India">FM Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_India" title="Television in India">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_industry_in_India" title="Printing industry in India">Printing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_India" title="Mining in India">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_India" title="Coal in India">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">Iron and Steel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_India" title="Pharmaceutical industry in India">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry_in_India" title="Pulp and paper industry in India">Pulp and paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retailing_in_India" title="Retailing in India">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_India" title="Science and technology in India">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_in_India" title="Biotechnology in India">Biotechnology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_industry_of_India" title="Space industry of India">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in India">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_India" title="Textile industry in India">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_India" title="Tourism in India">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_India" title="Transport in India">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_India" title="Aviation in India">Aviation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_India" title="Civil aviation in India">Civil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ports_in_India" title="List of ports in India">Ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India" title="Rail transport in India">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_India" title="Roads in India">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electricity_organisations_in_India" title="List of electricity organisations in India">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_sector_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Power sector in India">Power</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulator</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_Regulatory_and_Development_Authority" title="Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority">IRDAI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="Reserve Bank of India">RBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEBI" class="mw-redirect" title="SEBI">SEBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Board_of_India" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India">IBBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension_Fund_Regulatory_and_Development_Authority" title="Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority">PFRDA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Company_Law_Tribunal" title="National Company Law Tribunal">NCLT</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Company_Law_Appellate_Tribunal" title="National Company Law Appellate Tribunal">NCLAT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_for_Industrial_and_Financial_Reconstruction" title="Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction">BIFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Board_of_India" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India">IBBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Code,_2016" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016">IBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securitisation_and_Reconstruction_of_Financial_Assets_and_Enforcement_of_Security_Interest_Act,_2002" title="Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, 2002">SARFESI Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income-tax_Act,_1961" class="mw-redirect" title="Income-tax Act, 1961">Income Tax Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companies_Act,_2013" class="mw-redirect" title="Companies Act, 2013">Companies Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_Regulation_Act,_1949" title="Banking Regulation Act, 1949">Banking Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_Act,_1938" title="Insurance Act, 1938">Insurance Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Exchange_Management_Act" title="Foreign Exchange Management Act">FEMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mumbai_Consensus" title="Mumbai Consensus">Mumbai Consensus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Society and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">Caste system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_India" title="Corruption in India">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_India" title="Crime in India">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_India" title="List of universities in India">Universities in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_colleges_in_India" title="List of medical colleges in India">Medical colleges in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_in_India" title="List of law schools in India">Law colleges in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education_in_India" title="Engineering education in India">Engineering colleges in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_relations_in_India" title="Ethnic relations in India">Ethnic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_India" title="Health in India">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_by_life_expectancy_at_birth" title="List of Indian states by life expectancy at birth">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_India" title="Literacy in India">Literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_India" title="Prisons in India">Prisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issue#India" title="Social issue">Socio-economic issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_India" title="Standard of living in India">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_India" title="Women in India">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_India" title="Sexuality in India">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_in_India" title="Youth in India">Youth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_entertainment_in_India" title="Arts and entertainment in India">Arts and entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_blogosphere" title="Indian blogosphere">Blogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_India" title="Cinema of India">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_comics" title="Indian comics">Comics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Webcomics_in_India" title="Webcomics in India">Webcomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_cuisine" title="Indian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_wine" title="Indian wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_dance" title="Indian classical dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_India" title="Clothing in India">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_India" title="Folklore of India">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_India" title="List of festivals in India">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_India" title="Mass media in India">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_India" title="Television in India">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_India" title="Music of India">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_painting" title="Indian painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_physical_culture" title="Indian physical culture">Physical culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_India" title="Public holidays in India">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent">Sculpture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_tallest_statues_in_India" title="List of the tallest statues in India">tallest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_India" title="Sport in India">Sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_games_of_India" title="Traditional games of India">Traditional</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Astronomy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Astronomy_navbox" title="Template:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Astronomy_navbox" title="Template talk:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Astronomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy" title="Outline of astronomy">Outline</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">Timeline</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">Astronomer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_symbols" title="Astronomical symbols">Astronomical symbols</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">Astronomical object</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Glossary</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Astronomy by</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Manner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">Amateur</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sidewalk_astronomy" title="Sidewalk astronomy">Sidewalk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Celestial subject</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Local system</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Solar</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">EM methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy" title="Submillimetre astronomy">Submillimetre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Far-infrared_astronomy" title="Far-infrared astronomy">Far-infrared</a></span>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Visible-light_astronomy" title="Visible-light astronomy">Visible-light <span style="font-size:85%;">(optical)</span></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">Ultraviolet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_X-ray_astronomy" title="History of X-ray astronomy">History</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">Gamma-ray</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Other methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">Neutrino</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy" title="Cosmic ray astronomy">Cosmic rays</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational radiation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radar_astronomy" title="Radar astronomy">Radar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spherical_astronomy" title="Spherical astronomy">Spherical</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Multi-messenger_astronomy" title="Multi-messenger astronomy">Multi-messenger</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_astronomy" title="Cultural astronomy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy" title="Australian Aboriginal astronomy">Australian Aboriginal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuit_astronomy" title="Inuit astronomy">Inuit</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Maya</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_Serbia" title="Astronomy in Serbia">Serbian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Serbian_folk_astronomy" title="Serbian folk astronomy">folk</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_astronomy" title="Tibetan astronomy">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">Optical<br />telescopes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_optical_telescopes" title="List of optical telescopes">List</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Telescopes" title="Category:Telescopes">Category</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_large_telescope" title="Extremely large telescope">Extremely large telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_Large_Telescope" title="Extremely Large Telescope">Extremely Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gran_Telescopio_Canarias" title="Gran Telescopio Canarias">Gran Telescopio Canarias</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hale_Telescope" title="Hale Telescope">Hale Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._M._Keck_Observatory" title="W. M. Keck Observatory">Keck Observatory</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Large_Binocular_Telescope" title="Large Binocular Telescope">Large Binocular Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Large_Telescope" title="Southern African Large Telescope">Southern African Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Telescope" title="Very Large Telescope">Very Large Telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astroinformatics" title="Astroinformatics">Astroinformatics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy" title="Astrology and astronomy">Astrology and astronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Astronomers_Monument" title="Astronomers Monument">Astronomers Monument</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">Astroparticle physics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Binoculars" title="Binoculars">Binoculars</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">Constellation</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IAU_designated_constellations" title="IAU designated constellations">IAU</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Photometry_(astronomy)" title="Photometry (astronomy)">Photometry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Planetarium" title="Planetarium">Planetarium</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">Quantum cosmology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomers" title="List of astronomers">List of astronomers</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_astronomers" title="List of French astronomers">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Notable_astronomers" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_astronomers_and_astrophysicists" title="List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers" title="List of women astronomers">Women</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescope</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_telescope" title="X-ray telescope">X-ray telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telescope" title="History of the telescope">history</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_telescopes" title="Lists of telescopes">lists</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">Zodiac</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Astronomy" title="Category:Astronomy">Category</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science_in_India" title="Template:Science in India"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science_in_India" title="Template talk:Science in India"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science_in_India" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science in India"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Science_and_technology_in_India" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_India" title="Science and technology in India">Science and technology in India</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Architecture</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_India" title="Cartography of India">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_coinage" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_national_calendar" title="Indian national calendar">National calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_in_India" title="Engineering in India">Engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indian inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement_systems_in_India" title="History of measurement systems in India">Measurement systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Metallurgy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_India" title="Higher education in India">Higher education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Research_institutes_in_India" title="Category:Research institutes in India">Research institutes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputing_in_India" title="Supercomputing in India">Supercomputing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_museums_in_India" title="Category:Science museums in India">Science museums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sectors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_India" title="Automotive industry in India">Auto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_in_India" title="Biotechnology in India">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_India" title="Chemical industry in India">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_India" title="High-speed rail in India">High-speed rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology_in_India" title="Information technology in India">IT</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Software_companies_of_India" title="Category:Software companies of India">Software</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India" title="Nuclear power in India">Nuclear power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology_in_India" title="Category:Nuclear technology in India">Technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_India" title="Pharmaceutical industry in India">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_India" title="Renewable energy in India">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in India">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_network_operators_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile network operators of India">4G</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_engineers" title="Category:Indian engineers">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_inventors" title="Category:Indian inventors">Inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_Nobel_laureates" title="Category:Indian Nobel laureates">Nobel laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_science_writers" title="Category:Indian science writers">Science writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_scientists" title="Category:Indian scientists">Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_technology_writers" title="Category:Indian technology writers">Technology writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Science_and_Technology_(India)" title="Ministry of Science and Technology (India)">Ministry of Science and Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Centre_for_Polar_and_Ocean_Research" title="National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research">National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">ISRO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_Research_and_Development_Organisation" title="Defence Research and Development Organisation">DRDO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research" title="Council of Scientific and Industrial Research">Council of Scientific and Industrial Research</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_in_India" title="Category:Science and technology in India">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_in_India" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Science and technology in India">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Months_of_the_Hindu_calendar" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_calendar" title="Template:Hindu calendar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hindu_calendar" title="Template talk:Hindu calendar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu_calendar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu calendar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Months_of_the_Hindu_calendar" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Months of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu calendar</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lunar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaitra" title="Chaitra">Chaitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisakha" title="Vaisakha">Vaisakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyeshtha_(month)" title="Jyeshtha (month)">Jyeshta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashadha" title="Ashadha">Ashadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shraavana" class="mw-redirect" title="Shraavana">Shraavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhadra_(Hindu_calendar)" title="Bhadra (Hindu calendar)">Bhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashvin_(month)" title="Ashvin (month)">Ashvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartik_(month)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kartik (month)">Kartik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrahayana" title="Agrahayana">Agrahayana (Margashirsha)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausha" title="Pausha">Pausha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magha_(month)" title="Magha (month)">Magha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalguna" title="Phalguna">Phalguna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhika-masa" title="Adhika-masa">Adhika-masa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Solar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesha_(month)" title="Mesha (month)">Mesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%E1%B9%9B%E1%B9%A3abha" title="Vṛṣabha">Vṛṣabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithuna_(month)" title="Mithuna (month)">Mithuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karka%E1%B9%ADa" title="Karkaṭa">Karkaṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Si%E1%B9%83ha" title="Siṃha">Siṃha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kany%C4%81" title="Kanyā">Kanyā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tul%C4%81" title="Tulā">Tulā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%E1%B9%9B%C5%9Bcika" title="Vṛścika">Vṛścika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhanu_(month)" title="Dhanu (month)">Dhanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makara_(month)" title="Makara (month)">Makara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbha_(month)" title="Kumbha (month)">Kumbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABna" title="Mīna">Mīna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&oldid=1251309830">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_astronomy&oldid=1251309830</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_astronomy" title="Category:Hindu astronomy">Hindu astronomy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Astronomy_in_India" title="Category:Astronomy 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