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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Classical antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Late antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab_empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Arab empires </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rashidun_era_(632–661)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rashidun_era_(632–661)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1.1 Rashidun era (632–661) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rashidun_era_(632–661)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Umayyad_era_(661–750_and_756–1031)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umayyad_era_(661–750_and_756–1031)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1.2 Umayyad era (661–750 and 756–1031) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umayyad_era_(661–750_and_756–1031)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abbasid_era_(750–1258_and_1261–1517)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbasid_era_(750–1258_and_1261–1517)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1.3 Abbasid era (750–1258 and 1261–1517) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abbasid_era_(750–1258_and_1261–1517)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fatimid_era_(909–1171)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fatimid_era_(909–1171)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1.4 Fatimid era (909–1171) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fatimid_era_(909–1171)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_era_(1517–1918)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_era_(1517–1918)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1.5 Ottoman era (1517–1918) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_era_(1517–1918)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Renaissance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Modern period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Identity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subgroups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subgroups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Subgroups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subgroups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Geographic distribution </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geographic_distribution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Geographic distribution subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Geographic_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab_homeland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_homeland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Arab homeland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_homeland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_diaspora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_diaspora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Arab diaspora </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_diaspora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Americas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caucasus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caucasus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 Caucasus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caucasus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central,_South,_East_and_Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central,_South,_East_and_Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.4 Central, South, East and Southeast Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central,_South,_East_and_Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-Saharan_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.5 Sub-Saharan Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mythology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mythology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Mythology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mythology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Cuisine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.7 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spirituality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spirituality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.8 Spirituality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spirituality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.9 Philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.10 Science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theatre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theatre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.11 Theatre </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theatre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fashion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fashion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.12 Fashion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fashion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wedding_and_marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wedding_and_marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.13 Wedding and marriage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wedding_and_marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Arabs</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 134 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-134" aria-hidden="true" > 134 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bansa_Arab" title="Bansa Arab – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Bansa Arab" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Арапхэр – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Арапхэр" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabiere" title="Arabiere – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Arabiere" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araber" title="Araber – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Araber" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabas" title="Arabas – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Arabas" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="عرب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عرب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabes" title="Arabes – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Arabes" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A5%DC%A1%DC%90_%DC%A5%DC%AA%DC%92%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܥܡܐ ܥܪܒܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܥܡܐ ܥܪܒܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblu_%C3%A1rabe" title="Pueblu árabe – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Pueblu árabe" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D3%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="ГӀарабал – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ГӀарабал" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fr%C9%99bl%C9%99r" title="Ərəblər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ərəblər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%B1" title="عربلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="عربلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wong_Arab" title="Wong Arab – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Wong Arab" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="আরব জাতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আরব জাতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab" title="Arab – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Arab" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-la-pek-l%C3%A2ng" title="A-la-pek-lâng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="A-la-pek-lâng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D3%99%D1%80%D3%99%D0%BF%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80" title="Ғәрәптәр – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ғәрәптәр" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Арабы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Арабы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Арабы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Арабы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Араби – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Араби" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A8%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%80%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B" title="ཨ་རབ་ཀྱི་མི་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཨ་རབ་ཀྱི་མི་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapi" title="Arapi – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Arapi" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabed" title="Arabed – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Arabed" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Арабууд – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Арабууд" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80rabs" title="Àrabs – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Àrabs" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Арапсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Арапсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabo" title="Arabo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Arabo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabov%C3%A9" title="Arabové – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Arabové" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaarabhu" title="Vaarabhu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Vaarabhu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabiaid" title="Arabiaid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Arabiaid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laribu" title="Laribu – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Laribu" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabere" title="Arabere – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Arabere" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="لعرب – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لعرب" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araber" title="Araber – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Araber" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81s%C3%A1%C3%AD_din%C3%A9%CA%BCi%CA%BC" title="Ásáí dinéʼiʼ – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Ásáí dinéʼiʼ" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araablased" title="Araablased – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Araablased" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Άραβες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Άραβες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo_%C3%A1rabe" title="Pueblo árabe – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pueblo árabe" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araboj" title="Araboj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Araboj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabiar" title="Arabiar – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arabiar" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%85_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="مردم عرب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مردم عرب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar%C3%A1bar" title="Arábar – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Arábar" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabes" title="Arabes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Arabes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabieren" title="Arabieren – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Arabieren" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabaigh" title="Arabaigh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Arabaigh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabes" title="Árabes – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Árabes" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Ӏарбий – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Ӏарбий" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%9E%8D%EC%9D%B8" title="아랍인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아랍인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larabawa" title="Larabawa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Larabawa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Արաբներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արաբներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="अरब लोग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अरब लोग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapi" title="Arapi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Arapi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab" title="Arab – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Arab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Hulontalo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Arab" title="Orang Arab – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orang Arab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%B0%D0%B4%C3%A6%D0%BC" title="Араббаг адæм – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Араббаг адæм" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabar" title="Arabar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Arabar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabi" title="Arabi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Arabi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D" title="ערבים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ערבים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="არაბები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="არაბები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Арабтар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Арабтар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waarabu" title="Waarabu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Waarabu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ereb" title="Ereb – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Ereb" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Арабдар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Арабдар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabes" title="Arabes – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Arabes" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar%C4%81bi" title="Arābi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Arābi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabai" title="Arabai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Arabai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popolo_arabo" title="Popolo arabo – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Popolo arabo" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabiere" title="Arabiere – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Arabiere" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabok" title="Arabok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Arabok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8" title="Арапи – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Арапи" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabo_(vahoaka)" title="Arabo (vahoaka) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Arabo (vahoaka)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%A4" title="അറബി ജനത – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അറബി ജനത" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C4%A7arab" title="Għarab – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Għarab" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC" title="अरब – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अरब" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="არაბეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="არაბეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="عرب – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عرب" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="عرب – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="عرب" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangsa_Arab" title="Bangsa Arab – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bangsa Arab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%95" title="ꯑꯥꯔꯕ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯑꯥꯔꯕ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urang_Arab" title="Urang Arab – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Urang Arab" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%87%D1%83%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Арабчууд – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Арабчууд" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="အာရပ်များ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အာရပ်များ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabieren" title="Arabieren – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Arabieren" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A9%E3%83%96%E4%BA%BA" title="アラブ人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アラブ人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B0%D1%8C%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Ӏаьрбий – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ӏаьрбий" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabere" title="Arabere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Arabere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabarar" title="Arabarar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Arabarar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Arabs" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arablar" title="Arablar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Arablar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AC_%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%95" title="ਅਰਬ ਲੋਕ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਰਬ ਲੋਕ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="عرب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="عرب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عربان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عربان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabowie" title="Arabowie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Arabowie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabes" title="Árabes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Árabes" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabi" title="Arabi – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Arabi" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Арабы – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Арабы" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Арабы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Арабы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Араабтар – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Араабтар" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80rabos" title="Àrabos – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Àrabos" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Arabs" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%C3%ABt" title="Arabët – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Arabët" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_people" title="Arab people – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Arab people" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="عرب – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="عرب" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabi" title="Arabi – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Arabi" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabci" title="Arabci – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Arabci" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carabta" title="Carabta – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Carabta" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%A8" title="عەرەب – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="عەرەب" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8" title="Арапи – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Арапи" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapi" title="Arapi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Arapi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urang_Arab" title="Urang Arab – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Urang Arab" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabit" title="Arabit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Arabit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araber" title="Araber – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Araber" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_Arabe" title="Mga Arabe – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mga Arabe" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="அராபியர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அராபியர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C9%9Braben" title="Aɛraben – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Aɛraben" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D3%99%D0%BF%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Гарәпләр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Гарәпләр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A" title="อาหรับ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อาหรับ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D2%B3%D0%BE" title="Арабҳо – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Арабҳо" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araplar" title="Araplar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Araplar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Араби – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Араби" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85" title="عرب قوم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عرب قوم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%A8%D9%84%DB%95%D8%B1" title="ئەرەبلەر – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئەرەبلەر" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di_%E1%BA%A2_R%E1%BA%ADp" title="Người Ả Rập – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Người Ả Rập" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alijunakai_tutkos" title="Alijunakai tutkos – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Alijunakai tutkos" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wayuunaiki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabo_(katawhan)" title="Arabo (katawhan) – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Arabo (katawhan)" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araab" title="Araab – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Araab" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E4%BA%BA" title="阿拉伯人 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="阿拉伯人" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="אראבער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אראבער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80w%E1%BB%8Dn_%C3%81r%C3%A0b%C3%B9" title="Àwọn Áràbù – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Àwọn Áràbù" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E4%BA%BA" title="阿拉伯人 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="阿拉伯人" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erebi" title="Erebi – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Erebi" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araobieren" title="Araobieren – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Araobieren" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E4%BA%BA" title="阿拉伯人 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="阿拉伯人" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#extended" title="This article is extended-confirmed-protected."><img alt="Page extended-confirmed-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Extended-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Extended-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Extended-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group inhabiting the Arab world</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Arab" and "Arabians" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Arab_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Arab (disambiguation)">Arab (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabian_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Arabian (disambiguation)">Arabian (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Arabs</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above nickname" style="font-size:115%; font-weight:normal;"><div lang="ar">عَرَب, ʿarab</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/220px-Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/330px-Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/440px-Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2192" data-file-height="1135" /></a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>approx. 400 million<a href="#cite_note-Kamel2017-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ellis2018-2">[2]</a>–420 million<a href="#cite_note-Nydell2018-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Caplan2019-4">[4]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>: 350 million<a href="#cite_note-CIA_Factbook-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-World_Arabic_Language_Day-6">[6]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_diaspora" title="Arab diaspora">Arab diaspora</a>: ~50 million</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Brazil</th><td class="infobox-data">11,600,000–20,000,000<a href="#cite_note-IBGE2008-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ferabolli2014-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amar2014-9">[9]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">France</th><td class="infobox-data">5,500,000–7,000,000<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Turkey</th><td class="infobox-data">5,000,000<a href="#cite_note-www.aljazeera.com2-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[a]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Argentina</th><td class="infobox-data">3,500,000<a href="#cite_note-Fearab.org.ar-15">[14]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Colombia</th><td class="infobox-data">3,200,000<a href="#cite_note-La_República,_2022-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">United States</th><td class="infobox-data">2,097,642<a href="#cite_note-American_Community_Survey-21">[20]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Israel</th><td class="infobox-data">2,080,000<a href="#cite_note-cbs-pop-groups-22">[21]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Chad</th><td class="infobox-data">1,800,000<a href="#cite_note-chad-23">[22]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Iran</th><td class="infobox-data">1,600,000<a href="#cite_note-Iran-24">[23]</a>–4,000,000<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Venezuela</th><td class="infobox-data">1,600,000<a href="#cite_note-thedailybeast.com-26">[25]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Germany</th><td class="infobox-data">1,401,950<a href="#cite_note-statista-27">[26]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Spain</th><td class="infobox-data">1,350,000<a href="#cite_note-europapress-18-millones-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-alertadigital-16-millones-29">[28]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Mexico</th><td class="infobox-data">1,100,000<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Chile</th><td class="infobox-data">800,000<a href="#cite_note-aurora-israel.co.il-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adnkronos.com-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laventana.casa.cult.cu-33">[32]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Canada</th><td class="infobox-data">750,925<a href="#cite_note-canadianarabinstitute.org-34">[33]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Italy</th><td class="infobox-data">705,968<a href="#cite_note-ISTAT-35">[34]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Sweden</th><td class="infobox-data">543,350<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">United Kingdom</th><td class="infobox-data">500,000<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Australia</th><td class="infobox-data">500,000<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Netherlands</th><td class="infobox-data">480,000–613,800<a href="#cite_note-auto2-39">[38]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Ivory Coast</th><td class="infobox-data">300,000<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Honduras</th><td class="infobox-data">280,000<a href="#cite_note-Espín,_2020-41">[40]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Ecuador</th><td class="infobox-data">170,000 <a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Niger</th><td class="infobox-data">150,000 (2006)<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Denmark</th><td class="infobox-data">121,000<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Indonesia</th><td class="infobox-data">118,866 (2010)<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">El Salvador</th><td class="infobox-data">100,000<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Eritrea</th><td class="infobox-data">80,000 (2010)<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Uruguay</th><td class="infobox-data">75,000<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Tanzania</th><td class="infobox-data">70,000<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Kenya</th><td class="infobox-data">59,021 (2019)<a href="#cite_note-Census2019-54">[53]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Somalia</th><td class="infobox-data">30,000<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Predominantly:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alawite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alawite">Alawite</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a>)</li></ul></div></li> <li>Significant minority:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Christianity</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Melkite Greek Catholic Church">Melkite Catholic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maronite_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite Catholic Church">Maronite Catholic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a>)</li></ul></div></li> <li>Smaller minority:</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Jews" title="Arab Jews">Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></li> <li>Historically:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Other <a href="/wiki/Semitic_people" title="Semitic people">Semitic peoples</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> The Arabs (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: عَرَب, <a href="/wiki/DIN_31635" title="DIN 31635">DIN 31635</a>: ʿarab, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>Arabic: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[ˈʕɑ.rɑb]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/b\/b1\/Arabspronouncedar.oog.ogg\/Arabspronouncedar.oog.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Arabspronouncedar.oog.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b1/Arabspronouncedar.oog.ogg/Arabspronouncedar.oog.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Arabspronouncedar.oog.ogg" title="File:Arabspronouncedar.oog.ogg">ⓘ</a>; <abbr title="singular form">sg.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227789315">.mw-parser-output .script-arabic{font-family:"Scheherazade New","SF Arabic",Amiri,"Noto Naskh Arabic","Droid Arabic Naskh","Noto Sans Arabic","Sakkal Majalla","Harmattan","Arabic Typesetting","Arabic Transparent","Times New Roman",Arial,Calibri,"Microsoft Sans Serif","Segoe UI",serif,sans-serif;font-weight:normal}</style>عَرَبِيٌّ‎, ʿarabiyyun, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[ʕɑ.rɑˈbɪj.jʊn]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/8\/84\/Ar-Arabiyyun.ogg\/Ar-Arabiyyun.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ar-Arabiyyun.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/84/Ar-Arabiyyun.ogg/Ar-Arabiyyun.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ar-Arabiyyun.ogg" title="File:Ar-Arabiyyun.ogg">ⓘ</a>), also known as the Arab people, are an <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic group</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[b]</a> mainly inhabiting the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. A significant <a href="/wiki/Arab_diaspora" title="Arab diaspora">Arab diaspora</a> is present in various parts of the world.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> Arabs have been in the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> In the 9th century BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a> made written references to Arabs as inhabitants of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> Throughout the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a>, Arabs established influential civilizations starting from 3000 BCE onwards, such as <a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerrha" title="Gerrha">Gerrha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magan_(civilization)" title="Magan (civilization)">Magan</a>, playing a vital role in trade between Mesopotamia, and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">Mediterranean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> Other prominent tribes include <a href="/wiki/Midian" title="Midian">Midian</a>, <a href="/wiki/%CA%BF%C4%80d" title="ʿĀd">ʿĀd</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thamud" title="Thamud">Thamud</a> mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Bible</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>. Later, in 900 BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Qedarites" title="Qedarites">Qedarites</a> enjoyed close relations with the nearby <a href="/wiki/Canaan#Canaanites" title="Canaan">Canaanite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaeans">Aramaean</a> states, and their territory extended from <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> to the Southern Levant.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> From 1200 BCE to 110 BCE, powerful kingdoms emerged such as <a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaeans">Saba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lihyan" title="Lihyan">Lihyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Minaeans">Minaean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qataban" title="Qataban">Qataban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hadhramaut" title="Kingdom of Hadhramaut">Hadhramaut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Awsan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Awsan">Awsan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Homerite</a> emerged in Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> tradition, Arabs are descendants of <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> through his son <a href="/wiki/Ishmael" title="Ishmael">Ishmael</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Treasury_petra_crop.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Treasury_petra_crop.jpeg/250px-Treasury_petra_crop.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Treasury_petra_crop.jpeg/375px-Treasury_petra_crop.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Treasury_petra_crop.jpeg/500px-Treasury_petra_crop.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1655" data-file-height="2002" /></a><figcaption>The treasury of <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean kingdom">Nabataean kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></figcaption></figure> During <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a> established their <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">kingdom</a> with <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a> as the capital in 300 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> by 271 CE, the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> with the capital <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a>, led by Queen <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>, encompassed the <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Egypt</a>, and large parts of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-waro-84">[82]</a> The Arab <a href="/wiki/Iturea" title="Iturea">Itureans</a> inhabited <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, and northern Palestine (<a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>) during the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> and Roman periods.<a href="#cite_note-Berndt_Schaller_14922-85">[83]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hatra" title="Kingdom of Hatra">Hatran</a> were Arab kingdoms in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a> around 200 CE.<a href="#cite_note-Hatra_and_the_Parthian_Commonwealth2-86">[84]</a> In 164 CE, the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanians</a> recognized the Arabs as "<a href="/wiki/Arbayistan" title="Arbayistan">Arbayistan</a>", meaning "land of the Arabs,"<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> as they were part of <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> in upper Mesopotamia.<a href="#cite_note-oxfordreference.com2-88">[86]</a> The Arab <a href="/wiki/Emesene_dynasty" title="Emesene dynasty">Emesenes</a> ruled by 46 BCE <a href="/wiki/Emesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Emesa">Emesa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a>), <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> During <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salihids" title="Salihids">Salihids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid_kingdom" title="Lakhmid kingdom">Lakhmids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kinda" title="Kingdom of Kinda">Kinda</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a> were dominant Arab tribes in the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Arabia, they predominantly embraced <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Islam</a> fostered a vast Arab union, leading to significant <a href="/wiki/Arab_migrations_to_the_Maghreb" title="Arab migrations to the Maghreb">Arab migrations to the Maghreb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_migrations_to_the_Levant" title="Arab migrations to the Levant">the Levant</a>, and neighbouring territories under the rule of Arab empires such as the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a>, ultimately leading to the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Sasanian</a> empires. At its peak, <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arab territories</a> stretched from <a href="/wiki/Southern_France" title="Southern France">southern</a> <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_France" title="Islam in France">France</a> to western <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">China</a>, forming one of <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">history's largest empires</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Great Arab Revolt</a> in the early 20th century aided in <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">dismantling</a> the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, ultimately leading to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> on 22 March 1945, with its <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Arab_League" title="Charter of the Arab League">Charter</a> endorsing the principle of a "<a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">unified Arab homeland</a>".<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> Arabs from <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> to <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> share a common bond based on ethnicity, <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabs" title="History of the Arabs">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">identity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia" title="Tribes of Arabia">ancestry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">unity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Arab_League" title="Politics of the Arab League">politics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> which give the region a distinct identity and distinguish it from other parts of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> They also have their own customs, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_music" title="Arabic music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_folk_dances" title="Arab folk dances">dance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_culture#Media" title="Arab culture">media</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine">food</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab clothing">clothing</a>, society, <a href="/wiki/Sport_policies_of_the_Arab_League" title="Sport policies of the Arab League">sports</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">art</a> and, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> Arabs have significantly influenced and contributed to <a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">human progress</a> in many fields, including <a href="/wiki/Arabic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Arab_League" title="Politics of the Arab League">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab economy">business</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_music" title="Arabic music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_humor" title="Arab humor">comedy</a>, theatre, <a href="/wiki/Arab_cinema" title="Arab cinema">cinema</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine">food</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab medicine">medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam#Origins_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Before Islam</a>, most Arabs followed <a href="/wiki/Polytheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytheistic">polytheistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic religion</a>, while some <a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">tribes</a> adopted <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and a few individuals, known as the <a href="/wiki/Hanif" title="Hanif">hanifs</a>, followed a form of <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto-97">[95]</a> Currently, around 93% of Arabs are <a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims">Muslims</a>, while the rest are mainly <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christians</a>, as well as Arab groups of <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼís</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PharesIntro-98">[96]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Arab_(etymology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab (etymology)">Arab (etymology)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg/220px-Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg/330px-Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg/440px-Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3680" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Namara_inscription" title="Namara inscription">Namara inscription</a> is an Arabic epitaph in <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean script</a> of <a href="/wiki/Imru%27_al-Qais" title="Imru' al-Qais">Imru' al-Qais</a>, son of "Amr, king of all the Arabs". Basalt, found at <a href="/wiki/Nimreh" title="Nimreh">Nimreh</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a> (<a href="/wiki/Southern_Syria" title="Southern Syria">Southern Syria</a>), dated 7 December 328 CE.</figcaption></figure> The earliest documented use of the word Arab in reference to a people appears in the <a href="/wiki/Kurkh_Monoliths" title="Kurkh Monoliths">Kurkh Monoliths</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian-language</a> record of the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Aram" title="Assyrian conquest of Aram">Assyrian conquest of Aram</a> (9th century BCE). The Monoliths used the term to refer to <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouins</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> under <a href="/wiki/Gindibu" title="Gindibu">King Gindibu</a>, who fought as part of a coalition opposed to <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Retsop105-99">[97]</a> The related word ʾaʿrāb is used to refer to Bedouins today, in contrast to ʿArab which refers to Arabs in general.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> Both terms are mentioned around 40 times in pre-Islamic <a href="/wiki/Sabaean_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaean language">Sabaean</a> inscriptions. The term ʿarab ('Arab') occurs also in the titles of the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyarite kings</a> from the time of <a href="/wiki/Tubba_Abu_Karab_As%27ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubba Abu Karab As'ad">'Abu Karab Asad</a> until MadiKarib Ya'fur. According to Sabaean grammar, the term ʾaʿrāb is derived from the term ʿarab. The term is also mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quranic</a> verses, referring to people who were living in <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Madina</a> and it might be a south Arabian <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanword</a> into Quranic language.<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> The oldest surviving indication of an Arab national identity is an inscription made in an archaic form of Arabic in 328 CE using the <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean alphabet">Nabataean alphabet</a>, which refers to <a href="/wiki/Imru%27_al-Qays_ibn_%27Amr" class="mw-redirect" title="Imru' al-Qays ibn 'Amr">Imru' al-Qays ibn 'Amr</a> as 'King of all the Arabs'.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> refers to the Arabs in the Sinai, southern Palestine, and the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Frankincense" title="Land of Frankincense">frankincense region</a> (Southern Arabia). Other Ancient-Greek historians like <a href="/wiki/Agatharchides" title="Agatharchides">Agatharchides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> mention Arabs living in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (along the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>), in Egypt (the Sinai and the Red Sea), southern Jordan (the <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian steppe">Syrian steppe</a> and in eastern Arabia (the people of <a href="/wiki/Gerrha" title="Gerrha">Gerrha</a>). Inscriptions dating to the 6th century BCE in Yemen include the term 'Arab'.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> The most popular Arab account holds that the word Arab came from an <a href="/wiki/Eponym" title="Eponym">eponymous</a> father named <a href="/wiki/Ya%27rub" title="Ya'rub">Ya'rub</a>, who was supposedly the first to speak Arabic. <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muhammad_al-Hasan_al-Hamdani" title="Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani">Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani</a> had another view; he states that Arabs were called gharab ('westerners') by <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamians</a> because Bedouins originally resided to the west of Mesopotamia; the term was then corrupted into Arab. Yet another view is held by <a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">al-Masudi</a> that the word Arab was initially applied to the <a href="/wiki/Ishmaelites" title="Ishmaelites">Ishmaelites</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arabah" title="Arabah">Arabah</a> valley. In Biblical etymology, Arab (Hebrew: arvi) comes from the desert origin of the Bedouins it originally described (arava means 'wilderness'). The root ʿ-r-b has several additional meanings in Semitic languages—including 'west, sunset', 'desert', 'mingle', 'mixed', 'merchant' and 'raven'—and are "comprehensible" with all of these having varying degrees of relevance to the emergence of the name. It is also possible that some forms were <a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathetical</a> from ʿ-B-R, 'moving around' (Arabic: ʿ-B-R, 'traverse') and hence, it is alleged, 'nomadic'.<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Generations_of_Noah" title="Generations of Noah">Generations of Noah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples">Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semitic_people" title="Semitic people">Semitic people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ishmaelites" title="Ishmaelites">Ishmaelites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qahtanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Qahtanites">Qahtanites</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language" title="Proto-Semitic language">Proto-Semitic language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Arabic">Proto-Arabic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Navez_-_Agar_et_Isma%C3%ABl_dans_le_d%C3%A9sert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Navez_-_Agar_et_Isma%C3%ABl_dans_le_d%C3%A9sert.jpg/220px-Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Navez_-_Agar_et_Isma%C3%ABl_dans_le_d%C3%A9sert.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Navez_-_Agar_et_Isma%C3%ABl_dans_le_d%C3%A9sert.jpg/330px-Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Navez_-_Agar_et_Isma%C3%ABl_dans_le_d%C3%A9sert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Navez_-_Agar_et_Isma%C3%ABl_dans_le_d%C3%A9sert.jpg/440px-Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Navez_-_Agar_et_Isma%C3%ABl_dans_le_d%C3%A9sert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2748" data-file-height="3967" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of Hagar and her son <a href="/wiki/Ishmael" title="Ishmael">Ishmael</a> in the desert (1819) by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Navez" title="François-Joseph Navez">François-Joseph Navez</a></figcaption></figure> Arabic is a Semitic language that belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic language family</a>. The majority of scholars accept the "<a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a>" has long been accepted as the original <a href="/wiki/Urheimat" class="mw-redirect" title="Urheimat">Urheimat</a> (linguistic homeland) of the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> with some scholars investigating if its origins are in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples">ancient Semitic-speaking peoples</a> lived in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>, including the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian Peninsula from the 3rd millennium BCE to the end of antiquity. <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language" title="Proto-Semitic language">Proto-Semitic</a> likely reached the Arabian Peninsula by the 4th millennium BCE, and its daughter languages spread outward from there,<a href="#cite_note-:0-111">[109]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a> began to differentiate from Central Semitic by the start of the 1st millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-academia.edu-112">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic</a> is a branch of the Semitic language includes Arabic, <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-academia.edu3-114">[112]</a> The origins of Proto-Semitic may lie in the Arabian Peninsula, with the language spreading from there to other regions. This theory proposes that Semitic peoples reached Mesopotamia and other areas from the deserts to the west, such as the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadians</a> who entered Mesopotamia around the late 4th millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-:0-111">[109]</a> The origins of Semitic peoples are thought to include various regions <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. Some view that Semitic may have originated in the Levant around 3800 BCE and subsequently spread to the Horn of Africa around 800 BCE from Arabia, as well as to North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-AK1-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> According to Arab–<a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islamic–Jewish</a> traditions, <a href="/wiki/Ishmael" title="Ishmael">Ishmael</a>, the son of Abraham and <a href="/wiki/Hagar" title="Hagar">Hagar</a> was "father of the Arabs".<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-EoR-Ishmael-118">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sajjadi_20152-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-bbc2-121">[119]</a> Ishmael was considered the ancestor of the Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. The tribes of Central West Arabia called themselves the "people of Abraham and the offspring of Ishmael."<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>, an Arab scholar in the 8th century, described the Arabs as having Ishmaelite origins.<a href="#cite_note-Levity-123">[121]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> mentions that <a href="/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam" title="Abraham in Islam">Ibrahim</a> (Abraham) and his wife <a href="/wiki/Hagar_in_Islam" title="Hagar in Islam">Hajar</a> (Hagar) bore a <a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">prophetic</a> child named Ishmael, who was gifted by <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">God</a> a favor above other nations.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> Ibrahim and Ishmael built the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a> in Mecca, which was originally constructed by <a href="/wiki/Adam" title="Adam">Adam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Samaritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan">Samaritan</a> book <a href="/wiki/The_Asatir" title="The Asatir">Asaṭīr</a>:<a href="#cite_note-Gaster-126">[124]</a>: 262  "And after the death of Abraham, Ishmael reigned twenty-seven years; And all the children of <a href="/wiki/Nebaioth" title="Nebaioth">Nebaot</a> ruled for one year in the lifetime of Ishmael; And for thirty years after his death from the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">river of Egypt</a> to the river <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>; and they built <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>."<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Targum_Onkelos" title="Targum Onkelos">Targum Onkelos</a> annotates (<a href="/wiki/Toledot" title="Toledot">Genesis 25:16</a>), describing the extent of their settlements: The Ishmaelites lived from Hindekaia (India) to Chalutsa (possibly in Arabia), by the side of <a href="/wiki/Mizraim" title="Mizraim">Mizraim</a> (Egypt), and from the area around Arthur (<a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>) up towards the north. This description suggests that the Ishmaelites were a widely dispersed group with a presence across a significant portion of the ancient Near East.<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabs" title="History of the Arabs">History of the Arabs</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Assyrians_pursue_Arabs_on_camelback._Ashurbanipal%2C_North_Palace_of_Nineveh._660-650_BCE.jpg/293px-Assyrians_pursue_Arabs_on_camelback._Ashurbanipal%2C_North_Palace_of_Nineveh._660-650_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Assyrians_pursue_Arabs_on_camelback._Ashurbanipal%2C_North_Palace_of_Nineveh._660-650_BCE.jpg/390px-Assyrians_pursue_Arabs_on_camelback._Ashurbanipal%2C_North_Palace_of_Nineveh._660-650_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="3264" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:191px;max-width:191px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:129px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrian_Relief_depicting_Battle_with_Camel_Rider_from_Kalhu_(Nimrud)_Central_Palace_Tiglath_pileser_III_728_BCE_British_Museum_AG.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Assyrian_Relief_depicting_Battle_with_Camel_Rider_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_Tiglath_pileser_III_728_BCE_British_Museum_AG.jpg/189px-Assyrian_Relief_depicting_Battle_with_Camel_Rider_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_Tiglath_pileser_III_728_BCE_British_Museum_AG.jpg" decoding="async" width="189" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Assyrian_Relief_depicting_Battle_with_Camel_Rider_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_Tiglath_pileser_III_728_BCE_British_Museum_AG.jpg/284px-Assyrian_Relief_depicting_Battle_with_Camel_Rider_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_Tiglath_pileser_III_728_BCE_British_Museum_AG.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Assyrian_Relief_depicting_Battle_with_Camel_Rider_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_Tiglath_pileser_III_728_BCE_British_Museum_AG.jpg/378px-Assyrian_Relief_depicting_Battle_with_Camel_Rider_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_Tiglath_pileser_III_728_BCE_British_Museum_AG.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6917" data-file-height="4753" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Relief from Aššur-bāni-apli's palace depicting Assyrian soldiers pursuing camel-riding Qedarite Arab warriors.</div></div></div></div> The nomads of Arabia have been spreading through the desert fringes of the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> since at least 3000 BCE, but the first known reference to the Arabs as a distinct group is from an Assyrian scribe recording a battle in 853 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> The history of the Arabs during the pre-Islamic period in various regions, including Arabia, Levant, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. The Arabs were mentioned by their neighbors, such as <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> Royal Inscriptions from 9th to 6th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> There are also records from <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon's reign</a> that mention sellers of iron to people called Arabs in Ḫuzaza in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, causing Sargon to prohibit such trade out of fear that the Arabs might use the resource to manufacture weapons against the Assyrian army. The history of the Arabs in relation to the Bible shows that they were a significant part of the region and played a role in the lives of the Israelites. The study asserts that the Arab nation is an ancient and significant entity; however, it highlights that the Arabs lacked a collective awareness of their unity. They did not inscribe their identity as Arabs or assert exclusive ownership over specific territories.<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Midian.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Midian.png/170px-Midian.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Midian.png/255px-Midian.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Midian.png/340px-Midian.png 2x" data-file-width="1716" data-file-height="2522" /></a><figcaption>Map of Midian</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Magan_(civilization)" title="Magan (civilization)">Magan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midian" title="Midian">Midian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/%CA%BF%C4%80d" title="ʿĀd">ʿĀd</a> are all ancient tribes or civilizations that are mentioned in Arabic literature and have roots in the Arabia. Magan (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: مِجَانُ, Majan), known for its production of copper and other metals, the region was an important trading center in ancient times and is mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qur'an</a> as a place where <a href="/wiki/Moses_in_Islam" title="Moses in Islam">Musa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>) traveled during his lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-The_Archeology_Fund-137">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> Midian (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: مَدْيَن, Madyan), on the other hand, was a region located in the northwestern part of the Arabia, the people of Midian are <a href="/wiki/List_of_characters_and_names_mentioned_in_the_Quran" title="List of characters and names mentioned in the Quran">mentioned in the Qur'an</a> as having worshiped idols and having been punished by God for their disobedience.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> also lived in Midian for a time, where he married and worked as a shepherd. ʿĀd (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: عَادَ, ʿĀd), as mentioned earlier, was an ancient tribe that lived in the southern Arabia, the tribe was known for its wealth, power, and advanced technology, but they were ultimately destroyed by a powerful windstorm as punishment for their disobedience to <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">God</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brill1-141">[139]</a> ʿĀd is regarded as one of the original Arab tribes.<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brill8-143">[141]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> provided extensive information about Arabia, describing the <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">terrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clothing" title="Clothing">clothing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">weapons</a> of the Arabs. In his third book, he mentioned the Arabs as a force to be reckoned with in the north of the Arabian Peninsula just before <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses</a>' campaign against Egypt. Other Greek and Latin authors who wrote about Arabia include <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>. The Jewish historian <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a> wrote about the Arabs and their king, mentioning their relationship with <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a>, the queen of Egypt. The tribute paid by the Arab king to Cleopatra was collected by <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod</a>, the king of the Jews, but the Arab king later became slow in his payments and refused to pay without further deductions.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/Geshem_the_Arabian" title="Geshem the Arabian">Geshem the Arab</a> was an Arab man who opposed <a href="/wiki/Nehemiah" title="Nehemiah">Nehemiah</a> in the Hebrew Bible (<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Nehemiah" title="Book of Nehemiah">Neh</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nehemiah_2:19" class="mw-redirect" title="Nehemiah 2:19">2:19</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nehemiah_6:1" class="mw-redirect" title="Nehemiah 6:1">6:1</a>). He was likely the chief of the Arab tribe "Gushamu" and have been a powerful ruler with influence stretching from northern Arabia to Judah. The Arabs and the <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a> made efforts to hinder Nehemiah's rebuilding of the <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Jerusalem" title="Walls of Jerusalem">walls of Jerusalem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_-_Arabia_Petraea_(125_AD).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Roman_Empire_-_Arabia_Petraea_%28125_AD%29.svg/220px-Roman_Empire_-_Arabia_Petraea_%28125_AD%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Roman_Empire_-_Arabia_Petraea_%28125_AD%29.svg/330px-Roman_Empire_-_Arabia_Petraea_%28125_AD%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Roman_Empire_-_Arabia_Petraea_%28125_AD%29.svg/440px-Roman_Empire_-_Arabia_Petraea_%28125_AD%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2186" data-file-height="1817" /></a><figcaption>Arabia Petraea or simply Arabia existed from the 2nd century onwards. Including regions in Jordan, Palestine, the Sinai Peninsula, and the northwestern Arabian Peninsula</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Khazneh_(The_Treasury),_Petra,_Jordan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Al-Khazneh_%28The_Treasury%29%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg/220px-Al-Khazneh_%28The_Treasury%29%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Al-Khazneh_%28The_Treasury%29%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg/330px-Al-Khazneh_%28The_Treasury%29%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Al-Khazneh_%28The_Treasury%29%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg/440px-Al-Khazneh_%28The_Treasury%29%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Al-Khazneh" title="Al-Khazneh">Al-Khazneh</a> in <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>, capital of the <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</a>, built as a mausoleum to Nabataean King <a href="/wiki/Aretas_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Aretas IV">Aretas IV</a> in the first century AD</figcaption></figure> The term "<a href="/wiki/Saracens" class="mw-redirect" title="Saracens">Saracens</a>" was a term used in the early centuries, both in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> writings, to refer to the "Arabs" who lived in and near what was designated by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> as <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a> (Levant) and <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Deserta" title="Arabia Deserta">Arabia Deserta</a> (Arabia).<a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lionheart-149">[147]</a> The Christians of <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a> used the term <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moor</a> to describe all the Arabs and Muslims of that time. Arabs of Medina referred to the nomadic tribes of the deserts as the A'raab, and considered themselves sedentary, but were aware of their close racial bonds. <a href="/wiki/Hagarenes" title="Hagarenes">Hagarenes</a> is a term widely used by early <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> to describe the early Arab conquerors of Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, refers to the descendants of Hagar, who bore a son named Ishmael to Abraham in the Old Testament. In the Bible, the Hagarenes referred to as "Ishmaelites" or "Arabs."<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquests">Arab conquests</a> in the 7th century was a sudden and dramatic conquest led by Arab armies, which quickly conquered much of the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. It was a significant moment for <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, which saw itself as the successor of Judaism and Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Pre-Islamic Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerrha" title="Gerrha">Gerrha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thamud" title="Thamud">Thamud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qedarites" title="Qedarites">Qedarites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lihyan" title="Lihyan">Lihyan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Receipt_for_garnments_sent_by_boat_to_Dilmun_BM_130462.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Receipt_for_garnments_sent_by_boat_to_Dilmun_BM_130462.jpg/170px-Receipt_for_garnments_sent_by_boat_to_Dilmun_BM_130462.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Receipt_for_garnments_sent_by_boat_to_Dilmun_BM_130462.jpg/255px-Receipt_for_garnments_sent_by_boat_to_Dilmun_BM_130462.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Receipt_for_garnments_sent_by_boat_to_Dilmun_BM_130462.jpg/340px-Receipt_for_garnments_sent_by_boat_to_Dilmun_BM_130462.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2343" data-file-height="2807" /></a><figcaption>Receipt for garments sent by boat to Dilmun in the 1st year of <a href="/wiki/Ibbi-Sin" title="Ibbi-Sin">Ibbi-Sin</a>'s rule, circa 2028 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a></figcaption></figure> Limited local historical coverage of these civilizations means that archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and Arab oral traditions are largely relied on to reconstruct this period. Prominent civilizations at the time included, <a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a> civilization was an important trading centre<a href="#cite_note-hoj-154">[152]</a> which at the height of its power controlled the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Arabian Gulf</a> trading routes.<a href="#cite_note-hoj-154">[152]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a> regarded Dilmun as <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">holy land</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-uns-157">[155]</a> which arose around the 4th millennium BCE and lasted to 538 BCE. <a href="/wiki/Gerrha" title="Gerrha">Gerrha</a> was an ancient city of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a>, on the west side of the Gulf, Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa CE 300. <a href="/wiki/Thamud" title="Thamud">Thamud</a>, which arose around the 1st millennium BCE and lasted to about 300 CE. From the beginning of the first millennium BCE, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a>, texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence. The earliest are written in variants of <a href="/wiki/Epigraph_(literature)" title="Epigraph (literature)">epigraphic</a> south Arabian <a href="/wiki/South_Arabian_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="South Arabian alphabet">musnad</a> script, including the 8th century BCE <a href="/wiki/Al-Ahsa_Oasis" title="Al-Ahsa Oasis">Hasaean</a> inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, the <a href="/wiki/Thamudic" title="Thamudic">Thamudic</a> texts found throughout the Arabian Peninsula and <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qedarites_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Qedarites_Map.svg/220px-Qedarites_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Qedarites_Map.svg/330px-Qedarites_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Qedarites_Map.svg/440px-Qedarites_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1828" data-file-height="1141" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Qedarite Kingdom in the 5th century B.C</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Qedarites" title="Qedarites">Qedarites</a> were a largely <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> ancient Arab tribal confederation centred in the <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Sirhan" title="Wadi Sirhan">Wādī Sirḥān</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a>. They were known for their <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> lifestyle and for their role in the caravan trade that linked the Arabian Peninsula with the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> world. The Qedarites gradually expanded their territory over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, and by the 6th century BCE, they had consolidated into a kingdom that covered a large area in northern Arabia, southern Palestine, and the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>. The Qedarites were influential in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>, and their kingdom played a significant role in the political and economic affairs of the region for several centuries.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Queen_of_Sheba0027.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Queen_of_Sheba0027.jpg/220px-Queen_of_Sheba0027.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Queen_of_Sheba0027.jpg/330px-Queen_of_Sheba0027.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Queen_of_Sheba0027.jpg 2x" data-file-width="417" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The Queen of Sheba</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sheba" title="Sheba">Sheba</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: سَبَأٌ Saba) is kingdom mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>, though Sabaean was a South Arabian languaged and not an Arabic one. Sheba features in <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Muslim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian">Christian</a> traditions, whose lineage goes back to <a href="/wiki/Qahtanite" title="Qahtanite">Qahtan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ben" title="Ben">son of</a> <a href="/wiki/Hud_(prophet)" title="Hud (prophet)">Hud</a>, one of the ancestors of the Arabs,<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-qref|27|6-93|b=y-160">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-qref|34|15-18|b=y-161">[159]</a> Sheba was mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions and in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> writers.<a href="#cite_note-British_Museum_–_The_kingdoms_of_ancient_South_Arabia-162">[160]</a> One of the ancient written references that also spoke of Sheba is the Old Testament, which stated that the people of Sheba supplied Syria and Egypt with incense, especially frankincense, and exported gold and precious stones to them.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dhamar_Ali_Yahbur_(bust).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Dhamar_Ali_Yahbur_%28bust%29.jpg/170px-Dhamar_Ali_Yahbur_%28bust%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Dhamar_Ali_Yahbur_%28bust%29.jpg/255px-Dhamar_Ali_Yahbur_%28bust%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Dhamar_Ali_Yahbur_%28bust%29.jpg/340px-Dhamar_Ali_Yahbur_%28bust%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A bronze statue of Dhamar Ali Yahbur II, a <a href="/wiki/Himyarite" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite">Himyarite</a> king who reigned in late 3rd or early 4th century CE. Displayed in the <a href="/wiki/Sana%27a_National_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Sana'a National Museum">Sana'a National Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaeans">Sabaeans</a> are mentioned several times in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Brannon2002-164">[162]</a> they are described as either Sabaʾ (سَبَأ, not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Sabians" title="Sabians">Ṣābiʾ</a>, صَابِئ),<a href="#cite_note-qref|27|6-93|b=y-160">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-qref|34|15-18|b=y-161">[159]</a> or as Qawm <a href="/wiki/Tubba%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubba'">Tubbaʿ</a> (Arabic: قَوْم تُبَّع, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'People of Tubbaʿ').<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> They were known for their prosperous trade and agricultural economy, which was based on the cultivation of frankincense and myrrh. These highly valued aromatic resins were exported to Egypt, Greece, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a>, making the Sabaeans wealthy and powerful, they also traded in spices, textiles, and other luxury goods. The <a href="/wiki/Marib_Dam" title="Marib Dam">Maʾrib Dam</a> was one of the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world, and it provided water for the city of <a href="/wiki/Marib" title="Marib">Maʾrib</a> and the surrounding agricultural lands.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kitchen-168">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-British_Museum_–_The_kingdoms_of_ancient_South_Arabia-162">[160]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lihyan" title="Lihyan">Lihyan</a> also called Dadān or Dedan was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> and used <a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a> language.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_Lihyan2-169">[167]</a> The Lihyanites were known for their advanced organization and governance, and they played a significant role in the cultural and economic life of the region. The kingdom was centered around the city of Dedan (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Al-%27Ula" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-'Ula">Al Ula</a>), and it controlled a large territory that extended from <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Yathrib</a> in the south to parts of the Levant in the north.<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-Britannica_Lihyan2-169">[167]</a> The Arab genealogies consider the Banu Lihyan to be <a href="/wiki/Ishmaelites" title="Ishmaelites">Ishmaelites</a>, and used <a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a> language.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Minaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Minaeans">Kingdom of Ma'in</a> was an ancient Arab kingdom with a hereditary monarchy system and a focus on <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> Proposed dates range from the 15th century BCE to the 1st century CE Its history has been recorded through inscriptions and classical Greek and Roman books, although the exact start and end dates of the kingdom are still debated. The Ma'in people had a local governance system with councils called "Mazood," and each city had its own temple that housed one or more gods. They also adopted the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a> and used it to write their language. The kingdom eventually fell to the <a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaeans">Arab Sabaean</a> people.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qataban_lion_bronze.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Qataban_lion_bronze.jpg/220px-Qataban_lion_bronze.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Qataban_lion_bronze.jpg/330px-Qataban_lion_bronze.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Qataban_lion_bronze.jpg/440px-Qataban_lion_bronze.jpg 2x" data-file-width="589" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>Hellenistic-style Qatabānian sculpture depicting the Moon as a baby boy riding a lion representing the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Beek1997-175">[173]</a></figcaption></figure>Qataban was an ancient kingdom located in the <a href="/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">South Arabia</a>, which existed from the early 1st millennium BCE till the late 1st or 2nd centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2009578-176">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2009578-176">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchen2001123-177">[175]</a> It developed into a centralized state in the 6th century BCE with two co-kings ruling poles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2009578-176">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyland200248-178">[176]</a> Qataban expanded its territory, including the conquest of Ma'in and successful campaigns against the Sabaeans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchen2001123-177">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Beek1997-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiettecatte2017-179">[177]</a> It challenged the supremacy of the Sabaeans in the region and waged a successful war against Hadramawt in the 3rd century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Beek1997-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyland200246-180">[178]</a> Qataban's power declined in the following centuries, leading to its annexation by Hadramawt and <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Ḥimyar</a> in the 1st century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyland200242-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchen2001123-177">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Beek1997-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2009578-176">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyland200247-182">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Beek1997-175">[173]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hadhramaut" title="Kingdom of Hadhramaut">Kingdom of Hadhramaut</a> it was known for its rich <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">cultural heritage</a>, as well as its strategic location along important <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade routes</a> that connected the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> The Kingdom was established around the 3rd century BCE, and it reached its peak during the 2nd century CE, when it controlled much of the southern Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom was known for its impressive <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, particularly its distinctive towers, which were used as watchtowers, defensive structures, and homes for wealthy families.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> The people of Hadhramaut were skilled in agriculture, especially in growing frankincense and myrrh. They had a strong maritime culture and traded with India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> Although the kingdom declined in the 4th century, Hadhramaut remained a cultural and economic center. Its legacy can still be seen today.<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg/220px-HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg/330px-HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg/440px-HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1698" data-file-height="1670" /></a><figcaption>1st century coin of the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite">Himyarite</a> Kingdom, southern coast of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a>.</figcaption></figure> The ancient <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Awsan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Awsan">Kingdom of Awsān</a> (8th–7th century BCE) was indeed one of the most important small kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">South Arabia</a>, and its capital Ḥajar Yaḥirr was a significant center of trade and commerce in the ancient world. The destruction of the city in the 7th century BCE by the king and Mukarrib of Saba' Karab El Watar is a significant event in the history of South Arabia. The victory of the Sabaeans over Awsān is also a testament to the military might and strategic prowess of the Sabaeans, who were one of the most powerful and influential kingdoms in the region.<a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyarite Kingdom</a> or Himyar, was an ancient kingdom that existed from around the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE. It was centered in the <a href="/wiki/Zafar,_Yemen" title="Zafar, Yemen">city of Zafar</a>, which is located in present-day Yemen. The Himyarites were an Arab people who spoke a <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old South Arabian">South Arabian language</a> and were known for their prowess in trade and seafaring,<a href="#cite_note-CP1-188">[186]</a> they controlled the <a href="/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">southern part of Arabia</a> and had a prosperous economy based on agriculture, commerce, and maritime trade, they were skilled in irrigation and terracing, which allowed them to cultivate crops in the arid environment. The Himyarites converted to <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> in the 4th century CE, and their rulers became known as the "Kings of the Jews", this conversion was likely influenced by their trade connections with the Jewish communities of the Red Sea region and the Levant, however, the Himyarites also tolerated other religions, including <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and the local pagan religions.<a href="#cite_note-CP1-188">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Itureans" class="mw-redirect" title="Itureans">Itureans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hatra" title="Kingdom of Hatra">Kingdom of Hatra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arbayistan" title="Arbayistan">Arbayistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emesene_dynasty" title="Emesene dynasty">Emesene dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:174px;max-width:174px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Nabatean_Kingdom.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nabatean_Kingdom.svg/170px-Nabatean_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nabatean_Kingdom.svg/255px-Nabatean_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nabatean_Kingdom.svg/340px-Nabatean_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="167" data-file-height="126" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyrene_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Pavarotti" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Palmyrene_Empire.png/170px-Palmyrene_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Palmyrene_Empire.png/255px-Palmyrene_Empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Palmyrene_Empire.png/340px-Palmyrene_Empire.png 2x" data-file-width="1661" data-file-height="1414" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Nabataean Kingdom spanned from southern Jordan to Damascus, including the Tihamah coastal plain and Hejaz region. (above) and Palmyrene Empire extended from Ancyra, central Anatolia, to Upper Egypt. (below)</div></div></div></div> The <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a> were nomadic Arabs who settled in a territory centred around their capital of Petra in what is now Jordan.<a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-190">[188]</a> Their early inscriptions were in <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>, but gradually switched to Arabic, and since they had writing, it was they who made the first inscriptions in Arabic. The <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean alphabet">Nabataean alphabet</a> was adopted by Arabs to the south, and evolved into modern Arabic script around the 4th century. This is attested by <a href="/wiki/Safaitic" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a> inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BCE) and the many Arabic personal names in <a href="/wiki/Nabataean" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean">Nabataean</a> inscriptions. From about the 2nd century BCE, a few inscriptions from <a href="/wiki/Qaryat_al-Faw" title="Qaryat al-Faw">Qaryat al-Faw</a> reveal a dialect no longer considered proto-Arabic, but pre-classical Arabic. Five <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> inscriptions mentioning Arabs have been found at <a href="/wiki/Sumatar_Harabesi" title="Sumatar Harabesi">Sumatar Harabesi</a>, one of which dates to the 2nd century CE.<a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:150px;max-width:150px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:150px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_(obverse).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png/148px-Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png" decoding="async" width="148" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png/222px-Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png/296px-Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="406" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Queen <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 240 – c. 274 CE) was a third-century queen of the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>. One of several ancient female rulers in antiquity of Arab origin.</div></div></div></div></div> Arabs are first recorded in <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> in the late first millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-193">[191]</a> The soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">sheikh</a> Zabdibel, who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia (217 BCE), were described as Arabs; Zabdibel and his men were not actually identified as Palmyrenes in the texts, but the name "Zabdibel" is a Palmyrene name leading to the conclusion that the sheikh hailed from Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA359_359]-194">[192]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa</a> in 260 CE. Valerian's capture by the Sassanian king <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> was a significant blow to Rome, and it left the empire vulnerable to further attacks. <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a> was able to capture most of the Near East, including Egypt and parts of Asia Minor. However, their empire was short-lived, as <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> was able to defeat the Palmyrenes and recover the lost territories. The Palmyrenes were helped by their Arab allies, but Aurelian was also able to leverage his own alliances to defeat Zenobia and her army. Ultimately, the Palmyrene Empire lasted only a few years, but it had a significant impact on the history of the Roman Empire and the Near East. Most scholars identify the <a href="/wiki/Iturea" title="Iturea">Itureans</a> as an Arab people who inhabited the region of Iturea,<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> emerged as a prominent power in the region after the decline of the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BCE, from their base around <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon" title="Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Beqaa_Valley" title="Beqaa Valley">Beqaa Valley</a>, they came to dominate vast stretches of <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syrian territory</a>,<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a> and appear to have penetrated into northern parts of <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> as far as the <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Berndt_Schaller_14922-85">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a> were an <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia" title="Tribes of Arabia">Arab tribal confederation</a> that lived in the central and eastern Arabian Peninsula during the late ancient and early medieval periods. As mentioned earlier, they were a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Rabi%27a_ibn_Nizar" title="Rabi'a ibn Nizar">Rabi'ah tribe</a>, which was one of the largest Arab tribes in the pre-Islamic period. They were known for their military prowess and played a significant role in the early Islamic period, fighting in battles against the Byzantine and Sassanian empires and contributing to the expansion of the Arab empire.<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png/220px-Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png/330px-Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png/440px-Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png 2x" data-file-width="1775" data-file-height="1606" /></a><figcaption>Map of the kingdoms of Osroene, Hatra, and Adiabene in Mesopotamia in 200 CE</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene Arabs</a>, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Abgarid_dynasty" title="Abgarid dynasty">Abgarids</a>,<a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> were in possession of the city of <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a> for a significant period of time. Edessa was located in the region of Osroene, which was an ancient kingdom that existed from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. They established a dynasty known as the Abgarids, which ruled Edessa for several centuries. The most famous ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Abgarid_dynasty" title="Abgarid dynasty">dynasty</a> was <a href="/wiki/Abgar_V" title="Abgar V">Abgar V</a>, who is said to have corresponded with <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus Christ</a> and is believed to have converted to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> The Abgarids played an important role in the early history of Christianity in the region, and Edessa became a center of Christian learning and <a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">scholarship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hatra" title="Kingdom of Hatra">Kingdom of Hatra</a> was an ancient city located in the region of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, it was founded in the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and flourished as a major center of trade and culture during the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>. The rulers of Hatra were known as the Arsacid dynasty, which was a branch of the Parthian ruling family. However, in the 2nd century CE, the Arab tribe of <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanukhids">Banu Tanukh</a> seized control of <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a> and established their own dynasty. The Arab rulers of Hatra assumed the title of "malka," which means king in Arabic, and they often referred to themselves as the "King of the Arabs."<a href="#cite_note-Hatra_and_the_Parthian_Commonwealth-206">[204]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KingdomOfEmesa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/KingdomOfEmesa.png/170px-KingdomOfEmesa.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/KingdomOfEmesa.png/255px-KingdomOfEmesa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/KingdomOfEmesa.png/340px-KingdomOfEmesa.png 2x" data-file-width="1334" data-file-height="1614" /></a><figcaption>The Kingdom of Emesa</figcaption></figure> The Osroeni and Hatrans were part of several Arab groups or communities in upper Mesopotamia, which also included the Arabs of <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> which was an ancient <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">kingdom</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, its chief city was <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Arbela</a> (Arba-ilu), where Mar Uqba had a school, or the neighboring Hazzah, by which name the later Arabs also called Arbela.<a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia201654-208">[206]</a> This Arab presence in upper Mesopotamia was acknowledged by the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dynasty" title="Sasanian dynasty">Sasanians</a>, who called the region <a href="/wiki/Arbayistan" title="Arbayistan">Arbayistan</a>, meaning "land of the Arabs", is first attested as a province in the <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I%27s_inscription_at_the_Ka%27ba-ye_Zartosht" title="Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht">Ka'ba-ye Zartosht inscription</a> of the second Sasanian <a href="/wiki/King_of_Kings" title="King of Kings">King of Kings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 240–270),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983b750-209">[207]</a> which was erected in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 262.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERapp201428-210">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-oxfordreference.com2-88">[86]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Emesene_dynasty" title="Emesene dynasty">Emesene</a> were a dynasty of Arab priest-kings that ruled the city of <a href="/wiki/Emesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Emesa">Emesa</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a>, Syria) in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman province of Syria</a> from the 1st century CE to the 3rd century CE. The dynasty is notable for producing a number of high priests of the god <a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">El-Gabal</a>, who were also influential in <a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Roman politics</a> and culture. The first ruler of the Emesene dynasty was <a href="/wiki/Sampsiceramus_I" title="Sampsiceramus I">Sampsiceramus I</a>, who came to power in 64 CE. He was succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a>, who was followed by his own son, <a href="/wiki/Sampsiceramus_II" title="Sampsiceramus II">Sampsiceramus II</a>. Under Sampsiceramus II, Emesa became a client kingdom of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, and the dynasty became more closely tied to Roman political and cultural traditions.<a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Late_antiquity">Late antiquity</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salihids" title="Salihids">Salihids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid_kingdom" title="Lakhmid kingdom">Lakhmid kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kinda" title="Kingdom of Kinda">Kingdom of Kinda</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright" style="background-color:white"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:472px;max-width:472px;background-color:white"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:164px;max-width:164px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:92px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg/162px-Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="162" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg/243px-Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg/324px-Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="295" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Map of the <a href="/wiki/Ghassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghassanid">Ghassanid</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:151px;max-width:151px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:92px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Salihids_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Salihids_Map.svg/149px-Salihids_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="149" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Salihids_Map.svg/224px-Salihids_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Salihids_Map.svg/298px-Salihids_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="306" data-file-height="190" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Map of <a href="/wiki/Salihids" title="Salihids">Salihids</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:151px;max-width:151px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:92px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Tanukh_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Tanukh_Map.svg/149px-Tanukh_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="149" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Tanukh_Map.svg/224px-Tanukh_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Tanukh_Map.svg/298px-Tanukh_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1410" data-file-height="879" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Map of the <a href="/wiki/Tanukhid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanukhid">Tanukhid</a></div></div></div></div></div>The <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kindites" class="mw-redirect" title="Kindites">Kindites</a> were the last major migration of pre-Islamic Arabs out of Yemen to the north. The Ghassanids increased the Semitic presence in then-Hellenized <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Byzantine_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Byzantine province)">Syria</a>, the majority of Semites were Aramaic peoples. They mainly settled in the <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a> region and spread to modern <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestine" title="Palestine">Palestine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>. Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Romans called Yemen "<a href="/wiki/Arabia_Felix" title="Arabia Felix">Arabia Felix</a>".<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a>, after the city of <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Magna" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia Magna">Arabia Magna</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lakhmid.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Lakhmid.png/170px-Lakhmid.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Lakhmid.png/255px-Lakhmid.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Lakhmid.png/340px-Lakhmid.png 2x" data-file-width="1125" data-file-height="1375" /></a><figcaption>Lakhmid kingdom</figcaption></figure>The <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a> as a dynasty inherited their power from the <a href="/wiki/Tanukh" title="Tanukh">Tanukhids</a>, the mid Tigris region around their capital <a href="/wiki/Al-Hira" title="Al-Hira">Al-Hira</a>. They ended up allying with the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanids</a> against the Ghassanids and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. The Lakhmids contested control of the Central Arabian tribes with the Kindites with the Lakhmids eventually destroying the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kinda" title="Kingdom of Kinda">Kingdom of Kinda</a> in 540 after the fall of their main ally <a href="/wiki/Himyar" title="Himyar">Himyar</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid dynasty in 602, being under puppet kings, then under their direct control.<a href="#cite_note-213">[211]</a> The Kindites migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in Bahrain by the Abdul Qais <a href="/wiki/Rabi%60ah" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabi`ah">Rabi'a</a> tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from "Qaryah Dhat Kahl" (the present-day called Qaryat al-Faw). They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula, until they were destroyed by the Lakhmid king <a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_III_ibn_al-Nu%27man" title="Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man">Al-Mundhir</a>, and his son <a href="/wiki/%27Amr_III_ibn_al-Mundhir" class="mw-redirect" title="'Amr III ibn al-Mundhir">'Amr</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a> were an Arab tribe in the Levant in the early third century. According to Arab genealogical tradition, they were considered a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Azd" title="Azd">Azd tribe</a>. They fought alongside the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanians</a> and Arab Lakhmids. Most Ghassanids were Christians, converting to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> in the first few centuries, and some merged with Hellenized Christian communities. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, few Ghassanids became Muslims, and most remained Christian and joined Melkite and Syriac communities within what is now Jordan, Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-214">[212]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Salihids" title="Salihids">Salihids</a> were Arab foederati in the 5th century, were ardent Christians, and their period is less documented than the preceding and succeeding periods due to a scarcity of sources. Most references to the Salihids in Arabic sources derive from the work of <a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_al-Kalbi" title="Hisham ibn al-Kalbi">Hisham ibn al-Kalbi</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Tarikh_al-Yaqubi" title="Tarikh al-Yaqubi">Tarikh of Ya'qubi</a> considered valuable for determining the Salihids' fall and the terms of their foedus with the Byzantines.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquests">Arab conquests</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg/290px-The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg/435px-The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg/580px-The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="943" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption>The early Arab conquests by reign</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, Arab civilization flourished and the Arabs made significant contributions to the fields of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, with the rise of great cities like <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Cordoba</a>, they became centers of learning, attracting scholars, scientists, and intellectuals.<a href="#cite_note-Wenner_1980_59–79-216">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-A_Golden_age_of_Arab_culture-217">[215]</a> Arabs forged many empires and dynasties, most notably, the Rashidun Empire, the Umayyad Empire, the Abbasid Empire, the Fatimid Empire, among others. These empires were characterized by their expansion, scientific achievements, and cultural flourishing, extended from <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> to India.<a href="#cite_note-Wenner_1980_59–79-216">[214]</a> The region was vibrant and dynamic during the Middle Ages and left a lasting impact on the world.<a href="#cite_note-A_Golden_age_of_Arab_culture-217">[215]</a><div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_euojgq1fmnfughy0hh2m3vgw7t439t0"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" coords="695,20,787,40" title="Muawiyah I" alt="Muawiyah I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" coords="594,20,725,40" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib" alt="Ali ibn Abi Talib" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" coords="458,20,583,40" title="Uthman ibn Affan" alt="Uthman ibn Affan" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_al%2DKhattab" coords="269,20,411,40" title="Umar ibn al-Khattab" alt="Umar ibn al-Khattab" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" coords="202,20,282,40" title="Abu Bakr" alt="Abu Bakr" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muhammad" coords="104,20,184,40" title="Muhammad" alt="Muhammad" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_euojgq1fmnfughy0hh2m3vgw7t439t0" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/euojgq1fmnfughy0hh2m3vgw7t439t0.png" /></div>The <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">rise of Islam</a> began when <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> and his followers migrated from <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> to <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> in an event known as the <a href="/wiki/Hijrah" title="Hijrah">Hijra</a>. Muhammad spent the last ten years of his life engaged in a series of battles to establish and expand the Muslim community. From 622 to 632, he led the Muslims in a state of war against the Meccans.<a href="#cite_note-Collins142-218">[216]</a> During this period, the Arabs conquered the region of <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, and under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a>, they established a base and built a mosque there. Another conquest was <a href="/wiki/Midian" title="Midian">Midian</a>, but due to its harsh environment, the settlers eventually moved to <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>. Umar successfully defeated rebellions by various Arab tribes, bringing stability to the entire Arabian peninsula and unifying it. Under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a>, the Arab empire expanded through the <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of Persia">conquest of Persia</a>, with the capture of Fars in 650 and parts of <a href="/wiki/Khorasan_province" title="Khorasan province">Khorasan</a> in 651.<a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe4212-219">[217]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of armenia">conquest of Armenia</a> also began in the 640s. During this time, the Rashidun Empire extended its rule over the entire <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> and more than two-thirds of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>. However, the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a>, the fourth caliph, was marred by the <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a>, or the First Islamic Civil War, which lasted throughout his rule. After a peace treaty with <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Hassan ibn Ali</a> and the suppression of early <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijite</a> disturbances, <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Muawiyah I</a> became the Caliph.<a href="#cite_note-Brown15-220">[218]</a> This marked a significant transition in leadership.<a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe4212-219">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-Collins376-221">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arab_empires">Arab empires</h4></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Rashidun_era_(632–661)">Rashidun era (632–661)</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saqifa" title="Saqifa">Saqifa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Election_of_Uthman" title="Election of Uthman">Election of Uthman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Uthman" title="Assassination of Uthman">Assassination of Uthman</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Arab conquest of Egypt">Arab conquest of Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a></div> After the death of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> in 632, <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">Rashidun armies</a> launched campaigns of conquest, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>, or Islamic Empire, one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empires in history</a>. It was larger and lasted longer than the previous Arab empire <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mavia_(queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mavia (queen)">Queen Mawia</a> or the Arab <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a>. The Rashidun state was a completely new state and unlike the Arab kingdoms of its century such as the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite">Himyarite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a>. During the Rashidun era, the Arab community expanded rapidly, conquering many territories and establishing a vast Arab empire, which is marked by the reign of the first four caliphs, or leaders, of the Arab community.<a href="#cite_note-Understanding_Islam:_The_First_Ten_Steps-222">[220]</a> These caliphs are <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a>, who are collectively known as the Rashidun, meaning "rightly guided." The Rashidun era is significant in Arab and Islamic history as it marks the beginning of the Arab empire and the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">spread of Islam</a> beyond the Arabian Peninsula. During this time, the Arab community faced numerous challenges, including internal divisions and external threats from neighboring empires.<a href="#cite_note-Understanding_Islam:_The_First_Ten_Steps-222">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-Triana_159-223">[221]</a> Under the leadership of Abu Bakr, the Arab community successfully quelled a <a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">rebellion</a> by some tribes who refused to pay <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a>, or Islamic charity. During the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Arab empire expanded significantly, conquering territories such as Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. The reign of Uthman ibn Affan was marked by internal dissent and rebellion, which ultimately led to his assassination. Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, succeeded Uthman as caliph but faced opposition from some members of the Islamic community who believed he was not rightfully appointed.<a href="#cite_note-Understanding_Islam:_The_First_Ten_Steps-222">[220]</a> Despite these challenges, the Rashidun era is remembered as a time of great progress and achievement in Arab and Islamic history. The caliphs established a system of governance that emphasized <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> and equality for all members of the Islamic community. They also oversaw the compilation of the Quran into a single text and spread Arabic teachings and principles throughout the empire. Overall, the Rashidun era played a crucial role in shaping Arab history and continues to be revered by Muslims worldwide as a period of exemplary leadership and guidance.<a href="#cite_note-224">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Umayyad_era_(661–750_and_756–1031)">Umayyad era (661–750 and 756–1031)</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of armenia">Arab conquest of armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of the Maghreb">Arab conquest of the Maghreb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Spain">Muslim conquest of Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Transoxiana" title="Muslim conquest of Transoxiana">Muslim conquest of Transoxiana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_campaigns_in_India" title="Umayyad campaigns in India">Umayyad campaigns in India</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Abbadid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbadid">Abbadid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">Taifa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty_(Sistan)" title="Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)">Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengid dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a></div> In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate fell into the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Umayya" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Umayya">Umayyad dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> was established as the empire's capital. The Umayyads were proud of their Arab identity and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia. They established garrison towns at <a href="/wiki/Ramla" title="Ramla">Ramla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a>, all of which developed into major cities.<a href="#cite_note-Lunde-225">[223]</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik</a> established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686.<a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> Caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar II">Umar II</a> strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a> came to power and moved the capital to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg/220px-La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg/330px-La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg/440px-La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3052" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Còrdova</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a>. Receiving the Ambassador by <a href="/wiki/Dionisio_Baixeras_Verdaguer" title="Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer">Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer</a> 1885 CE.</figcaption></figure> Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people including <a href="/wiki/Punics" class="mw-redirect" title="Punics">Punics</a>, Vandals and Romans. After the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a>, the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia. Their last holding became known as the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate of Córdoba</a>. It was not until the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>. This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> architecture and the library of <a href="/wiki/Al-%E1%B8%A4akam_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ḥakam II">Al-Ḥakam II</a> which housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 CE, <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> was divided into <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">small kingdoms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Abbasid_era_(750–1258_and_1261–1517)">Abbasid era (750–1258 and 1261–1517)</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anarchy_at_Samarra" title="Anarchy at Samarra">Anarchy at Samarra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">Siege of Baghdad (1258)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Mongol invasions of the Levant</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg/220px-Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg/330px-Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg/440px-Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1391" data-file-height="765" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reign" title="Reign">r.</a> 786–809) receiving a delegation sent by <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> at his court in Baghdad.</figcaption></figure> The Abbasids were the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Al-Abbas_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib">Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib</a>, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hashim" title="Banu Hashim">Banu Hashim</a> clan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Zab" title="Battle of the Zab">Battle of the Zab</a> effectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of al-Andalus. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> founded the city of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects.<a href="#cite_note-Lunde-225">[223]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> to the newly founded city of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. The Abbasids were influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quranic</a> injunctions and <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> such as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:001124-MalwiyaMosque-Samerra-IMG_7824-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/001124-MalwiyaMosque-Samerra-IMG_7824-2.jpg/220px-001124-MalwiyaMosque-Samerra-IMG_7824-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/001124-MalwiyaMosque-Samerra-IMG_7824-2.jpg/330px-001124-MalwiyaMosque-Samerra-IMG_7824-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/001124-MalwiyaMosque-Samerra-IMG_7824-2.jpg/440px-001124-MalwiyaMosque-Samerra-IMG_7824-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5400" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption>Malwiyah Mosque, <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samerra</a>, Iraq</figcaption></figure> During this period the Arab Empire became an intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the "<a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a>" in Baghdad. Rival dynasties such as the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid">Fatimids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyads</a> of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> rivaling <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Vartan-228">[226]</a> The Abbasids ruled for 200 years before they lost their central control when <a href="/wiki/Wilayah" title="Wilayah">Wilayas</a> began to fracture in the 10th century; afterwards, in the 1190s, there was a revival of their power, which was ended by the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongols</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">conquered Baghdad</a> in 1258 and killed the Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">Al-Musta'sim</a>. Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk</a> generals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Fatimid_era_(909–1171)">Fatimid era (909–1171)</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_dynasty" title="Fatimid dynasty">Fatimid dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skylitzes_Simeon_sending_envoys_to_the_Fatimids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Skylitzes_Simeon_sending_envoys_to_the_Fatimids.jpg/220px-Skylitzes_Simeon_sending_envoys_to_the_Fatimids.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Skylitzes_Simeon_sending_envoys_to_the_Fatimids.jpg/330px-Skylitzes_Simeon_sending_envoys_to_the_Fatimids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Skylitzes_Simeon_sending_envoys_to_the_Fatimids.jpg/440px-Skylitzes_Simeon_sending_envoys_to_the_Fatimids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>Bulgarian emperor <a href="/wiki/Simeon_I_of_Bulgaria" title="Simeon I of Bulgaria">Simeon</a> (left) sending envoys to Caliph al-Mahdi (right). 12th-century miniature from the <a href="/wiki/Madrid_Skylitzes" title="Madrid Skylitzes">Madrid Skylitzes</a></figcaption></figure> The Fatimid caliphate was founded by <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Mahdi_Billah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah">al-Mahdi Billah</a>, a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Fatimah" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimah">Fatimah</a>, the daughter of Muhammad, the Fatimid Caliphate was a <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> that existed from 909 to 1171 CE. The empire was based in North Africa, with its capital in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, and at its height, it controlled a vast territory that included parts of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>. The Fatimid state took shape among the <a href="/wiki/Kutama" title="Kutama">Kutama</a>, in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conquering <a href="/wiki/Raqqada" title="Raqqada">Raqqada</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aghlabid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabid">Aghlabid</a> capital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city of <a href="/wiki/Mahdia" title="Mahdia">Mahdia</a> as their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital to <a href="/wiki/Mansouria,_Tunisia" title="Mansouria, Tunisia">Al-Mansuriya</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a> in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established Cairo as the capital of their caliphate. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Azhar_mosque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Azhar_mosque.jpg/220px-Azhar_mosque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Azhar_mosque.jpg/330px-Azhar_mosque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Azhar_mosque.jpg/440px-Azhar_mosque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_Mosque" title="Al-Azhar Mosque">Al-Azhar Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo, Egypt</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Cairo" title="Islamic Cairo">historic Islamic core of the city</a>, Cairo was established as the new capital of the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> in 970</figcaption></figure> The Fatimids were known for their religious tolerance and intellectual achievements, they established a network of universities and libraries that became centers of learning in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a>. They also promoted the arts, architecture, and literature, which flourished under their patronage. One of the most notable achievements of the Fatimids was the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_Mosque" title="Al-Azhar Mosque">Al-Azhar Mosque</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar University</a> in Cairo. Founded in 970 CE, it is one of the oldest universities in the world and remains an important center of Islamic learning to this day. The Fatimids also had a significant impact on the development of <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Islamic theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">jurisprudence</a>. They were known for their support of Shia Islam and their promotion of the <a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Ismaili</a> branch of Shia Islam. Despite their many achievements, the Fatimids faced numerous challenges during their reign. They were constantly at war with neighboring empires, including the Abbasid Caliphate and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. They also faced internal conflicts and rebellions, which weakened their empire over time. In 1171 CE, the Fatimid Caliphate was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>. Although the Fatimid dynasty came to an end, its legacy continued to influence Arab-Islamic culture and society for centuries to come.<a href="#cite_note-imamreza.net-229">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Ottoman_era_(1517–1918)">Ottoman era (1517–1918)</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_the_Arab_Revolt" title="Campaigns of the Arab Revolt">Campaigns of the Arab Revolt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Middle Eastern theatre of World War I">Middle Eastern theatre of World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sharif_Hussein_portrait.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sharif_Hussein_portrait.jpeg/220px-Sharif_Hussein_portrait.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sharif_Hussein_portrait.jpeg/330px-Sharif_Hussein_portrait.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Sharif_Hussein_portrait.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="357" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz">Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi</a> (1854–1931) was a prominent Arab leader who served as the <a href="/wiki/Sharifian_Solution" title="Sharifian Solution">Sharif</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sharif_of_Mecca" title="Sharif of Mecca">Emir of Mecca</a> from 1908 until 1917. He was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Hashemites" title="Hashemites">Hashemite dynasty</a>, which claimed descent from <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>.</figcaption></figure> From 1517 to 1918, The Ottomans defeated the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a> in Cairo, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate in the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marj_Dabiq" title="Battle of Marj Dabiq">Marj Dabiq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ridaniya" title="Battle of Ridaniya">Ridaniya</a>. They entered the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and Egypt as conquerors, and brought down the Abbasid caliphate after it lasted for many centuries. In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat ("the <a href="/wiki/Young_Arab_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Arab Society">Young Arab Society</a>"), a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Nationalist_Movement" title="Arab Nationalist Movement">Arab nation</a> to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Congress_of_1913" title="Arab Congress of 1913">Arab Congress of 1913</a> in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world.<a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a> However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.<a href="#cite_note-Choueiri166-231">[229]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MPK1-426_Sykes_Picot_Agreement_Map_signed_8_May_1916.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/MPK1-426_Sykes_Picot_Agreement_Map_signed_8_May_1916.jpg/220px-MPK1-426_Sykes_Picot_Agreement_Map_signed_8_May_1916.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/MPK1-426_Sykes_Picot_Agreement_Map_signed_8_May_1916.jpg/330px-MPK1-426_Sykes_Picot_Agreement_Map_signed_8_May_1916.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/MPK1-426_Sykes_Picot_Agreement_Map_signed_8_May_1916.jpg/440px-MPK1-426_Sykes_Picot_Agreement_Map_signed_8_May_1916.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3322" data-file-height="3225" /></a><figcaption>The region covered by the modus vivendi, as agreed in the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> was a military uprising of Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire during World War I, began in 1916, led by <a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz">Sherif Hussein bin Ali</a>, the goal of the revolt was to gain independence for the Arab lands under Ottoman rule and to create a unified Arab state. The revolt was sparked by a number of factors, including the Arab desire for greater autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, resentment towards Ottoman policies, and the influence of Arab nationalist movements. The Arab Revolt was a significant factor in the eventual <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">defeat of the Ottoman Empire</a>. The revolt helped to weaken Ottoman military power and tie up Ottoman forces that could have been deployed elsewhere. It also helped to increase support for Arab independence and nationalism, which would have a lasting impact on the region in the years to come.<a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a> The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied Powers</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">aftermath of World War I</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot Agreement</a> had a significant impact on the Arab world and its people. The agreement divided the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire into zones of control for France and Britain, ignoring the aspirations of the Arab people for independence and self-determination.<a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Renaissance">Arab Renaissance</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:100px;max-width:100px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:131px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Zahrawi-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Al-Zahrawi-cropped.png/98px-Al-Zahrawi-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="98" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Al-Zahrawi-cropped.png/147px-Al-Zahrawi-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Al-Zahrawi-cropped.png/196px-Al-Zahrawi-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="308" data-file-height="414" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:108px;max-width:108px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:131px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Ibn_Al_Nafis_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Ibn_Al_Nafis_statue.jpg/106px-Ibn_Al_Nafis_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="106" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Ibn_Al_Nafis_statue.jpg/159px-Ibn_Al_Nafis_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Ibn_Al_Nafis_statue.jpg/212px-Ibn_Al_Nafis_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="456" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:128px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Estatua_de_Averroes_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Estatua_de_Averroes_2.JPG/95px-Estatua_de_Averroes_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="95" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Estatua_de_Averroes_2.JPG/143px-Estatua_de_Averroes_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Estatua_de_Averroes_2.JPG/190px-Estatua_de_Averroes_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1779" data-file-height="2394" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:111px;max-width:111px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:128px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Hazan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hazan.png/109px-Hazan.png" decoding="async" width="109" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hazan.png/164px-Hazan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hazan.png/218px-Hazan.png 2x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="289" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:100px;max-width:100px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:145px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Estatua_de_Al-Idrisi_bajo_el_baluarte_de_los_Mallorquines,_Ceuta_(5).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Estatua_de_Al-Idrisi_bajo_el_baluarte_de_los_Mallorquines%2C_Ceuta_%285%29.jpg/98px-Estatua_de_Al-Idrisi_bajo_el_baluarte_de_los_Mallorquines%2C_Ceuta_%285%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Estatua_de_Al-Idrisi_bajo_el_baluarte_de_los_Mallorquines%2C_Ceuta_%285%29.jpg/147px-Estatua_de_Al-Idrisi_bajo_el_baluarte_de_los_Mallorquines%2C_Ceuta_%285%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Estatua_de_Al-Idrisi_bajo_el_baluarte_de_los_Mallorquines%2C_Ceuta_%285%29.jpg/196px-Estatua_de_Al-Idrisi_bajo_el_baluarte_de_los_Mallorquines%2C_Ceuta_%285%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1096" data-file-height="1624" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:108px;max-width:108px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:145px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-kindi.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Al-kindi.jpeg/106px-Al-kindi.jpeg" decoding="async" width="106" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Al-kindi.jpeg 1.5x" data-file-width="143" data-file-height="197" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">From top to bottom and left to right: <a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">al-Zahrawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a></div></div></div></div> The Golden Age of Arab Civilization known as the "<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>", traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-Saliba-235">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-King-236">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-Decline-237">[235]</a> The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">Siege of Baghdad</a> in 1258.<a href="#cite_note-Tahir_Abbas-238">[236]</a> During this time, <a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-modern_Arab_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of pre-modern Arab scientists and scholars">Arab scholars</a> made significant contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. These advancements had a profound impact on European scholars during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[237]</a> The Arabs shared its knowledge and ideas with <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, including translations of Arabic texts.<a href="#cite_note-240">[238]</a> These translations had a significant impact on <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Europe" title="Culture of Europe">culture of Europe</a>, leading to the transformation of many philosophical disciplines in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">medieval Latin world</a>. Additionally, the Arabs made original innovations in various fields, including the arts, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_star_names" title="List of Arabic star names">traditional star names</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Aldebaran" title="Aldebaran">Aldebaran</a>, scientific terms like <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alchemy" class="extiw" title="wikt:alchemy">alchemy</a> (whence also <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chemistry" class="extiw" title="wikt:chemistry">chemistry</a>), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/algebra" class="extiw" title="wikt:algebra">algebra</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/algorithm" class="extiw" title="wikt:algorithm">algorithm</a>, etc. and names of commodities such as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sugar" class="extiw" title="wikt:sugar">sugar</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/camphor" class="extiw" title="wikt:camphor">camphor</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cotton" class="extiw" title="wikt:cotton">cotton</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coffee" class="extiw" title="wikt:coffee">coffee</a>, etc.<a href="#cite_note-241">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[242]</a> From the medieval scholars of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a>, who had focused on studying <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> works of natural sciences, philosophy, and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Arab logician, most notably <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Levant</a>. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Iberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Sicily">Sicily</a>, which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> to <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> were established in Iberia, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Toledo_School_of_Translators" title="Toledo School of Translators">Toledo School of Translators</a>. This work of translation from Arab culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.<a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Renaissance" title="Timurid Renaissance">Timurid Renaissance</a> spanning the late 14th, the 15th, and the early 16th centuries, there was a significant exchange of ideas, art, and knowledge between different cultures and civilizations. Arab scholars, artists, and intellectuals played a role in this cultural exchange, contributing to the overall intellectual atmosphere of the time. They participated in various fields, including literature, art, science, and philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a> In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Renaissance">Arab Renaissance</a> was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged. The term "Nahda" means "awakening" or "renaissance" in Arabic, and refers to a period of renewed interest in Arabic language, literature, and culture.<a href="#cite_note-Sheehi2004-247">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pacini1998-249">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_period">Modern period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Arab_League" title="Charter of the Arab League">Charter of the Arab League</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Maghreb_Union" title="Arab Maghreb Union">Arab Maghreb Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council" title="Gulf Cooperation Council">Gulf Cooperation Council</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">Arab Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_States" title="United Arab States">United Arab States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Federation of Arab Republics">Federation of Arab Republics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Islamic_Republic" title="Arab Islamic Republic">Arab Islamic Republic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Republics_(1972)" title="Union of Arab Republics (1972)">Union of Arab Republics (1972)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arab_League-Map-WS.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Arab_League-Map-WS.PNG/260px-Arab_League-Map-WS.PNG" decoding="async" width="260" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Arab_League-Map-WS.PNG/390px-Arab_League-Map-WS.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Arab_League-Map-WS.PNG/520px-Arab_League-Map-WS.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1427" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>A map of the Arab world, formally the Arab homeland; also known as the Arab nation.</figcaption></figure> The modern period in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabs" title="History of the Arabs">Arab history</a> refers to the time period from the late 19th century to the present day. During this time, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> experienced significant <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">political</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economic</a>, and social changes. One of the most significant events of the modern period was the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the end of Ottoman rule led to the emergence of new <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation-states</a> in the Arab world.<a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a> Sharif Hussein was supposed, in the event of the success of the Arab revolution and the victory of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies in World War I</a>, to be able to establish an independent Arab state consisting of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent, including Iraq and the Levant. He aimed to become "King of the Arabs" in this state, however, the Arab revolution only succeeded in achieving some of its objectives, including the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">independence of the Hejaz</a> and the recognition of Sharif Hussein as its king by the Allies.<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg/220px-Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg/330px-Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg/440px-Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="786" /></a><figcaption>A 1920 photograph of four prominent members of <a href="/wiki/Mahjar" title="Mahjar">The Pen League</a> literal meanings being "the <a href="/wiki/Arab_diaspora" title="Arab diaspora">Arab diaspora</a>"<a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a> predecessors in the Nahda movement (or the "<a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Arab Renaissance</a>"). (From left to right): <a href="/wiki/Nasib_Arida" title="Nasib Arida">Nasib Arida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Kahlil Gibran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Masih_Haddad" title="Abd al-Masih Haddad">Abd al-Masih Haddad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Naimy" title="Mikhail Naimy">Mikhail Naimy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a> emerged as a major movement in the early 20th century, with many Arab intellectuals, artists, and political leaders seeking to promote unity and independence for the Arab world.<a href="#cite_note-Requiem-254">[252]</a> This movement gained momentum after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, leading to the formation of the Arab League and the creation of several new Arab states. <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a> that emerged in the early 20th century and aimed to unite all Arabs into a single <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a> or state. It emphasized on a shared <a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">ancestry, culture, history, language and identity</a> and sought to create a sense of pan-Arab identity and solidarity.<a href="#cite_note-smith-255">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sela151-256">[254]</a> The roots of pan-Arabism can be traced back to the <a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Arab Renaissance</a> or Al-Nahda movement of the late 19th century, which saw a revival of Arab culture, literature, and intellectual thought. The movement emphasized the importance of Arab unity and the need to resist colonialism and foreign domination. One of the key figures in the development of pan-Arabism was the Egyptian statesman and intellectual, <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a>, who led the <a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 revolution</a> in Egypt and became the country's president in 1954. Nasser promoted pan-Arabism as a means of strengthening Arab solidarity and resisting Western imperialism. He also supported the idea of <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a>, which sought to combine pan-Arabism with socialist principles. Similar attempts were made by other <a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_Middle_Eastern_and_North_African_states#Leaders_of_Arab_League_member_states" title="List of leaders of Middle Eastern and North African states">Arab leaders</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faisal I of Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaafar_Nimeiry" title="Gaafar Nimeiry">Gaafar Nimeiry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-257">[255]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Hejaz_(1917).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Revolt" title="Flag of the Arab Revolt">flag</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> is a prominent symbol of Arab nationalism. Its design and <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">colors</a> are the basis of many of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab states">Arab states</a>' <a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_flags" title="List of Arab flags">flags</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">Pan-Arab colors</a> are <a href="/wiki/Black" title="Black">black</a>, <a href="/wiki/White" title="White">white</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">green</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a>. Individually, each of the four Pan-Arab colors were intended to represent a certain aspect of the Arabs and their history.</figcaption></figure> Many proposed unions aimed to create a <a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">unified Arab</a> entity that would promote cooperation and integration among Arab countries. However, the initiatives faced numerous challenges and obstacles, including political divisions, regional conflicts, and economic disparities.<a href="#cite_note-feb1-258">[256]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a> (UAR) was a political union formed between Egypt and Syria in 1958, with the goal of creating a federal structure that would allow each member state to retain its identity and institutions. However, by 1961, Syria had withdrawn from the UAR due to political differences, and Egypt continued to call itself the UAR until 1971, when it became the <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Arab Republic of Egypt</a>. In the same year the UAR was formed, another proposed political union, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a>, was established between <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, but it collapsed after only six months due to tensions with the UAR and the <a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a>. A confederation called the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_States" title="United Arab States">United Arab States</a>, which included the UAR and the <a href="/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen">Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen</a>, was also created in 1958 but dissolved in 1961.<a href="#cite_note-Continuum-259">[257]</a> Later attempts to create a political and economic union among Arab countries included the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Federation of Arab Republics">Federation of Arab Republics</a>, which was formed by Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, and Syria in the 1970s but dissolved after five years due to political and economic challenges. Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, also proposed the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Islamic_Republic" title="Arab Islamic Republic">Arab Islamic Republic</a> with Tunisia, aiming to include <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>,<a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a> instead the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Maghreb_Union" title="Arab Maghreb Union">Arab Maghreb Union</a> was formed in 1989.<a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a> During the latter half of the 20th century, many Arab countries experienced political upheaval and conflicts, including, revolutions. The <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab-Israeli conflict</a> remains a major issue in the region, and has resulted in ongoing tensions and periodic outbreaks of violence. In recent years, the Arab world has faced new challenges, including economic and social inequalities, demographic changes, and the impact of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> was a series of pro-democracy uprisings and protests that swept across several countries in the Arab world in 2010 and 2011. The uprisings were sparked by a combination of political, economic, and social grievances and called for democratic reforms and an end to authoritarian rule. While the protests resulted in the downfall of some long-time authoritarian leaders, they also led to ongoing conflicts and political instability in other countries.<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Identity">Identity</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">Arab identity</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:168px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:PLATE8DX_foruth_sixth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Costumes of Arab men, fourth to sixth century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/PLATE8DX_foruth_sixth.jpg/152px-PLATE8DX_foruth_sixth.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/PLATE8DX_foruth_sixth.jpg/228px-PLATE8DX_foruth_sixth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/PLATE8DX_foruth_sixth.jpg/304px-PLATE8DX_foruth_sixth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="403" data-file-height="502" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:168px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:PLATE8CX.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Costumes of Arab women, fourth to sixth century." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/PLATE8CX.jpg/152px-PLATE8CX.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/PLATE8CX.jpg/228px-PLATE8CX.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/PLATE8CX.jpg/304px-PLATE8CX.jpg 2x" data-file-width="409" data-file-height="466" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Artistic rendering of pre-Islamic costumes of Arab men and Arab women between fourth to sixth century</div></div></div></div> Arab identity is defined independently of <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> identity, and pre-dates the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">spread of Islam</a>, with historically attested <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christian</a> kingdoms and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Arab Jewish tribes</a>. Today, however, most Arabs are Muslim, with a minority adhering to other faiths, largely <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_East" title="Christianity in the Middle East">Christianity</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a>.<a href="#cite_note-264">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a> Paternal descent has traditionally been considered the main source of affiliation in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> when it comes to membership into an <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnic group</a> or <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a> Arab identity is shaped by a range of factors, including ancestry, history, language, customs, and traditions.<a href="#cite_note-267">[265]</a> Arab identity has been shaped by a rich history that includes the rise and fall of <a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">empires</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a>, and political turmoil. Despite the challenges faced by Arab communities, their shared cultural heritage has helped to maintain a sense of unity and pride in their identity.<a href="#cite_note-Imagining_the_Arabs_:_Arab_identity_and_the_rise_of_Islam-268">[266]</a> Today, Arab identity continues to evolve as Arab communities navigate complex political, social, and economic landscapes. Despite this, the Arab identity remains an important aspect of the cultural and historical fabric of the Arab world, and continues to be celebrated and preserved by <a href="/wiki/Arab_diaspora" title="Arab diaspora">communities around the world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subgroups">Subgroups</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia" title="Tribes of Arabia">Tribes of Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_migrations_to_the_Maghreb" title="Arab migrations to the Maghreb">Arab migrations to the Maghreb</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_migrations_to_the_Levant" title="Arab migrations to the Levant">Arab migrations to the Levant</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Islamic_Syria,_ca._640s.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Early_Islamic_Syria%2C_ca._640s.png/240px-Early_Islamic_Syria%2C_ca._640s.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Early_Islamic_Syria%2C_ca._640s.png/360px-Early_Islamic_Syria%2C_ca._640s.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Early_Islamic_Syria%2C_ca._640s.png/480px-Early_Islamic_Syria%2C_ca._640s.png 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="1142" /></a><figcaption>The Yaman tribes, including the Banu Kalb, Ghassan, Judham and Tanukh, largely inhabited the districts of <a href="/wiki/Jund_Filastin" title="Jund Filastin">Filastin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jund_al-Urdunn" title="Jund al-Urdunn">al-Urdunn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jund_Hims" title="Jund Hims">Hims</a>, while the Qays inhabited <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">al-Jazirah</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Al-Awasim" title="Al-Awasim">Byzantine frontier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jund_Qinnasrin" title="Jund Qinnasrin">Qinnasrin</a>.</figcaption></figure> Arab tribes are prevalent in the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Levant, Egypt, Maghreb, the Sudan region and Horn Africa.<a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-Imagining_the_Arabs_:_Arab_identity_and_the_rise_of_Islam-268">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a> The Arabs of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> are traditionally divided into <a href="/wiki/Qays_and_Yaman_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Qays and Yaman tribes">Qays and Yaman tribes</a>. The distinction between Qays and Yaman dates back to the pre-Islamic era and was based on tribal affiliations and geographic locations.; they include <a href="/wiki/Banu_Kalb" title="Banu Kalb">Banu Kalb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kinda_(tribe)" title="Kinda (tribe)">Kinda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-272">[270]</a> The Qays were made up of tribes such as <a href="/wiki/Banu_Kilab" title="Banu Kilab">Banu Kilab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tayy" title="Tayy">Banu Tayy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hanifa" title="Banu Hanifa">Banu Hanifa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Banu_Tamim" title="Banu Tamim">Banu Tamim</a>, among others. The Yaman, on the other hand, were composed of tribes such as <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hashim" title="Banu Hashim">Banu Hashim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banu_Makhzum" title="Banu Makhzum">Banu Makhzum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Banu Umayya</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Banu_Zuhrah" title="Banu Zuhrah">Banu Zuhra</a>, among others. There are also many Arab tribes indigenous to Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Iran, including from well before the <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of Persia">Arab conquest of Persia</a> in 633 CE.<a href="#cite_note-IranicaDaniel2-273">[271]</a> The largest group of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Arabs" title="Iranian Arabs">Iranian Arabs</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Ahwazi_Arabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahwazi Arabs">Ahwazi Arabs</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Banu_Ka%27b" title="Banu Ka'b">Banu Ka'b</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bani_Turuf" title="Bani Turuf">Bani Turuf</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Musha%27sha%27iyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Musha'sha'iyyah">Musha'sha'iyyah</a> sect. Smaller groups are the <a href="/wiki/Khamseh" title="Khamseh">Khamseh</a> nomads in <a href="/wiki/Fars_province" title="Fars province">Fars province</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Khorasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabs in Khorasan">Arabs in Khorasan</a>. As a result of the centuries-long <a href="/wiki/Arab_migration_to_the_Maghreb" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab migration to the Maghreb">Arab migration to the Maghreb</a>, various Arab tribes (including <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hilal" title="Banu Hilal">Banu Hilal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banu_Sulaym" title="Banu Sulaym">Banu Sulaym</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maqil" title="Maqil">Maqil</a>) also settled in the Maghreb and formed the sub-tribes which exist to present-day. The <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hilal" title="Banu Hilal">Banu Hilal</a> spent almost a century in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> before moving to <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, and another century later moved to <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>.<a href="#cite_note-274">[272]</a> According to Arab traditions, tribes are divided into different divisions called Arab skulls, which are described in the traditional custom of strength, abundance, victory, and honor. A number of them branched out, which later became independent tribes (sub-tribes). The majority of Arab tribes are descended from these major tribes.<a href="#cite_note-275">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-المفصل_فى_تاريخ_العرب_قبل_الإسلام22-277">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-279">[277]</a> They are:<a href="#cite_note-المفصل_فى_تاريخ_العرب_قبل_الإسلام22-277">[275]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banu_Adnan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Banu_Adnan.png/240px-Banu_Adnan.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Banu_Adnan.png/360px-Banu_Adnan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Banu_Adnan.png/480px-Banu_Adnan.png 2x" data-file-width="2993" data-file-height="1892" /></a><figcaption>A family tree depicting the descendants of the Banu Adnan.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banu_Bakr" title="Banu Bakr">Bakr</a>, has descendants in Arabia and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.<a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinana" title="Kinana">Kinanah</a>, has descendants in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestine" title="Palestine">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brill2-281">[279]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawazin" title="Hawazin">Hawazin</a>, has descendants in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.<a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[282]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_Tamim" title="Banu Tamim">Tamim</a>, has descendants in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[283]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azd" title="Azd">Azd</a>, has descendants in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-286">[284]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghatafan" title="Ghatafan">Ghatafan</a>, has descendants in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-287">[285]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhij" class="mw-redirect" title="Madhhij">Madhhij</a>, has descendants in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.<a href="#cite_note-288">[286]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Qays" title="Abd al-Qays">Abd al-Qays</a>, has descendants in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qays" title="Qays">Al Qays</a> (القيس), has descendants in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quda%27a" title="Quda'a">Quda'a</a>, has descendants in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_homeland">Arab homeland</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics of the Arab League">Demographics of the Arab League</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_countries_by_population" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Arab countries by population">list of Arab countries by population</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/260px-Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/390px-Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/520px-Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2192" data-file-height="1135" /></a><figcaption>Countries with significant Arab population and descendants.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Arab world</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  + 5,000,000</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  + 1,000,000</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  + 100,000</div></figcaption></figure> The total number of Arabs living in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab nations</a> is estimated at 366 million by the <a href="/wiki/CIA_Factbook" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA Factbook">CIA Factbook</a> (as of 2014). The estimated number of Arabs in countries outside the Arab League is estimated at 17.5 million, yielding a total of close to 384 million. The Arab world stretches around 13,000,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 sq mi), from the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> in the west to the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a> in the east and from the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> in the north to the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> in the southeast. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_diaspora">Arab diaspora</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arab_diaspora" title="Arab diaspora">Arab diaspora</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Arab_diaspora" title="Arab diaspora">Arab diaspora</a> refers to descendants of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab people">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">immigrants</a> who, voluntarily or as refugees, emigrated from their native lands in non-Arab countries, primarily in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, Australia and parts of <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Migration" title="International Organization for Migration">International Organization for Migration</a>, there are 13 million first-generation Arab migrants in the world, of which 5.8 million reside in Arab countries. Arab expatriates contribute to the circulation of financial and human capital in the region and thus significantly promote regional development. In 2009, Arab countries received a total of US$35.1 billion in <a href="/wiki/Remittance" title="Remittance">remittance</a> in-flows and remittances sent to <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> from other Arab countries are 40 to 190 per cent higher than trade revenues between these and other Arab countries.<a href="#cite_note-289">[287]</a> The 250,000 strong Lebanese community in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> is the largest non-African group in the region.<a href="#cite_note-290">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[289]</a> Arab traders have long operated in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and along the <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Swahili_coast" title="Swahili coast">Swahili coast</a>. <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> was once ruled by <a href="/wiki/Omanis" title="Omanis">Omani</a> Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-292">[290]</a> Most of the prominent <a href="/wiki/Arab_Indonesians" title="Arab Indonesians">Indonesians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Malaysians" title="Arab Malaysians">Malaysians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Singaporeans" title="Arab Singaporeans">Singaporeans</a> of Arab descent are <a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadhrami people">Hadhrami people</a> with origins in southern Arabia in the <a href="/wiki/Hadramawt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadramawt">Hadramawt</a> coastal region.<a href="#cite_note-293">[291]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe">Europe</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Europe" title="Arabs in Europe">Arabs in Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Austria" title="Arabs in Austria">Arabs in Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Bulgaria" title="Arabs in Bulgaria">Arabs in Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Finland" title="Arabs in Finland">Arabs in Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_France" title="Arabs in France">Arabs in France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Germany" title="Arabs in Germany">Arabs in Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Greece" title="Arabs in Greece">Arabs in Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Italy" title="Arabs in Italy">Arabs in Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_the_Netherlands" title="Arabs in the Netherlands">Arabs in the Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Romania" title="Arabs in Romania">Arabs in Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Serbia" title="Arabs in Serbia">Arabs in Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Spain" title="Arabs in Spain">Arabs in Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Sweden" title="Arabs in Sweden">Arabs in Sweden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Switzerland" title="Arabs in Switzerland">Arabs in Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Turkey" title="Arabs in Turkey">Arabs in Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Arabs" title="British Arabs">British Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Malta" title="Arabs in Malta">Arabs in Malta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arma_people" title="Arma people">Arma people</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Dawn_Charles_V_Palace_Alhambra_Granada_Andalusia_Spain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Dawn_Charles_V_Palace_Alhambra_Granada_Andalusia_Spain.jpg/200px-Dawn_Charles_V_Palace_Alhambra_Granada_Andalusia_Spain.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Dawn_Charles_V_Palace_Alhambra_Granada_Andalusia_Spain.jpg/300px-Dawn_Charles_V_Palace_Alhambra_Granada_Andalusia_Spain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Dawn_Charles_V_Palace_Alhambra_Granada_Andalusia_Spain.jpg/400px-Dawn_Charles_V_Palace_Alhambra_Granada_Andalusia_Spain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4592" data-file-height="3056" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Institut_du_Monde_Arabe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/63/Institut_du_Monde_Arabe.jpg/200px-Institut_du_Monde_Arabe.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/63/Institut_du_Monde_Arabe.jpg/300px-Institut_du_Monde_Arabe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/63/Institut_du_Monde_Arabe.jpg/400px-Institut_du_Monde_Arabe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3943" data-file-height="2957" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a> is one of the most famous monuments of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a>. (left) <a href="/wiki/Arab_World_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab World Institute">Arab World Institute</a>, is an organisation founded in Paris in 1980 by France with 18 Arab countries (right)</div></div></div></div> There are millions of <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Europe" title="Arabs in Europe">Arabs living in Europe</a>, mostly concentrated in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> (about 6,000,000 in 2005<a href="#cite_note-variety.com-294">[292]</a>). Most <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_France" title="Arabs in France">Arabs in France</a> are from the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> but some also come from the <a href="/wiki/Mashreq" class="mw-redirect" title="Mashreq">Mashreq</a> areas of the Arab world. Arabs in France form the second largest <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic group</a> after <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-economist.com2-295">[293]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, Arabs first arrived on the southern island of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> in the 9th century. The largest modern societies on the island from the Arab world are Tunisians and Moroccans, who make up 10.9% and 8% respectively of the foreign population of Sicily, which in itself constitutes 3.9% of the island's total population.<a href="#cite_note-296">[294]</a> The modern <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Spain" title="Arabs in Spain">Arab population of Spain</a> numbers 1,800,000,<a href="#cite_note-297">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-298">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-299">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[298]</a> and there have been Arabs in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> since the early 8th century when the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Muslim conquest of Hispania</a> created the state of Al-Andalus.<a href="#cite_note-301">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[301]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> the Arab population numbers over 1,401,950.<a href="#cite_note-statista2-304">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-cz-herborn.de2-305">[303]</a> in the United Kingdom between 366,769<a href="#cite_note-Naba11a2-306">[304]</a> and 500,000,<a href="#cite_note-307">[305]</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> between 250,000 and 750,000<a href="#cite_note-Gre12-308">[306]</a>). In addition, Greece is home to people from Arab countries who have the status of refugees (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Refugees of the Syrian civil war">refugees of the Syrian civil war</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Kniffka19952-309">[307]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> 180,000,<a href="#cite_note-auto2-39">[38]</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> 121,000. Other countries are also home to Arab populations, including <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Arab_migration_facts_and_figures2-310">[308]</a> As of late 2015, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> had a total population of 78.7 million, with <a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees of the Syrian Civil War">Syrian refugees</a> accounting for 3.1% of that figure based on conservative estimates. Demographics indicated that the country previously had 1,500,000<a href="#cite_note-ChapinMetz2-311">[309]</a> to 2,000,000 Arab residents,<a href="#cite_note-www.aljazeera.com2-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Turkey" title="Arabs in Turkey">Turkey's Arab population</a> is now 4.5 to 5.1% of the total population, or approximately 4–5 million people.<a href="#cite_note-www.aljazeera.com2-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.washingtoninstitute.org2-312">[310]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Americas">Americas</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Arab_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Arab immigration to the United States">Arab immigration to the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Americans" title="Arab Americans">Arab Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Americans_in_Metro_Detroit" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Americans in Metro Detroit">Arab Americans in Metro Detroit</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_Eastern_people_in_Metro_Detroit" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Middle Eastern people in Metro Detroit">History of the Middle Eastern people in Metro Detroit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Canadians" title="Arab Canadians">Arab Canadians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Brazilians" title="Arab Brazilians">Arab Brazilians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Mexicans" title="Arab Mexicans">Arab Mexicans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Chileans" title="Arab Chileans">Arab Chileans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Colombians" title="Arab Colombians">Arab Colombians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Uruguayans" title="Arab Uruguayans">Arab Uruguayans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Venezuelans" title="Arab Venezuelans">Arab Venezuelans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Cubans" title="Arab Cubans">Arab Cubans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Haitians" title="Arab Haitians">Arab Haitians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_immigration_to_Honduras" title="Arab immigration to Honduras">Arab immigration to Honduras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Argentines" title="Arab Argentines">Arab Argentines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Paraguayans" title="Lebanese Paraguayans">Lebanese Paraguayans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Uruguayans" title="Arab Uruguayans">Arab Uruguayans</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Arab_American_Institute" title="Arab American Institute">Arab American Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_American_National_Museum" title="Arab American National Museum">Arab American National Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_American_Action_Network" title="Arab American Action Network">Arab American Action Network</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_American_Book_Award" title="Arab American Book Award">Arab American Book Award</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:130px;max-width:130px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:169px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Gigi_Hadid_Vogue_2022_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Gigi_Hadid_Vogue_2022_02.jpg/128px-Gigi_Hadid_Vogue_2022_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Gigi_Hadid_Vogue_2022_02.jpg/192px-Gigi_Hadid_Vogue_2022_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Gigi_Hadid_Vogue_2022_02.jpg/256px-Gigi_Hadid_Vogue_2022_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="715" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:108px;max-width:108px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:169px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Steve_Jobs_Headshot_2010-CROP2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Steve_Jobs_Headshot_2010-CROP2.jpg/106px-Steve_Jobs_Headshot_2010-CROP2.jpg" decoding="async" width="106" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Steve_Jobs_Headshot_2010-CROP2.jpg/159px-Steve_Jobs_Headshot_2010-CROP2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Steve_Jobs_Headshot_2010-CROP2.jpg/212px-Steve_Jobs_Headshot_2010-CROP2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1557" data-file-height="2489" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:118px;max-width:118px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:167px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Shakira_for_VOGUE_in_2021_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Shakira_for_VOGUE_in_2021_2.png/116px-Shakira_for_VOGUE_in_2021_2.png" decoding="async" width="116" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Shakira_for_VOGUE_in_2021_2.png/174px-Shakira_for_VOGUE_in_2021_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Shakira_for_VOGUE_in_2021_2.png/232px-Shakira_for_VOGUE_in_2021_2.png 2x" data-file-width="728" data-file-height="1050" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:120px;max-width:120px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:167px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Salma_Hayek_Deauville_2012.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Salma_Hayek_Deauville_2012.jpg/118px-Salma_Hayek_Deauville_2012.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Salma_Hayek_Deauville_2012.jpg/177px-Salma_Hayek_Deauville_2012.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Salma_Hayek_Deauville_2012.jpg/236px-Salma_Hayek_Deauville_2012.jpg 2x" data-file-width="566" data-file-height="800" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Gigi_Hadid" title="Gigi Hadid">Gigi Hadid</a> is a model and television personality, <a href="/wiki/Steve_Jobs" title="Steve Jobs">Steve Jobs</a> was the co-founder, chairman, and CEO of Apple, <a href="/wiki/Shakira" title="Shakira">Shakira</a> is a singer and songwriter and <a href="/wiki/Salma_Hayek" title="Salma Hayek">Salma Hayek</a> is an actress and film producer.</div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Arab_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Arab immigration to the United States">Arab immigration to the United States</a> began in significant numbers during the 1880s, and today, an estimated 2 million Americans trace their roots to an Arab background according the Census Bureau.<a href="#cite_note-American_Community_Survey-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-313">[311]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arab_Americans" title="Arab Americans">Arab Americans</a> are found in every state, but more than two thirds of them live in just ten states, and one-third live in <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> specifically.<a href="#cite_note-aaiusa.org-314">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-315">[313]</a> Most Arab Americans were born in the US, and nearly 82% of US-based Arabs are citizens.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated42-316">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-aai.3cdn.net2-317">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-318">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[317]</a> Arab immigrants began to arrive in Canada in small numbers in 1882. Their <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigration</a> was relatively limited until 1945, after which time it increased progressively, particularly in the 1960s and thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-320">[318]</a> According to the website "Who are <a href="/wiki/Arab_Canadians" title="Arab Canadians">Arab Canadians</a>", <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>, the Canadian city with the largest Arab population, has approximately 267,000 Arab inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-321">[319]</a> <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> has the largest Arab population outside of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab World">Arab World</a>.<a href="#cite_note-322">[320]</a> Latin America is home to anywhere from 17–25 to 30 million people of Arab descent, which is more than any other diaspora region in the world.<a href="#cite_note-323">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-324">[322]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Brazil" title="Federal government of Brazil">Brazilian</a> and Lebanese governments claim there are 7 million <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Brazilians" title="Lebanese Brazilians">Brazilians of Lebanese descent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-itamaraty12-325">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-libano12-326">[324]</a> Also, the Brazilian government claims there are 4 million <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Brazilians" title="Syrian Brazilians">Brazilians of Syrian descent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-itamaraty12-325">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-IBGE2008-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-saudiaramcoworld12-327">[325]</a><a href="#cite_note-dsbra2-328">[326]</a><a href="#cite_note-329">[327]</a><a href="#cite_note-330">[328]</a> Other large Arab communities includes <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> (about 3,500,000<a href="#cite_note-Fearab.org.ar-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-oni.escuelas.edu.ar2-331">[329]</a><a href="#cite_note-332">[330]</a>) The interethnic marriage in the Arab community, regardless of religious affiliation, is very high; most community members have only one parent who has Arab ethnicity.<a href="#cite_note-333">[331]</a> <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> (over 3,200,000<a href="#cite_note-334">[332]</a><a href="#cite_note-335">[333]</a><a href="#cite_note-336">[334]</a>), <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> (over 1,600,000),<a href="#cite_note-thedailybeast.com-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[335]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> (over 1,100,000),<a href="#cite_note-338">[336]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> (over 800,000),<a href="#cite_note-339">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-340">[338]</a><a href="#cite_note-select.nytimes.com2-341">[339]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> (between 150,000 and 200,000).<a href="#cite_note-The_Arabs_of_Honduras2-342">[340]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adnkronos.com-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laventana.casa.cult.cu-33">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arab_Haitians" title="Arab Haitians">Arab Haitians</a> (257,000<a href="#cite_note-343">[341]</a>) a large number of whom live in the <a href="/wiki/Port-au-Prince" title="Port-au-Prince">capital</a> are more often than not, concentrated in financial areas where the majority of them establish businesses.<a href="#cite_note-al-shorfa.com2-344">[342]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caucasus">Caucasus</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_the_Caucasus" title="Arabs in the Caucasus">Arabs in the Caucasus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caucasus_1060_map_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Caucasus_1060_map_en.svg/220px-Caucasus_1060_map_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Caucasus_1060_map_en.svg/330px-Caucasus_1060_map_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Caucasus_1060_map_en.svg/440px-Caucasus_1060_map_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="898" /></a><figcaption>Georgia and the Caucasus in 1060, during the final decline of the emirate</figcaption></figure> In 1728, a Russian officer described a group of Arab nomads who populated the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian</a> shores of <a href="/wiki/Mughan_plain" title="Mughan plain">Mughan</a> (in present-day <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Genko2-345">[343]</a> It is believed that these groups migrated to the <a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a> in the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-zelkina2-346">[344]</a> The 1888 edition of <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> also mentioned a certain number of Arabs populating the <a href="/wiki/Baku_Governorate" title="Baku Governorate">Baku Governorate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Baynesp5142-347">[345]</a> They retained an <a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Arabic dialect</a> at least into the mid-19th century,<a href="#cite_note-Bakik2-348">[346]</a> there are nearly 30 settlements still holding the name Arab (for example, <a href="/wiki/%C6%8Fr%C9%99bq%C9%99dim" title="Ərəbqədim">Arabgadim</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C6%8Fr%C9%99boca%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Ərəbocağı">Arabojaghy</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C6%8Fr%C9%99byengic%C9%99" title="Ərəbyengicə">Arab-Yengija</a>, etc.). From the time of the Arab conquest of the <a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a>, continuous small-scale Arab migration from various parts of the Arab world occurred in <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>. The majority of these lived in the village of Darvag, to the north-west of <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a>. The latest of these accounts dates to the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-zelkina2-346">[344]</a> Most Arab communities in southern Dagestan underwent linguistic <a href="/wiki/Turkification" title="Turkification">Turkicisation</a>, thus nowadays Darvag is a majority-<a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Azeri</a> village.<a href="#cite_note-Sefer2-349">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wrum2-350">[348]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Central,_South,_East_and_Southeast_Asia">Central, South, East and Southeast Asia</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_India" title="Arabs in India">Arabs in India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Indonesians" title="Arab Indonesians">Arab Indonesians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Arabs" title="Iranian Arabs">Iranian Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Khorasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabs in Khorasan">Arabs in Khorasan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahwazi_Arabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahwazi Arabs">Ahwazi Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Japan" title="Arabs in Japan">Arabs in Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Malaysians" title="Arab Malaysians">Arab Malaysians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_the_Philippines" title="Arabs in the Philippines">Arabs in the Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Singaporeans" title="Arab Singaporeans">Arab Singaporeans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Moors" title="Sri Lankan Moors">Sri Lankan Moors</a></div> According to the History of Ibn Khaldun, the Arabs that were once in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> have been either killed or have fled the Tatar invasion of the region.<a href="#cite_note-Khaldun2-351">[349]</a> However, today many people in Central Asia identify as Arabs. Most <a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Arabs of Central Asia</a> are fully integrated into local populations, and sometimes call themselves the same as locals (for example, <a href="/wiki/T%C4%81jik_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tājik people">Tajiks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a>) but they use special titles to show their Arab origin such as <a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khoja_(Turkestan)" title="Khoja (Turkestan)">Khoja</a> or <a href="/wiki/Siddiqui" title="Siddiqui">Siddiqui</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Owensp1842-352">[350]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ketchimalai_Mosque-_Beruwala,_Sri_Lanka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Ketchimalai_Mosque-_Beruwala%2C_Sri_Lanka.jpg/220px-Ketchimalai_Mosque-_Beruwala%2C_Sri_Lanka.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Ketchimalai_Mosque-_Beruwala%2C_Sri_Lanka.jpg/330px-Ketchimalai_Mosque-_Beruwala%2C_Sri_Lanka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Ketchimalai_Mosque-_Beruwala%2C_Sri_Lanka.jpg/440px-Ketchimalai_Mosque-_Beruwala%2C_Sri_Lanka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="1720" /></a><figcaption>The mosque is built at the spot where the first Arab traders landed and subsequently settled in the area.<a href="#cite_note-353">[351]</a></figcaption></figure> There are only two communities in India which claim Arab descent, the <a href="/wiki/Chaush" title="Chaush">Chaush</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> region and the <a href="/wiki/Arab_(Gujarat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab (Gujarat)">Chavuse</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-354">[352]</a><a href="#cite_note-355">[353]</a> These groups are largely descended from <a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadhrami people">Hadhrami</a> migrants who settled in these two regions in the 18th century. However, neither community still speaks Arabic, although the Chaush have seen re-immigration to <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a> and thus a re-adoption of Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-356">[354]</a> In <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, where Arab ancestry is considered prestigious, some communities have origin myths that claim Arab ancestry. Several communities following the <a href="/wiki/Shafi%CA%BDi_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafiʽi school">Shafi'i madhab</a> (in contrast to other <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Asia" title="Islam in South Asia">South Asian Muslims</a> who follow the <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi madhab</a>) claim descent from Arab traders like the <a href="/wiki/Konkani_Muslims" title="Konkani Muslims">Konkani Muslims</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Konkan" title="Konkan">Konkan region</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mappilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Mappilla">Mappilla</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Labbai" class="mw-redirect" title="Labbai">Labbai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marakkar" title="Marakkar">Marakkar</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> and a few Christian groups in India that claim and have Arab roots are situated in the state of <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>.<a href="#cite_note-357">[355]</a> South Asian <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Biradari" title="Iraqi Biradari">Iraqi biradri</a> may have records of their ancestors who migrated from Iraq in historical documents. The <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Moors" title="Sri Lankan Moors">Sri Lankan Moors</a> are the third largest ethnic group in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, constituting 9.2% of the country's total population.<a href="#cite_note-358">[356]</a> Some sources trace the ancestry of the Sri Lankan <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> to Arab traders who settled in Sri Lanka at some time between the 8th and 15th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-TheSundayTimes2-359">[357]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anthropos2-360">[358]</a><a href="#cite_note-Islamic_Studies2-361">[359]</a> There are about 118,866 <a href="/wiki/Arab-Indonesians" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab-Indonesians">Arab-Indonesians</a><a href="#cite_note-362">[360]</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadhrami people">Hadrami</a> descent in the 2010 Indonesian census.<a href="#cite_note-363">[361]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Afro-Arabs" title="Afro-Arabs">Afro-Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baggara_Arabs" title="Baggara Arabs">Baggara Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_Arabs" title="Ghanaian Arabs">Ghanaian Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Arabs in Ivory Coast">Arabs in Ivory Coast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Senegal" title="Lebanese people in Senegal">Lebanese people in Senegal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Lebanese people in Sierra Leone">Lebanese people in Sierra Leone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diffa_Arabs" title="Diffa Arabs">Diffa Arabs</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baggara_belt.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Baggara_belt.png/240px-Baggara_belt.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Baggara_belt.png/360px-Baggara_belt.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Baggara_belt.png/480px-Baggara_belt.png 2x" data-file-width="3417" data-file-height="1683" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Baggara belt</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Afro-Arabs" title="Afro-Arabs">Afro-Arabs</a> are individuals and groups from <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> who are of partial Arab descent. Most Afro-Arabs inhabit the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_coast" title="Swahili coast">Swahili Coast</a> in the <a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">African Great Lakes</a> region, although some can also be found in parts of the Arab world.<a href="#cite_note-Romero2-364">[362]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gunnar2-365">[363]</a> Large numbers of Arabs migrated to <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire" class="mw-redirect" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a> (home to over 100,000 Lebanese),<a href="#cite_note-366">[364]</a> <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> (roughly 30,000 Lebanese),<a href="#cite_note-367">[365]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> (roughly 10,000 Lebanese today; about 30,000 prior to the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Civil_War" title="Sierra Leone Civil War">civil war</a> in 1991), <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-368">[366]</a> Since the end of the civil war in 2002, <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people" title="Lebanese people">Lebanese</a> traders have become re-established in Sierra Leone.<a href="#cite_note-369">[367]</a><a href="#cite_note-370">[368]</a><a href="#cite_note-371">[369]</a> The Arabs of Chad occupy northern Cameroon and Nigeria (where they are sometimes known as Shuwa), and extend as a belt across Chad and into Sudan, where they are called the <a href="/wiki/Baggara" class="mw-redirect" title="Baggara">Baggara</a> grouping of <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> ethnic groups inhabiting the portion of Africa's <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>. There are 171,000 in <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, 150,000 in <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a><a href="#cite_note-372">[370]</a>), and 107,000 in the <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-373">[371]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims">Arab Muslims</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Jews" title="Arab Jews">Arab Jews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></div> Arabs are mostly Muslims with a <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> majority and a <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> minority, one exception being the <a href="/wiki/Ibadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi">Ibadis</a>, who predominate in <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ahmadi2-374">[372]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christians</a> generally follow <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Churches">Eastern Churches</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox">Greek Orthodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Catholic">Greek Catholic</a> churches, though a minority of <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Church">Protestant Church</a> followers also exists.<a href="#cite_note-Christi2-375">[373]</a> There are also Arab communities consisting of <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼís</a>.<a href="#cite_note-376">[374]</a><a href="#cite_note-377">[375]</a> Historically, there were also sizeable populations of <a href="/wiki/Arab_Jews" title="Arab Jews">Arab Jews</a> around the Arab World. <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Before the coming of Islam</a>, most Arabs followed a pagan religion with a number of deities, including <a href="/wiki/Hubal" title="Hubal">Hubal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hubal2-378">[376]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wadd" title="Wadd">Wadd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-l%C4%81t" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-lāt">Allāt</a>,<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated12-379">[377]</a> <a href="/wiki/Man%C4%81t" class="mw-redirect" title="Manāt">Manat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Al-Uzza" title="Al-Uzza">Uzza</a>. A few individuals, the <a href="/wiki/Hanif" title="Hanif">hanifs</a>, had apparently rejected <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a> in favor of <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a> unaffiliated with any particular religion. Some tribes had converted to Christianity or Judaism. The most prominent Arab Christian kingdoms were the <a href="/wiki/Ghassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghassanid">Ghassanid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmid">Lakhmid</a> kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-Marib2-380">[378]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite">Himyarite</a> king converted to <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> in the late 4th century,<a href="#cite_note-Hima2-381">[379]</a> the elites of the other prominent Arab kingdom, the <a href="/wiki/Kindites" class="mw-redirect" title="Kindites">Kindites</a>, being Himyirite vassals, apparently also converted (at least partly). With the expansion of Islam, polytheistic Arabs were rapidly <a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamized</a>, and polytheistic traditions gradually disappeared.<a href="#cite_note-MSNU2-382">[380]</a><a href="#cite_note-EncyRe2-383">[381]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Ka%27ba,_Great_Mosque_of_Mecca,_Saudi_Arabia_(4).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/The_Ka%27ba%2C_Great_Mosque_of_Mecca%2C_Saudi_Arabia_%284%29.jpg/180px-The_Ka%27ba%2C_Great_Mosque_of_Mecca%2C_Saudi_Arabia_%284%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/The_Ka%27ba%2C_Great_Mosque_of_Mecca%2C_Saudi_Arabia_%284%29.jpg/270px-The_Ka%27ba%2C_Great_Mosque_of_Mecca%2C_Saudi_Arabia_%284%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/The_Ka%27ba%2C_Great_Mosque_of_Mecca%2C_Saudi_Arabia_%284%29.jpg/360px-The_Ka%27ba%2C_Great_Mosque_of_Mecca%2C_Saudi_Arabia_%284%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a> is the holiest place in Islam, <a href="/wiki/Masjid_al-Haram" title="Masjid al-Haram">Masjid al-Haram</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:206px;max-width:206px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Church_of_the_Nativity_(7703592746).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Church_of_the_Nativity_%287703592746%29.jpg/204px-Church_of_the_Nativity_%287703592746%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="204" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Church_of_the_Nativity_%287703592746%29.jpg/306px-Church_of_the_Nativity_%287703592746%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Church_of_the_Nativity_%287703592746%29.jpg/408px-Church_of_the_Nativity_%287703592746%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Nativity" title="Church of the Nativity">Church of the Nativity</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bethlehem" title="Bethlehem">Bethlehem</a>, State of Palestine</div></div></div></div></div> Today, Sunni Islam dominates in most areas, vastly so in Levant, North Africa, West Africa and the Horn of Africa. Shia Islam is dominant in <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> while northern Iraq is mostly Sunni. Substantial Shia populations exist in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Shia2-384">[382]</a> northern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and Al-Batinah Region in <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>. There are small numbers of <a href="/wiki/Ibadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi">Ibadi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-denominational Muslims">non-denominational Muslims</a> too.<a href="#cite_note-ahmadi2-374">[372]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> community is concentrated in Levant.<a href="#cite_note-385">[383]</a> Christianity had a prominent presence In <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic Arabia</a> among several Arab communities, including the <a href="/wiki/Bahrani_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahrani people">Bahrani people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Christian_community_of_Najran" title="Christian community of Najran">Christian community of Najran</a>, in parts of <a href="/wiki/Yemen#Ancient_history" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, and among certain northern Arabian tribes such as the <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taghlib" title="Taghlib">Taghlib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banu_Amela" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Amela">Banu Amela</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banu_Judham" title="Banu Judham">Banu Judham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tayy" title="Tayy">Tayy</a>. In the early Christian centuries, Arabia was sometimes known as Arabia heretica, due to its being "well known as a breeding-ground for heterodox interpretations of Christianity."<a href="#cite_note-386">[384]</a> Christians make up 5.5% of the population of Western Asia and North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Pacini2-387">[385]</a> In Lebanon, Christians number about 40.5% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-CIA_World_Factbook:_Lebanon2-388">[386]</a> In Syria, Christians make up 10% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-CIA_World_Factbook:_Syria2-389">[387]</a> <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Christians" title="Palestinian Christians">Christians in Palestine</a> make up 8% and 0.7% of the populations, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FactbookGazaStrip2-390">[388]</a><a href="#cite_note-FactbookWestBank2-391">[389]</a> In Egypt, Christians number about 10% of the population. In Iraq, Christians constitute 0.1% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-392">[390]</a> In Israel, Arab Christians constitute 2.1% (roughly 9% of the Arab population).<a href="#cite_note-WFIS2-393">[391]</a> Arab Christians make up 8% of the population of <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WFJord2-394">[392]</a> Most <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South American</a> Arabs are Christian,<a href="#cite_note-AAIUSA2-395">[393]</a> so are about half of the Arabs in Australia who come particularly from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine. One well known member of this religious and ethnic community is <a href="/wiki/Abo_of_Tiflis" title="Abo of Tiflis">Saint Abo</a>, martyr and the patron saint of <a href="/wiki/Tbilisi" title="Tbilisi">Tbilisi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-396">[394]</a> Arab Christians also live in holy Christian cities such as <a href="/wiki/Nazareth" title="Nazareth">Nazareth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bethlehem" title="Bethlehem">Bethlehem</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Quarter" title="Christian Quarter">Christian Quarter</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Old_City_of_Jerusalem" title="Old City of Jerusalem">Old City of Jerusalem</a> and many other villages with holy Christian sites. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">Arab culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustration_by_David_Roberts,_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_120.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Illustration_by_David_Roberts%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_120.jpg/220px-Illustration_by_David_Roberts%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_120.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Illustration_by_David_Roberts%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_120.jpg/330px-Illustration_by_David_Roberts%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_120.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Illustration_by_David_Roberts%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_120.jpg/440px-Illustration_by_David_Roberts%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_120.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1625" /></a><figcaption>Dancing girls at Cairo</figcaption></figure> Arab culture is shaped by a long and rich history that spans thousands of years, from the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> in the west to the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a> in the east, and from the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> in the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast. The various religions the Arabs have adopted throughout <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabs" title="History of the Arabs">their history</a> and the various empires and kingdoms that have ruled and took lead of the Arabic civilization have contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">ethnogenesis</a> and formation of modern Arab culture. <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastronomy" title="Gastronomy">gastronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a> are all part of the cultural heritage of the Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-397">[395]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Learning_Arabic_calligraphy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Learning_Arabic_calligraphy.jpg/220px-Learning_Arabic_calligraphy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Learning_Arabic_calligraphy.jpg/330px-Learning_Arabic_calligraphy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Learning_Arabic_calligraphy.jpg/440px-Learning_Arabic_calligraphy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arabic_calligraphy" title="Arabic calligraphy">Arabic calligraphy</a> is the artistic practice of writing Arabic script in a decorative and stylized manner.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Semitic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Semitic language">Semitic language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic family</a>.<a href="#cite_note-398">[396]</a> The first evidence for the emergence of the language appears in military accounts from 853 BCE. Today it has developed widely used as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> for more than 500 million people. It is also a <a href="/wiki/Liturgy#Islam" title="Liturgy">liturgical</a> language for 1.7 billion <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pewmuslim422-399">[397]</a><a href="#cite_note-400">[398]</a> Arabic is one of six <a href="/wiki/Official_languages_of_the_United_Nations" title="Official languages of the United Nations">official languages of the United Nations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-401">[399]</a> and is revered in <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> as the language of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pewmuslim422-399">[397]</a><a href="#cite_note-402">[400]</a> Arabic has two main registers. <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> is the form of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> language used in literary texts from <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> and Abbasid times (7th to 9th centuries). It is based on the medieval dialects of <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia" title="Tribes of Arabia">Arab tribes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> (MSA) is the direct descendant used today throughout the Arab world in writing and in formal speaking, for example, prepared speeches, some radio broadcasts, and non-entertainment content,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBin-Muqbil200614-403">[401]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Lexis_(linguistics)" title="Lexis (linguistics)">lexis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stylistics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stylistics (linguistics)">stylistics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> are different from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a>. There are also various regional dialects of colloquial spoken Arabic that both vary greatly from both each other and from the formal written and spoken forms of Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-404">[402]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mythology">Mythology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian mythology">Arabian mythology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustration_of_Aladdin_Flying_Away_with_Two_People_from_the_Arabian_Nights.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Illustration_of_Aladdin_Flying_Away_with_Two_People_from_the_Arabian_Nights.jpg/170px-Illustration_of_Aladdin_Flying_Away_with_Two_People_from_the_Arabian_Nights.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Illustration_of_Aladdin_Flying_Away_with_Two_People_from_the_Arabian_Nights.jpg/255px-Illustration_of_Aladdin_Flying_Away_with_Two_People_from_the_Arabian_Nights.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Illustration_of_Aladdin_Flying_Away_with_Two_People_from_the_Arabian_Nights.jpg 2x" data-file-width="322" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aladdin" title="Aladdin">Aladdin</a> from the <a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic mythology">Arabic mythology</a> comprises the ancient beliefs of the Arabs. Prior to Islam the Kaaba of Mecca was covered in symbols representing the myriad demons, djinn, demigods, or simply tribal gods and other assorted deities which represented the polytheistic culture of pre-Islamic. It has been inferred from this plurality an exceptionally broad context in which mythology could flourish.<a href="#cite_note-405">[403]</a><a href="#cite_note-406">[404]</a> The most popular beasts and demons of Arabian mythology are <a href="/wiki/Bahamut" title="Bahamut">Bahamut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dandan" title="Dandan">Dandan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falak_(Arabian_legend)" title="Falak (Arabian legend)">Falak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghoul" title="Ghoul">Ghoul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hinn_(mythology)" title="Hinn (mythology)">Hinn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">Jinn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karkadann" title="Karkadann">Karkadann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marid" title="Marid">Marid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasnas" title="Nasnas">Nasnas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qareen" title="Qareen">Qareen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roc_(mythology)" title="Roc (mythology)">Roc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shadhavar" title="Shadhavar">Shadhavar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Werehyena" title="Werehyena">Werehyena</a> and other assorted creatures which represented the profoundly <a href="/wiki/Polytheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytheistic">polytheistic</a> environment of pre-Islamic.<a href="#cite_note-407">[405]</a> The most prominent symbol of Arabian mythology is the <a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">Jinn</a> or genie.<a href="#cite_note-408">[406]</a> Jinns are supernatural beings that can be good or evil.<a href="#cite_note-409">[407]</a><a href="#cite_note-410">[408]</a> They are not purely spiritual, but are also physical in nature, being able to interact in a tactile manner with people and objects and likewise be acted upon. The jinn, humans, and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_angels" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic view of angels">angels</a> make up the known <a href="/wiki/Sapience" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapience">sapient</a> creations of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a>.<a href="#cite_note-411">[409]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ghoul" title="Ghoul">Ghouls</a> also feature in the mythology as a <a href="/wiki/Monster" title="Monster">monster</a> or <a href="/wiki/Evil_spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Evil spirit">evil spirit</a> associated with graveyards and consuming human flesh.<a href="#cite_note-412">[410]</a><a href="#cite_note-413">[411]</a> In Arabic folklore, ghouls belonged to a diabolic class of jinn and were said to be the offspring of Iblīs, the prince of darkness in Islam. They were capable of constantly changing form, but always retained <a href="/wiki/Donkey" title="Donkey">donkey</a>'s hooves.<a href="#cite_note-414">[412]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_MSS_0902-61b-62a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_MSS_0902-61b-62a.jpg/220px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_MSS_0902-61b-62a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_MSS_0902-61b-62a.jpg/330px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_MSS_0902-61b-62a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_MSS_0902-61b-62a.jpg/440px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_MSS_0902-61b-62a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2598" data-file-height="1997" /></a><figcaption>Manuscript from the Diwan of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutanabbi" title="Al-Mutanabbi">Al-Mutanabbi</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>, the main <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">holy book</a> of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, had a significant influence on the Arabic language, and marked the beginning of Arabic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a>, the tribe of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Glen_Van_Brummelen-2013-415">[413]</a><a href="#cite_note-416">[414]</a> As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-Glen_Van_Brummelen-2013-415">[413]</a> Not only is the Quran the first work of any significant length written in the language, but it also has a far more complicated structure than the earlier literary works with its 114 <a href="/wiki/Surah" title="Surah">suwar</a> (chapters) which contain 6,236 <a href="/wiki/Ayat" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayat">ayat</a> (verses). It contains <a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">injunctions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">narratives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Homilies">homilies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parable" title="Parable">parables</a>, direct addresses from God, instructions and even comments on how the Quran will be received and understood. It is also admired for its layers of metaphor as well as its clarity, a feature which is mentioned in <a href="/wiki/An-Nahl" title="An-Nahl">An-Nahl</a>, the 16th surah. <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a> (born 776, in <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a> – December 868/January 869) was an Arab prose writer and author of works of literature, <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a> theology, and politico-religious polemics. A leading scholar in the Abbasid Caliphate, his canon includes two hundred books on various subjects, including <a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, poetry, lexicography, and <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>. Of his writings, only thirty books survive. Al-Jāḥiẓ was also one of the first Arabian writers to suggest a complete overhaul of the language's grammatical system, though this would not be undertaken until his fellow linguist <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Ma%E1%B8%8D%C4%81%CA%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Maḍāʾ">Ibn Maḍāʾ</a> took up the matter two hundred years later.<a href="#cite_note-417">[415]</a> There is a small remnant of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Islamic poetry">pre-Islamic poetry</a>, but Arabic literature predominantly emerges in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of Islam">Golden Age of Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-418">[416]</a> <a href="/wiki/Imru%27_al-Qais" title="Imru' al-Qais">Imru' al-Qais</a> was a king and poet in the 6th century, he was the last king of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kinda" title="Kingdom of Kinda">Kindite</a>. He is among the finest Arabic poetry to date, as well sometimes considered the father of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-419">[417]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Aghani" title="Kitab al-Aghani">Kitab al-Aghani</a> by <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani" title="Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani">Abul-Faraj</a> was called by the 14th-century historian <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> the register of the Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-420">[418]</a> <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Literary Arabic</a> is derived from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a>, based on the language of the Quran as it was analyzed by <a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic grammarians">Arabic grammarians</a> beginning in the 8th century.<a href="#cite_note-421">[419]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalil_Gibran_-_Autorretrato_con_musa,_c._1911.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Khalil_Gibran_-_Autorretrato_con_musa%2C_c._1911.jpg/170px-Khalil_Gibran_-_Autorretrato_con_musa%2C_c._1911.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Khalil_Gibran_-_Autorretrato_con_musa%2C_c._1911.jpg/255px-Khalil_Gibran_-_Autorretrato_con_musa%2C_c._1911.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Khalil_Gibran_-_Autorretrato_con_musa%2C_c._1911.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Khalil_Gibran" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalil Gibran">Khalil Gibran</a> was a writer, poet and visual artist; he is best known as the author of <a href="/wiki/The_Prophet_(book)" title="The Prophet (book)">The Prophet</a>, has since become one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_best-selling_books" title="List of best-selling books">best-selling books</a> of all time, having been <a href="/wiki/Translations_of_The_Prophet" title="Translations of The Prophet">translated into more than 100 languages</a></figcaption></figure> A large portion of Arabic literature before the 20th century is in the form of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">poetry</a>, and even prose from this period is either filled with snippets of poetry or is in the form of <a href="/wiki/Saj_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saj (literature)">saj</a> or rhymed prose.<a href="#cite_note-422">[420]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ghazal" title="Ghazal">ghazal</a> or love poem had a long history being at times tender and chaste and at other times rather explicit.<a href="#cite_note-423">[421]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> tradition the love poem would take on a wider, <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> importance. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_epic_literature" title="Arabic epic literature">Arabic epic literature</a> was much less common than poetry, and presumably originates in oral tradition, written down from the 14th century or so. <a href="/wiki/Maqama" title="Maqama">Maqama</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rhymed_prose" title="Rhymed prose">rhymed prose</a> is intermediate between poetry and <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a>, and also between fiction and non-fiction.<a href="#cite_note-424">[422]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maqama" title="Maqama">Maqama</a> was an incredibly popular form of Arabic literature, being one of the few forms which continued to be written during the decline of Arabic in the 17th and 18th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-425">[423]</a> Arabic literature and <a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">culture</a> declined significantly after the 13th century, to the benefit of <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Turkish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian</a>. A modern revival took place beginning in the 19th century, alongside <a href="/wiki/National_awakenings_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="National awakenings under the Ottoman Empire">resistance against Ottoman rule</a>. The literary revival is known as <a href="/wiki/Al-Nahda" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Nahda">al-Nahda</a> in Arabic, and was centered in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. Two distinct trends can be found in the nahda period of revival.<a href="#cite_note-426">[424]</a> The first was a neo-classical movement which sought to rediscover the literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by traditional literary genres—such as the <a href="/wiki/Maqama" title="Maqama">maqama</a>—and works like <a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a>. In contrast, a modernist movement began by translating Western modernist works—primarily novels—into Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-427">[425]</a> A tradition of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Arabic poetry">modern Arabic poetry</a> was established by writers such as <a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shawqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Shawqi">Ahmad Shawqi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hafiz_Ibrahim" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafiz Ibrahim">Hafiz Ibrahim</a>. Iraqi poet <a href="/wiki/Badr_Shakir_al-Sayyab" title="Badr Shakir al-Sayyab">Badr Shakir al-Sayyab</a> is considered to be the originator of free verse in <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-428">[426]</a><a href="#cite_note-429">[427]</a><a href="#cite_note-430">[428]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine">Arab cuisine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petra_metzes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Petra_metzes.jpg/220px-Petra_metzes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Petra_metzes.jpg/330px-Petra_metzes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Petra_metzes.jpg/440px-Petra_metzes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Plate of <a href="/wiki/Meze" title="Meze">Mezes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine">Arab cuisine</a> is largely divided into <a href="/wiki/Khaleeji_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Khaleeji cuisine">Khaleeji cuisine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levantine_cuisine" title="Levantine cuisine">Levantine cuisine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_cuisine" title="Maghrebi cuisine">Maghrebi cuisine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-431">[429]</a> Arab cuisine has influenced other cuisines various cultures, including <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Persian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Andalusian_Spanish" title="Andalusian Spanish">Andalusian</a>. It is characterized by a variety of herbs and spices, including <a href="/wiki/Cumin" title="Cumin">cumin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coriander" title="Coriander">coriander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sumac" title="Sumac">sumac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Za%27atar" title="Za'atar">za'atar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardamom" title="Cardamom">cardamom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mentha" title="Mentha">mint</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">saffron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sesame" title="Sesame">sesame</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thyme" title="Thyme">thyme</a> <a href="/wiki/Turmeric" title="Turmeric">turmeric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parsley" title="Parsley">parsley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Food_and_recipes2-432">[430]</a><a href="#cite_note-433">[431]</a> Arab cuisine is also known for its sweets and desserts, such as <a href="/wiki/Knafeh" title="Knafeh">Knafeh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baklava" title="Baklava">Baklava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halva" title="Halva">Halva</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qatayef" title="Qatayef">Qatayef</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_coffee" title="Arabic coffee">Arabic coffee</a>, or qahwa, is a traditional drink that is served with dates. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic art">Arabic art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_art" title="Nabataean art">Nabataean art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_miniature" title="Arabic miniature">Arabic miniature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:243px;max-width:243px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:78px;max-width:78px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:75px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Umayyad_fresco_of_Prince_(future_caliph)_Walid_bin_Yazid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Umayyad_fresco_of_Prince_%28future_caliph%29_Walid_bin_Yazid.jpg/76px-Umayyad_fresco_of_Prince_%28future_caliph%29_Walid_bin_Yazid.jpg" decoding="async" width="76" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Umayyad_fresco_of_Prince_%28future_caliph%29_Walid_bin_Yazid.jpg/114px-Umayyad_fresco_of_Prince_%28future_caliph%29_Walid_bin_Yazid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Umayyad_fresco_of_Prince_%28future_caliph%29_Walid_bin_Yazid.jpg/152px-Umayyad_fresco_of_Prince_%28future_caliph%29_Walid_bin_Yazid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1495" data-file-height="1495" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:105px;max-width:105px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:75px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabischer_Maler_um_730_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_001.jpg/103px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_001.jpg/155px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_001.jpg/206px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1486" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:53px;max-width:53px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:75px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Jordan_Qusair_Amra_2013_0449.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Jordan_Qusair_Amra_2013_0449.jpg/51px-Jordan_Qusair_Amra_2013_0449.jpg" decoding="async" width="51" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Jordan_Qusair_Amra_2013_0449.jpg/77px-Jordan_Qusair_Amra_2013_0449.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Jordan_Qusair_Amra_2013_0449.jpg/102px-Jordan_Qusair_Amra_2013_0449.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:72px;max-width:72px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:83px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Stucco_wall_painting_of_a_man_from_Samarra,_Iraq,_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Stucco_wall_painting_of_a_man_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg/70px-Stucco_wall_painting_of_a_man_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Stucco_wall_painting_of_a_man_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg/105px-Stucco_wall_painting_of_a_man_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Stucco_wall_painting_of_a_man_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg/140px-Stucco_wall_painting_of_a_man_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2421" data-file-height="2914" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:61px;max-width:61px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:83px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_Harem_wall_painting_fragments_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/British_Museum_Harem_wall_painting_fragments_1.jpg/59px-British_Museum_Harem_wall_painting_fragments_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="59" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/British_Museum_Harem_wall_painting_fragments_1.jpg/89px-British_Museum_Harem_wall_painting_fragments_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/British_Museum_Harem_wall_painting_fragments_1.jpg/118px-British_Museum_Harem_wall_painting_fragments_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1773" data-file-height="2542" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:104px;max-width:104px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:83px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Stucco_frieze_of_a_camel_from_Samarra,_Iraq,_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Stucco_frieze_of_a_camel_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg/102px-Stucco_frieze_of_a_camel_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="102" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Stucco_frieze_of_a_camel_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg/153px-Stucco_frieze_of_a_camel_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Stucco_frieze_of_a_camel_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg/204px-Stucco_frieze_of_a_camel_from_Samarra%2C_Iraq%2C_9th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3721" data-file-height="3067" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:92px;max-width:92px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:84px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bowl_with_hare,_Egypt,_Fatimid_period,_11th_century_AD,_earthenware_with_overglaze_luster_painting_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04163.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Bowl_with_hare%2C_Egypt%2C_Fatimid_period%2C_11th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_with_overglaze_luster_painting_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04163.JPG/90px-Bowl_with_hare%2C_Egypt%2C_Fatimid_period%2C_11th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_with_overglaze_luster_painting_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04163.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Bowl_with_hare%2C_Egypt%2C_Fatimid_period%2C_11th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_with_overglaze_luster_painting_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04163.JPG/135px-Bowl_with_hare%2C_Egypt%2C_Fatimid_period%2C_11th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_with_overglaze_luster_painting_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04163.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Bowl_with_hare%2C_Egypt%2C_Fatimid_period%2C_11th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_with_overglaze_luster_painting_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04163.JPG/180px-Bowl_with_hare%2C_Egypt%2C_Fatimid_period%2C_11th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_with_overglaze_luster_painting_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04163.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3765" data-file-height="3548" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:67px;max-width:67px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:84px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Seated_drinker,_Fatimid_art.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Seated_drinker%2C_Fatimid_art.jpg/65px-Seated_drinker%2C_Fatimid_art.jpg" decoding="async" width="65" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Seated_drinker%2C_Fatimid_art.jpg/98px-Seated_drinker%2C_Fatimid_art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Seated_drinker%2C_Fatimid_art.jpg/130px-Seated_drinker%2C_Fatimid_art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="627" data-file-height="816" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:84px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Luster_bowl,_Fatimid,_11th_cent.;_Museum_of_Islamic_Art,_Cairo_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Luster_bowl%2C_Fatimid%2C_11th_cent.%3B_Museum_of_Islamic_Art%2C_Cairo_%282%29.jpg/75px-Luster_bowl%2C_Fatimid%2C_11th_cent.%3B_Museum_of_Islamic_Art%2C_Cairo_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Luster_bowl%2C_Fatimid%2C_11th_cent.%3B_Museum_of_Islamic_Art%2C_Cairo_%282%29.jpg/113px-Luster_bowl%2C_Fatimid%2C_11th_cent.%3B_Museum_of_Islamic_Art%2C_Cairo_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Luster_bowl%2C_Fatimid%2C_11th_cent.%3B_Museum_of_Islamic_Art%2C_Cairo_%282%29.jpg/150px-Luster_bowl%2C_Fatimid%2C_11th_cent.%3B_Museum_of_Islamic_Art%2C_Cairo_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3419" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">(1st row) Various examples of early Umayyad paintings in Qusayr 'Amra. (2nd row) Examples of Abbasid Figural paintings from Samarra. (3rd row) Examples of Fatimid art.</div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic art">Arabic art</a> has taken various forms, including, among other things, <a href="/wiki/Jewelry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewelry">jewelry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">textiles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-434">[432]</a><a href="#cite_note-435">[433]</a> Arabic script has also traditionally been heavily embellished with often colorful <a href="/wiki/Arabic_calligraphy" title="Arabic calligraphy">Arabic calligraphy</a>, with one notable and widely used example being <a href="/wiki/Kufic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Kufic script">Kufic script</a>.<a href="#cite_note-436">[434]</a> Arabic miniatures (<a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>: الْمُنَمْنَمَات الْعَرَبِيَّة, Al-Munamnamāt al-ʿArabīyah) are small <a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">paintings</a> on <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, usually book or manuscript illustrations but also sometimes separate artworks that occupy entire pages. The earliest example dates from around 690 CE, with a flourishing of the art from between 1000 and 1200 CE in the Abbasid caliphate. The art form went through several stages of evolution while witnessing the fall and rise of several <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Arab caliphates</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:231px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_kfq_0060.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_kfq_0060.jpg/138px-Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_kfq_0060.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_kfq_0060.jpg/207px-Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_kfq_0060.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_kfq_0060.jpg/276px-Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_kfq_0060.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="4187" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:188px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_Parisino-Petropolitanus_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Codex_Parisino-Petropolitanus_02.jpg/138px-Codex_Parisino-Petropolitanus_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Codex_Parisino-Petropolitanus_02.jpg/207px-Codex_Parisino-Petropolitanus_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Codex_Parisino-Petropolitanus_02.jpg/276px-Codex_Parisino-Petropolitanus_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="1078" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Arabic miniature</div></div></div></div> Arab miniaturists got totally assimilated and subsequently disappeared due to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> occupation of the Arab world. Nearly all forms of Islamic miniatures (<a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Persian miniatures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman miniatures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_miniature" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal miniature">Mughal miniatures</a>) owe their existences to Arabic miniatures, as Arab patrons were the first to demand the production of illuminated manuscripts in the Caliphate, it was not until the 14th century that the artistic skill reached the non-Arab regions of the Caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-437">[435]</a><a href="#cite_note-DavidCollection2-438">[436]</a><a href="#cite_note-MMA19332-439">[437]</a><a href="#cite_note-440">[438]</a><a href="#cite_note-441">[439]</a> Despite the considerable changes in Arabic miniature style and technique, even during their last decades, the early <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> Arab influence could still be noticed. Arabic miniature artists include <a href="/wiki/Ismail_al-Jazari" title="Ismail al-Jazari">Ismail al-Jazari</a>, who illustrated his own Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.<a href="#cite_note-Jazari2-442">[440]</a> The Abbasid artist, <a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Mahmud_al-Wasiti" title="Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti">Yahya Al-Wasiti</a>, who probably lived in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> in the late Abbasid era (12th to 13th-centuries), was one of the pre-eminent exponents of the Baghdad school. In the period 1236–1237, he transcribed and illustrated the book Maqamat (also known as the Assemblies or the Sessions), a series of anecdotes of social satire written by <a href="/wiki/Al-Hariri_of_Basra" title="Al-Hariri of Basra">Al-Hariri of Basra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-443">[441]</a> The narrative concerns the travels of a middle-aged man as he uses his charm and eloquence to swindle his way across the Arabic world.<a href="#cite_note-444">[442]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egitto,_cairo,_placca_decorativa_in_avorio,_XI_sec_-_Louvre_-_OA_6265-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Egitto%2C_cairo%2C_placca_decorativa_in_avorio%2C_XI_sec_-_Louvre_-_OA_6265-1.jpg/220px-Egitto%2C_cairo%2C_placca_decorativa_in_avorio%2C_XI_sec_-_Louvre_-_OA_6265-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Egitto%2C_cairo%2C_placca_decorativa_in_avorio%2C_XI_sec_-_Louvre_-_OA_6265-1.jpg/330px-Egitto%2C_cairo%2C_placca_decorativa_in_avorio%2C_XI_sec_-_Louvre_-_OA_6265-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Egitto%2C_cairo%2C_placca_decorativa_in_avorio%2C_XI_sec_-_Louvre_-_OA_6265-1.jpg/440px-Egitto%2C_cairo%2C_placca_decorativa_in_avorio%2C_XI_sec_-_Louvre_-_OA_6265-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2823" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>Arabesque pattern behind hunters on <a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving" title="Ivory carving">ivory plaque</a>, 11th–12th century, Egypt</figcaption></figure> With most surviving Arabic <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a> in western museums,<a href="#cite_note-445">[443]</a> Arabic miniatures occupy very little space in modern Arab culture.<a href="#cite_note-446">[444]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a> is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines,<a href="#cite_note-447">[445]</a> often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foliate ornament, typically using leaves, derived from stylised <a href="/wiki/Half-palmette" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-palmette">half-palmettes</a>, which were combined with spiralling stems".<a href="#cite_note-448">[446]</a> It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired.<a href="#cite_note-RobinsonIllustrated2-449">[447]</a><a href="#cite_note-450">[448]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_architecture" title="Nabataean architecture">Nabataean architecture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a></div> The Arab world is home to around 8%<a href="#cite_note-451">[449]</a> of <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Sites</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Arab_states" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab states">List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab states</a>). The oldest examples of architecture include those of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic Arabia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:05222-452">[450]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_architecture" title="Nabataean architecture">Nabataean architecture</a> that developed in the ancient <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">kingdom of the Nabataeans</a>, a nomadic Arab tribe that controlled a significant portion of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> from the 4th century BCE to the 2nd century CE.<a href="#cite_note-453">[451]</a><a href="#cite_note-454">[452]</a> The Nabataeans were known for their skill in carving out elaborate buildings, tombs, and other structures from the sandstone cliffs of the region. One of the most famous examples of Nabataean architecture is the city of <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>, which is located in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, was the capital of the Nabataean kingdom and is renowned for its impressive rock-cut architecture.<a href="#cite_note-455">[453]</a> Prior to the start of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arab conquests</a>, Arab tribal client states, the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid_kingdom" title="Lakhmid kingdom">Lakhmids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a>, were located on the borders of the Sassanid and Byzantine empires and were exposed to the cultural and architectural influences of both.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd1995a401–403-456">[454]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFloodNecipoğlu201758-457">[455]</a> They most likely played a significant role in transmitting and adapting the architectural traditions of these two empires to the later Arab Islamic dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd1995a391,_402-458">[456]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEttinghausenGrabarJenkins-Madina20014–5-459">[457]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:200px;max-width:200px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:278px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Jerusalem-2013-Temple_Mount-Dome_of_the_Rock_%26_Chain_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Jerusalem-2013-Temple_Mount-Dome_of_the_Rock_%26_Chain_02.jpg/198px-Jerusalem-2013-Temple_Mount-Dome_of_the_Rock_%26_Chain_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Jerusalem-2013-Temple_Mount-Dome_of_the_Rock_%26_Chain_02.jpg/297px-Jerusalem-2013-Temple_Mount-Dome_of_the_Rock_%26_Chain_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Jerusalem-2013-Temple_Mount-Dome_of_the_Rock_%26_Chain_02.jpg/396px-Jerusalem-2013-Temple_Mount-Dome_of_the_Rock_%26_Chain_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="7039" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:188px;max-width:188px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:278px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Alhambra_(51949319806).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Alhambra_%2851949319806%29.jpg/186px-Alhambra_%2851949319806%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="186" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Alhambra_%2851949319806%29.jpg/279px-Alhambra_%2851949319806%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Alhambra_%2851949319806%29.jpg/372px-Alhambra_%2851949319806%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The Dome of the Rock located in Jerusalem, Alhambra is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain.</div></div></div></div> The Arab empire expanded rapidly, and with it, came a diverse range of architectural influences. One of the most notable architectural achievements of the Arab Empire is the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Great Mosque of Damascus</a> in Syria, which was built in the early 8th century, was constructed on the site of a Christian basilica and incorporated elements of Byzantine and Roman architecture, such as arches, columns, and intricate mosaics. Another important architectural is the <a href="/wiki/Al-Aqsa_Mosque" title="Al-Aqsa Mosque">Al-Aqsa Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, which was built in the late 7th century. The mosque features an impressive dome and a large prayer hall, as well as intricate geometric patterns and calligraphy on the walls.<a href="#cite_note-460">[458]</a><a href="#cite_note-Krautheimer2-461">[459]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_music" title="Arabic music">Arabic music</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umm_Kulthum4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Umm_Kulthum4.jpg/170px-Umm_Kulthum4.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Umm_Kulthum4.jpg/255px-Umm_Kulthum4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Umm_Kulthum4.jpg/340px-Umm_Kulthum4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="548" data-file-height="785" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Umm_Kulthum" title="Umm Kulthum">Umm Kulthum</a> was an Arab singer, <a href="/wiki/Songwriter" title="Songwriter">songwriter</a>, and film actress (1920s–1970s). She has been named among the "200 Greatest Singers of All Time".<a href="#cite_note-462">[460]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_music" title="Arabic music">Arabic music</a>, while independent and flourishing in the 2010s, has a long history of interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It is an amalgam of the music of the Arab people in the Arabian Peninsula and the music of all the peoples that make up the Arab world today.<a href="#cite_note-463">[461]</a> Pre-Islamic Arab music was similar to that of Ancient Middle Eastern music. Most historians agree that there existed distinct forms of music in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a> in the pre-Islamic period between the 5th and 7th century CE. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arab poets</a> of that "Jahili poets", meaning "the poets of the period of ignorance"—used to recite poems with a high notes.<a href="#cite_note-Jahili2-464">[462]</a> It was believed that <a href="/wiki/Genie" class="mw-redirect" title="Genie">Jinns</a> revealed poems to poets and music to musicians.<a href="#cite_note-Jahili2-464">[462]</a> By the 11th century, Islamic Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually throughout <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, influencing French <a href="/wiki/Troubadour" title="Troubadour">troubadours</a>, and eventually reaching the rest of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. The English words <a href="/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">lute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rebec" title="Rebec">rebec</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Naqareh" title="Naqareh">naker</a> are derived from Arabic <a href="/wiki/Oud" title="Oud">oud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rebab" title="Rebab">rabab</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Naqareh" title="Naqareh">naqareh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-465">[463]</a><a href="#cite_note-466">[464]</a> A number of <a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">musical instruments</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a> are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: the <a href="/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">lute</a> was derived from the <a href="/wiki/Oud" title="Oud">Oud</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rebec" title="Rebec">rebec</a> (ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">violin</a>) from the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb_rebab" title="Maghreb rebab">Maghreb rebab</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Guitar" title="Guitar">guitar</a> from qitara, which in turn was derived from the Persian <a href="/wiki/Tar_(lute)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tar (lute)">Tar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naqareh" title="Naqareh">naker</a> from <a href="/wiki/Naqareh" title="Naqareh">naqareh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adufe" title="Adufe">adufe</a> from <a href="/wiki/Daf" title="Daf">al-duff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alboka" title="Alboka">alboka</a> from al-buq, anafil from <a href="/wiki/Nafir_(trumpet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nafir (trumpet)">al-nafir</a>, exabeba from al-shabbaba (<a href="/wiki/Flute" title="Flute">flute</a>), atabal (<a href="/wiki/Bass_drum" title="Bass drum">bass drum</a>) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal,<a href="#cite_note-467">[465]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Balaban_(instrument)" title="Balaban (instrument)">balaban</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Castanet" class="mw-redirect" title="Castanet">castanet</a> from kasatan, <a href="/wiki/Tuna_(music)" title="Tuna (music)">sonajas de azófar</a> from sunuj al-sufr, the <a href="/wiki/Bore_(wind_instruments)" title="Bore (wind instruments)">conical bore</a> <a href="/wiki/Wind_instrument" title="Wind instrument">wind instruments</a>,<a href="#cite_note-468">[466]</a> the xelami from the sulami or <a href="/wiki/Fistula" title="Fistula">fistula</a> (flute or <a href="/wiki/Organ_pipe" title="Organ pipe">musical pipe</a>),<a href="#cite_note-469">[467]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Shawm" title="Shawm">shawm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dulzaina" title="Dulzaina">dulzaina</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Reed_(instrument)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reed (instrument)">reed instruments</a> zamr and <a href="/wiki/Zurna" title="Zurna">al-zurna</a>,<a href="#cite_note-470">[468]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Galician_gaita" title="Galician gaita">gaita</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Rhaita" title="Rhaita">ghaita</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rackett" title="Rackett">rackett</a> from iraqya or iraqiyya,<a href="#cite_note-471">[469]</a> <a href="/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">geige</a> (violin) from ghichak,<a href="#cite_note-472">[470]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Theorbo" title="Theorbo">theorbo</a> from the tarab.<a href="#cite_note-473">[471]</a> During the 1950s and the 1960s, Arabic music began to take on a more Western tone – artists <a href="/wiki/Umm_Kulthum" title="Umm Kulthum">Umm Kulthum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abdel_Halim_Hafez" title="Abdel Halim Hafez">Abdel Halim Hafez</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shadia" title="Shadia">Shadia</a> along with composers <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Abdel_Wahab" title="Mohammed Abdel Wahab">Mohamed Abd al-Wahab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baligh_Hamdi" title="Baligh Hamdi">Baligh Hamdi</a> pioneered the use of western instruments in Egyptian music. By the 1970s several other singers had followed suit and a strand of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_pop" title="Arabic pop">Arabic pop</a> was born. Arabic pop usually consists of Western styled songs with Arabic instruments and lyrics. Melodies are often a mix between Eastern and Western. Beginning in the mid-1980s, <a href="/wiki/Lydia_Canaan" title="Lydia Canaan">Lydia Canaan</a>, musical <a href="/wiki/Innovator" class="mw-redirect" title="Innovator">pioneer</a> widely regarded as the first rock star of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a><a href="#cite_note-Daily_Star_Rock_Hall2-474">[472]</a><a href="#cite_note-475">[473]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spirituality">Spirituality</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nemesis_Allat_and_dedicater-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0557.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Nemesis_Allat_and_dedicater-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0557.JPG/220px-Nemesis_Allat_and_dedicater-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0557.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Nemesis_Allat_and_dedicater-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0557.JPG/330px-Nemesis_Allat_and_dedicater-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0557.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Nemesis_Allat_and_dedicater-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0557.JPG/440px-Nemesis_Allat_and_dedicater-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0557.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3744" data-file-height="3744" /></a><figcaption>Bas-relief: <a href="/wiki/Nemesis" title="Nemesis">Nemesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Lat" title="Al-Lat">al-Lat</a> and the dedicator. <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyrene</a>, 2nd–3rd century CE.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arab polytheism</a> was the dominant religion in <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic Arabia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Gods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">goddesses</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Hubal" title="Hubal">Hubal</a> and the goddesses <a href="/wiki/Al-Lat" title="Al-Lat">al-Lāt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-%27Uzz%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-'Uzzá">Al-'Uzzá</a> and <a href="/wiki/Man%C4%81t" class="mw-redirect" title="Manāt">Manāt</a>, were worshipped at local shrines, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, whilst Arabs in the south, in what is today's Yemen, worshipped various gods, some of which represented the Sun or Moon. Different theories <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia#Mecca" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">have been proposed</a> regarding the role of <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> in Meccan religion.<a href="#cite_note-Robinson2-476">[474]</a><a href="#cite_note-Peters2-477">[475]</a><a href="#cite_note-Peterson20072-478">[476]</a> Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced to <a href="/wiki/Cult_image" title="Cult image">idols</a>, especially near the Kaaba, which is said to have contained up to 360 of them.<a href="#cite_note-armstrong2-479">[477]</a> Until about the fourth century, almost all Arabs practised polytheistic religions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyland2002139-480">[478]</a> Although significant <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> and Christian minorities developed, <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a> remained the dominant belief system in pre-Islamic Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-Nicolle2-481">[479]</a> The religious beliefs and practices of the nomadic <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">bedouin</a> were distinct from those of the settled tribes of towns such as <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Aslan62-482">[480]</a> Nomadic religious belief systems and practices are believed to have included <a href="/wiki/Fetishism" title="Fetishism">fetishism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Totemism" class="mw-redirect" title="Totemism">totemism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">veneration of the dead</a> but were connected principally with immediate concerns and problems and did not consider larger <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> questions such as the afterlife.<a href="#cite_note-Aslan62-482">[480]</a> Settled urban Arabs, on the other hand, are thought to have believed in a more complex <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_(religion)" title="Pantheon (religion)">pantheon</a> of deities.<a href="#cite_note-Aslan62-482">[480]</a> While the Meccans and the other settled inhabitants of the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a> worshipped their gods at permanent shrines in towns and oases, the bedouin practised their religion on the move.<a href="#cite_note-Peters1052-483">[481]</a> Most notable Arab gods and goddesses: <a href="/wiki/%27Amm" title="'Amm">'Amm</a>, <a href="/wiki/A%27ra" class="mw-redirect" title="A'ra">A'ra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abgal_(god)" title="Abgal (god)">Abgal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allah#Pre-Islamic_Arabians" title="Allah">Allah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Lat" title="Al-Lat">Al-Lat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaum" title="Al-Qaum">Al-Qaum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almaqah" title="Almaqah">Almaqah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anbay" title="Anbay">Anbay</a>, <a href="/wiki/%CA%BFA%E1%B9%AFtar" title="ʿAṯtar">ʿAṯtar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basamum" title="Basamum">Basamum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demolition_of_Dhul_Khalasa" title="Demolition of Dhul Khalasa">Dhu l-Khalasa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dushara" title="Dushara">Dushara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haukim" title="Haukim">Haukim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hubal" title="Hubal">Hubal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Is%C4%81f_and_N%C4%81%27ila" class="mw-redirect" title="Isāf and Nā'ila">Isāf and Nā'ila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manaf_(deity)" title="Manaf (deity)">Manaf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Man%C4%81t" class="mw-redirect" title="Manāt">Manāt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasr_(deity)" title="Nasr (deity)">Nasr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuha_(deity)" title="Nuha (deity)">Nuha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quzah" title="Quzah">Quzah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ruda_(deity)" title="Ruda (deity)">Ruda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sa%27d_(deity)" title="Sa'd (deity)">Sa'd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shams_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shams (goddess)">Shams, Samas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Syn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suwa%27" title="Suwa'">Suwa'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ta%27lab" title="Ta'lab">Ta'lab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theandrios" title="Theandrios">Theandrios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-%27Uzz%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-'Uzzá">al-'Uzzá</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wadd" title="Wadd">Wadd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ya%27uq" title="Ya'uq">Ya'uq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yagh%C5%ABth" title="Yaghūth">Yaghūth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yatha" title="Yatha">Yatha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aglibol" title="Aglibol">Aglibol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astarte" title="Astarte">Astarte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atargatis" title="Atargatis">Atargatis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baalshamin" title="Baalshamin">Baalshamin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bel_(mythology)" title="Bel (mythology)">Bēl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bes" title="Bes">Bes</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_(deity)" title="El (deity)">Ēl, Ilāh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inanna" title="Inanna">Inanna/Ishtar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malakbel" title="Malakbel">Malakbel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nabu" title="Nabu">Nabū, Nebo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nergal" title="Nergal">Nergal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yarhibol" title="Yarhibol">Yarhibol</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic philosophy">Arabic philosophy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:200px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg/150px-Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg/225px-Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg/300px-Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:200px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:TCCKhaldun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/TCCKhaldun.jpg/134px-TCCKhaldun.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/TCCKhaldun.jpg/201px-TCCKhaldun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/TCCKhaldun.jpg/268px-TCCKhaldun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="604" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Ibn Rushd (left), known in the west as <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, was a philosopher that influenced the rise of secular thought in Western Europe, while <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (right) was a sociologist, philosopher, and historian widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest social scientists of the Middle Ages.</div></div></div></div> The philosophical thought in the Arab world is heavily influenced by Arabic Philosophy. Schools of Arabic/Islamic thought include <a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a>. The first great Arab thinker in the Islamic tradition is widely regarded to be <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a> (801–873 A.D.), a <a href="/wiki/Neo-Platonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Platonic">Neo-Platonic</a> philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a> who lived in <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> (modern day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>). After being appointed by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Caliphs">Abbasid Caliphs</a> to translate <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> scientific and <a href="/wiki/Philosophical" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical">philosophical</a> texts into <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, he wrote a number of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects, from <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethic">ethics</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mathematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematic">mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-484">[482]</a> Much of his <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> output focuses on <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theological</a> subjects such as the nature of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">prophetic</a> knowledge. Doctrines of the Arabic philosophers of the 9th–12th century who influenced medieval <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> in Europe. The Arabic tradition combines <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> with other ideas introduced through <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. Influential thinkers include the non-Arabs <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>. The Arabic philosophic literature was translated into <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, this contributed to the development of modern European philosophy. The Arabic tradition was developed by <a href="/wiki/Moses_Maimonides" class="mw-redirect" title="Moses Maimonides">Moses Maimonides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-485">[483]</a><a href="#cite_note-486">[484]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Science in the medieval Islamic world</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Houghton_Typ_620.47.452_-_Selenographia,_title.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Houghton_Typ_620.47.452_-_Selenographia%2C_title.jpg/170px-Houghton_Typ_620.47.452_-_Selenographia%2C_title.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Houghton_Typ_620.47.452_-_Selenographia%2C_title.jpg/255px-Houghton_Typ_620.47.452_-_Selenographia%2C_title.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Houghton_Typ_620.47.452_-_Selenographia%2C_title.jpg/340px-Houghton_Typ_620.47.452_-_Selenographia%2C_title.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2431" data-file-height="3845" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hevelius" class="mw-redirect" title="Hevelius">Hevelius</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Selenographia" class="mw-redirect" title="Selenographia">Selenographia</a>, showing <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a> [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>] representing reason, and <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a> representing the senses.</figcaption></figure> Arabic science underwent considerable development during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> (8th to 13th centuries CE), a <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">source of knowledge that later spread throughout Medieval Europe</a> and greatly influenced both medical practice and education. The language of recorded science was <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>. Scientific treatises were composed by thinkers originating from across the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>. These accomplishments occurred after <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> united the Arab tribes and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-487">[485]</a> Within a century after Muhammed's death (632 CE), an empire ruled by Arabs was established. It encompassed a large part of the planet, stretching from southern Europe to <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> to <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and on to India. In 711 CE, Arab Muslims invaded southern Spain; <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> was a center of Arabic scientific accomplishment. Soon after, Sicily too joined the greater Islamic world. Another center emerged in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> from the Abbasids, who ruled part of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a> during a historic period later characterized as the "<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a>" (~750 to 1258 CE).<a href="#cite_note-488">[486]</a> This era can be identified as the years between 692 and 945,<a href="#cite_note-World_Civilization_Vol_1_1974,_pg._2342-489">[487]</a> and ended when the caliphate was marginalized by local Muslim rulers in Baghdad – its traditional seat of power. From 945 onward until the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baghdad" class="mw-redirect" title="Sack of Baghdad">sacking of Baghdad</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasions">Mongols</a> in 1258, the Caliph continued on as a figurehead, with power devolving more to local subordinates.<a href="#cite_note-World_Civilization_Vol_1_1974,_pg._2332-490">[488]</a> The pious scholars of Islam, men and women collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a>, were the most influential element of society in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> law, speculative thought and theology.<a href="#cite_note-491">[489]</a> Arabic scientific achievement is not as yet fully understood, but is very large.<a href="#cite_note-RobinsonCambridge2-492">[490]</a> These achievements encompass a wide range of subject areas, especially <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematics in medieval Islam">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in medieval Islam">medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RobinsonCambridge2-492">[490]</a> Other subjects of scientific inquiry included <a href="/wiki/Physics_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Physics in medieval Islam">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam">alchemy and chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Islamic_ophthalmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Islamic ophthalmology">ophthalmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography and cartography in medieval Islam">geography and cartography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology in medieval Islam">sociology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology in medieval Islam">psychology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-493">[491]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maqamat_hariri.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/220px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/330px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/440px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="989" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of scholars dating from the Abbasid period by <a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Mahmud_al-Wasiti" title="Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti">Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Maqamat_of_Al-Hariri_(manuscript)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maqamat of Al-Hariri (manuscript)">Maqamat of Al-Hariri</a> manuscript.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Al-Battani" title="Al-Battani">Al-Battani</a> was an astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>. His work is considered instrumental in the development of science and astronomy. One of Al-Battani's best-known achievements in astronomy was the determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds which is only 2 minutes and 22 seconds off.<a href="#cite_note-MacTutor2-494">[492]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Islamic_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic mathematics">mathematics</a>, al-Battānī produced a number of <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometrical</a> relationships.<a href="#cite_note-MacTutor2-494">[492]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">Al-Zahrawi</a>, regarded by many as the greatest surgeon of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-495">[493]</a> His surgical treatise "<a href="/wiki/Al-Tasrif" title="Al-Tasrif">De chirurgia</a>" is the first illustrated surgical guide ever written. It remained the primary source for surgical procedures and instruments in Europe for the next 500 years.<a href="#cite_note-496">[494]</a> The book helped lay the foundation to establish <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a> as a scientific discipline independent from <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, earning al-Zahrawi his name as one of the founders of this field.<a href="#cite_note-497">[495]</a> Other notable Arabic contributions include among other things: the pioneering of <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a> by <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81bir_ibn_Hayy%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Jābir ibn Hayyān">Jābir ibn Hayyān</a>,<a href="#cite_note-498">[496]</a> establishing the science of <a href="/wiki/Cryptology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptology">cryptology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">cryptanalysis</a> by <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-499">[497]</a><a href="#cite_note-500">[498]</a><a href="#cite_note-501">[499]</a> the development of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_geometry" title="Analytic geometry">analytic geometry</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a>,<a href="#cite_note-502">[500]</a><a href="#cite_note-503">[501]</a> who has been described as the "world's first true scientist",<a href="#cite_note-504">[502]</a> the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-505">[503]</a><a href="#cite_note-506">[504]</a> the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Itch_mite" class="mw-redirect" title="Itch mite">itch mite</a> parasite by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Ibn Zuhr</a>,<a href="#cite_note-507">[505]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] the first use of <a href="/wiki/Irrational_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Irrational numbers">irrational numbers</a> as an algebraic objects by <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_K%C4%81mil" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Kāmil">Abū Kāmil</a>,<a href="#cite_note-508">[506]</a> the first use of the positional <a href="/wiki/Decimal_fractions" class="mw-redirect" title="Decimal fractions">decimal fractions</a> by <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Hasan_al-Uqlidisi" title="Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi">al-Uqlidisi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-509">[507]</a><a href="#cite_note-510">[508]</a> the development of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a> and an early <a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematical_notation" title="History of mathematical notation">algebraic symbolism</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>,<a href="#cite_note-511">[509]</a><a href="#cite_note-512">[510]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Thabit_number" title="Thabit number">Thabit number</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amicable_numbers#Thābit_ibn_Qurra_theorem" title="Amicable numbers">Thābit theorem</a> by <a href="/wiki/Th%C4%81bit_ibn_Qurra" title="Thābit ibn Qurra">Thābit ibn Qurra</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Rashed2-513">[511]</a> the discovery of several new <a href="/wiki/List_of_trigonometric_identities" title="List of trigonometric identities">trigonometric identities</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Yunus" title="Ibn Yunus">Ibn Yunus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Battani" title="Al-Battani">al-Battani</a>,<a href="#cite_note-514">[512]</a><a href="#cite_note-515">[513]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_proof" title="Mathematical proof">mathematical proof</a> for <a href="/wiki/Ceva%27s_theorem" title="Ceva's theorem">Ceva's theorem</a> by <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_al-Mu%27taman_ibn_Hud" title="Yusuf al-Mu'taman ibn Hud">Ibn Hűd</a>,<a href="#cite_note-516">[514]</a> the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Equatorium" title="Equatorium">equatorium</a> by <a href="/wiki/Al-Zarqali" title="Al-Zarqali">al-Zarqali</a>,<a href="#cite_note-517">[515]</a> the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Reaction_(physics)" title="Reaction (physics)">physical reaction</a> by <a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a>,<a href="#cite_note-518">[516]</a> the identification of more than 200 new <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Baitar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Baitar">Ibn al-Baitar</a><a href="#cite_note-519">[517]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a>, which was the most accurate world map in pre-modern times by <a href="/wiki/Al-Idrisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Idrisi">al-Idrisi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bacharach2-520">[518]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:336px;max-width:336px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-jazari_water_device.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Al-jazari_water_device.jpg/170px-Al-jazari_water_device.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Al-jazari_water_device.jpg/255px-Al-jazari_water_device.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Al-jazari_water_device.jpg/340px-Al-jazari_water_device.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="664" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:160px;max-width:160px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheshm_manuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheshm_manuscript.jpg/158px-Cheshm_manuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheshm_manuscript.jpg/237px-Cheshm_manuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheshm_manuscript.jpg/316px-Cheshm_manuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Diagram of a hydro-powered perpetual flute from The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices by <a href="/wiki/Ismail_al-Jazari" title="Ismail al-Jazari">Ismail al-Jazari</a>, 1206. (left) The eye according to <a href="/wiki/Hunayn_ibn_Ishaq" title="Hunayn ibn Ishaq">Hunayn ibn Ishaq</a>, c.1200 (right)</div></div></div></div> Several universities and educational institutions of the Arab world such as the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Al_Quaraouiyine" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Al Quaraouiyine">University of Al Quaraouiyine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al_Azhar_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Azhar University">Al Azhar University</a>, and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Ez-Zitouna" title="University of Ez-Zitouna">Al Zaytuna University</a> are considered to be the oldest in the world. Founded by <a href="/wiki/Fatima_al-Fihri" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatima al-Fihri">Fatima al Fihri</a> in 859 as a mosque, the University of Al Quaraouiyine in <a href="/wiki/Fez,_Morocco" title="Fez, Morocco">Fez</a> is the oldest existing, continually operating and the first <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">degree</a> awarding educational institution in the world according to <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guinness_World_Records" title="Guinness World Records">Guinness World Records</a><a href="#cite_note-521">[519]</a><a href="#cite_note-522">[520]</a> and is sometimes referred to as the oldest university.<a href="#cite_note-523">[521]</a> There are many scientific <a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Arabic loanwords</a> in Western European languages, including <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:English_terms_derived_from_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Category:English terms derived from Arabic">English</a>, mostly via Old French.<a href="#cite_note-524">[522]</a> This includes <a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_star_names" title="List of Arabic star names">traditional star names</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Aldebaran" title="Aldebaran">Aldebaran</a>, scientific terms like <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alchemy" class="extiw" title="wikt:alchemy">alchemy</a> (whence also <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chemistry" class="extiw" title="wikt:chemistry">chemistry</a>), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/algebra" class="extiw" title="wikt:algebra">algebra</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/algorithm" class="extiw" title="wikt:algorithm">algorithm</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alcohol" class="extiw" title="wikt:alcohol">alcohol</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alkali" class="extiw" title="wikt:alkali">alkali</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cipher" class="extiw" title="wikt:cipher">cipher</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zenith" class="extiw" title="wikt:zenith">zenith</a>, etc. Under <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman rule">Ottoman rule</a>, cultural life and science in the Arab world declined. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Arabs who have won important science prizes include <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Zewail" title="Ahmed Zewail">Ahmed Zewail</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elias_Corey" class="mw-redirect" title="Elias Corey">Elias Corey</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>), <a href="/wiki/Michael_DeBakey" title="Michael DeBakey">Michael DeBakey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alim_Louis_Benabid" title="Alim Louis Benabid">Alim Benabid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lasker_Award" title="Lasker Award">Lasker Award</a>), <a href="/wiki/Omar_M._Yaghi" title="Omar M. Yaghi">Omar M. Yaghi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize" title="Wolf Prize">Wolf Prize</a>), <a href="/wiki/Huda_Zoghbi" title="Huda Zoghbi">Huda Zoghbi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shaw_Prize" title="Shaw Prize">Shaw Prize</a>), <a href="/wiki/Zaha_Hadid" title="Zaha Hadid">Zaha Hadid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pritzker_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Pritzker Prize">Pritzker Prize</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Michael Atiyah</a> (both <a href="/wiki/Fields_Medal" title="Fields Medal">Fields Medal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abel_Prize" title="Abel Prize">Abel Prize</a>). <a href="/wiki/Rachid_Yazami" title="Rachid Yazami">Rachid Yazami</a> was one of the co-inventors of the <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">lithium-ion battery</a>,<a href="#cite_note-525">[523]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tony_Fadell" title="Tony Fadell">Tony Fadell</a> was important in the development of the <a href="/wiki/IPod" title="IPod">iPod</a> and the <a href="/wiki/IPhone" title="IPhone">iPhone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-526">[524]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theatre">Theatre</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Experimental_theatre_in_the_Arab_world" title="Experimental theatre in the Arab world">Experimental theatre in the Arab world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yousef_wahby.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Yousef_wahby.jpg/170px-Yousef_wahby.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Yousef_wahby.jpg/255px-Yousef_wahby.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Yousef_wahby.jpg/340px-Yousef_wahby.jpg 2x" data-file-width="372" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Youssef_Wahbi" title="Youssef Wahbi">Youssef Wahbi</a>, (1898–1982) was a prominent Arab playwright, actor, and director who played a major role in shaping modern Arab theatre.</figcaption></figure> Arab theatre is a rich and diverse cultural form that encompasses a wide range of styles, genres, and historical influences. Its roots in the pre-Islamic era, when poetry, storytelling, and musical performances were the main forms of artistic expressionIt refers to theatrical performances that are created by Arab playwrights, actors, and directors. The roots of Arab theatre can be traced back to ancient <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a> and storytelling, which often incorporated music and dance. In the <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">early Arabic period</a>, storytelling evolved into a more formalized art form that was performed in public gatherings and festivals.<a href="#cite_note-527">[525]</a><a href="#cite_note-528">[526]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> in the 8th and 9th centuries, the city of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> emerged as a hub of intellectual and artistic activity, including theatre. The court of the Abbasid Caliphate was home to many influential playwrights and performers, who helped to develop and popularize theatre throughout the Islamic world. Arab theatre has a long tradition of incorporating comedy and satire into its performances, often using humor to address social and political issues.<a href="#cite_note-529">[527]</a> Arab theatre encompasses a wide range of dramatic genres, including tragedy, melodrama, and historical plays. Many Arab playwrights have used drama to address contemporary issues, the role of <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Arab_world" title="Women in the Arab world">women in Arab society</a>, and the challenges facing young people in the modern world. In recent decades, many Arab theatre artists have pushed the boundaries of the form, experimenting with new styles and techniques. This has led to the emergence of a vibrant contemporary theatre scene in many Arab countries, with innovative productions and performances that challenge traditional notions of Arab identity and culture.<a href="#cite_note-530">[528]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fashion">Fashion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arab_Fashion_Council" title="Arab Fashion Council">Arab Fashion Council</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Six_cushions_from_Palestine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Six_cushions_from_Palestine.jpg/220px-Six_cushions_from_Palestine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Six_cushions_from_Palestine.jpg/330px-Six_cushions_from_Palestine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Six_cushions_from_Palestine.jpg/440px-Six_cushions_from_Palestine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6750" data-file-height="3962" /></a><figcaption>Modern <a href="/wiki/Cross-stitch" title="Cross-stitch">cross-stitch</a> cushions. From top left, clockwise: <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ramallah" title="Ramallah">Ramallah</a>, Ramallah, <a href="/wiki/Nablus" title="Nablus">Nablus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beit_Jalla" class="mw-redirect" title="Beit Jalla">Beit Jalla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bethlehem" title="Bethlehem">Bethlehem</a>.</figcaption></figure> Arab fashion and design have a rich history and cultural significance that spans centuries, each with its unique fashion and design traditions. One of the most notable aspects of Arab fashion is the use of luxurious <a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">fabrics</a> and intricate <a href="/wiki/Embroidery" title="Embroidery">embroidery</a>. Traditional garments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Abaya" title="Abaya">Abaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thawb" title="Thawb">Thobe</a>, are often made from high-quality fabrics like <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satin" title="Satin">satin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brocade" title="Brocade">brocade</a>, and are embellished with intricate embroidery and beading.<a href="#cite_note-531">[529]</a> In recent years, Arab fashion has gained global recognition, with designers like <a href="/wiki/Elie_Saab" title="Elie Saab">Elie Saab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zuhair_Murad" title="Zuhair Murad">Zuhair Murad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reem_Acra" title="Reem Acra">Reem Acra</a> showcasing their designs on international runways.<a href="#cite_note-532">[530]</a> These designers incorporate traditional Arab design elements into their collections, such as ornate patterns, luxurious fabrics, and intricate embellishments. In addition to fashion, Arab design is also characterized by its intricate geometric <a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">patterns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_calligraphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab calligraphy">calligraphy</a>, and use of vibrant colors. Arabic art and architecture, with their intricate geometric patterns and motifs, have influenced Arab design for centuries.<a href="#cite_note-533">[531]</a> Arab designers also incorporate traditional motifs, such as the paisley and the <a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">arabesque</a>, into their work. Overall, Arab fashion elements are rooted in the rich cultural heritage of the Arab world and continue to inspire designers today.<a href="#cite_note-534">[532]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wedding_and_marriage">Wedding and marriage</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_wedding" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic wedding">Arabic wedding</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tatouage_au_Henn%C3%A9,_Maroc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Tatouage_au_Henn%C3%A9%2C_Maroc.jpg/220px-Tatouage_au_Henn%C3%A9%2C_Maroc.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Tatouage_au_Henn%C3%A9%2C_Maroc.jpg/330px-Tatouage_au_Henn%C3%A9%2C_Maroc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Tatouage_au_Henn%C3%A9%2C_Maroc.jpg/440px-Tatouage_au_Henn%C3%A9%2C_Maroc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henna" title="Henna">Henna</a> tattoo in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_wedding" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic wedding">Arabic weddings</a> have changed greatly in the past 100 years. Original traditional Arabic weddings are supposed to be very similar to modern-day <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> weddings and rural weddings, and they are in some cases unique from one region to another, even within the same country. The practice of <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marrying</a> of relatives is a common feature of <a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">Arab culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-535">[533]</a> In the Arab world today between 40% and 50% of all marriages are <a href="/wiki/Consanguineous" class="mw-redirect" title="Consanguineous">consanguineous</a> or between close family members, though these figures may vary among Arab nations.<a href="#cite_note-536">[534]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid242942992-537">[535]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, around 40% of the population <a href="/wiki/Cousin_marriage" title="Cousin marriage">marry a cousin</a>. A 1992 survey in <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> found that 32% were married to a first cousin; a further 17.3% were married to more distant relatives.<a href="#cite_note-538">[536]</a> 67% of marriages in <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> are between close relatives as are 54% of all marriages in <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, whereas 18% of all <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanese</a> were between <a href="/wiki/Blood_relatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood relatives">blood relatives</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Inbreeding2-539">[537]</a> Due to the actions of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rightly_Guided_Caliphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Rightly Guided Caliphs">Rightly Guided Caliphs</a>, marriage between cousins is explicitly allowed in <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> itself does not discourage or forbid the practice.<a href="#cite_note-540">[538]</a> Nevertheless, opinions vary on whether the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a> should be seen as exclusively based on Islamic practices as a 1992 study among Arabs in Jordan did not show significant differences between <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Christian Arabs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims">Muslim Arabs</a> when comparing the occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">consanguinity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Inbreeding2-539">[537]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Arabs" title="Genetic studies on Arabs">Genetic studies on Arabs</a></div>Arabs are genetically diverse, arising from admixture with indigenous peoples of pre-Islamic Middle East and North Africa, following the Islamic expansion.<a href="#cite_note-:2-541">[539]</a><a href="#cite_note-542">[540]</a> Genetic ancestry components related to the Arabian Peninsula display an increasing frequency pattern from west to east over North Africa. A similar frequency pattern exist across <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Africa" title="Northeast Africa">northeastern Africa</a> with decreasing genetic affinities to groups of the Arabian Peninsula along the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile river valley</a> across <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a> the more they go south.<a href="#cite_note-:3-543">[541]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">genetic cline</a> of admixture is dated to the time of <a href="/wiki/Arab_migrations_to_the_Maghreb" title="Arab migrations to the Maghreb">Arab expansion and immigration to the Maghreb</a> and northeast Africa.<a href="#cite_note-:3-543">[541]</a> Genetic research has indicated that Palestinian Arabs and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> share common genetic ancestry and are closely related.<a href="#cite_note-544">[542]</a><a href="#cite_note-545">[543]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nebel2000-546">[544]</a><a href="#cite_note-Behar2010-547">[545]</a><a href="#cite_note-548">[546]</a><a href="#cite_note-549">[547]</a><a href="#cite_note-550">[548]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nebel_2001-551">[549]</a> According to a 2016 study, indigenous Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula are direct descendants of the first Eurasian populations established by <a href="/wiki/Out_of_Africa_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Out of Africa migration">Out of Africa migrations</a>. They are also very distant from contemporary Eurasians although there is signal of European admixture.<a href="#cite_note-552">[550]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">Arab Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_companies" title="List of Arab companies">Lists of Arab companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_Arabs" class="mw-redirect" title="North African Arabs">North African Arabs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Including 1–2 million native Arabs<a href="#cite_note-www.aljazeera.com2-12">[12]</a> and 3,763,565 registered Syrian refugees.<a href="#cite_note-UNHCRssrrrTurkey-13">[13]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Sources stating Arabs are an ethnic group:<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> <ul><li>Arabs share a strong bond through their ethnic, linguistic, and cultural heritage. This connection encompasses their history, nationalism, and geographic ties. Religion also influences it, contributing to its distinct customs, arts, cuisine, and societal identity.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">Arab identity</a> concentrating on ethnic identity is another way of defining Arab identity, which can be subdivided into linguistic, cultural, social, historical, political, national, or genealogical terms.</li></ul> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Kamel2017-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Kamel2017_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLorenzo_Kamel2017" class="citation book cs1">Lorenzo Kamel (31 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pB8lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25">The Frailty of Authority: Borders, Non-State Actors and Power Vacuums in a Changing Middle East</a>. Edizioni Nuova Cultura. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8868128289" title="Special:BookSources/978-8868128289"><bdi>978-8868128289</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Frailty+of+Authority%3A+Borders%2C+Non-State+Actors+and+Power+Vacuums+in+a+Changing+Middle+East&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Edizioni+Nuova+Cultura&rft.date=2017-03-31&rft.isbn=978-8868128289&rft.au=Lorenzo+Kamel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpB8lDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellis2018-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Ellis2018_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKail_C._Ellis2018" class="citation book cs1">Kail C. Ellis (12 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e7RGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159">Secular Nationalism and Citizenship in Muslim Countries: Arab Christians in the Levant</a>. Springer. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319712048" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319712048"><bdi>978-3319712048</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secular+Nationalism+and+Citizenship+in+Muslim+Countries%3A+Arab+Christians+in+the+Levant&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018-01-12&rft.isbn=978-3319712048&rft.au=Kail+C.+Ellis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De7RGDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nydell2018-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Nydell2018_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargaret_K._Nydell2018" class="citation book cs1">Margaret K. Nydell (26 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn9ODwAAQBAJ&pg=PP11">Understanding Arabs: A Guide for Modern Times</a>. John Murray Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1473690912" title="Special:BookSources/978-1473690912"><bdi>978-1473690912</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Arabs%3A+A+Guide+for+Modern+Times&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=John+Murray+Press&rft.date=2018-07-26&rft.isbn=978-1473690912&rft.au=Margaret+K.+Nydell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWn9ODwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caplan2019-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Caplan2019_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeil_Caplan2019" class="citation book cs1">Neil Caplan (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DM-mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23">The Israel-Palestine Conflict: Contested Histories</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-52387-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-52387-1"><bdi>978-1-119-52387-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Israel-Palestine+Conflict%3A+Contested+Histories&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-119-52387-1&rft.au=Neil+Caplan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDM-mDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIA_Factbook-5"><a href="#cite_ref-CIA_Factbook_5-0">^</a> total population 450 million; <a href="/wiki/CIA_Factbook" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA Factbook">CIA Factbook</a>2030 estimates an Arab population of 450 million, see article text. </li> <li id="cite_note-World_Arabic_Language_Day-6"><a href="#cite_ref-World_Arabic_Language_Day_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/events/prizes-and-celebrations/celebrations/international-days/world-arabic-language-day/">"World Arabic Language Day | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization"</a>. Unesco.org. 15 December 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Unesco.org&rft.atitle=World+Arabic+Language+Day+%7C+United+Nations+Educational%2C+Scientific+and+Cultural+Organization&rft.date=2016-12-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unesco.org%2Fnew%2Fen%2Funesco%2Fevents%2Fprizes-and-celebrations%2Fcelebrations%2Finternational-days%2Fworld-arabic-language-day%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IBGE2008-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IBGE2008_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IBGE2008_7-1">b</a> IBGE. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/biblioteca-catalogo?view=detalhes&id=263405">IBGE | Biblioteca | Detalhes | Características étnico-raciais da população : classificações e identidades</a> IBGE: Características Étnico-Raciais da População. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferabolli2014-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Ferabolli2014_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilvia_Ferabolli2014" class="citation book cs1">Silvia Ferabolli (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R5CbBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151">Arab Regionalism: A Post-Structural Perspective</a>. Routledge. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317658030" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317658030"><bdi>978-1317658030</bdi></a>. <q>According to estimates by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), countersigned by the League of Arab States, Brazil has the largest Arab colony outside their countries of origin. There are estimated 15 million Arabs living in Brazil today, with some researchers suggesting numbers around 20 million.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Regionalism%3A+A+Post-Structural+Perspective&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1317658030&rft.au=Silvia+Ferabolli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR5CbBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amar2014-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Amar2014_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Amar2014" class="citation book cs1">Paul Amar (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XGKuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40">The Middle East and Brazil: Perspectives on the New Global South</a>. Indiana University Press. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0253014962" title="Special:BookSources/978-0253014962"><bdi>978-0253014962</bdi></a>. <q>there are, according to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, more than sixteen million Arabs and descendants of Arabs in Brazil, constituting the largest community of Arabs descent outside the Middle East.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Middle+East+and+Brazil%3A+Perspectives+on+the+New+Global+South&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0253014962&rft.au=Paul+Amar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXGKuCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrumley2009" class="citation cs2">Crumley, Bruce (24 March 2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1887106,00.html">"Should France Count Its Minority Population?"</a>, Time, retrieved 11 October 2014</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Should+France+Count+Its+Minority+Population%3F&rft.date=2009-03-24&rft.aulast=Crumley&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.time.com%2Ftime%2Fworld%2Farticle%2F0%2C8599%2C1887106%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/europe/2009/03/26/to-count-or-not-to-count">"To count or not to count"</a>. The Economist. 26 March 2009. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a>. Retrieved 30 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=To+count+or+not+to+count&rft.date=2009-03-26&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Feurope%2F2009%2F03%2F26%2Fto-count-or-not-to-count&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-www.aljazeera.com2-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-www.aljazeera.com2_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.aljazeera.com2_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.aljazeera.com2_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.aljazeera.com2_12-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/02/turkey-demographic-challenge-arabs-syria-refugees-isis-160218063810080.html">"Turkey's demographic challenge"</a>. 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Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520914422" title="Special:BookSources/0520914422"><bdi>0520914422</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arab+world+society%2C+culture%2C+and+state&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0520914422&rft.aulast=Barakat&rft.aufirst=Halim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds2015" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, Dwight F. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ifcGBwAAQBAJ">The Cambridge Companion to Modern Arab Culture</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521898072" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521898072"><bdi>978-0521898072</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Modern+Arab+Culture&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0521898072&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Dwight+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DifcGBwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJandt2012" class="citation book cs1">Jandt, Fred E. 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Sage Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412992879" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412992879"><bdi>978-1412992879</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Intercultural+Communication%3A+Identities+in+a+Global+Community&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1412992879&rft.aulast=Jandt&rft.aufirst=Fred+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJPb-tb_RmGEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreiderBaldino2016" class="citation book cs1">Kreider, Kyle L.; Baldino, Thomas J. (2016). Minority voting in the United States. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1440830242" title="Special:BookSources/978-1440830242"><bdi>978-1440830242</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Minority+voting+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1440830242&rft.aulast=Kreider&rft.aufirst=Kyle+L.&rft.au=Baldino%2C+Thomas+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEpstein2007" class="citation book cs1">Epstein, Steven (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NQe_swnZLZ4C&dq=%22arabs+are+an+ethnic+group%22&pg=PP19">Purity Lost: Transgressing Boundaries in the Eastern Mediterranean, 1000–1400</a>. JHU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801884849" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801884849"><bdi>978-0801884849</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Purity+Lost%3A+Transgressing+Boundaries+in+the+Eastern+Mediterranean%2C+1000%E2%80%931400&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0801884849&rft.aulast=Epstein&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNQe_swnZLZ4C%26dq%3D%2522arabs%2Bare%2Ban%2Bethnic%2Bgroup%2522%26pg%3DPP19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"ʿARAB". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-index">Encyclopedia Iranica</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CA%BFARAB&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Iranica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Farab-index&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091028022141/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565848/Arabs.html">"Arabs"</a>. 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By Francis Mading Deng</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.habiba.org/culture.html">"Culture and Tradition in the Arab Countries"</a>. habiba.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=habiba.org&rft.atitle=Culture+and+Tradition+in+the+Arab+Countries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.habiba.org%2Fculture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pimsleurapproach.com/.../useful-li.../culture-guides/">"Arabic Culture & Traditions – Online Resources"</a>. pimsleurapproach.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pimsleurapproach.com&rft.atitle=Arabic+Culture+%26+Traditions+%E2%80%93+Online+Resources&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pimsleurapproach.com%2F...%2Fuseful-li...%2Fculture-guides%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Shamy1995" class="citation book cs1">El-Shamy, Hasan M. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/folktraditionsof0002elsh">Folk traditions of the Arab world: a guide to motif classification</a>. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253352223" title="Special:BookSources/0253352223"><bdi>0253352223</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Folk+traditions+of+the+Arab+world%3A+a+guide+to+motif+classification&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pub=Indiana+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0253352223&rft.aulast=El-Shamy&rft.aufirst=Hasan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffolktraditionsof0002elsh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBureš2008" class="citation book cs1">Bureš, Jaroslav (2008). Main characteristic and development trends of migration in the Arab world. Prague: Institute of International Relations. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8086506715" title="Special:BookSources/978-8086506715"><bdi>978-8086506715</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Main+characteristic+and+development+trends+of+migration+in+the+Arab+world&rft.place=Prague&rft.pub=Institute+of+International+Relations&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-8086506715&rft.aulast=Bure%C5%A1&rft.aufirst=Jaroslav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> * <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=936&HistoryID=aa94&gtrack=pthc">"HISTORY OF THE ARABS"</a>. historyworld.net. Retrieved 1 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=historyworld.net&rft.atitle=HISTORY+OF+THE+ARABS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyworld.net%2Fwrldhis%2FPlainTextHistories.asp%3Fgroupid%3D936%26HistoryID%3Daa94%26gtrack%3Dpthc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEph'al1982" class="citation book cs1">Eph'al, Israel (1982). The Ancient Arabs: nomads of the fertile crescent. Jerusalem; Leiden: Magnes Press Hebrew University E.J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9652234001" title="Special:BookSources/978-9652234001"><bdi>978-9652234001</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Arabs%3A+nomads+of+the+fertile+crescent&rft.place=Jerusalem%3B+Leiden&rft.pub=Magnes+Press+Hebrew+University+E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-9652234001&rft.aulast=Eph%27al&rft.aufirst=Israel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackintosh-Smith2019" class="citation book cs1">Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RQ-LDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Arabs+are+an+ethnic%22&pg=PT14">Arabs: A 3,000-Year History of Peoples, Tribes and Empires</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300182354" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300182354"><bdi>978-0300182354</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabs%3A+A+3%2C000-Year+History+of+Peoples%2C+Tribes+and+Empires&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0300182354&rft.aulast=Mackintosh-Smith&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRQ-LDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522Arabs%2Bare%2Ban%2Bethnic%2522%26pg%3DPT14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> * <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyers2010" class="citation book cs1">Myers, E. A. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-cRrGQ8bIAkC">The Ituraeans and the Roman Near East: Reassessing the Sources</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48481-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48481-7"><bdi>978-1-139-48481-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ituraeans+and+the+Roman+Near+East%3A+Reassessing+the+Sources&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-139-48481-7&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=E.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-cRrGQ8bIAkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoyland2001" class="citation book cs1">Hoyland, Robert G. (2001). Arabia and the Arabs. Routledge. p. 11 Methodology (modern Saudi Arabia minus the east coast, the Sinai and Negev deserts, and parts of modern Jordan, Syria, and Iraq). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0203763920" title="Special:BookSources/0203763920"><bdi>0203763920</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabia+and+the+Arabs&rft.pages=11+Methodology+%28modern+Saudi+Arabia+minus+the+east+coast%2C+the+Sinai+and+Negev+deserts%2C+and+parts+of+modern+Jordan%2C+Syria%2C+and+Iraq%29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0203763920&rft.aulast=Hoyland&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> * <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2013" class="citation news cs1">Smith, Sylvia (21 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22596270">"Bahrain digs unveil one of oldest civilizations"</a>. BBC News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bahrain+digs+unveil+one+of+oldest+civilizations&rft.date=2013-05-21&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Sylvia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-22596270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1192">"Qal'at al-Bahrain – Ancient Harbour and Capital of Dilmun"</a>. <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120405042527/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1192">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2012. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521264303" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521264303"><bdi>978-0521264303</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0521264303&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Alan+K.&rft.au=Champlin%2C+Edward&rft.au=Lintott%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJZLW4-wba7UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRetsö2010" class="citation journal cs1">Retsö, Jan (October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/arabs-historical-COM_22957?s.num=41&s.rows=50&s.start=40">"Arabs (historical)"</a>. 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Pinguin-Verlag. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3701622922" title="Special:BookSources/3701622922"><bdi>3701622922</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yemen%3A+3000+Years+of+Art+and+Civilization+in+Arabia+Felix&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Pinguin-Verlag&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=3701622922&rft.au=Werner+Daum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisherWood2015" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/12636">Arabs and Empires before Islam</a>. 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Retrieved 3 August 2023. <q>Origen, in the third century, was the first Christian to identify the Ishmaelites with the Arabs, but he only does so in a cursory fashion</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabs+and+Empires+before+Islam&rft.pages=368&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0191799730&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Greg&rft.au=Wood%2C+Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F12636&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thamud">"Thamud | History, Tribe, & Location | Britannica"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 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Oxford: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0367481902" title="Special:BookSources/978-0367481902"><bdi>978-0367481902</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Parthians%3A+The+Forgotten+Empire&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0367481902&rft.aulast=Ellerbrock&rft.aufirst=Uwe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpFEXEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJullien2018" class="citation cs2">Jullien, Christelle (22 March 2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-715;jsessionid=17E81FF6B5E76812AF9C37A99ADFAD30?rskey=ib3kng&result=3">"Beth 'Arabaye"</a>, The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198662778" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198662778"><bdi>978-0198662778</bdi></a>, retrieved 20 April 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Beth+%27Arabaye&rft.date=2018-03-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0198662778&rft.aulast=Jullien&rft.aufirst=Christelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001%2Facref-9780198662778-e-715%3Bjsessionid%3D17E81FF6B5E76812AF9C37A99ADFAD30%3Frskey%3Dib3kng%26result%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxfordreference.com2-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oxfordreference.com2_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxfordreference.com2_88-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJullien2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Jullien, Christelle (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-715?rskey=ib3kng&result=3">"Beth 'Arabaye"</a>. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8"><bdi>978-0-19-866277-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beth+%27Arabaye&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866277-8&rft.aulast=Jullien&rft.aufirst=Christelle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001%2Facref-9780198662778-e-715%3Frskey%3Dib3kng%26result%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowmanGarnseyCameron2005" class="citation book cs1">Bowman, Alan; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&q=Emesa+dynasty+arab+city&pg=PA502">The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337</a>. 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New Zealand History. <a href="/wiki/Ministry_for_Culture_and_Heritage" title="Ministry for Culture and Heritage">Ministry for Culture and Heritage</a>. 30 July 2014. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sean_McMeekin" title="Sean McMeekin">McMeekin, Sean</a>. 2012. <a href="/wiki/The_Berlin-Baghdad_Express" title="The Berlin-Baghdad Express">The Berlin–Baghdad Express</a>. <a href="/wiki/Belknap_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Belknap Press">Belknap Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674064321" title="Special:BookSources/0674064321">0674064321</a>. pp. 288, 297.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogan2004" class="citation book cs1">Rogan, Eugene L. (2004). Frontiers of the state in the late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850–1921. 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"The Vilayet of Syria, 1901–1914: A Re-Examination of Diplomatic Documents As Sources." <a href="/wiki/The_Middle_East_Journal" title="The Middle East Journal">Middle East Journal</a> 22(1). p. 73.*<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/arab-league-formed">Arab League formed | This Day in History – 3/22/1945</a>." <a href="/wiki/History.com" class="mw-redirect" title="History.com">HISTORY</a>. US: <a href="/wiki/A%26E_Television_Networks" class="mw-redirect" title="A&E Television Networks">A&E Television Networks</a>. 2010. Retrieved on 28 April 2014.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacDonald2015" class="citation book cs1">MacDonald, Robert W. (8 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gQ_WCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">The League of Arab States: A Study in Dynamics of Regional Organization</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400875283" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400875283"><bdi>978-1400875283</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+League+of+Arab+States%3A+A+Study+in+Dynamics+of+Regional+Organization&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015-12-08&rft.isbn=978-1400875283&rft.aulast=MacDonald&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgQ_WCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190513151053/https://www.questia.com/read/1E1-ArabLeag/arab-league">Arab League from The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/1E1-ArabLeag/arab-league">the original</a> on 13 May 2019</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+League+from+The+Columbia+Encyclopedia%2C+6th+ed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Fread%2F1E1-ArabLeag%2Farab-league&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> *<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://al-bab.com/albab-orig/albab/arab/arabs.htm">"Who is an Arab?"</a>. al-bab.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=al-bab.com&rft.atitle=Who+is+an+Arab%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fal-bab.com%2Falbab-orig%2Falbab%2Farab%2Farabs.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis_M._Deng2011" class="citation book cs1">Francis M. 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University of Toronto Press. pp. 51, 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802052193" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802052193"><bdi>978-0802052193</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/79767">79767</a>. <q>king of kedar (Qedarites) is named alternatively as king of Ishmaelites and king of Arabs in Assyrian Inscriptions</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Records+from+North+Arabia&rft.pages=51%2C+52&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F79767&rft.isbn=978-0802052193&rft.au=Winnet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuEFjAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dqedar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStetkevychc2000" class="citation book cs1">Stetkevychc (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OVXC72Td6CsC&pg=PA76">Muhammad and the Golden Bough</a>. 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Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 24: 183–196. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0308-8421">0308-8421</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41223417">41223417</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Seminar+for+Arabian+Studies&rft.atitle=Temples+of+Ancient+Hadramawt&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E183-%3C%2Fspan%3E196&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41223417%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0308-8421&rft.aulast=Sedov&rft.aufirst=Alexander+V.&rft.au=B%C3%A2t%C3%A2yi%CA%BF%2C+Ahmad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41223417&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hadhramaut">"Hadhramaut"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 26 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Hadhramaut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FHadhramaut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/05/wap.html">"Arabian Peninsula, 1–500 A.D."</a> The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 26 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Met%27s+Heilbrunn+Timeline+of+Art+History&rft.atitle=Arabian+Peninsula%2C+1%E2%80%93500+A.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fht%2F05%2Fwap.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/hadramawt">"Hadramawt"</a>. encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 26 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Hadramawt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fhumanities%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Fhadramawt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Arabia-31558">"History of Arabia"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=History+of+Arabia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fhistory-of-Arabia-31558&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CP1-188">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CP1_188-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CP1_188-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlayfair1867" class="citation journal cs1">Playfair, Col (1867). "On the Himyaritic Inscriptions Lately brought to England from Southern Arabia". Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London. 5: 174–177. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3014224">10.2307/3014224</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3014224">3014224</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Ethnological+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=On+the+Himyaritic+Inscriptions+Lately+brought+to+England+from+Southern+Arabia&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E174-%3C%2Fspan%3E177&rft.date=1867&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3014224&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3014224%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Playfair&rft.aufirst=Col&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA483">Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East</a>. Infobase Publishing. 2009. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1438126760" title="Special:BookSources/978-1438126760"><bdi>978-1438126760</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Peoples+of+Africa+and+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1438126760&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dstl97FdyRswC%26pg%3DPA483&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-190"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_190-0">^</a> * <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/263437/Herod">Herod</a> at Encyclopædia Britannica: "Herod was born in southern Palestine. His father, Antipater, was an Edomite (a Semitic people, identified by some scholars as Arab, who converted to Judaism in the 2nd century BCE). Antipater was a man of great influence and wealth who increased both by marrying the daughter of a noble from Petra (in southwestern Jordan), at that time the capital of the rising Arab Nabataean kingdom. Thus, Herod was of Arab origin, although he was a practicing Jew." <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerowne2015" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">Perowne, Stewart Henry (25 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150625081825/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea">"Herod – king of Judaea"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 22 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Herod+%E2%80%93+king+of+Judaea&rft.date=2015-06-25&rft.aulast=Perowne&rft.aufirst=Stewart+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FHerod-king-of-Judaea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea">"Herod"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Herod&rft.date=2023-08-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FHerod-king-of-Judaea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatherwood2011" class="citation book cs1">Catherwood, Christopher (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=krKeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT63">A Brief History of the Middle East</a>. Little, Brown Book Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1849018074" title="Special:BookSources/978-1849018074"><bdi>978-1849018074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+Book+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1849018074&rft.aulast=Catherwood&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkrKeBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-193"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]_193-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278">278</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA359_359]-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA359_359]_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA359">359</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_F._Graf2003" class="citation journal cs1">David F. Graf (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/topoi_1764-0733_2003_act_4_1_2871">"Arabs in Syria: Demography and Epigraphy"</a>. Topoi. Orient-Occident. 4 (1). Topoi. Orient-Occident. Supplément: 319–340.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Topoi.+Orient-Occident&rft.atitle=Arabs+in+Syria%3A+Demography+and+Epigraphy&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E319-%3C%2Fspan%3E340&rft.date=2003&rft.au=David+F.+Graf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Ftopoi_1764-0733_2003_act_4_1_2871&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrfan_Shahîd1984" class="citation book cs1">Irfan Shahîd (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W4H97SA6pMAC&q=ituraeans+old+arab+people+irfan+shahid&pg=PA5">Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs</a> (Hardcover ed.). Dumbarton Oaks. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0884021155" title="Special:BookSources/978-0884021155"><bdi>978-0884021155</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+the+Arabs%3A+A+Prolegomenon+to+the+Study+of+Byzantium+and+the+Arabs&rft.pages=5&rft.edition=Hardcover&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0884021155&rft.au=Irfan+Shah%C3%AEd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW4H97SA6pMAC%26q%3Dituraeans%2Bold%2Barab%2Bpeople%2Birfan%2Bshahid%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_A._Chancey2002" class="citation book cs1">Mark A. Chancey (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YrrRaeP5po0C&q=arab">The Myth of a Gentile Galilee (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series)</a> (Hardcover ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521814871" title="Special:BookSources/0521814871"><bdi>0521814871</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+a+Gentile+Galilee+%28Society+for+New+Testament+Studies+Monograph+Series%29&rft.pages=44&rft.edition=Hardcover&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0521814871&rft.au=Mark+A.+Chancey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYrrRaeP5po0C%26q%3Darab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuleika_RodgersMargaret_Daly-DentonAnne_Fitzpatrick-McKinley2009" class="citation book cs1">Zuleika Rodgers; Margaret Daly-Denton; Anne Fitzpatrick-McKinley (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5I8zfmwEjjUC&q=itureans+arabs&pg=PA207">A Wandering Galilean: Essays in Honour of Seán Freyne (Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism)</a> (Hardcover ed.). Brill. p. 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004173552" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004173552"><bdi>978-9004173552</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Wandering+Galilean%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+Se%C3%A1n+Freyne+%28Supplements+to+the+Journal+for+the+Study+of+Judaism%29&rft.pages=207&rft.edition=Hardcover&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9004173552&rft.au=Zuleika+Rodgers&rft.au=Margaret+Daly-Denton&rft.au=Anne+Fitzpatrick-McKinley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5I8zfmwEjjUC%26q%3Ditureans%2Barabs%26pg%3DPA207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Steve Mason, Life of Josephus,Brill, 2007 p.54, n.306. </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> Ball, Warwick (2001), Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415113768" title="Special:BookSources/0415113768">0415113768</a> pp. 98–102 </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowmanGarnseyCameron2005" class="citation book cs1">Bowman, Alan; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&q=%22arab+principality+of+edessa%22&pg=PA508">The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521301992" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521301992"><bdi>978-0521301992</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%3A+Volume+12%2C+The+Crisis+of+Empire%2C+AD+193%E2%80%93337&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0521301992&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Garnsey%2C+Peter&rft.au=Cameron%2C+Averil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMNSyT_PuYVMC%26q%3D%2522arab%2Bprincipality%2Bof%2Bedessa%2522%26pg%3DPA508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Osroene">"Osroëne | Middle East, Syria, Armenia | Britannica"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Osro%C3%ABne+%26%23124%3B+Middle+East%2C+Syria%2C+Armenia+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FOsroene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkolnikBerenbaum2007" class="citation book cs1">Skolnik, Fred; Berenbaum, Michael (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JD0OAQAAMAAJ&q=%22the+Arab+kingdom%22">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a>. Macmillan Reference US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0028659435" title="Special:BookSources/978-0028659435"><bdi>978-0028659435</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+US&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0028659435&rft.aulast=Skolnik&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft.au=Berenbaum%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJD0OAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522the%2BArab%2Bkingdom%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abgar-dynasty-of-edessa-2nd-century-bc-to-3rd-century-ad">"Arabs"</a> at <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The fame of Edessa in history rests, however, mainly on its claim to have been the first kingdom to adopt Christianity as its official religion. According to the legend current for centuries throughout the civilized world, Abgar Ukkama wrote to Jesus, inviting him to visit him at Edessa to heal him from sickness. In return he received the blessing of Jesus and subsequently was converted by the evangelist Addai. There is, however, no factual evidence for Christianity at Edessa before the reign of Abgar the Great, 150 years later. Scholars are generally agreed that the legend has confused the two Abgars. It cannot be proved that Abgar the Great adopted Christianity; but his friend Bardaiṣan was a heterodox Christian, and there was a church at Edessa in 201. It is testimony to the personality of Abgar the Great that he is credited by tradition with a leading role in the evangelization of Edessa.</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRing" class="citation web cs1">Ring, Steven. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180227034200/http://www.syriac.talktalk.net/chron_tab1.html">"History of Syriac texts and Syrian Christianity – Table 1"</a>. syriac.talktalk.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.syriac.talktalk.net/chron_tab1.html">the original</a> on 27 February 2018. Retrieved 26 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=syriac.talktalk.net&rft.atitle=History+of+Syriac+texts+and+Syrian+Christianity+%E2%80%93+Table+1&rft.aulast=Ring&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.syriac.talktalk.net%2Fchron_tab1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hatra_and_the_Parthian_Commonwealth-206"><a href="#cite_ref-Hatra_and_the_Parthian_Commonwealth_206-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Jong2013" class="citation journal cs1">de Jong, Albert (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/18709085">"Hatra and the Parthian Commonwealth"</a>. Oriens et Occidens – Band 21: 143–161.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oriens+et+Occidens+%E2%80%93+Band+21&rft.atitle=Hatra+and+the+Parthian+Commonwealth&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E143-%3C%2Fspan%3E161&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=de+Jong&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F18709085&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi" title="Yaqut al-Hamawi">Yaqut</a>, Geographisches Wörterbuch, ii. 263; Payne-Smith, Thesaurus Syriacus, under "Hadyab"; Hoffmann, Auszüge aus Syrischen Akten, pp. 241, 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia201654-208"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia201654_208-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKia2016">Kia 2016</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983b750-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983b750_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrunner1983b">Brunner (1983b)</a>, p. 750. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERapp201428-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERapp201428_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRapp2014">Rapp (2014)</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowmanGarnseyCameron2005" class="citation book cs1">Bowman, Alan; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&q=Emesa+dynasty+arab+city&pg=PA502">The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521301992" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521301992"><bdi>978-0521301992</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%3A+Volume+12%2C+The+Crisis+of+Empire%2C+AD+193%E2%80%93337&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0521301992&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Garnsey%2C+Peter&rft.au=Cameron%2C+Averil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMNSyT_PuYVMC%26q%3DEmesa%2Bdynasty%2Barab%2Bcity%26pg%3DPA502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornblowerSpawforthEidinow2012" class="citation book cs1">Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA754">The Oxford Classical Dictionary</a>. OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199545568" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199545568"><bdi>978-0199545568</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Classical+Dictionary&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0199545568&rft.aulast=Hornblower&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Spawforth%2C+Antony&rft.au=Eidinow%2C+Esther&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbVWcAQAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522arab%2Bkingdom%2522%2Bemesa%26pg%3DPA754&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFBall2000">Ball 2000</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns2006" class="citation book cs1">Burns, Jasper (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hL99AgAAQBAJ&q=Emesa+arab+tribe&pg=PA181">Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1134131853" title="Special:BookSources/978-1134131853"><bdi>978-1134131853</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Women+of+Imperial+Rome%3A+Mothers+and+Wives+of+the+Caesars&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1134131853&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Jasper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhL99AgAAQBAJ%26q%3DEmesa%2Barab%2Btribe%26pg%3DPA181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrado2017" class="citation book cs1">Prado, Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zHbXDgAAQBAJ&q=emesa+arab&pg=PA191">Varian Studies Volume One: Varius</a>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781443893855" title="Special:BookSources/9781443893855"><bdi>9781443893855</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Varian+Studies+Volume+One%3A+Varius&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781443893855&rft.aulast=Prado&rft.aufirst=Leonardo+de+Arrizabalaga+y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzHbXDgAAQBAJ%26q%3Demesa%2Barab%26pg%3DPA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFBirley2002">Birley 2002</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahid1984" class="citation book cs1">Shahid, Irfan (1984). Rome and The Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs. Dumbarton Oaks. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0884021157" title="Special:BookSources/0884021157"><bdi>0884021157</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+The+Arabs%3A+A+Prolegomenon+to+the+Study+of+Byzantium+and+the+Arabs&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0884021157&rft.aulast=Shahid&rft.aufirst=Irfan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreisenbruch2011" class="citation book cs1">Freisenbruch, Annelise (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VUR_3B97ctQC&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA182">Caesars' Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1416583059" title="Special:BookSources/978-1416583059"><bdi>978-1416583059</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesars%27+Wives%3A+Sex%2C+Power%2C+and+Politics+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1416583059&rft.aulast=Freisenbruch&rft.aufirst=Annelise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVUR_3B97ctQC%26q%3D%2522arab%2Bkingdom%2522%2Bemesa%26pg%3DPA182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180914113448/http://cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/117_Dionysius_Periegetes.html">"Dionysius Periegetes"</a>. Cartographic-images.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/117_Dionysius_Periegetes.html">the original</a> on 14 September 2018. Retrieved 18 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cartographic-images.net&rft.atitle=Dionysius+Periegetes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cartographic-images.net%2FCartographic_Images%2F117_Dionysius_Periegetes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> Harold Bailey <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PR59">The Cambridge history of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods</a>, Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1983, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/052120092X" title="Special:BookSources/052120092X">052120092X</a> p. 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGanie" class="citation book cs1">Ganie, Mohammad Hafiz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mlxcEAAAQBAJ&dq=abu+quhafa&pg=PA13">Abu Bakr: The Beloved of My Beloved</a>. Mohammad Hafiz Ganie. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-8411225921" title="Special:BookSources/979-8411225921"><bdi>979-8411225921</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131335/https://books.google.com/books?id=mlxcEAAAQBAJ&dq=abu+quhafa&pg=PA13">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abu+Bakr%3A+The+Beloved+of+My+Beloved&rft.pub=Mohammad+Hafiz+Ganie&rft.isbn=979-8411225921&rft.aulast=Ganie&rft.aufirst=Mohammad+Hafiz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmlxcEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dabu%2Bquhafa%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarker1996" class="citation journal cs1">Barker, John W. (1 April 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231102112427/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00030279&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA19027534&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs">"Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fifth Century"</a>. The Journal of the American Oriental Society. 116 (2): 304–306. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F605736">10.2307/605736</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/605736">605736</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00030279&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA19027534&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs">the original</a> on 2 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Byzantium+and+the+Arabs+in+the+Fifth+Century&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E304-%3C%2Fspan%3E306&rft.date=1996-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F605736&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F605736%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DLitRC%26sw%3Dw%26issn%3D00030279%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3DGALE%257CA19027534%26sid%3DgoogleScholar%26linkaccess%3Dabs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wenner_1980_59–79-216">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wenner_1980_59–79_216-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wenner_1980_59–79_216-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWenner1980" class="citation journal cs1">Wenner, Manfred W. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/163627">"The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe"</a>. 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Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0334040323" title="Special:BookSources/978-0334040323"><bdi>978-0334040323</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Islam%3A+The+First+Ten+Steps&rft.pages=37&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Hymns+Ancient+and+Modern+Ltd&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0334040323&rft.au=C.+T.+R.+Hewer&rft.au=Allan+Anderson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Triana_159-223"><a href="#cite_ref-Triana_159_223-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTriana2017" class="citation book cs1">Triana, María (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VC4lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159">Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ausummit-accra.org.gh/index1.php?linkid=289&adate=04%2F07%2F2007&archiveid=140&page=1">the original</a> on 7 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=African+Union+Summit&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fausummit-accra.org.gh%2Findex1.php%3Flinkid%3D289%26adate%3D04%252F07%252F2007%26archiveid%3D140%26page%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandall2004" class="citation news cs1">Randall, Colin (19 November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/1477006/The-night-westerners-were-hunted-for-being-white.html">"The night westerners were hunted for being white"</a>. The Daily Telegraph. 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Sussex Academic Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1898723240" title="Special:BookSources/978-1898723240"><bdi>978-1898723240</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabs+in+Israel&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1898723240&rft.aulast=Stendel&rft.aufirst=Ori&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt7Ao8dYsCskC%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohammad_Hassan_Khalil2013" class="citation book cs1">Mohammad Hassan Khalil (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PmgkD3Hel5IC&pg=PA297">Between Heaven and Hell: Islam, Salvation, and the Fate of Others</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 297. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199945412" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199945412"><bdi>978-0199945412</bdi></a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medea.be/index.html?page=2&lang=en&doc=38">the original</a> on 11 June 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Christians+%28in+the+Arab+world%29&rft.pub=Medea.be&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.medea.be%2Findex.html%3Fpage%3D2%26lang%3Den%26doc%3D38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-376"><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070629171538/http://info.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-5.html">The Bahá'í World Centre: Focal Point for a Global Community</a>, The Baháʼí International Community, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://info.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-5.html">the original</a> on 29 June 2007, retrieved 2 July 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD+World+Centre%3A+Focal+Point+for+a+Global+Community&rft.pub=The+Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD+International+Community&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfo.bahai.org%2Farticle-1-6-0-5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-377"><a href="#cite_ref-377">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Joshua_Landis_Druze_and_Shishakli.htm">Shishakli and the Druzes: Integration and Intransigence</a>" </li> <li id="cite_note-Hubal2-378"><a href="#cite_ref-Hubal2_378-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Sources/Allah/hubal.html">"Is Hubal The Same As Allah?"</a>. Islamic-awareness.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100325235432/http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Sources/Allah/hubal.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Is+Hubal+The+Same+As+Allah%3F&rft.pub=Islamic-awareness.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamic-awareness.org%2FQuran%2FSources%2FAllah%2Fhubal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated12-379"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated12_379-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jEcpkWjYOZQC&q=Allat&pg=PA34">Dictionary of Ancient Deities</a>. Oxford University Press. 2001. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195145045" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195145045"><bdi>978-0195145045</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Ancient+Deities&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0195145045&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjEcpkWjYOZQC%26q%3DAllat%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marib2-380"><a href="#cite_ref-Marib2_380-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090316053335/http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/1-29-2005-64989.asp">"From Marib The Sabean Capital To Carantania"</a>. Buzzle.com. Archived from the original on 16 March 2009. Retrieved 13 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=From+Marib+The+Sabean+Capital+To+Carantania&rft.pub=Buzzle.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.buzzle.com%2Feditorials%2F1-29-2005-64989.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hima2-381"><a href="#cite_ref-Hima2_381-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040704090616/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570797/Himyarites.html">Msn Encarta entry on Himyarites</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570797/himyarites.html">the original</a> on 4 July 2004. Retrieved 10 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Msn+Encarta+entry+on+Himyarites&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencarta.msn.com%2Fencyclopedia_761570797%2Fhimyarites.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MSNU2-382"><a href="#cite_ref-MSNU2_382-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100531045659/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/islam/history.html">"History of Islam"</a>. Mnsu.edu. 6 January 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/islam/history.html">the original</a> on 31 May 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Islam&rft.pub=Mnsu.edu&rft.date=2009-01-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mnsu.edu%2Femuseum%2Fcultural%2Freligion%2Fislam%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EncyRe2-383"><a href="#cite_ref-EncyRe2_383-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100428065818/http://www.cqpress.com/context/articles/epr_islam.html">"Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion"</a>. Cqpress.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cqpress.com/context/articles/epr_islam.html">the original</a> on 28 April 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Politics+and+Religion&rft.pub=Cqpress.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cqpress.com%2Fcontext%2Farticles%2Fepr_islam.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shia2-384"><a href="#cite_ref-Shia2_384-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeehner" class="citation web cs1">Beehner, Lionel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cfr.org/publication/10903/shiite_muslims_in_the_middle_east.html#2">"Shia Muslims in the Mideast"</a>. Cfr.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100411123648/http://www.cfr.org/publication/10903/shiite_muslims_in_the_middle_east.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shia+Muslims+in+the+Mideast&rft.pub=Cfr.org&rft.aulast=Beehner&rft.aufirst=Lionel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cfr.org%2Fpublication%2F10903%2Fshiite_muslims_in_the_middle_east.html%232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC._Held2008" class="citation book cs1">C. Held, Colbert (2008). Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics. Routledge. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0429962004" title="Special:BookSources/978-0429962004"><bdi>978-0429962004</bdi></a>. <q>Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+East+Patterns%3A+Places%2C+People%2C+and+Politics&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0429962004&rft.aulast=C.+Held&rft.aufirst=Colbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-386"><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamal_S._Salibi2003" class="citation book cs1">Kamal S. Salibi (2003). A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered (ill., reprint, rev. ed.). I.B. Tauris. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1860649127" title="Special:BookSources/978-1860649127"><bdi>978-1860649127</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+House+of+Many+Mansions%3A+The+History+of+Lebanon+Reconsidered&rft.pages=88&rft.edition=ill.%2C+reprint%2C+rev.&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1860649127&rft.au=Kamal+S.+Salibi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pacini2-387"><a href="#cite_ref-Pacini2_387-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrea_Pacini1998" class="citation book cs1">Andrea Pacini, ed. (1998). Christian Communities in the Middle East. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198293880" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198293880"><bdi>978-0198293880</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Communities+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0198293880&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIA_World_Factbook:_Lebanon2-388"><a href="#cite_ref-CIA_World_Factbook:_Lebanon2_388-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/lebanon">"Lebanon"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2025 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Lebanon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Flebanon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIA_World_Factbook:_Syria2-389"><a href="#cite_ref-CIA_World_Factbook:_Syria2_389-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/syria">"Syria"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2025 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Syria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fsyria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FactbookGazaStrip2-390"><a href="#cite_ref-FactbookGazaStrip2_390-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/gaza-strip">"Gaza Strip"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2025 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Gaza+Strip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fgaza-strip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FactbookWestBank2-391"><a href="#cite_ref-FactbookWestBank2_391-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/west-bank">"West Bank"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2025 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=West+Bank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fwest-bank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-392"><a href="#cite_ref-392">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arabicbible.com/christian/arab_christians_who_are_they.htm">Arab Christians – Who are they?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101206024540/http://www.arabicbible.com/christian/arab_christians_who_are_they.htm">Archived</a> 6 December 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Arabicbible.com. Retrieved on 3 January 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-WFIS2-393"><a href="#cite_ref-WFIS2_393-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/israel">"Israel"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2025 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. Retrieved 18 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Israel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fisrael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/download/factbook-2011.zip">(Archived 2011 edition.)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-WFJord2-394"><a href="#cite_ref-WFJord2_394-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jordan">"Jordan"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2025 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. 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Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0253214133" title="Special:BookSources/978-0253214133"><bdi>978-0253214133</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muhammad+and+the+Golden+Bough%3A+Reconstructing+Arabian+Myth&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0253214133&rft.aulast=Stetkevych&rft.aufirst=Jaroslav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOVXC72Td6CsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-406"><a href="#cite_ref-406">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O02TygAACAAJ&q=Arabian+mythology">Arabian Mythology, Noah's Ark, Hafaza, Jesus, Khidr, Dhul-Qarnayn, Isra and Mi'raj, Luqman, Devil, Throne of God</a>. 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MELA Notes (12): 16–19. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0364-2410">0364-2410</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29785032">29785032</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MELA+Notes&rft.atitle=The+Tragedy+of+Arabic+Manuscripts%2C+%281%29&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E16-%3C%2Fspan%3E19&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F29785032%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0364-2410&rft.aulast=Th%C4%81bit&rft.aufirst=Mahm%C5%ABd&rft.au=Albin%2C+Michael+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F29785032&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-447"><a href="#cite_ref-447">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlemingHonour1977" class="citation book cs1">Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofdeco00john">Dictionary of the Decorative Arts</a>. 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SUNY Press. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791418758" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791418758"><bdi>978-0791418758</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muhammad+and+the+Origins+of+Islam&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0791418758&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Francis+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0OrCo4VyvGkC%26pg%3DPA110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peterson20072-478"><a href="#cite_ref-Peterson20072_478-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2007" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Daniel C. 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VIII (6): 317–418. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/706947607">706947607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+Asiatic+Society+of+Bengal&rft.atitle=Chemistry+in+Iraq+and+Persia+in+the+Tenth+Century+A.D.&rft.volume=VIII&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E317-%3C%2Fspan%3E418&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F706947607&rft.aulast=Stapleton&rft.aufirst=Henry+E.&rft.au=Azo%2C+R.F.&rft.au=Hidayat+Husain%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.southasiaarchive.com%2FContent%2Fsarf.100203%2F231270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> pp. 338–340; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraus1942–1943" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kraus_(Arabist)" title="Paul Kraus (Arabist)">Kraus, Paul</a> (1942–1943). Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3487091150" title="Special:BookSources/978-3487091150"><bdi>978-3487091150</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/468740510">468740510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=J%C3%A2bir+ibn+Hayy%C3%A2n%3A+Contribution+%C3%A0+l%27histoire+des+id%C3%A9es+scientifiques+dans+l%27Islam.+I.+Le+corpus+des+%C3%A9crits+j%C3%A2biriens.+II.+J%C3%A2bir+et+la+science+grecque&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pub=Institut+Fran%C3%A7ais+d%27Arch%C3%A9ologie+Orientale&rft.date=1942%2F1943&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F468740510&rft.isbn=978-3487091150&rft.aulast=Kraus&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> vol. II, pp. 41–42. Note that Jabir ibn Hayyan, if he ever existed at all, may also have been a non-Arab client of the Arab <a href="/wiki/Azd" title="Azd">Azd</a> tribe: see <a href="#CITEREFKraus1942–1943">Kraus 1942–1943</a>, vol. I, p. xli, note 1, and further <a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan#Biography" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan#Biography</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-499"><a href="#cite_ref-499">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahn1996" class="citation book cs1">Kahn, David (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3S8rhOEmDIIC&q=David+Kahn+The+Codebreakers">The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1439103555" title="Special:BookSources/978-1439103555"><bdi>978-1439103555</bdi></a>. <q>Cryptology was born among the Arabs. They were the first to discover and write down the methods of cryptoanalysis.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Codebreakers%3A+The+Comprehensive+History+of+Secret+Communication+from+Ancient+Times+to+the+Internet&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1439103555&rft.aulast=Kahn&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3S8rhOEmDIIC%26q%3DDavid%2BKahn%2BThe%2BCodebreakers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-500"><a href="#cite_ref-500">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorda2011" class="citation book cs1">Borda, Monica (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lyte2yl1SPAC&q=cryptography+arabs&pg=PA122">Fundamentals in Information Theory and Coding</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3642203473" title="Special:BookSources/978-3642203473"><bdi>978-3642203473</bdi></a>. <q>Al Kindi, an Arab scientist from 9th century is considered the father of cryptology, his book on this subject being, at this moment, the oldest available.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+in+Information+Theory+and+Coding&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3642203473&rft.aulast=Borda&rft.aufirst=Monica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLyte2yl1SPAC%26q%3Dcryptography%2Barabs%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-501"><a href="#cite_ref-501">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://simonsingh.net/media/articles/maths-and-science/arab-code-breakers/">"Arab Code Breakers"</a>. simonsingh.net.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=simonsingh.net&rft.atitle=Arab+Code+Breakers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsimonsingh.net%2Fmedia%2Farticles%2Fmaths-and-science%2Farab-code-breakers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-502"><a href="#cite_ref-502">^</a> Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven; Wallis, Faith (2014). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 237. </li> <li id="cite_note-503"><a href="#cite_ref-503">^</a> Kalin, Ibrahim (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 321. </li> <li id="cite_note-504"><a href="#cite_ref-504">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Khalili2009" class="citation news cs1">Al-Khalili, Jim (4 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm">"BBC News"</a>. Retrieved 11 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=BBC+News&rft.date=2009-01-04&rft.aulast=Al-Khalili&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F7810846.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-505"><a href="#cite_ref-505">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKidderOppenheim2010" class="citation book cs1">Kidder, David S.; Oppenheim, Noah D. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hpzb_yA42TAC&q=Ibn+al-Nafis+circulation&pg=PA122">The Intellectual Devotional Biographies: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Acquaint Yourself with the World's Greatest Personalities</a>. Rodale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1605290881" title="Special:BookSources/978-1605290881"><bdi>978-1605290881</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Intellectual+Devotional+Biographies%3A+Revive+Your+Mind%2C+Complete+Your+Education%2C+and+Acquaint+Yourself+with+the+World%27s+Greatest+Personalities&rft.pub=Rodale&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1605290881&rft.aulast=Kidder&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rft.au=Oppenheim%2C+Noah+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhpzb_yA42TAC%26q%3DIbn%2Bal-Nafis%2Bcirculation%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-506"><a href="#cite_ref-506">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ibn-an-Nafis">"Ibn an-Nafīs"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 14 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Ibn+an-Naf%C4%ABs&rft.date=2024-03-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FIbn-an-Nafis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-507"><a href="#cite_ref-507">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlickLiveseyWallis2014" class="citation book cs1">Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven; Wallis, Faith (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=%22Ibn+Zuhr%22&pg=PA259">Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135459321" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135459321"><bdi>978-1135459321</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1135459321&rft.aulast=Glick&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rft.au=Livesey%2C+Steven&rft.au=Wallis%2C+Faith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D77y2AgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522Ibn%2BZuhr%2522%26pg%3DPA259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-508"><a href="#cite_ref-508">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkyeampongNiven1970" class="citation book cs1">Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Niven, Mr. Steven J (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&q=%22Abu+kamil%22+%22the+first%22&pg=PA62">Dictionary of African Biography. 1St- Ed.; 1970</a>. OUP US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195382075" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195382075"><bdi>978-0195382075</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+African+Biography.+1St-+Ed.%3B+1970&rft.pub=OUP+US&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0195382075&rft.aulast=Akyeampong&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel+Kwaku&rft.au=Niven%2C+Mr.+Steven+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D39JMAgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522Abu%2Bkamil%2522%2B%2522the%2Bfirst%2522%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-509"><a href="#cite_ref-509">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Uqlidisi.html">"Al-Uqlidisi biography"</a>. www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Al-Uqlidisi+biography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FAl-Uqlidisi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-510"><a href="#cite_ref-510">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelin2013" class="citation book cs1">Selin, Helaine (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69">Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9401714167" title="Special:BookSources/978-9401714167"><bdi>978-9401714167</bdi></a>. <q>Historian J.L. Berggren, for example, concludes that while the Hindus were the first to use a "cipherized, decimal positional system", the Arabs pioneered in extending this system to "represent parts of the unit by decimal fractions".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-9401714167&rft.aulast=Selin&rft.aufirst=Helaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGzjpCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-511"><a href="#cite_ref-511">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelin2013" class="citation book cs1">Selin, Helaine (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&q=%22algebraic+symbolism%22+maghreb&pg=PA831">Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9401714167" title="Special:BookSources/978-9401714167"><bdi>978-9401714167</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-9401714167&rft.aulast=Selin&rft.aufirst=Helaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGzjpCAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522algebraic%2Bsymbolism%2522%2Bmaghreb%26pg%3DPA831&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-512"><a href="#cite_ref-512">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Qalasadi.html">"Al-Qalasadi biography"</a>. www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Al-Qalasadi+biography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FAl-Qalasadi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rashed2-513"><a href="#cite_ref-Rashed2_513-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRashed1994" class="citation book cs1">Rashed, Roshdi (1994). The development of Arabic mathematics: between arithmetic and algebra. Vol. 156. Dordrecht, Boston & London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 278, 279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0792325659" title="Special:BookSources/978-0792325659"><bdi>978-0792325659</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+development+of+Arabic+mathematics%3A+between+arithmetic+and+algebra.&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+Boston+%26+London&rft.pages=278%2C+279&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0792325659&rft.aulast=Rashed&rft.aufirst=Roshdi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-514"><a href="#cite_ref-514">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToniasTonias2016" class="citation book cs1">Tonias, Elias C.; Tonias, Constantine N. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I0QWDAAAQBAJ&q=Al-Battani+%22trigonometric+identities&pg=PA15">Geometric Procedures for Civil Engineers</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319242958" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319242958"><bdi>978-3319242958</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geometric+Procedures+for+Civil+Engineers&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3319242958&rft.aulast=Tonias&rft.aufirst=Elias+C.&rft.au=Tonias%2C+Constantine+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI0QWDAAAQBAJ%26q%3DAl-Battani%2B%2522trigonometric%2Bidentities%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-515"><a href="#cite_ref-515">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Menahem2009" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Menahem, Ari (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9tUrarQYhKMC&q=%22ibn+yunus%22+%22trigonometric++formula%22&pg=PA565">Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3540688310" title="Special:BookSources/978-3540688310"><bdi>978-3540688310</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Encyclopedia+of+Natural+and+Mathematical+Sciences&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3540688310&rft.aulast=Ben-Menahem&rft.aufirst=Ari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9tUrarQYhKMC%26q%3D%2522ibn%2Byunus%2522%2B%2522trigonometric%2B%2Bformula%2522%26pg%3DPA565&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-516"><a href="#cite_ref-516">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolme2010" class="citation book cs1">Holme, Audun (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geometryourcultr0000holm_2nded/page/193/mode/1up?q=ibn">Geometry: Our Cultural Heritage</a>. 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(2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032072">"Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Human_Genetics" title="American Journal of Human Genetics">American Journal of Human Genetics</a>. 86 (6): 850–859. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2010.04.015">10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032072">3032072</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20560205">20560205</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Abraham%27s+Children+in+the+Genome+Era%3A+Major+Jewish+Diaspora+Populations+Comprise+Distinct+Genetic+Clusters+with+Shared+Middle+Eastern+Ancestry&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E850-%3C%2Fspan%3E859&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3032072%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20560205&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2010.04.015&rft.aulast=Atzmon&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3032072&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-549"><a href="#cite_ref-549">^</a> Nebel (2000), quote: By the fifth century CE, the majority of non-Jews and Jews had become Christians by conversion (<a href="/wiki/Roberto_Bachi" title="Roberto Bachi">Bachi</a> 1974). The first millennium CE was marked by the immigration of Arab tribes, reaching its climax with the Moslem conquest from the Arabian Peninsula (633–640 CE). This was followed by a slow process of Islamization of the local population, both of Christians and Jews (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). Additional minor demographic changes might have been caused by subsequent invasions of the Seljuks, Crusaders, Mongols, Mamelukes and Ottoman Turks. Recent gene-flow from various geographic origins is reflected, for example, in the heterogeneous spectrum of globin mutations among Israeli Arabs (Filon et al. 1994). Israeli and Palestinian Arabs share a similar linguistic and geographic background with Jews. (p. 631) According to historical records part, or perhaps the majority, of the Moslem Arabs in this country descended from local inhabitants, mainly Christians and Jews, who had converted after the Islamic conquest in the seventh century CE (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). These local inhabitants, in turn, were descendants of the core population that had lived in the area for several centuries, some even since prehistorical times (Gil 1992). On the other hand, the ancestors of the great majority of present-day Jews lived outside this region for almost two millennia. Thus, our findings are in good agreement with historical evidence and suggest genetic continuity in both populations despite their long separation and the wide geographic dispersal of Jews.(p.637) </li> <li id="cite_note-550"><a href="#cite_ref-550">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalmar2016" class="citation cs2">Kalmar, Ivan (21 March 2016), "4. 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Genome Research. 26 (2): 151–162. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fgr.191478.115">10.1101/gr.191478.115</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4728368">4728368</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26728717">26728717</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genome+Research&rft.atitle=Indigenous+Arabs+are+descendants+of+the+earliest+split+from+ancient+Eurasian+populations&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E151-%3C%2Fspan%3E162&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4728368%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26728717&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1101%2Fgr.191478.115&rft.aulast=Rodriguez-Flores&rft.aufirst=Juan+L.&rft.au=Fakhro%2C+Khalid&rft.au=Agosto-Perez%2C+Francisco&rft.au=D.+Ramstetter%2C+Monica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4728368&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbu-AmeroHellaniGonzálezLarruga2009" class="citation journal cs1">Abu-Amero, Khaled K; Hellani, Ali; González, Ana M; Larruga, Jose M; Cabrera, Vicente M; Underhill, Peter A (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2759955">"Saudi Arabian Y-Chromosome diversity and its relationship with nearby regions"</a>. 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London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415394857" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415394857"><bdi>978-0415394857</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+the+Peoples+and+Places+of+Ancient+Western+Asia%3A+From+the+Early+Bronze+Age+to+the+Fall+of+the+Persian+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0415394857&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns2007" class="citation book cs1">Burns, Ross (2007) [2005]. Damascus: A History. 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Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472425522" title="Special:BookSources/978-1472425522"><bdi>978-1472425522</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sasanian+World+through+Georgian+Eyes%3A+Caucasia+and+the+Iranian+Commonwealth+in+Late+Antique+Georgian+Literature&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1472425522&rft.aulast=Rapp&rft.aufirst=Stephen+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT8VIBQAAQBAJ%26q%3Drapp%2Binscription%2Bkartir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaliba1994b" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/George_Saliba" title="George Saliba">Saliba, George</a> (1994b), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Press" title="New York University Press">New York University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0814780237" title="Special:BookSources/978-0814780237"><bdi>978-0814780237</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Arabic+Astronomy%3A+Planetary+Theories+During+the+Golden+Age+of+Islam&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0814780237&rft.aulast=Saliba&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiettecatte2017" class="citation book cs1">Schiettecatte, Jérémie (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah30219">"Himyar"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01585072/file/2016%20Schiettecatte%20EAH%20Himyar_HAL_Academia.pdf">The Encyclopedia of Ancient History</a> (PDF). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 1–2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444338386.wbeah30219">10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah30219</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405179355" title="Special:BookSources/978-1405179355"><bdi>978-1405179355</bdi></a>. Retrieved 8 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Himyar&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444338386.wbeah30219&rft.isbn=978-1405179355&rft.aulast=Schiettecatte&rft.aufirst=J%C3%A9r%C3%A9mie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1002%2F9781444338386.wbeah30219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahîd1995a" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Shahîd, Irfan (1995a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pfwAG3-rpzcC">Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century</a>. Vol. 2 (Part 1). Dumbarton Oaks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0884022848" title="Special:BookSources/978-0884022848"><bdi>978-0884022848</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+and+the+Arabs+in+the+Sixth+Century&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0884022848&rft.aulast=Shah%C3%AEd&rft.aufirst=Irfan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpfwAG3-rpzcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeake1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Speake, Graham (1996). "Palmyra (Homs, Syria)". In Berney, Kathryn Ann; Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle (eds.). International Dictionary of Historic Places. Vol. 4 (Middle East and Africe). Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1884964039" title="Special:BookSources/978-1884964039"><bdi>978-1884964039</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palmyra+%28Homs%2C+Syria%29&rft.btitle=International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn+Publishers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1884964039&rft.aulast=Speake&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Touma, Habib Hassan. The Music of the Arabs. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus P, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0931340888" title="Special:BookSources/0931340888">0931340888</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Beek1997" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Van Beek, Gus W. (1997). "Qataban". In <a href="/wiki/Eric_M._Meyers" title="Eric M. Meyers">Meyers, Eric M.</a>; <a href="/wiki/William_G._Dever" title="William G. Dever">Dever, William G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Carol_Meyers" title="Carol Meyers">Meyers, Carol L.</a>; Muhly, James D.; Pardee, Dennis; Sauer, James A.; Finney, Paul Corby; Jorgensen, John S. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Encyclopedia_of_Archaeology_in_the_Near_East" title="The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East">The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East</a>. Vol. 4. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 383–384. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-195-06512-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-195-06512-1"><bdi>978-0-195-06512-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Qataban&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Archaeology+in+the+Near+East&rft.place=Oxford+%26+New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E383-%3C%2Fspan%3E384&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-195-06512-1&rft.aulast=Van+Beek&rft.aufirst=Gus+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lipinski, Edward. Semitic Languages: Outlines of a Comparative Grammar, 2nd ed., Orientalia Lovanensia Analecta: Leuven 2001</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kees_Versteegh" title="Kees Versteegh">Kees Versteegh</a>, The Arabic Language, Edinburgh University Press (1997)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01663a.htm">The Catholic Encyclopedia, Robert Appleton Company, 1907, Online Edition, K. Night 2003: article Arabia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150906045819/http://www.paklinks.com/gs/archive/index.php/t-4130.html">History of Arabic language</a>(1894), Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd.</li> <li>The Arabic language, National Institute for Technology and Liberal Education web page (2006)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnkerl2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2881550041" title="Special:BookSources/978-2881550041"><bdi>978-2881550041</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+communication+without+universal+civilization&rft.place=Geneva&rft.series=INU+societal+research&rft.pub=INU+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-2881550041&rft.aulast=Ankerl&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hooker, Richard. "Pre-Islamic Arabic Culture." WSU Web Site. 6 June 1999. Washington State University.</li> <li>Owen, Roger. "State Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East 3rd Ed" p. 57 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415297141" title="Special:BookSources/0415297141">0415297141</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinson1998" class="citation book cs1">Levinson, David (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uwi-rv3VV6cC">Ethnic groups worldwide: a ready reference handbook</a>. Oryx Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1573560191" title="Special:BookSources/978-1573560191"><bdi>978-1573560191</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+groups+worldwide%3A+a+ready+reference+handbook&rft.pub=Oryx+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1573560191&rft.aulast=Levinson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Duwi-rv3VV6cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaymond1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Raymond, André (1993). Le Caire (in French). Fayard.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Caire&rft.pub=Fayard&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Raymond&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrawn2000a" class="citation book cs1">Strawn, Brent A. (2000a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&q=%22a+schematic+representation+describing+the+expansion+of+humankind%22&pg=PA1271">"Shem"</a>. In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9053565032" title="Special:BookSources/978-9053565032"><bdi>978-9053565032</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shem&rft.btitle=Eerdmans+Dictionary+of+the+Bible&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-9053565032&rft.aulast=Strawn&rft.aufirst=Brent+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqRtUqxkB7wkC%26q%3D%2522a%2Bschematic%2Brepresentation%2Bdescribing%2Bthe%2Bexpansion%2Bof%2Bhumankind%2522%26pg%3DPA1271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Price-Jones, David. The Closed Circle: an Interpretation of the Arabs. Pbk. ed., with a new preface by the author. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 2002. xiv, 464 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1566634407" title="Special:BookSources/1566634407">1566634407</a></li> <li>Ankerl, Guy. Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INU PRESS, Geneva, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2881550045" title="Special:BookSources/2881550045">2881550045</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBitar2020" class="citation book cs1">Bitar, Amer (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X4oBEAAAQBAJ">Bedouin Visual Leadership in the Middle East: The Power of Aesthetics and Practical Implications</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Nature" title="Springer Nature">Springer Nature</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3030573973" title="Special:BookSources/978-3030573973"><bdi>978-3030573973</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bedouin+Visual+Leadership+in+the+Middle+East%3A+The+Power+of+Aesthetics+and+Practical+Implications&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3030573973&rft.aulast=Bitar&rft.aufirst=Amer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX4oBEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabs" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arabs_in_Afghanistan" title="History of Arabs in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Arabs" title="Afghan Arabs">Afghan Arabs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_India" title="Arabs in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Indonesians" title="Arab Indonesians">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Arabs" title="Iranian Arabs">Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabs" title="Khorasani Arabs">Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabs" title="Khuzestani Arabs">Khuzestan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Japan" title="Arabs in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Malaysians" title="Arab Malaysians">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Pakistan" title="Arabs in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_the_Philippines" title="Arabs in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Singaporeans" title="Arab Singaporeans">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Moors" title="Sri Lankan Moors">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Turkey" title="Arabs in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_the_Caucasus" title="Arabs in the Caucasus">Caucasus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Europe" title="Arabs in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Denmark" title="Arabs in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Finland" title="Arabs in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Sweden" title="Arabs in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Arabs" title="British Arabs">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southeast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Bulgaria" title="Arabs in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobrujan_Arabs" title="Dobrujan Arabs">Dobruja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Romania" title="Arabs in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Serbia" title="Arabs in Serbia">Serbia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Greece" title="Arabs in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Italy" title="Arabs in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Malta" title="Arabs in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Spain" title="Arabs in Spain">Spain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Austria" title="Arabs in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccans_in_Belgium" title="Moroccans in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_France" title="Arabs in France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beur" title="Beur">Beur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_communities_of_Paris" title="Maghrebi communities of Paris">Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Germany" title="Arabs in Germany">Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Berlin" title="Arabs in Berlin">Berlin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_the_Netherlands" title="Arabs in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Switzerland" title="Arabs in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Canadians" title="Arab Canadians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cubans" title="Arab Cubans">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_El_Salvador#Arab_Heritage" title="Culture of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Haitians" title="Arab Haitians">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_immigration_to_Honduras" title="Arab immigration to Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Mexicans" title="Arab Mexicans">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Americans" title="Arab Americans">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_Eastern_people_in_Metro_Detroit" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Middle Eastern people in Metro Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Australians" title="Arab Australians">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_New_Zealanders" title="Arab New Zealanders">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Argentines" title="Arab Argentines">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Brazilians" title="Arab Brazilians">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Chileans" title="Arab Chileans">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Colombians" title="Arab Colombians">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Ecuadorians" title="Lebanese Ecuadorians">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_El_Salvador" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabs in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Paraguayans" title="Lebanese Paraguayans">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Uruguayans" title="Arab Uruguayans">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Venezuelans" title="Arab Venezuelans">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="People_and_things_in_the_Quran146" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Characters_and_names_in_the_Quran" title="Template:Characters and names in the Quran"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Characters_and_names_in_the_Quran" title="Template talk:Characters and names in the Quran"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Characters_and_names_in_the_Quran" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Characters and names in the Quran"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="People_and_things_in_the_Quran146" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">People and things in the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Characters66" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_characters_and_names_mentioned_in_the_Quran" title="List of characters and names mentioned in the Quran">Characters</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Non-humans10" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Non-humans</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Allāh</a> ('The <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>') <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Islam" title="Names of God in Islam">Names</a> of <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> found in the Quran, such as Karīm (Generous)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Al-Baqara" title="Al-Baqara">baqara</a> (cow) of Israelites</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Joseph_in_Islam#The_plot_against_Joseph" title="Joseph in Islam">dhiʾb</a> (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Al-Fil" title="Al-Fil">fīl</a> (<a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">elephant</a>) of the Abyssinians</li> <li>Ḥimār (<a href="/wiki/Donkey" title="Donkey">Domesticated donkey</a>)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Solomon_in_Islam#Reign" title="Solomon in Islam">hud-hud</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hoopoe" title="Hoopoe">hoopoe</a>) of Solomon</li> <li>The kalb (dog) of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Sleepers#Islam" title="Seven Sleepers">sleepers of the cave</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Solomon_in_Islam#Reign" title="Solomon in Islam">namlah</a> (female ant) of Solomon</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Jonah#The_fish" title="Jonah">nūn</a> (fish or whale) of Jonah</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/She-Camel_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="She-Camel of God">nāqat</a> (she-camel) of Ṣāliḥ</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>ʿAnkabūt (Female <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spider</a>)</li> <li>Dābbat al-Arḍ (<a href="/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a>)</li> <li>Ḥimār (<a href="/wiki/Onager" title="Onager">Wild ass</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honey#Ancient_times" title="Honey">Naḥl</a> (<a href="/wiki/Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">Honey bee</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qaswarah" class="mw-redirect" title="Qaswarah">Qaswarah</a> ('<a href="/wiki/Asiatic_lion" title="Asiatic lion">Lion</a>', 'beast of prey' or 'hunter')</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Malāʾikah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">Angels</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Angels of Hell <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maalik" title="Maalik">Mālik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zabaniyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Zabaniyya">Zabāniyah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bearers_of_the_Throne" title="Bearers of the Throne">Bearers of the Throne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harut_and_Marut" title="Harut and Marut">Harut and Marut</a></li> <li>Kirāman Kātibīn (Honourable Scribes) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raqib" class="mw-redirect" title="Raqib">Raqib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atid" title="Atid">Atid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munkar_and_Nakir" title="Munkar and Nakir">Munkar and Nakir</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Muqarrabun34" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archangel#Islam" title="Archangel">Muqarrabun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel#Islam" title="Gabriel">Jibrīl</a> (Gabriel, chief) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%AB%E1%B8%A5" title="Rūḥ">Ar-Rūḥ</a> ('The Spirit') <ul><li>Ar-Rūḥ al-Amīn ('The Trustworthy Spirit')</li> <li>Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus ('The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a>')</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Angel of the Trumpet (<a href="/wiki/Israfil" title="Israfil">Isrāfīl</a> or <a href="/wiki/Raphael_(archangel)" title="Raphael (archangel)">Raphael</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azrael#In_Islam" title="Azrael">Malakul-Mawt</a> (Angel of Death, Azrael)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_(archangel)#Islam" title="Michael (archangel)">Mīkāil</a> (Michael)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">Jinn</a> (Genies)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jann_(legendary_creature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jann (legendary creature)">Jann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifrit#Islamic_scripture" title="Ifrit">ʿIfrīt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asmodeus" title="Asmodeus">Sakhr</a> (Asmodeus)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qareen" title="Qareen">Qarīn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shaitan" title="Shaitan">Shayāṭīn</a> (<a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">Demons</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iblis" title="Iblis">Iblīs</a> <a href="/wiki/Satan#Islam" title="Satan">ash-Shayṭān</a> (the (chief) <a href="/wiki/Devil" title="Devil">Devil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marid" title="Marid">Mārid</a> ('Rebellious one')</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilmān</a> or Wildān</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houri" title="Houri">Ḥūr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Prophets45" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mentioned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam_in_Islam" title="Adam in Islam">Ādam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Adam" title="Adam">Adam</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Yasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Yasa">Al-Yasa</a>ʿ (<a href="/wiki/Elisha" title="Elisha">Elisha</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_in_Islam" title="Job in Islam">Ayyūb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Job_(biblical_figure)" title="Job (biblical figure)">Job</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_in_Islam" title="David in Islam">Dāwūd</a> (<a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhul-Kifl" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhul-Kifl">Dhūl-Kifl</a> (Ezekiel?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_in_Islam" title="Aaron in Islam">Hārūn</a> (Aaron)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hud_(prophet)" title="Hud (prophet)">Hūd</a> (Eber?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idris_(prophet)" title="Idris (prophet)">Idrīs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Enoch" title="Enoch">Enoch</a>?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah#Elijah_in_Islam" title="Elijah">Ilyās</a> (Elijah)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim#In_Islam" title="Joachim">ʿImrān</a> (Joachim the father of Maryam)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_in_Islam" title="Isaac in Islam">Isḥāq</a> (<a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishmael_in_Islam" title="Ishmael in Islam">Ismāʿīl</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ishmael" title="Ishmael">Ishmael</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binding_of_Isaac#Muslim_views" title="Binding of Isaac">Dhabih Ullah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lot_in_Islam" title="Lot in Islam">Lūṭ</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lot_(biblical_person)" title="Lot (biblical person)">Lot</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salih" title="Salih">Ṣāliḥ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuaib" title="Shuaib">Shuʿayb</a> (Jethro, Reuel or <a href="/wiki/Hobab_(biblical_figure)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobab (biblical figure)">Hobab</a>?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_in_Islam" title="Solomon in Islam">Sulaymān</a> ibn Dāwūd (<a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> son of David)</li> <li>ʿ<a href="/wiki/Uzair" title="Uzair">Uzair</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a>?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist#Islam" title="John the Baptist">Yaḥyā</a> ibn Zakariyyā (<a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a> the son of Zechariah)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_in_Islam" title="Jacob in Islam">Yaʿqūb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a>) <ul><li>Isrāʾīl (Israel)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonah#Jonah_in_Islam" title="Jonah">Yūnus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jonah" title="Jonah">Jonah</a>) <ul><li>Dhūn-Nūn ('He of the <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">Fish</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Whale" title="Whale">Whale</a>)' or 'Owner of the Fish (or Whale)')</li> <li>Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūt ('Companion of the Whale')</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_in_Islam" title="Joseph in Islam">Yūsuf</a> ibn Ya‘qūb (<a href="/wiki/Joseph" title="Joseph">Joseph</a> son of Jacob)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zechariah_(New_Testament_figure)#In_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Zechariah (New Testament figure)">Zakariyyā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zechariah_(New_Testament_figure)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zechariah (New Testament figure)">Zechariah</a>)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ulu-l-%E2%80%98Azm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulu-l-‘Azm">Ulul-ʿAzm</a> ('Those of the Perseverance and Strong Will')</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muḥammad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_the_Quran" title="Muhammad in the Quran">Aḥmad</a></li> <li>Other <a href="/wiki/Names_and_titles_of_Muhammad" title="Names and titles of Muhammad">names and titles of Muhammad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">ʿĪsā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>) <ul><li>Al-Masīḥ (The <a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a>)</li> <li>Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_in_Islam" title="Moses in Islam">Mūsā Kalīmullāh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> He who spoke to God)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam" title="Abraham in Islam">Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> Friend of God)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_in_Islam" title="Noah in Islam">Nūḥ</a> (<a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debatable ones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn" title="Dhu al-Qarnayn">Dhūl-Qarnain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luqman" title="Luqman">Luqmān</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_in_Islam" title="Mary in Islam">Maryam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talut" title="Talut">Ṭālūt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gideon" title="Gideon">Gideon</a>?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Implied</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah#Islamic_views" title="Jeremiah">Irmiyā</a> (Jeremiah)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel#Islam" title="Samuel">Ṣamūʾīl</a> (<a href="/wiki/Samuel" title="Samuel">Samuel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua#In_Islam" title="Joshua">Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn</a> (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People_of_Prophets18" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">People of Prophets</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Good ones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Adam's immediate relatives <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cain_and_Abel_in_Islam" title="Cain and Abel in Islam">Martyred son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eve#Islamic_view" title="Eve">Wife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habib_the_Carpenter" title="Habib the Carpenter">Believer of Ya-Sin</a></li> <li>Family of Noah <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamech_(father_of_Noah)" title="Lamech (father of Noah)">Father Lamech</a></li> <li>Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos</li></ul></li> <li>Luqman's son</li> <li>People of Abraham <ul><li>Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagar_in_Islam" title="Hagar in Islam">Ishmael's mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah#In_Islam" title="Sarah">Isaac's mother</a></li></ul></li> <li>People of Jesus <ul><li>Disciples (including <a href="/wiki/Peter_in_Islam" title="Peter in Islam">Peter</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Anne#In_Islam" title="Saint Anne">Mary's mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_(biblical_figure)#In_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth (biblical figure)">Zechariah's wife</a></li></ul></li> <li>People of Solomon <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bathsheba#Islam" title="Bathsheba">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Sheba#Islamic" title="Queen of Sheba">Queen of Sheba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asif_ibn_Barkhiya" title="Asif ibn Barkhiya">Vizier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayd_ibn_Harithah" class="mw-redirect" title="Zayd ibn Harithah">Zayd</a> (Muhammad's adopted son)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People of Joseph</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Brothers (including <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin in Islam">Binyāmin</a> (Benjamin) and <a href="/wiki/Simeon_(son_of_Jacob)" title="Simeon (son of Jacob)">Simeon</a>)</li> <li>Egyptians <ul><li>ʿAzīz (<a href="/wiki/Potiphar" title="Potiphar">Potiphar</a>, Qatafir or Qittin)</li> <li>Malik (King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd))</li> <li>Wife of ʿAzīz (<a href="/wiki/Zuleikha_(tradition)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zuleikha (tradition)">Zulaykhah</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel#In_Islam" title="Rachel">Mother</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People of Aaron and Moses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Egyptians <ul><li>Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura)</li> <li>Imraʾat Firʿawn (<a href="/wiki/Asiya" title="Asiya">Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim</a> the <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh%27s_daughter_(Exodus)#In_Muslim_tradition" title="Pharaoh's daughter (Exodus)">Wife of Pharaoh</a>, who adopted Moses)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_in_Islam#Confrontation_with_sorcerers" title="Moses in Islam">Magicians of the Pharaoh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khidr" title="Khidr">Wise, pious man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zipporah" title="Zipporah">Moses' wife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leah" title="Leah">Moses' sister-in-law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jochebed#The_Islamic_view_of_Jochebed" title="Jochebed">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miriam#Quranic_account" title="Miriam">Sister</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Evil ones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam#Family" title="Abraham in Islam">Āzar</a> (possibly <a href="/wiki/Terah#Islamic_tradition" title="Terah">Terah</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh_in_Islam" title="Pharaoh in Islam">Firʿawn</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a> of Moses' time)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haman_(Islam)" title="Haman (Islam)">Hāmān</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goliath#Islam" title="Goliath">Jālūt</a> (Goliath)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korah#Quranic_reference" title="Korah">Qārūn</a> (Korah, cousin of Moses)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samiri_(Islamic_figure)" class="mw-redirect" title="Samiri (Islamic figure)">As-Sāmirī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Lahab" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Lahab">Abū Lahab</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slayers_of_%E1%B9%A2%C4%81li%E1%B8%A5%27s_she-camel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slayers of Ṣāliḥ's she-camel (page does not exist)">Slayers of Ṣāliḥ's she-camel</a> (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Implied or not specified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraha" title="Abraha">Abraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balaam#Balaam_in_the_Quran" title="Balaam">Bal'am/Balaam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar%E1%B9%A3%C4%AB%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Barṣīṣā">Barṣīṣā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caleb#Quranic_account" title="Caleb">Caleb or Kaleb</a> the companion of Joshua</li> <li>Luqman's son</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod" title="Nimrod">Nimrod</a></li> <li>Rahmah the wife of Ayyub</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddad" title="Shaddad">Shaddad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups6" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mentioned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aṣḥāb al-Jannah <ul><li>People of Paradise</li> <li>People of the Burnt Garden</li></ul></li> <li>Aṣḥāb as-Sabt (Companions of the <a href="/wiki/Sabbath" title="Sabbath">Sabbath</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disciples_of_Jesus_in_Islam" title="Disciples of Jesus in Islam">Jesus' apostles</a> <ul><li>Ḥawāriyyūn (<a href="/wiki/Disciples_of_Jesus_in_Islam" title="Disciples of Jesus in Islam">Disciples of Jesus</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Companions of Noah's Ark</a></li> <li>Aṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (<a href="/wiki/Seven_Sleepers#Islam" title="Seven Sleepers">Companions of the Cave</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sahab,_Jordan#Famous_places_in_Sahab" title="Sahab, Jordan">Al-Raqaim?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fil" title="Al-Fil">Companions of the Elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_towns_in_Saudi_Arabia#Al-Ukhd.C5.ABd_Archeological_Area" title="Ancient towns in Saudi Arabia">People of al-Ukhdūd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_Ya-Sin" title="People of Ya-Sin">People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medina#Pre-Islamic_times" title="Medina">People of Yathrib</a> or <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a></li> <li>Qawm Lūṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah)</li> <li>Nation of Noah</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Tribes,_ethnicitiesor_families39" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tribes, ethnicities or families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>‘<a href="/wiki/Ajam" title="Ajam">Ajam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum_(endonym)" title="Rum (endonym)">Ar-Rūm</a> (literally 'The Romans')</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Banī Isrāʾīl</a> (Children of Israel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodom_and_Gomorrah#Islamic" title="Sodom and Gomorrah">Muʾtafikāt</a> (Sodom and Gomorrah)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam" title="Abraham in Islam">People of Ibrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah#Elijah_in_Islam" title="Elijah">People of Ilyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_in_Islam" title="Noah in Islam">People of Nuh</a></li> <li>People of Shuaib <ul><li>Ahl Madyan <a href="/wiki/Midian#In_the_Qur'an" title="Midian">People of Madyan</a>)</li> <li>Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ('Companions of the Wood')</li></ul></li> <li>Qawm <a href="/wiki/Jonah#Jonah_in_Islam" title="Jonah">Yūnus</a> (People of Jonah)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog#Qur'an" title="Gog and Magog">Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copts" title="Copts">People of Fir'aun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad)</a> <ul><li>Aṣḥāb Muḥammad (<a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Companions of Muhammad</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ansar_(Islam)" title="Ansar (Islam)">Anṣār</a> (literally 'Helpers')</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhajirun" title="Muhajirun">Muhajirun</a> (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>People of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Jamil" title="Umm Jamil">Wife of Abu Lahab</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_in_Islam" title="Job in Islam">Children of Ayyub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cain_and_Abel_in_Islam" title="Cain and Abel in Islam">Sons of Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wives_aboard_Noah%27s_Ark" title="Wives aboard Noah's Ark">Wife of Nuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lot%27s_wife" title="Lot's wife">Wife of Lut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog#Qur'an" title="Gog and Magog">Yaʾjūj wa Maʾjūj</a> (Gog and Magog)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Noah#Extrabiblical_sons_of_Noah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sons of Noah">Son of Nuh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aʿrāb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia" title="Tribes of Arabia">Arabs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouins</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BF%C4%80d" title="ʿĀd">ʿĀd</a> (people of Hud)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Rass" title="Companions of the Rass">Companions of the Rass</a></li> <li>Qawm Tubbaʿ (People of <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Saba_and_Himyar" title="List of rulers of Saba and Himyar">Tubba</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaeans">People of Sabaʾ or Sheba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thamud" title="Thamud">Thamūd</a> (people of Ṣāliḥ) <ul><li>Aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ('Companions of the <a href="/wiki/Mada%27in_Saleh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mada'in Saleh">Stoneland</a>')</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ahl al-Bayt ('People of the Household')</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Household of Abraham <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacob#Children_of_Jacob" title="Jacob">Brothers of Yūsuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lot%27s_daughters" title="Lot's daughters">Lot's daughters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim#In_Islam" title="Joachim">Progeny of Imran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Household of Moses</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Household of Muhammad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banu_Hashim" title="Banu Hashim">ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy_of_Khadijah%27s_daughters" class="mw-redirect" title="Genealogy of Khadijah's daughters">Daughters of Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad%27s_wives" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad's wives">Muhammad's wives</a></li></ul></li> <li>Household of Salih</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Implicitly mentioned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amalek" title="Amalek">Amalek</a></li> <li>Ahl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_Nadir" title="Banu Nadir">Banu Nadir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_Qaynuqa" title="Banu Qaynuqa">Banu Qaynuqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_Qurayza" title="Banu Qurayza">Banu Qurayza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_Aws" title="Banu Aws">Aus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Banu_Khazraj" title="Banu Khazraj">Khazraj</a></li> <li>People of <a href="/wiki/Quba_Mosque" title="Quba Mosque">Quba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Ahl al-Dhimmah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafir" title="Kafir">Kāfirūn</a> <ul><li>disbelievers</li></ul></li> <li>Majūs <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munafiq" title="Munafiq">Munāfiqūn</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hypocrisy" title="Hypocrisy">Hypocrites</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> <ul><li>Believers</li></ul></li> <li>Ahl al-Kitāb (<a href="/wiki/People_of_the_Book" title="People of the Book">People of the Book</a>) <ul><li>Naṣārā (<a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a>(s) or People of the Injil) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Ruhban (Christian monks)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest#Christianity" title="Priest">Qissis (Christian priest)</a></li></ul></li> <li>Yahūd (<a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hakham" title="Hakham">Ahbār (Jewish scholars)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbani/Rabbi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabians#Islamic_reference" title="Sabians">Sabians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia#Mecca" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Meccan polytheists</a> at the time of Muhammad</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian polytheists</a> at the time of Abraham and Lot</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Locations25" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Locations</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mentioned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah</a> ('The Holy Land') <ul><li>'Blessed' Land'</li></ul></li> <li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Jannah" title="Jannah">Jannah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paradise" title="Paradise">Paradise</a>, literally 'The Garden')</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jahannam" title="Jahannam">Jahannam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hell</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bab_Huta" class="mw-redirect" title="Bab Huta">Door of Hittah</a></li> <li>Madyan (<a href="/wiki/Midian" title="Midian">Midian</a>)</li> <li>Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn</li> <li>Miṣr (Mainland <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>)</li> <li>Salsabīl (A river in Paradise)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> (excluding Madyan)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hud_(prophet)#Historical_context" title="Hud (prophet)">Al-Aḥqāf</a> ('The Sandy Plains,' or 'the Wind-curved Sand-hills') <ul><li>Iram dhāt al-ʿImād (<a href="/wiki/Iram_of_the_Pillars" title="Iram of the Pillars">Iram of the Pillars</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Madīnah</a> (formerly <a href="/wiki/Medina#Pre-Islamic_times" title="Medina">Yathrib</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Arafat" title="Mount Arafat">ʿArafāt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muzdalifah#The_Sacred_Monument" title="Muzdalifah">Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegra_(Mada%27in_Salih)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegra (Mada'in Salih)">Al-Ḥijr</a> (Hegra)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badr,_Saudi_Arabia" title="Badr, Saudi Arabia">Badr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunayn,_Saudi_Arabia" title="Hunayn, Saudi Arabia">Ḥunayn</a></li> <li>Makkah (<a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bakkah" title="Bakkah">Bakkah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haram_(site)" title="Haram (site)">Ḥaraman</a> Āminan ('Sanctuary (which is) Secure')</li> <li>Kaʿbah (<a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqam_Ibrahim" title="Maqam Ibrahim">Maqām Ibrāhīm</a> (Station of Abraham)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safa_and_Marwa" title="Safa and Marwa">Safa and Marwa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaeans">Sabaʾ</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sheba" title="Sheba">Sheba</a>) <ul><li>ʿArim Sabaʾ (<a href="/wiki/Marib_Dam" title="Marib Dam">Dam of Sheba</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ar_Rass" title="Ar Rass">Rass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinai Peninsula in Islam">Sinai Region</a> or Tīh Desert</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Wadi" title="Wadi">Wād</a> Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Tuwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley of Tuwa">Valley of Tuwa</a>) <ul><li>Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Mount_Sinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Buq%E2%80%98ah_Al-Mub%C4%81rakah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Buq‘ah Al-Mubārakah">Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah</a> ('The Blessed Place')</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai" title="Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mount_Tabor" title="Mount Tabor">Mount Tabor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Judi" title="Mount Judi">Al-Jūdiyy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Munzal_Al-Mub%C4%81rak" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Munzal Al-Mubārak">Munzalanm-Mubārakan</a> ('Place-of-Landing Blessed')</li></ul></li> <li>Bābil (<a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>)</li> <li>Qaryat Yūnus ('Township of <a href="/wiki/Jonah_in_Islam" title="Jonah in Islam">Jonah</a>,' that is <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Bayʿa</a> (Church)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">Miḥrāb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">Monastery</a></li> <li>Masjid (<a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a>, literally 'Place of <a href="/wiki/Sujud" title="Sujud">Prostration</a>') <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mash%27ar_Al-Haram" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mash'ar Al-Haram">Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām</a> ('The Sacred Grove')</li> <li>Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (<a href="/wiki/Al-Aqsa" title="Al-Aqsa">Al-Aqsa</a>, literally 'The Farthest Place-of-Prostration')</li> <li>Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Mecca" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Mosque of Mecca">Sacred Mosque</a> of Mecca)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition_of_Masjid_al-Dirar" title="Demolition of Masjid al-Dirar">Masjid al-Dirar</a></li> <li>A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly: <ul><li>Masjid Qubāʾ (<a href="/wiki/Quba_Mosque" title="Quba Mosque">Quba Mosque</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masjid_an-Nabawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Masjid an-Nabawi">The Prophet's Mosque</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Salat (Synagogue)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Implied</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antakya" title="Antakya">Antakya</a></li></ul></li> <li>Arabia <ul><li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Ḥijāz</a> (literally 'The Barrier') <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Stone" title="Black Stone">Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad</a> (Black Stone) & <a href="/wiki/Al-Hijr_of_Ishmael" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hijr of Ishmael">Al-Hijr of Isma'il</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Hira" class="mw-redirect" title="Cave of Hira">Cave of Hira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabal_Thawr#Cave" title="Jabal Thawr">Ghār ath-Thawr</a> (Cave of the Bull)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hudaybiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Hudaybiyyah">Hudaybiyyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%27if" class="mw-redirect" title="Ta'if">Ta'if</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayla_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayla (city)">Ayla</a></li> <li>Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-Muqaddas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayt al-Muqaddas">Bayt al-Muqaddas</a> & <a href="/wiki/Jericho" title="Jericho">'Ariha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_in_the_Quran" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamia in the Quran">Bilād ar-Rāfidayn</a> (Mesopotamia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sleepers#Location_of_the_cave_and_duration_of_stay" title="Seven Sleepers">Cave of Seven Sleepers</a></li> <li>Dār an-Nadwa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> River</li> <li>Palestine River</li> <li>Paradise of <a href="/wiki/Shaddad" title="Shaddad">Shaddad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events,_incidents,_occasions_or_times37" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events, incidents, occasions or times</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Incident of Ifk</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_of_Power" title="Night of Power">Laylat al-Qadr</a> (Night of Decree)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_of_Mubahala" class="mw-redirect" title="Event of Mubahala">Event of Mubahala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayl_al-%27Arim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayl al-'Arim">Sayl al-ʿArim</a> (Flood of the Great Dam of <a href="/wiki/Ma%27rib" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'rib">Ma'rib</a> in Sheba)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Farewell_Pilgrimage" title="Farewell Pilgrimage">Farewell Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hudaybiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Hudaybiyyah">Treaty of Hudaybiyyah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Battles or military expeditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trench" title="Battle of the Trench">Battle of al-Aḥzāb</a> ('the Confederates')</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Badr" title="Battle of Badr">Battle of Badr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hunayn" title="Battle of Hunayn">Battle of Hunayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khaybar" title="Battle of Khaybar">Battle of Khaybar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Uhud" title="Battle of Uhud">Battle of Uhud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_Tabuk" title="Expedition of Tabuk">Expedition of Tabuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Mecca" title="Conquest of Mecca">Conquest of Mecca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Days</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Jumu%27ah" class="mw-redirect" title="Jumu'ah">Jumuʿah</a> (The Friday)</li> <li>As-<a href="/wiki/Sabbath#Islam" title="Sabbath">Sabt</a> (The Sabbath or Saturday)</li> <li>Days of battles</li> <li>Days of Hajj</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Doomsday</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Months of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic calendar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>12 months: Four holy months <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Hijjah" title="Dhu al-Hijjah">Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām</a> (The Sacred or Forbidden Month)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramaḍān</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pilgrimages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Ḥajj</a> (literally 'The Pilgrimage', the Greater Pilgrimage)</li> <li>Al-ʿ<a href="/wiki/Umrah" title="Umrah">Umrah</a> (The Lesser Pilgrimage)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Times for prayer or remembrance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Times for <a href="/wiki/Dua" title="Dua">Duʿāʾ</a> ('<a href="/wiki/Invocation" title="Invocation">Invocation</a>'), <a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Ṣalāh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dhikr" title="Dhikr">Dhikr</a> ('Remembrance', including <a href="/wiki/Alhamdulillah" title="Alhamdulillah">Taḥmīd</a> ('Praising'), <a href="/wiki/Takbir" title="Takbir">Takbīr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tasbih" title="Tasbih">Tasbīḥ</a>): <ul><li>Al-ʿAshiyy (The Afternoon or the Night)</li> <li>Al-Ghuduww ('The Mornings') <ul><li>Al-Bukrah ('The Morning')</li> <li>Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ('The Morning')</li></ul></li> <li>Al-Layl ('The Night') <ul><li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Isha_prayer" title="Isha prayer">ʿIshāʾ</a> ('The Late-Night')</li></ul></li> <li>Aẓ-<a href="/wiki/Zuhr_prayer" title="Zuhr prayer">Ẓuhr</a> ('The Noon')</li> <li>Dulūk ash-Shams ('Decline of the Sun') <ul><li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Maghrib_prayer" title="Maghrib prayer">Masāʾ</a> ('The Evening')</li> <li>Qabl al-<a href="/wiki/Maghrib_prayer" title="Maghrib prayer">Ghurūb</a> ('Before the Setting (of the Sun)') <ul><li>Al-Aṣīl ('The Afternoon')</li> <li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Asr_prayer" title="Asr prayer">ʿAṣr</a> ('The Afternoon')</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams ('Before the rising of the Sun') <ul><li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Fajr_prayer" title="Fajr prayer">Fajr</a> ('The Dawn')</li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Implied</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghadir_Khumm" title="Ghadir Khumm">Ghadir Khumm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laylat_al-Mabit" class="mw-redirect" title="Laylat al-Mabit">Laylat al-Mabit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Pilgrimage" title="First Pilgrimage">First Pilgrimage</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other112" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Holy books</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Gospel_in_Islam" title="Gospel in Islam">Injīl</a> (The <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospel</a> of Jesus)</li> <li>Al-<a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qurʾān</a> (The Book of Muhammad)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrolls_of_Abraham" title="Scrolls of Abraham">Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm</a> (Scroll(s) of Abraham)</li> <li>At-<a href="/wiki/Torah_in_Islam" title="Torah in Islam">Tawrāt</a> (The <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scrolls_of_Moses" title="Scrolls of Moses">Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā</a> (Scroll(s) of Moses)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tablets_of_Stone" title="Tablets of Stone">Tablets of Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li>Az-<a href="/wiki/Zabur" title="Zabur">Zabūr</a> (The <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a> of David)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavenly_Quran" title="Heavenly Quran">Umm al-Kitāb</a> ('Mother of the Book(s)')</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Objects of people or beings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disciples_of_Jesus_in_Islam" title="Disciples of Jesus in Islam">Heavenly food of Jesus' apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Noah's Ark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_of_Moses" title="Staff of Moses">Staff of Musa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_the_Covenant#Quran" title="Ark of the Covenant">Tābūt as-Sakīnah</a> (Casket of Shekhinah)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Sheba#Qur'anic_account" title="Queen of Sheba">Throne of Bilqis</a></li> <li>Trumpet of Israfil</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Mentioned_idols(cult_images)34" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mentioned idols (cult images)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>'Ansāb</li> <li>Jibt and <a href="/wiki/Taghut" title="Taghut">Ṭāghūt</a> (<a href="/wiki/False_god" title="False god">False god</a>)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of Israelites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baal#In_Islam" title="Baal">Baʿal</a></li> <li>The ʿijl (<a href="/wiki/Golden_calf" title="Golden calf">golden calf</a> statue) of Israelites</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of Noah's people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasr_(deity)" title="Nasr (deity)">Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suwa%27" title="Suwa'">Suwāʿ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadd" title="Wadd">Wadd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yagh%C5%ABth" title="Yaghūth">Yaghūth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%27uq" title="Ya'uq">Yaʿūq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of Quraysh</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Lat" title="Al-Lat">Al-Lāt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Uzza" title="Al-Uzza">Al-ʿUzzā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manat_(goddess)" title="Manat (goddess)">Manāt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Celestial bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Maṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'): <ul><li>Al-Qamar (The Moon)</li> <li>Kawākib (Planets) <ul><li>Al-Arḍ (The Earth)</li></ul></li> <li>Nujūm (Stars) <ul><li>Ash-Shams (The Sun)</li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant matter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li>Baṣal (Onion)</li> <li>Fūm (Garlic or wheat)</li> <li>Shaṭʾ (Shoot)</li> <li>Sūq (Plant stem)</li> <li>Zarʿ (Seed)</li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fruits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>ʿAdas (<a href="/wiki/Lentil" title="Lentil">Lentil</a>)</li> <li>Baql (Herb)</li> <li>Qith-thāʾ (<a href="/wiki/Cucumber" title="Cucumber">Cucumber</a>)</li> <li>Rummān (<a href="/wiki/Pomegranate" title="Pomegranate">Pomegranate</a>)</li> <li>Tīn (<a href="/wiki/Fig" title="Fig">Fig</a>)</li> <li>Zaytūn (<a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">Olive</a>)</li> <li>In Paradise <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_fruit#Islamic_tradition" title="Forbidden fruit">Forbidden fruit of Adam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bushes, trees or plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Plants of Sheba <ul><li>Athl (<a href="/wiki/Tamarix" title="Tamarix">Tamarisk</a>)</li> <li>Sidr (<a href="/wiki/Celtis_australis" title="Celtis australis">Lote-tree</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Līnah (Tender <a href="/wiki/Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">Palm tree</a>)</li> <li>Nakhl (<a href="/wiki/Date_palm" title="Date palm">Date palm</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidrat_al-Muntaha" title="Sidrat al-Muntaha">Sidrat al-Muntahā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaqqum" title="Zaqqum">Zaqqūm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Liquids</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Māʾ (Water or fluid) <ul><li>Nahr (River)</li> <li>Yamm (River or sea)</li></ul></li> <li>Sharāb (Drink)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Note: Names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35323#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1606" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35323#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1606" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35323#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4002528-7">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85006349">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00560301">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116929&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph314827&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/fcrtxjqz0j94ckr">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label 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</div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-76b788f4d4-5ccd5","wgBackendResponseTime":196,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"5.936","walltime":"6.516","ppvisitednodes":{"value":36529,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1277081,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":20973,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":221,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1922061,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 5372.053 1 -total"," 56.30% 3024.450 4 Template:Reflist"," 23.54% 1264.672 201 Template:Cite_book"," 16.92% 908.991 204 Template:Cite_web"," 8.18% 439.351 26 Template:Navbox"," 6.23% 334.715 1 Template:Infobox_ethnic_group"," 5.42% 291.411 26 Template:Sfn"," 4.89% 262.615 39 Template:Cite_journal"," 2.85% 153.039 2 Template:Short_description"," 2.63% 141.293 7 Template:Langx"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"3.834","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22034971,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREF\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAaron_D._Rubin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbu-AmeroHellaniGonzálezLarruga2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhrari1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkyeampongNiven1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Khalili2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Qthami1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Tamimi2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl_Andulsi939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl_Hashimi859\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl_Zibeedi1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAli2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAli2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlshamali2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrea_Pacini1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnkerl2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAnthony_McRoy\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAris_Ananta,_Evi_Nurvidya_Arifin,_M_Sairi_Hasbullah,_Nur_Budi_Handayani,_Agus_Pramono2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArmstrong2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAslan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAtzmon2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAzyumardi_Azra2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBacharach1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBadawi1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBall2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarakat1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarker1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarros2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeehner\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehrens-Abouseif1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBen-Menahem2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenerDafeeahSamson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBin-Muqbil2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirley2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBitar2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloomBlair2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorda2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowdenLavanMachado2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowmanChamplinLintott1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowmanGarnseyCameron2005\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFBrunner1983b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryce2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryce2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBureš2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBurns2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFC._Held2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFC._T._R._HewerAllan_Anderson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCachia2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarmichael2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarney2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCatherwood2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClio\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCobb2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCragg1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCribbKahin2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrumley2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniel\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_F._Graf2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelitzsche1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDellios\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeng1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDever2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDionisius_A._AgiusRichard_Hitchcock1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoron_M._BeharBayazit_YunusbayevMait_MetspaluEne_Metspalu2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDutton2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl-Shamy1995\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEllerbrock2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEph\u0026#039;al1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEpstein2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsanu2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEttinghausenGrabarJenkins-Madina2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFF.2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFalagasZarkadouliaSamonis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarmer1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinster2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisherWood2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlandrinMontanariSonnenfeld1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlemingHonour1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFloodNecipoğlu2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForeman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancis_M._Deng2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFredrick_E._Greenspahn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreisenbruch2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFück2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGanie\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaster1927\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGelder2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlickLiveseyWallis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuo2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHajjejAlmawiArnaiz-VillenaHattab2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHandloff1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHannes_Kniffka1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHans_Wehr\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartono2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHassan1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHauss2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawting1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHillenbrand1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHitti1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolme2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHornblowerSpawforthEidinow2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHourani2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoyland2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoyland2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIra_M._Lapidus2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIrfan_Shahîd1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIrwin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._Espín-Ocampo2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJallad2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJandt2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJayawardena,_Dulip2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJehad2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJesper_Eidema,_Flemming_Højlundb1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJullien\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJullien2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahn1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKail_C._Ellis2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalmar2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamal_S._Salibi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKayyali2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKessler\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhalil2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKia2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKidderOppenheim2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitchen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitchenEhretAssefaMulligan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKraus1942–1943\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrebs2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKreiderBaldino2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLe_Strange1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeming2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevinson1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLorenzo_Kamel2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLunde2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._Redha_Bhacker_and_Bernadette_Bhacker\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._Th._Houtsma1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaalouf2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacDonald2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMackintosh-Smith2019\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMahroof1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaleh1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMargaret_K._Nydell2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMargolis2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_A._Chancey2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMay2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMbarekIsmail2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedina\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMgaloblishvili1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMihram\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMikaberidze2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohammad_Hassan_Khalil2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontgomery1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurtonen1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyers2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNebelFilonBrinkmannMajumder2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNebelFilonWeissWeale2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeil_Caplan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNemy1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNethanel_ben_Isaiah1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicolle2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoegelWheeler2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnkelos\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrfalea2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOri_Stendel1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPacini1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParolin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Amar2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPedro_MachadoSarah_FeeGwyn_Campbell2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPendergast2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerowne2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerryJacobJacobChase2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters1994\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhares2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPillalamarri2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlayfair1867\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorter_Berkey2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPostgate2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrado2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRabasaWaxmanLarsonMarcum2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRandall2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRapp2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRashed1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaymond1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedaction2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRetso2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRetsö2003\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRetsö2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRice1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichards2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRing\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson1996\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRodriguez-FloresFakhroAgosto-PerezD._Ramstetter2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogan2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomero1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSajjadi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaliba1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaliba1994b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSallesHealey2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalter2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSawa2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiettecatte2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlebuschJakobsson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSedovBâtâyiʿ1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSelin2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFShahab1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahid1984\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFShahîd1995a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShakry2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShoup2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiddiqui\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSierra2021\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSilvia_Ferabolli2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkolnikBerenbaum2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSorbøAhmed2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpeake1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStapletonAzoHidayat_Husain1927\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStendel1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStetkevych2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStetkevychc2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrawn2000a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStreet2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeebiTeebi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeitelbaum1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThābitAlbin1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTiempo2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToniasTonias2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTouma1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTriana2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrbain2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Beek1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Brummelen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarwick_Ball2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebb2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeimar2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinberg2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWenner1980\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWerner_Daum1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheeler2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinnet1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZaidi2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZarins\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZielger\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuleika_RodgersMargaret_Daly-DentonAnne_Fitzpatrick-McKinley2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFd\u0026#039;Avennes1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_20142017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_20202020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Jong2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFde_Munck2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_la_CruzAngela_Brittingham2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFḤamdān2006\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 8,\n [\"Approx\"] = 1,\n [\"Arab diaspora\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"C.\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Characters and names in the Quran\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite CIA World Factbook\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 201,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 39,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 24,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 204,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 12,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 9,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 3,\n [\"IPA\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 21,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox ethnic group\"] = 1,\n [\"Iranica\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Langx\"] = 7,\n [\"Legend\"] = 4,\n [\"MacTutor Biography\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 30,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 14,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Protection padlock\"] = 1,\n [\"Qref\"] = 6,\n [\"Redirect-multi\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 3,\n [\"Reign\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"Script\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 8,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 26,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 1,\n [\"Singular\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 5,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 10,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","740","18.4"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","480","11.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","360","9.0"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","260","6.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","260","6.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","220","5.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","160","4.0"],["type","160","4.0"],["init \u003CModule:Citation/CS1/Identifiers\u003E","120","3.0"],["[others]","1080","26.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-54bc5bdf84-8rbtp","timestamp":"20250217185743","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Arabs","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arabs","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q35323","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q35323","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-07T16:16:34Z","dateModified":"2025-02-13T02:02:15Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/8a\/Map_of_the_Arab_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg","headline":"Arabic-speaking ethnic and national groups, originally from the Arabian Peninsula"}</script> </body> </html>