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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Categories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Passions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Passions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Passions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suicide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suicide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Suicide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suicide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Social philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neoplatonism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neoplatonism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Neoplatonism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neoplatonism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Psychology_and_psychotherapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology_and_psychotherapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Psychology and psychotherapy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology_and_psychotherapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Seneca" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seneca"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Seneca</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seneca-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epictetus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epictetus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Epictetus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epictetus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marcus_Aurelius" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marcus_Aurelius"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>Marcus Aurelius</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marcus_Aurelius-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fragment_collections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fragment_collections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.4</span> <span>Fragment collections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fragment_collections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Stoicism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 97 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-97" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">97 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sto%C3%AFsisme" title="Stoïsisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Stoïsisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa" title="Stoa – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Stoa" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="رواقية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رواقية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoicismo" title="Estoicismo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Estoicismo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoicismu" title="Estoicismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Estoicismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa%C3%A7%C4%B1l%C4%B1q" title="Stoaçılıq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Stoaçılıq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="বৈরাগ্যদর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৈরাগ্যদর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su-to%CD%98-%C3%A0_Ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB%EF%BC%88Stoicism%EF%BC%89" title="Su-to͘-à Chú-gī（Stoicism） – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Su-to͘-à Chú-gī（Stoicism）" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%96%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Стаіцызм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Стаіцызм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoisismo" title="Estoisismo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Estoisismo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Стоицизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Стоицизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicizam" title="Stoicizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Stoicizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoikegezh" title="Stoikegezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Stoikegezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esto%C3%AFcisme" title="Estoïcisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Estoïcisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicismus" title="Stoicismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Stoicismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicisme" title="Stoicisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Stoicisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa" title="Stoa – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stoa" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoitsism" title="Stoitsism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Stoitsism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%89%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Στωικισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Στωικισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoicismo" title="Estoicismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Estoicismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoikismo" title="Stoikismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Stoikismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoizismo" title="Estoizismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Estoizismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="رواقی‌گری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رواقی‌گری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sto%C3%AFcisme" title="Stoïcisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Stoïcisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B3chas" title="Stóchas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Stóchas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B2thachd" title="Stòthachd – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Stòthachd" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoicismo" title="Estoicismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Estoicismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%ED%86%A0%EC%95%84_%ED%95%99%ED%8C%8C" title="스토아 학파 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="스토아 학파" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%AB%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Ստոիցիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ստոիցիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="स्टोइक दर्शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्टोइक दर्शन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicizam" title="Stoicizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Stoicizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoikismo" title="Stoikismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Stoikismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoikisme" title="Stoikisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Stoikisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicismo" title="Stoicismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Stoicismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B3uspeki" title="Stóuspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stóuspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicismo" title="Stoicismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Stoicismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האסכולה הסטואית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האסכולה הסטואית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoisisme" title="Stoisisme – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Stoisisme" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="სტოიციზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სტოიციზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Стоицизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Стоицизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Стоицизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Стоицизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placita_Stoicorum" title="Placita Stoicorum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Placita Stoicorum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicisms" title="Stoicisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Stoicisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicizmas" title="Stoicizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Stoicizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sto%C3%AFcisme" title="Stoïcisme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Stoïcisme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicisme" title="Stoicisme – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Stoicisme" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicismo" title="Stoicismo – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Stoicismo" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sztoikus_filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Sztoikus filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Sztoikus filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Стоицизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стоицизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B4ikisma" title="Stôikisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Stôikisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4" title="സ്റ്റോയിക്ക് തത്വചിന്ത – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്റ്റോയിക്ക് തത്വചിന്ത" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoj%C4%8Bi%C5%BCmu" title="Stojċiżmu – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Stojċiżmu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="तितिक्षावाद – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="तितिक्षावाद" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="სტოიციზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სტოიციზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الرواقيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الرواقيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="رواقیون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="رواقیون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoikisme" title="Stoikisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Stoikisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoicismo" title="Estoicismo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Estoicismo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Стоицизмась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Стоицизмась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa" title="Stoa – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Stoa" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%82%A2%E6%B4%BE" title="ストア派 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ストア派" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoisisme" title="Stoisisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Stoisisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa" title="Stoa – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Stoa" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoikisme" title="Stoikisme – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Stoikisme" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esto%C3%AFcisme" title="Estoïcisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Estoïcisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoitsizm" title="Stoitsizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Stoitsizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਸਟੋਇਕਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਟੋਇਕਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="رواقیت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="رواقیت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicyzm" title="Stoicyzm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Stoicyzm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoicismo" title="Estoicismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Estoicismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Stoicism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Стоицизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Стоицизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa" title="Stoa – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Stoa" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicizmi" title="Stoicizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Stoicizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Stoicism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicizmus" title="Stoicizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stoicizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicizem" title="Stoicizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Stoicizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qaayib" title="Qaayib – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Qaayib" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%86%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="ستۆیسیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ستۆیسیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicizam" title="Stoicizam – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Stoicizam" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicizam" title="Stoicizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Stoicizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoalaisuus" title="Stoalaisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Stoalaisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Stoicism" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-spoken-icon" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:En-Stoicism-article.ogg" title="Listen to this article"><img alt="Listen to this article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/20px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Virtue-focused philosophical system</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_(Napoli,_1969)_-_BEIC_6353768.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_%28Napoli%2C_1969%29_-_BEIC_6353768.jpg/220px-Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_%28Napoli%2C_1969%29_-_BEIC_6353768.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_%28Napoli%2C_1969%29_-_BEIC_6353768.jpg/330px-Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_%28Napoli%2C_1969%29_-_BEIC_6353768.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_%28Napoli%2C_1969%29_-_BEIC_6353768.jpg/440px-Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_%28Napoli%2C_1969%29_-_BEIC_6353768.jpg 2x" data-file-width="867" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>A bust of <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a>, considered the founder of Stoicism.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Stoicism</b> is a school of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> that flourished in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Stoics believed that the practice of <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> is enough to achieve <i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a></i>: a well-lived life. The Stoics identified the path to achieving it with a life spent practicing the four <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">cardinal virtues</a> in everyday life — <a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">prudence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">fortitude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">temperance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> — as well as living in accordance with nature. It was founded in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Agora_of_Athens" title="Ancient Agora of Athens">ancient Agora of Athens</a> by <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a> around 300 BCE. </p><p>Alongside <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle's ethics">Aristotle's ethics</a>, the Stoic tradition forms one of the major founding approaches to <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Stoics are especially known for teaching that "virtue is the only good" for human beings, and that external things, such as health, wealth, and pleasure, are not good or bad in themselves (<i><a href="/wiki/Adiaphora" title="Adiaphora">adiaphora</a></i>) but have value as "material for virtue to act upon". Many Stoics—such as <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a>—emphasized that because "virtue is sufficient for <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">happiness</a>", a <a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">sage</a> would be emotionally resilient to misfortune. The Stoics also believed that certain destructive emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and people should aim to maintain a will (called <i><a href="/wiki/Prohairesis" title="Prohairesis">prohairesis</a></i>) that is "in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">nature</a>". Because of this, the Stoics thought the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not what a person said but how the person behaved.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they believed everything was rooted in nature. </p><p>Stoicism flourished throughout the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Greece">Greek</a> world until the 3rd century CE, and among its adherents was Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>. It experienced a decline after <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> became the state religion in the 4th century CE. Since then, it has seen revivals, notably in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neostoicism" title="Neostoicism">Neostoicism</a>) and in the contemporary era (<a href="/wiki/Modern_Stoicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Stoicism">modern Stoicism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basic_tenets">Basic tenets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Basic tenets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, constructed from ideals of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> physics, and <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalistic</a> ethics. Of these, they emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, although their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers. </p><p>Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotions</a>; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (<i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i>). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the individual's ethical and moral well-being: "<i>Virtue</i> consists in a <i>will</i> that is in agreement with Nature."<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy",<sup id="cite_ref-Russell1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even to accept slaves as equals of others because all are products of nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell5_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Stoic ethic espouses a <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">deterministic</a> perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, <a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a> once opined that the wicked person is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes".<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend one's will to suit the world and remain, in the words of <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a>, "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy",<sup id="cite_ref-Russell1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus positing a "completely autonomous" individual will, and at the same time a universe that is "a rigidly deterministic single whole". This viewpoint was later described as "<a href="/wiki/Classical_Pantheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Pantheism">Classical Pantheism</a>" (and was adopted by Dutch philosopher <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-auto_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Julian Baggini</a> has characterized what constitutes one being a Stoic: </p> <blockquote><p>"To become a stoic is to endorse the truthfulness of its worldview and accept its prescription for how you ought to live, not just to like how it makes you feel."<sup id="cite_ref-z777_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-z777-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Baggini asserts that the endorsement of the truthfulness of the Stoic worldview and the tenets for one's behavior that follow from it, are central to what it means to be a Stoic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The name <i>Stoicism</i> derives from the <i><a href="/wiki/Stoa_Poikile" title="Stoa Poikile">Stoa Poikile</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>: ἡ ποικίλη στοά), or "painted porch", a <a href="/wiki/Colonnade" title="Colonnade">colonnade</a> decorated with mythic and historical battle scenes on the north side of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Agora_of_Athens" title="Ancient Agora of Athens">Agora</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> where <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a> and his followers gathered to discuss their ideas, near the end of the fourth century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Epicureans" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicureans">Epicureans</a>, Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space. Stoicism was originally known as Zenonism. However, this name was soon dropped, likely because the Stoics did not consider their founders to be perfectly wise and to avoid the risk of the philosophy becoming a <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">cult of personality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zeno's ideas developed from those of the <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynics</a> (brought to him by <a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes" title="Crates of Thebes">Crates of Thebes</a>), whose founding father, <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a>, had been a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>. Zeno's most influential successor was <a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a>, who followed <a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a> as leader of the school, and was responsible for molding what is now called Stoicism.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the point where, in the words of <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Murray" title="Gilbert Murray">Gilbert Murray</a>, "nearly all the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">successors of Alexander</a> [...] professed themselves Stoics".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe within which we are active participants. </p><p>Scholars<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases: the Early Stoa, from Zeno's founding to <a href="/wiki/Antipater_of_Tarsus" title="Antipater of Tarsus">Antipater</a>; the Middle Stoa, including <a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a>; and the Late Stoa, including <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Musonius_Rufus" title="Gaius Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>. No complete works survived from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survived.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_system">Philosophical system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Philosophical system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each person's own life.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Epictetus, <i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_of_Epictetus" title="Discourses of Epictetus">Discourses</a></i> 1.15.2, Robin Hard revised translation</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Of all the schools of ancient philosophy, Stoicism made the greatest claim to being utterly systematic.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the view of the Stoics, philosophy is the practice of virtue, and virtue, the highest form of which is utility, is generally speaking, constructed from ideals of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> physics, and <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalistic</a> ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These three ideals constitute virtue which is necessary for 'living a well reasoned life', seeing as they are all parts of a logos, or philosophical discourse, which includes the mind's rational dialogue with itself.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of them, the Stoics emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, although their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers. </p><p>Stoicism teaches the development of self-control as a means of overcoming destructive <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotions</a>; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (<i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i>). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the individual's ethical and moral well-being: "<i>Virtue</i> consists in a <i>will</i> that is in agreement with Nature".<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy",<sup id="cite_ref-Russell1_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature".<sup id="cite_ref-Russell5_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Stoic ethic espouses a <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">deterministic</a> perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, <a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a> once opined that the wicked person is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes".<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend one's will to suit the world and remain, in the words of <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a>, "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy",<sup id="cite_ref-Russell1_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus positing a "completely autonomous" individual will and at the same time a universe that is "a rigidly deterministic single whole". This viewpoint was later described as "<a href="/wiki/Classical_pantheism" title="Classical pantheism">Classical Pantheism</a>" (and was adopted by Dutch philosopher <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-auto_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chrysippos_BM_1846.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Chrysippos_BM_1846.jpg/220px-Chrysippos_BM_1846.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Chrysippos_BM_1846.jpg/330px-Chrysippos_BM_1846.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Chrysippos_BM_1846.jpg/440px-Chrysippos_BM_1846.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2640" data-file-height="3300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a>, the third leader of the Stoic school, wrote more than 300 books on logic. His works were lost, but an outline of his logical system may be reconstructed from fragments and testimony.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logic">Logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stoic_logic" title="Stoic logic">Stoic logic</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus Cronus</a>, who was one of Zeno's teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as <a href="/wiki/Propositional_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional logic">propositional logic</a>, which is based on statements or propositions, rather than terms, differing greatly from Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Term_logic" title="Term logic">term logic</a>. Later, <a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a> developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotle's Syllogistic (see <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">Syllogism</a>). New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century, when important developments in logic were based on propositional logic. <a href="/wiki/Susanne_Bobzien" title="Susanne Bobzien">Susanne Bobzien</a> wrote, "The many close similarities between Chrysippus's philosophical logic and that of <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a> are especially striking".<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bobzien also notes that, "Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with, including <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech act</a> theory, sentence analysis, singular and plural expressions, types of <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicate (mathematical logic)">predicates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indexicality" title="Indexicality">indexicals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Existential_quantification" title="Existential quantification">existential propositions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logical_connective" title="Logical connective">sentential connectives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">negations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logical_disjunction" title="Logical disjunction">disjunctions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conditional_proof" title="Conditional proof">conditionals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">logical consequence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">valid argument</a> forms, <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">theory of deduction</a>, propositional logic, <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tense_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense logic">tense logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemic_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemic logic">epistemic logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">logic of suppositions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperative_logic" title="Imperative logic">logic of imperatives</a>, ambiguity and logical <a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">paradoxes</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Categories">Categories</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Stoics held that all <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">beings</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὄντα</span></span>)—although not all things (τινά)—are <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">material</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides the existing beings they admitted four incorporeals (asomata): time, place, void, and sayable.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were held to be just 'subsisting' while such a status was denied to universals.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, they accepted <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a>'s idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object. But, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all <a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">chance incidents</a>. Thus, if an object is red, it would be because some part of a universal red body had entered the object. </p><p>They held that there were four <a href="/wiki/Stoic_categories" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoic categories">categories</a>: </p> <ol><li><b><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὑποκείμενον</span></span>):</b> The primary matter, formless substance, (<i>ousia</i>) that things are made of</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ποιόν</span></span>):</b> The way matter is organized to form an individual object; in Stoic physics, a physical ingredient (<i><a href="/wiki/Pneuma_(Stoic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneuma (Stoic)">pneuma</a></i>: air or breath), which informs the matter</li> <li><b>Somehow disposed (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πως ἔχον</span></span>):</b> Particular characteristics, not present within the object, such as size, shape, action, and posture</li> <li><b>Somehow disposed in relation to something (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πρός τί πως ἔχον</span></span>):</b> Characteristics related to other phenomena, such as the position of an object within time and space relative to other objects</li></ol> <p>The Stoics outlined that our own actions, thoughts, and reactions are within our control. The opening paragraph of the <i><a href="/wiki/Enchiridion_of_Epictetus" title="Enchiridion of Epictetus">Enchiridion</a></i> states the categories as: "Some things in the world are up to us, while others are not. Up to us are our faculties of judgment, motivation, desire, and aversion. In short, whatever is our own doing."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These suggest a space that is up to us or within our power. A simple example of the Stoic categories in use is provided by Jacques Brunschwig: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I am a certain lump of matter, and thereby a substance, an existent something (and thus far that is all); I am a man, and this individual man that I am, and thereby qualified by a common quality and a peculiar one; I am sitting or standing, disposed in a certain way; I am the father of my children, the fellow citizen of my fellow citizens, disposed in a certain way in relation to something else.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Stoics propounded that <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> can be attained through the use of <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>. <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a> can be distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacy</a>—even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made. According to the Stoics, the <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">senses</a> constantly receive sensations: pulsations that pass from objects through the senses to the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a>, where they leave an impression in the <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phantasiai" title="Phantasiai">phantasiai</a>) (an impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, <i>synkatathesis</i>)—approve or reject—an impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can achieve only varying degrees of hesitant approval, which can be labeled <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a> or opinion (<i><a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">doxa</a></i>). It is only through reason that we gain clear comprehension and conviction (<i><a href="/wiki/Katalepsis" title="Katalepsis">katalepsis</a></i>). <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certain</a> and true knowledge (<i><a href="/wiki/Episteme" title="Episteme">episteme</a></i>), achievable by the Stoic sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgment of humankind. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physics">Physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stoic_physics" title="Stoic physics">Stoic physics</a></div> <p>According to the Stoics, the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)#Ancient_Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Matter (philosophy)">material</a> <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reasoning substance</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i>), which was divided into two classes: the active and the passive.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The passive substance is matter, which "lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The active substance is an intelligent <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">aether</a> or primordial <a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">fire</a>, which acts on the passive matter: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul; it is this same world's guiding principle, operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the totality that embraces all existence; then the foreordained might and necessity of the future; then fire and the principle of aether; then those elements whose natural state is one of flux and transition, such as water, earth, and air; then the sun, the moon, the stars; and the universal existence in which all things are contained.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Chrysippus, in Cicero, <i><a href="/wiki/De_Natura_Deorum" title="De Natura Deorum">De Natura Deorum</a></i>, i. 39</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%27Image_et_le_Pouvoir_-_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A9_-_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/L%27Image_et_le_Pouvoir_-_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A9_-_3.jpg/220px-L%27Image_et_le_Pouvoir_-_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A9_-_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/L%27Image_et_le_Pouvoir_-_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A9_-_3.jpg/330px-L%27Image_et_le_Pouvoir_-_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A9_-_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/L%27Image_et_le_Pouvoir_-_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A9_-_3.jpg/440px-L%27Image_et_le_Pouvoir_-_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A9_-_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1509" data-file-height="2263" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>, the Stoic Roman emperor.</figcaption></figure> <p>Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts according to its own nature, and the nature of the passive matter it governs. The <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">souls</a> of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things that exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Marcus Aurelius, <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations" title="Meditations">Meditations</a></i>, iv. 40</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the <i>seminal reason</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Logos_spermatikos" class="mw-redirect" title="Logos spermatikos">logos spermatikos</a>") of the Universe".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe. </p><p>Stoic theology is a <a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">fatalistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_pantheism" title="Naturalistic pantheism">naturalistic pantheism</a>: God is never fully transcendent but always <a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">immanent</a>, and identified with <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a>. <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a> personalize God as a world-creating entity, but Stoicism equates God with the totality of the universe; according to Stoic <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, which is very similar to the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_cosmology" title="Hindu cosmology">Hindu conception of existence</a>, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a> have neither start nor end, rather they are cyclical. The current Universe is a phase in the present cycle, preceded by an infinite number of Universes, doomed to be destroyed ("<a href="/wiki/Ekpyrosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekpyrosis">ekpyrōsis</a>", <i>conflagration</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Palingenesis" title="Palingenesis">re-created again</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to be followed by another infinite number of Universes. Stoicism considers all <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a> as cyclical, the cosmos as eternally self-creating and self-destroying (see also <a href="/wiki/Eternal_return" title="Eternal return">Eternal return</a>). </p><p>Stoicism does not posit a beginning or end to the Universe.<sup id="cite_ref-ferg_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferg-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Stoics, the <i>logos</i> was the active <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> or <i><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">anima mundi</a></i> pervading and animating the entire Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the <i>seminal reason</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Logos_spermatikos" class="mw-redirect" title="Logos spermatikos">logos spermatikos</a>"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine <i>logos</i>, which is the primordial Fire and reason that controls and sustains the Universe.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg/220px-Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg/330px-Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg/440px-Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1790" data-file-height="2208" /></a><figcaption>A bust of <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, a Stoic philosopher from the Roman empire who served as an adviser to <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself, in wisdom and self-control. One must therefore strive to be free of the <a href="/wiki/Stoic_passions" title="Stoic passions">passions</a>. For the Stoics, reason meant using logic and understanding the processes of nature—the logos or universal reason, inherent in all things.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek word <i><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">pathos</a></i> was a wide-ranging term indicating an infliction one suffers.<sup id="cite_ref-annas103_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annas103-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Stoics used the word to discuss many common emotions such as anger, fear and excessive joy.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A passion is a disturbing and misleading force in the mind which occurs because of a failure to reason correctly.<sup id="cite_ref-annas103_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annas103-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the Stoic <a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a>, the passions are evaluative judgements.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A person experiencing such an emotion has incorrectly valued an indifferent thing.<sup id="cite_ref-annas114_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annas114-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A fault of judgement, some false notion of good or evil, lies at the root of each passion.<sup id="cite_ref-capes47_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-capes47-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Incorrect judgement as to a present good gives rise to delight, while lust is a wrong estimate about the future.<sup id="cite_ref-capes47_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-capes47-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unreal imaginings of evil cause distress about the present, or fear for the future.<sup id="cite_ref-capes47_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-capes47-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ideal Stoic would instead measure things at their real value,<sup id="cite_ref-capes47_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-capes47-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and see that the passions are not natural.<sup id="cite_ref-capes48_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-capes48-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To be free of the passions is to have a happiness which is self-contained.<sup id="cite_ref-capes48_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-capes48-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There would be nothing to fear—for unreason is the only evil; no cause for anger—for others cannot harm you.<sup id="cite_ref-capes48_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-capes48-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Passions">Passions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Passions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Stoics arranged the passions under four headings: distress, pleasure, fear and lust.<sup id="cite_ref-sorabji29_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sorabji29-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One report of the Stoic definitions of these passions appears in the treatise <i>On Passions</i> by <a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a> (trans. Long & Sedley, pg. 411, modified): </p> <ul><li><b>Distress</b> (<b>lupē</b>): <a href="/wiki/Stress_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (medicine)">Distress</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Irrationality" title="Irrationality">irrational</a> contraction, or a fresh <a href="/wiki/Opinion" title="Opinion">opinion</a> that something bad is present, at which people think it right to be <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depressed</a>.</li> <li><b>Fear</b> (<b>phobos</b>): <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">Fear</a> is an irrational <a href="/wiki/Risk_aversion" title="Risk aversion">aversion</a>, or avoidance of an expected <a href="/wiki/Risk" title="Risk">danger</a>.</li> <li><b>Lust</b> (<b>epithumia</b>): <a href="/wiki/Lust" title="Lust">Lust</a> is an irrational desire, or pursuit of an expected <a href="/wiki/Goodness_and_value_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Goodness and value theory">good</a> but in reality bad.</li> <li><b>Delight</b> (<b>hēdonē</b>): Delight is an irrational swelling, or a fresh opinion that something good is present, at which people think it right to be <a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">elated</a>.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <tbody><tr style="background:white"> <th> </th> <th><b>Present</b></th> <th><b>Future</b> </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Good</b></td> <td>Delight</td> <td>Lust </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Evil</b></td> <td>Distress</td> <td>Fear </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Two of these passions (distress and delight) refer to emotions currently present, and two of these (fear and lust) refer to emotions directed at the future.<sup id="cite_ref-sorabji29_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sorabji29-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus there are just two states directed at the prospect of good and evil, but subdivided as to whether they are present or future:<sup id="cite_ref-graver54_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-graver54-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous subdivisions of the same class were brought under the head of the separate passions:<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Distress</b>: <a href="/wiki/Envy" title="Envy">Envy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rivalry" title="Rivalry">Rivalry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jealousy" title="Jealousy">Jealousy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">Anxiety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mourning" title="Mourning">Mourning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadness" title="Sadness">Sadness</a>, Troubling, <a href="/wiki/Grief" title="Grief">Grief</a>, Lamenting, <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a>, Vexation, Despondency.</li> <li><b>Fear</b>: Sluggishness, <a href="/wiki/Shame" title="Shame">Shame</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">Fright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Timidity">Timidity</a>, Consternation, Pusillanimity, Bewilderment, and Faintheartedness.</li> <li><b>Lust</b>: <a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">Anger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rage_(emotion)" title="Rage (emotion)">Rage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hate" class="mw-redirect" title="Hate">Hatred</a>, Enmity, <a href="/wiki/Wrath" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrath">Wrath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins#Greed" title="Seven deadly sins">Greed</a>, and Longing.</li> <li><b>Delight</b>: Malice, <a href="/wiki/Rapture_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Rapture (disambiguation)">Rapture</a>, and Ostentation.</li></ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">wise person</a> (<i>sophos</i>) is someone who is free from the passions (<i><a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">apatheia</a></i>). Instead the sage experiences good-feelings (<i>eupatheia</i>) which are clear-headed.<sup id="cite_ref-inwood705_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inwood705-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These emotional impulses are not excessive, but nor are they diminished emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-annas115_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annas115-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-graver52_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-graver52-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead they are the correct rational emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-graver52_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-graver52-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Stoics listed the good-feelings under the headings of joy (<i>chara</i>), wish (<i>boulesis</i>), and caution (<i>eulabeia</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-annas114_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annas114-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus if something is present which is a genuine good, then the wise person experiences an uplift in the soul—joy (<i>chara</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-inwood701_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inwood701-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Stoics also subdivided the good-feelings:<sup id="cite_ref-graver58_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-graver58-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Joy:</b> Enjoyment, Cheerfulness, Good spirits</li> <li><b>Wish:</b> Good intent, Goodwill, Welcoming, Cherishing, Love</li> <li><b>Caution:</b> Moral shame, Reverence</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Suicide">Suicide</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Suicide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Stoics accepted that suicide was permissible for the wise person in circumstances that might prevent them from living a virtuous life,<sup id="cite_ref-marietta153_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marietta153-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as if they fell victim to severe pain or disease,<sup id="cite_ref-marietta153_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marietta153-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but otherwise suicide would usually be seen as a rejection of one's social duty.<sup id="cite_ref-irvine200_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-irvine200-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> reports that accepting life under tyranny would have compromised <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato</a>'s self-consistency (<i>constantia</i>) as a Stoic and impaired his freedom to make the honorable moral choices.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_philosophy">Social philosophy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Social philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitanism</a>; according to the Stoics, all people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_of_Epictetus" title="Discourses of Epictetus">Discourses</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a> comments on man's relationship with the world: "Each human being is primarily a citizen of his own commonwealth; but he is also a member of the great city of gods and men, whereof the city political is only a copy."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This sentiment echoes that of <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Sinope" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes of Sinope">Diogenes of Sinope</a>, who said, "I am not an <a href="/wiki/Athens,_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Athens, Greece">Athenian</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinthian</a>, but a citizen of the world."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They held that external differences, such as rank and wealth, are of no importance in social relationships. Instead, they advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. Stoicism became the most influential school of the Greco-Roman world, and produced a number of remarkable writers and personalities, such as <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a> and Epictetus. </p><p>In particular, they were noted for their urging of <a href="/wiki/Clemency" class="mw-redirect" title="Clemency">clemency</a> toward <a href="/wiki/Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave">slaves</a>. Seneca exhorted, "Kindly remember that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same stock, is smiled upon by the same skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Neoplatonism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plotinus criticized both Aristotle's Categories and those of the Stoics. His student <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a>, however, defended Aristotle's scheme. He justified this by arguing that they be interpreted strictly as expressions, rather than as metaphysical realities. The approach can be justified, at least in part, by Aristotle's own words in <i>The Categories.</i> <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>' acceptance of Porphyry's interpretation led to their being accepted by <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastic</a> philosophy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fathers_of_the_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Fathers of the Church">Fathers of the Church</a> regarded Stoicism as a "pagan philosophy";<sup id="cite_ref-Agathias_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agathias-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sedley_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sedley-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nonetheless, early Christian writers used some of the central philosophical concepts of Stoicism. Examples include the terms "logos", "<a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a>", "Spirit", and "<a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">conscience</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-ferg_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferg-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Stoicism, Christianity asserts an inner freedom in the face of the external world, a belief in human kinship with Nature or God, a sense of the innate depravity—or "persistent evil"—of humankind,<sup id="cite_ref-ferg_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferg-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the futility and temporary nature of worldly possessions and attachments. Both encourage <i>Ascesis</i> with respect to the passions and inferior emotions, such as lust, and envy, so that the higher possibilities of one's humanity can be awakened and developed. Stoic influence can also be seen in the works of <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_of_Milan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrose of Milan">Ambrose of Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Minucius_Felix" title="Marcus Minucius Felix">Marcus Minucius Felix</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern usage defines a stoic as a "person who represses feelings or endures patiently".<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s entry on Stoicism notes, "the sense of the English adjective 'stoical' is not utterly misleading with regard to its philosophical origins".<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The revival of Stoicism in the 20th century can be traced to the publication of <i>Problems in Stoicism</i><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by <a href="/wiki/A._A._Long" title="A. A. Long">A. A. Long</a> in 1971, and also as part of the late 20th-century surge of interest in <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>. Contemporary Stoicism draws from the late 20th- and early 21st-century spike in publications of scholarly works on ancient Stoicism. Beyond that, the current Stoicist movement traces its roots to the work of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Ellis" title="Albert Ellis">Albert Ellis</a>, who developed <a href="/wiki/Rational_emotive_behavior_therapy" title="Rational emotive behavior therapy">rational emotive behavior therapy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ellis_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ellis-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/Aaron_T._Beck" class="mw-redirect" title="Aaron T. Beck">Aaron T. Beck</a>, who is regarded by many as the father of early versions of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">cognitive behavioral therapy</a> (CBT). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Psychology_and_psychotherapy">Psychology and psychotherapy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Psychology and psychotherapy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stoic philosophy was the original philosophical inspiration for modern <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive psychotherapy">cognitive psychotherapy</a>, particularly as mediated by Albert Ellis' Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), the major precursor of CBT. The original cognitive therapy treatment manual for depression by Aaron T. Beck et al. states, "The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic philosophers".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A well-known quotation from <i><a href="/wiki/Enchiridion_of_Epictetus" title="Enchiridion of Epictetus">Enchiridion of Epictetus</a></i> was taught to most clients during the initial session of traditional REBT by Ellis and his followers: "It's not the events that upset us, but our judgments about the events."<sup id="cite_ref-Robertson_2010_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robertson_2010-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This subsequently became a common element in the socialization phase of many other approaches to CBT. The question of Stoicism's influence on modern psychotherapy, particularly REBT and CBT, was described in detail in <i>The Philosophy of Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy</i> by Donald Robertson.<sup id="cite_ref-Robertson_2010_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robertson_2010-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several early 20th-century psychotherapists were influenced by Stoicism, most notably the "rational persuasion" school founded by the Swiss neurologist and psychotherapist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Charles_Dubois" title="Paul Charles Dubois">Paul Dubois</a>, who drew heavily on Stoicism in his clinical work and encouraged his clients to study passages from <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a> as homework assignments. </p><p>Similarities of modern Stoicism and third-wave <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">CBT</a> have been suggested as well, and individual reports of its potency in treating depression have been published.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has also been interest in applying the tenets of ancient Stoicism to the human origin story,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> environmental education,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> vegetarianism<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the modern challenges of sustainable development, material consumption and consumerism.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seamus Mac Suibhne has described the practices of spiritual exercises as influencing those of <a href="/wiki/Reflective_practice" title="Reflective practice">reflective practice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many parallels between Stoic spiritual exercises and modern <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">cognitive behavioral therapy</a> have been identified.<sup id="cite_ref-Robertson_2010_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robertson_2010-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to philosopher <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Hadot" title="Pierre Hadot">Pierre Hadot</a>, philosophy for a Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims; it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or "<a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">askēsis</a>"), an active process of constant practice and self-reminder. Epictetus in his <i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_of_Epictetus" title="Discourses of Epictetus">Discourses</a></i>, distinguished between three types of act: judgment, desire, and inclination.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which Hadot identifies these three acts with logic, physics and ethics respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hadot writes that in the <i>Meditations</i>, "Each maxim develops either one of these very characteristic <i>topoi</i> [i.e., acts], or two of them or three of them."<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4_Maccabees" title="4 Maccabees">4 Maccabees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amor_fati" title="Amor fati">Amor fati</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Man_in_Full" title="A Man in Full">A Man in Full</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJason_Lewis_Saunders" class="citation web cs1">Jason Lewis Saunders. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stoicism">"Stoicism"</a>. <i>Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230628193627/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stoicism">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=Stoicism&rft.au=Jason+Lewis+Saunders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FStoicism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharpe, Matthew, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30059463/sharpe-stoicvirtue-2013.pdf">Stoic Virtue Ethics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181113015946/http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30059463/sharpe-stoicvirtue-2013.pdf">Archived</a> 13 November 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Handbook of Virtue Ethics</i>, 2013, 28–41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Sellars. <i>Stoicism</i>, 2006, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBecker2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_C._Becker" title="Lawrence C. Becker">Becker, Lawrence C.</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NbqFt3RPsuQC"><i>A New Stoicism</i></a>. Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400822447" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400822447"><bdi>978-1400822447</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230708093213/https://books.google.com/books?id=NbqFt3RPsuQC">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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In Bertrand Russell, <i>A History of Western Philosophy</i> (1946).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sedley, D. (2003) The School, from Zeno to Arius Didymus. In: B. Inwood (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Cambridge University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.A.Long, <i>Hellenistic Philosophy</i>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLongSedley1987" class="citation book cs1">Long, A.A.; Sedley, D.N. (1987). <i>The Hellenistic Philosophers</i>. 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(ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Summer 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220326035003/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/logic-ancient/">archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Logic&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Summer+2020&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Bobzien&rft.aufirst=Susanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2020%2Fentries%2Flogic-ancient%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacques Brunschwig, <i>Stoic Metaphysics</i> in <i>The Cambridge Companion to Stoics</i>, ed. 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Ancient Philosophies (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1844655670" title="Special:BookSources/978-1844655670"><bdi>978-1844655670</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230708182043/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVdsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Free+will+and+divine+providence&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Early+Christianity&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.series=Ancient+Philosophies&rft.pages=151&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1844655670&rft.aulast=Karamanolis&rft.aufirst=George+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZVdsBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seneca, <i>Epistles</i>, lxv. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marcus Aurelius, <i>Meditations</i>, iv. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Lapidge" title="Michael Lapidge">Michael Lapidge</a>, <i>Stoic Cosmology</i>, in: John M. Rist, <i>The Stoics</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1978, pp. 182–183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ferg-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ferg_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ferg_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ferg_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferguson, Everett. <i>Backgrounds of Early Christianity</i>. 2003, p. 368.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tripolitis, A., <i>Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman Age</i>, pp. 37–38. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGraver2009" class="citation book cs1">Graver, Margaret (2009). <i>Stoicism and Emotion</i>. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226305585" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226305585"><bdi>978-0226305585</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/430497127">430497127</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoicism+and+Emotion&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F430497127&rft.isbn=978-0226305585&rft.aulast=Graver&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-annas103-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-annas103_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-annas103_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnnas1994">Annas 1994</a>, p. 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnnas1994">Annas 1994</a>, pp. 103–104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGroenendijkde_Ruyter2009" class="citation journal cs1">Groenendijk, L.F.; de Ruyter, D.J. (2009). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/learning-from-seneca-a-stoic-perspective-on-the-art-of-living-and">"Learning from Seneca: A Stoic perspective on the art of living and education"</a></span>. <i>Ethics and Education</i>. <b>4</b>: <span class="nowrap">81–</span>92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17449640902816277">10.1080/17449640902816277</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1744-9642">1744-9642</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143758851">143758851</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221202183712/https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/learning-from-seneca-a-stoic-perspective-on-the-art-of-living-and">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethics+and+Education&rft.atitle=Learning+from+Seneca%3A+A+Stoic+perspective+on+the+art+of+living+and+education&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E92&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143758851%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1744-9642&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17449640902816277&rft.aulast=Groenendijk&rft.aufirst=L.F.&rft.au=de+Ruyter%2C+D.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.vu.nl%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Flearning-from-seneca-a-stoic-perspective-on-the-art-of-living-and&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-annas114-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-annas114_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-annas114_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnnas1994">Annas 1994</a>, p. 114</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-capes47-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-capes47_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-capes47_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-capes47_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-capes47_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCapes1880">Capes 1880</a>, p. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-capes48-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-capes48_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-capes48_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-capes48_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCapes1880">Capes 1880</a>, p. 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sorabji29-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sorabji29_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sorabji29_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSorabji2000">Sorabji 2000</a>, p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-graver54-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-graver54_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraver2007">Graver 2007</a>, p. 54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero's <i>Tusculan Disputations</i> by J. 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King.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inwood705-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-inwood705_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInwood1999">Inwood 1999</a>, p. 705</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-annas115-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-annas115_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnnas1994">Annas 1994</a>, p. 115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-graver52-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-graver52_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-graver52_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraver2007">Graver 2007</a>, p. 52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inwood701-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-inwood701_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInwood1999">Inwood 1999</a>, p. 701</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-graver58-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-graver58_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraver2007">Graver 2007</a>, p. 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-marietta153-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-marietta153_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-marietta153_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Don E. 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London: Athlone Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0485111187" title="Special:BookSources/0485111187"><bdi>0485111187</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problems+in+Stoicism&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Athlone+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0485111187&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=A+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/LONPIS"><i>Problems in Stoicism</i></a>. 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London: Karnac. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1855757561" title="Special:BookSources/978-1855757561"><bdi>978-1855757561</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230708083227/https://books.google.com/books?id=XsOFyJaR5vEC">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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A Stoic Approach"</a>. <i>Humanities</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fh7020039">10.3390/h7020039</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150380363">150380363</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humanities&rft.atitle=Were+Neanderthals+Rational%3F+A+Stoic+Approach&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=39&rft.date=2018-04-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fh7020039&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150380363%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Whiting&rft.aufirst=Kai&rft.au=Konstantakos%2C+Leonidas&rft.au=Sadler%2C+Greg&rft.au=Gill%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fh7020039&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCarmonaSimpsonMisiaszekKonstantakos2018" class="citation journal cs1">Carmona, Luis Gabriel; Simpson, Edward; Misiaszek, Greg; Konstantakos, Leonidas; Whiting, Kai (December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Feducsci8040204">"Education for the Sustainable Global Citizen: What Can We Learn from Stoic Philosophy and Freirean Environmental Pedagogies?"</a>. <i>Education Sciences</i>. <b>8</b> (4): 204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Feducsci8040204">10.3390/educsci8040204</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96445619">96445619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Education+Sciences&rft.atitle=Education+for+the+Sustainable+Global+Citizen%3A+What+Can+We+Learn+from+Stoic+Philosophy+and+Freirean+Environmental+Pedagogies%3F&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=204&rft.date=2018-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Feducsci8040204&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A96445619%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Carmona&rft.aufirst=Luis+Gabriel&rft.au=Simpson%2C+Edward&rft.au=Misiaszek%2C+Greg&rft.au=Konstantakos%2C+Leonidas&rft.au=Whiting%2C+Kai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Feducsci8040204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhiting2019" class="citation web cs1">Whiting, Kai (11 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eidolon.pub/the-sustainable-stoic-5a93db27d4f9">"The Sustainable Stoic"</a>. <i>Eidolon</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230113045453/https://eidolon.pub/the-sustainable-stoic-5a93db27d4f9">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Sadler (2 November 2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Im9ovLBNSOA&t"><i>A Conversation with Kai Whiting On Stoicism and Sustainability | Ideas That Matter Interview Series</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326031843/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Im9ovLBNSOA&t">archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2019</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Conversation+with+Kai+Whiting+On+Stoicism+and+Sustainability+%7C+Ideas+That+Matter+Interview+Series&rft.date=2018-11-02&rft.au=Gregory+B.+Sadler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DIm9ovLBNSOA%26t&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMac_Suibhne,_S.2009" class="citation journal cs1">Mac Suibhne, S. (2009). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Wrestle to be the man philosophy wished to make you': Marcus Aurelius, reflective practitioner". <i>Reflective Practice</i>. <b>10</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">429–</span>36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623940903138266">10.1080/14623940903138266</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219711815">219711815</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reflective+Practice&rft.atitle=%27Wrestle+to+be+the+man+philosophy+wished+to+make+you%27%3A+Marcus+Aurelius%2C+reflective+practitioner&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E429-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623940903138266&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219711815%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Mac+Suibhne%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davidson, A.I. (1995) <i>Pierre Hadot and the Spiritual Phenomenon of Ancient Philosophy</i>, in <i>Philosophy as a Way of Life</i>, Hadot, P. Oxford Blackwells, pp. 9–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hadot, P. (1992) <i>La Citadelle intérieure. Introduction aux Pensées de Marc Aurèle</i>. Paris, Fayard, pp. 106–115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hadot, P. (1987) <i>Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique</i>. Paris, 2nd ed., p. 135.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1945 c. 1927). <i>Cicero : Tusculan Disputations</i> (Loeb Classical Library, No. 141) 2nd ed. trans. by J. E. King. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard UP.</li> <li>Long, A. A., Sedley, D. N. (1987). <i>The Hellenistic Philosophers: vol. 1. translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Inwood, Brad & Gerson Lloyd P. (eds.) <i>The Stoics Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia</i> Indianapolis: Hackett 2008.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Seneca">Seneca</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Seneca"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (transl. Robin Campbell), <i>Letters from a Stoic: Epistulae Morales Ad Lucilium</i> (1969, reprint 2004) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140442103" title="Special:BookSources/0140442103">0140442103</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Epictetus">Epictetus</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Epictetus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Long_(scholar)" title="George Long (scholar)">Long, George</a> <i>Enchiridion</i> by Epictetus, Prometheus Books, Reprint ed., January 1955.</li> <li>Gill C. <i>Epictetus, The Discourses</i>, Everyman 1995.</li> <li>Harvard University Press <i>Epictetus Discourses Books 1 and 2</i>, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 131, June 1925.</li> <li>Harvard University Press <i>Epictetus Discourses Books 3 and 4</i>, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 218, June 1928.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marcus_Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Marcus Aurelius"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations" title="Meditations">Meditations</a></i>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Maxwell_Staniforth" title="Maxwell Staniforth">Maxwell Staniforth</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140441409" title="Special:BookSources/0140441409">0140441409</a>, or translated by Gregory Hays; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0679642609" title="Special:BookSources/0679642609">0679642609</a>. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Marcus_Aurelius_Antoninus" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Marcus Aurelius Antoninus">Also Available on wikisource translated by various translators</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fragment_collections">Fragment collections</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Fragment collections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta</i> is a collection by <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Arnim" title="Hans von Arnim">Hans von Arnim</a> of fragments and testimonia of the earlier Stoics, published in 1903–1905 as part of the <a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_Teubneriana" title="Bibliotheca Teubneriana">Bibliotheca Teubneriana</a>. It includes the fragments and testimonia of <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a> and their immediate followers. At first the work consisted of three volumes, to which <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maximilian_Adler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maximilian Adler (page does not exist)">Maximilian Adler</a> in 1924 added a fourth, containing general indices. Teubner reprinted the whole work in 1964. </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicorumveterum01arniuoft">Volume 1</a> – Fragments of Zeno and his followers</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicorumveterum02arniuoft">Volume 2</a> – Logical and physical fragments of Chrysippus</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicorumveterum03arniuoft">Volume 3</a> – Ethical fragments of Chrysippus and some fragments of his pupils</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicorumveterum04arniuoft">Volume 4</a> – Indices of words, proper names and sources</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Studies">Studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAnnas1994" class="citation cs2">Annas, Julia (1994), <i>Hellenistic Philosophy of Mind</i>, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520076594" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520076594"><bdi>978-0520076594</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenistic+Philosophy+of+Mind&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0520076594&rft.aulast=Annas&rft.aufirst=Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bakalis, Nikolaos, <i>Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics. Analysis and Fragments</i>, Trafford Publishing, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1412048435" title="Special:BookSources/1412048435">1412048435</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_C._Becker" title="Lawrence C. Becker">Becker, Lawrence C.</a>, <i>A New Stoicism</i> (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1998) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691016607" title="Special:BookSources/0691016607">0691016607</a></li> <li>Brennan, Tad, <i>The Stoic Life</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005; paperback 2006)</li> <li>Brooke, Christopher. <i>Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to Rousseau</i> (Princeton UP, 2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9737.html">excerpts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140429075707/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9737.html">Archived</a> 29 April 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Bryant, James Henry (1866), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73570">The mutual influence of Christianity and the Stoic school</a></i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCapes1880" class="citation cs2">Capes, William Wolfe (1880), <i>Stoicism</i>, Pott, Young, & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoicism&rft.pub=Pott%2C+Young%2C+%26+Co.&rft.date=1880&rft.aulast=Capes&rft.aufirst=William+Wolfe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>de Harven, Vanessa (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philosophy.berkeley.edu/file/666/Everythingv1.pdf">Everything is Something: Why the Stoic ontology is principled, coherent and comprehensive</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032013/https://philosophy.berkeley.edu/file/666/Everythingv1.pdf">Archived</a> 26 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Paper presented to Department of Philosophy, Berkeley University.</li> <li>de Harven, Vanessa (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/content/qt3wg7m1w0/qt3wg7m1w0.pdf">The Coherence of Stoic Ontology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230522231316/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3wg7m1w0/qt3wg7m1w0.pdf">Archived</a> 22 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. PhD dissertation, Department of Philosophy, Berkeley University.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGraver2007" class="citation cs2">Graver, Margaret (2007), <i>Stoicism and Emotion</i>, University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226305578" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226305578"><bdi>978-0226305578</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoicism+and+Emotion&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0226305578&rft.aulast=Graver&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hall, Ron, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about?id=h6AREAAAQBAJ"><i>Secundum Naturam (According to Nature)</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230708083245/https://books.google.com/books/about?id=h6AREAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> 8 July 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Stoic Therapy, LLC, 2021.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFInwood1999" class="citation cs2">Inwood, Brad (1999), "Stoic Ethics", in Algra, Keimpe; Barnes, Johnathan; Mansfield, Jaap; Schofield, Malcolm (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521250283" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521250283"><bdi>978-0521250283</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stoic+Ethics&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0521250283&rft.aulast=Inwood&rft.aufirst=Brad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Inwood, Brad (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to The Stoics</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lachs" title="John Lachs">Lachs, John</a>, <i>Stoic Pragmatism</i> (Indiana University Press, 2012) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253223768" title="Special:BookSources/0253223768">0253223768</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._A._Long" title="A. A. Long">Long, A. A.</a>, <i>Stoic Studies</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1996; repr. University of California Press, 2001) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520229746" title="Special:BookSources/0520229746">0520229746</a></li> <li>Menn, Stephen (1999). 'The Stoic Theory of Categories', in <i>Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy</i>, Volume XVII. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198250193" title="Special:BookSources/0198250193">0198250193</a>, pp. 215–247.</li> <li>Robertson, Donald, <i>The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy</i> (London: Karnac, 2010) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1855757561" title="Special:BookSources/978-1855757561">978-1855757561</a></li> <li>Robertson, Donald, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xGBbDwAAQBAJ"><i>How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190804171626/https://books.google.gr/books?id=xGBbDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> 4 August 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 'New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019.</li> <li>Sellars, John, <i>Stoicism</i> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1844650537" title="Special:BookSources/1844650537">1844650537</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSorabji2000" class="citation cs2">Sorabji, Richard (2000), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/emotionpeaceofmi0000sora"><i>Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation</i></a></span>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198250050" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198250050"><bdi>978-0198250050</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emotion+and+Peace+of+Mind%3A+From+Stoic+Agitation+to+Christian+Temptation&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0198250050&rft.aulast=Sorabji&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Femotionpeaceofmi0000sora&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Stephens" title="William O. Stephens">Stephens, William O.</a>, <i>Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom</i> (London: Continuum, 2007) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0826496083" title="Special:BookSources/0826496083">0826496083</a></li> <li>Strange, Steven (ed.), <i>Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521827094" title="Special:BookSources/0521827094">0521827094</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Zeller" title="Eduard Zeller">Zeller, Eduard</a>; Reichel, Oswald J., <i>The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics</i>, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-icon{float:left;margin-left:5px;margin-top:10px}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer{margin-left:60px;margin-top:10px;font-size:95%;line-height:1.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-footer{margin-top:10px;text-align:center}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{width:20em;float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="spoken-wikipedia noprint haudio"><div class="spoken-wikipedia-header"><span class="spoken-wikipedia-listen-to">Listen to this article</span> (<span class="duration"><span class="min">43</span> minutes</span>)</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-files"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" style="width:200px;" data-durationhint="2582" data-mwtitle="En-Stoicism-article.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/En-Stoicism-article.ogg" type="audio/ogg; 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In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stoicism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Baltzly&rft.aufirst=Dirk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fstoicism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/stoicism.htm">"Stoicism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stoicism&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fs%2Fstoicism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/stoiceth.htm">"Stoic Ethics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stoic+Ethics&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fs%2Fstoiceth.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/stoicmind.htm">"Stoic Philosophy of Mind"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stoic+Philosophy+of+Mind&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fs%2Fstoicmind.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHicks1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Drew_Hicks" title="Robert Drew Hicks">Hicks, Robert Drew</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stoics"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Stoics">"Stoics" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stoics&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=Robert+Drew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStoicism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stoictherapy.com/elibrary">The Stoic Therapy eLibrary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210228002128/https://www.stoictherapy.com/elibrary">Archived</a> 28 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/stoicism/">The Stoic Library</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141225040854/http://www.ibiblio.org/stoicism/">Archived</a> 25 December 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyoflogic.com/logic-stoics.htm">Stoic Logic: The Dialectic from Zeno to Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyoflogic.com/biblio/logic-stoics-biblio-one.htm">Annotated Bibliography on Ancient Stoic Dialectic</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stoicfoundation.host-ed.me/bibliography.htm">"A bibliography on Stoicism by the Stoic Foundation"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121101014307/http://stoicfoundation.host-ed.me/bibliography.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Stoicism_terms" title="Glossary of Stoicism terms">Philosophical concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Stoic_logic" title="Stoic logic">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adiaphora" title="Adiaphora">Adiaphora</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katalepsis" title="Katalepsis">Katalepsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diairesis" title="Diairesis">Diairesis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Stoic_physics" title="Stoic physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis">Physis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">Fire</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pneuma" title="Pneuma">Pneuma</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ethics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Stoic_passions" title="Stoic passions">Pathos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">Apatheia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kathekon" title="Kathekon">Kathekon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oikei%C3%B4sis" title="Oikeiôsis">Oikeiôsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prohairesis" title="Prohairesis">Prohairesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sophos</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Passions" title="On Passions"><i>On Passions</i> (Chrysippus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paradoxa_Stoicorum" title="Paradoxa Stoicorum">Paradoxa Stoicorum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistulae_Morales_ad_Lucilium" title="Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium"><i>Letters to Lucilius</i> (Seneca)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger#Essays" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca's Essays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca%27s_Consolations" title="Seneca's Consolations">Seneca's Consolations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Musonius_Rufus#Writings" title="Gaius Musonius Rufus"><i>Lectures</i> (Musonius Rufus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_of_Epictetus" title="Discourses of Epictetus">Discourses of Epictetus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enchiridion_of_Epictetus" title="Enchiridion of Epictetus">Enchiridion of Epictetus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditations" title="Meditations"><i>Meditations of Marcus Aurelius</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stoicorum_Veterum_Fragmenta" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta">Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoa_Poikile" title="Stoa Poikile">Stoa Poikile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoic_Opposition" title="Stoic Opposition">Stoic Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neostoicism" title="Neostoicism">Neostoicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy198" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epimenides_of_Knossos" class="mw-redirect" title="Epimenides of Knossos">Epimenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pherecydes_of_Syros" title="Pherecydes of Syros">Pherecydes</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Seven_Sages37" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solon_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Solon of Athens">Solon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pittacus_of_Mytilene" title="Pittacus of Mytilene">Pittacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_Priene" title="Bias of Priene">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periander_of_Corinth" class="mw-redirect" title="Periander of Corinth">Periander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleobulus_of_Lindos" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleobulus of Lindos">Cleobulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilon_of_Sparta" title="Chilon of Sparta">Chilon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ionian37" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Milesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Apollonia" title="Diogenes of Apollonia">Diogenes</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Italian105" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippasus" title="Hippasus">Hippasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamiskos" title="Lamiskos">Lamiskos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brontinus" title="Brontinus">Brontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theano_(philosopher)" title="Theano (philosopher)">Theano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damo_(philosopher)" title="Damo (philosopher)">Damo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliphon_of_Croton" title="Calliphon of Croton">Calliphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermotimus_of_Clazomenae" title="Hermotimus of Clazomenae">Hermotimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Cos" title="Metrodorus of Cos">Metrodorus of Cos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arignote" title="Arignote">Arignote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myia" title="Myia">Myia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurytus_(Pythagorean)" title="Eurytus (Pythagorean)">Eurytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pythagoreans" title="Category:Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeniades" title="Xeniades">Xeniades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melissus_of_Samos" title="Melissus of Samos">Melissus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_(philosopher)" title="Hippo (philosopher)">Hippo</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">Pluralist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archelaus_(philosopher)" title="Archelaus (philosopher)">Archelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_elder)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the elder)">Metrodorus of Lampsacus</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acron" title="Acron">Acron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Sicily" title="Pausanias of Sicily">Pausanias</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prodicus" title="Prodicus">Prodicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus" title="Thrasymachus">Thrasymachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damon_of_Athens" title="Damon of Athens">Damon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callicles" title="Callicles">Callicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophron_(sophist)" title="Lycophron (sophist)">Lycophron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysodorus_(sophist)" title="Dionysodorus (sophist)">Dionysodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_of_Chios" title="Euthydemus of Chios">Euthydemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek philosophy">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pupils_of_Socrates" title="Category:Pupils of Socrates">students</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes" title="Crates of Thebes">Crates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menippus" title="Menippus">Menippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Cynic_philosophers" title="List of Cynic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus_the_Younger" title="Aristippus the Younger">Aristippus the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_the_Atheist" title="Theodorus the Atheist">Theodorus the Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Cyrene" title="Hegesias of Cyrene">Hegesias of Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniceris" title="Anniceris">Anniceris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cyrenaic_philosophers" title="Category:Cyrenaic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phaedo_of_Elis" title="Phaedo of Elis">Phaedo of Elis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus" title="Menedemus">Menedemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiades_of_Phlius" title="Asclepiades of Phlius">Asclepiades of Phlius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara" title="Euclid of Megara">Euclid of Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyas" title="Ichthyas">Ichthyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus_of_Corinth" title="Thrasymachus of Corinth">Thrasymachus of Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilpo" title="Stilpo">Stilpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicarete_of_Megara" title="Nicarete of Megara">Nicarete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasicles_of_Thebes" title="Pasicles of Thebes">Pasicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryson_of_Achaea" title="Bryson of Achaea">Bryson</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dialecticians33" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Dialecticians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinomachus" title="Clinomachus">Clinomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_Cronus" title="Apollonius Cronus">Apollonius Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphantus" title="Euphantus">Euphantus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Chalcedon" title="Dionysius of Chalcedon">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_the_Dialectician" title="Philo the Dialectician">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexinus" title="Alexinus">Alexinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthoides" title="Panthoides">Panthoides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peripatetic_philosophers" title="Category:Peripatetic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Phlius" title="Timon of Phlius">Timon of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aenesidemus" title="Aenesidemus">Aenesidemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_the_Skeptic" title="Agrippa the Skeptic">Agrippa the Skeptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Skeptic_philosophers" title="Category:Ancient Skeptic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stoic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Annaeus_Cornutus" title="Lucius Annaeus Cornutus">Lucius Annaeus Cornutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musonius_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philodemus" title="Philodemus">Philodemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Oenoanda" title="Diogenes of Oenoanda">Diogenes of Oenoanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Epicurean_philosophers" title="List of Epicurean philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudorus_of_Alexandria" title="Eudorus of Alexandria">Eudorus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigidius_Figulus" title="Nigidius Figulus">Nigidius Figulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana" title="Apollonius of Tyana">Apollonius of Tyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderatus_of_Gades" title="Moderatus of Gades">Moderatus of Gades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachus" title="Nicomachus">Nicomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neo-Pythagoreans" title="Category:Neo-Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th 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href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicetes_of_Smyrna" title="Nicetes of Smyrna">Nicetes of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_Chrysostom" title="Dio Chrysostom">Dio Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favorinus" title="Favorinus">Favorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Roman-era_Sophists" title="Category:Roman-era Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy269" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/19px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" 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href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Language" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Language">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science517" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science517" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">Measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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.sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Stoicism</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Stoicism" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Stoicism">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Stoicism" class="extiw" title="q:Stoicism">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" 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