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id="toc-Jesuits_in_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_arrival_of_Jesuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_arrival_of_Jesuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>The arrival of Jesuits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_arrival_of_Jesuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ricci's_policy_of_accommodation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ricci's_policy_of_accommodation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Ricci's policy of accommodation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ricci's_policy_of_accommodation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynastic_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynastic_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Dynastic change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dynastic_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Jesuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Jesuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>French Jesuits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Jesuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Travel_of_Chinese_Christians_to_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Travel_of_Chinese_Christians_to_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Travel of Chinese Christians to Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Travel_of_Chinese_Christians_to_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_exchange" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_exchange"> 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class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Telling Europe about China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telling_Europe_about_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_Rites_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_Rites_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Chinese Rites controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_Rites_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">13 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86" title="بعثات اليسوعيين في الصين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بعثات اليسوعيين في الصين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misi%C3%B3n_jesuita_en_China" title="Misión jesuita en China – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Misión jesuita en China" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezuita_misio_en_%C4%88inujo" title="Jezuita misio en Ĉinujo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Jezuita misio en Ĉinujo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_j%C3%A9suite_en_Chine" title="Mission jésuite en Chine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mission jésuite en Chine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misi_Tiongkok_Yesuit" title="Misi Tiongkok Yesuit – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Misi Tiongkok Yesuit" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missione_gesuita_in_Cina" title="Missione gesuita in Cina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Missione gesuita in Cina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%91%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9F" title="ישועים בסין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ישועים בסין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezsuita_misszi%C3%B3_K%C3%ADn%C3%A1ban" title="Jezsuita misszió Kínában – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jezsuita misszió Kínában" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missie_van_de_jezu%C3%AFeten_in_China" title="Missie van de jezuïeten in China – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Missie van de jezuïeten in China" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B5" title="Миссия иезуитов в Китае – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Миссия иезуитов в Китае" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezuitsk%C3%A9_misie_v_%C4%8C%C3%ADne" title="Jezuitské misie v Číne – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jezuitské misie v Číne" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuitiska_missioner_i_Kina" title="Jesuitiska missioner i Kina – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jesuitiska missioner i Kina" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%84%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%97%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%97" title="Єзуїти в Китаї – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Єзуїти в Китаї" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1335343#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Second introduction of Catholicism to the East-Asian territory</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_(1667)_%22Frontispicio%22_(22629197626).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg/300px-Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="462" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg/450px-Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg/600px-Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="4928" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Book_frontispiece" title="Book frontispiece">frontispiece</a> of <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a>'s 1667 <i><a href="/wiki/China_Illustrata" title="China Illustrata">China Illustrata</a></i>, depicting the <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuit</a> founders <a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a> adoring the <a href="/wiki/Christogram#IHS" title="Christogram">monogram of Christ</a> in <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a> while <a href="/wiki/Johann_Adam_Schall_von_Bell" title="Johann Adam Schall von Bell">Johann Adam Schall von Bell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> labor on the China mission</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JesuitChineseWorldMapEarly17thCentury.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/JesuitChineseWorldMapEarly17thCentury.jpg/300px-JesuitChineseWorldMapEarly17thCentury.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/JesuitChineseWorldMapEarly17thCentury.jpg/450px-JesuitChineseWorldMapEarly17thCentury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/JesuitChineseWorldMapEarly17thCentury.jpg/600px-JesuitChineseWorldMapEarly17thCentury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2924" data-file-height="1462" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Wanguo_Quantu" title="Wanguo Quantu">The Complete Map of the Myriad Countries</a>" (<i>Wanguo Quantu</i>), <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Aleni" class="mw-redirect" title="Giulio Aleni">Giulio Aleni</a>'s adaptation of <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">Western geographic knowledge</a> to <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese cartography">Chinese cartographic standards</a> <small>(early 17th century)</small><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWigal2000202_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWigal2000202-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The history of the <b>missions of the Jesuits in China</b> is part of the history of <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">relations between China and the Western world</a>. The missionary efforts and other work of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a>, or Jesuits, between the 16th and 17th century played a significant role in continuing the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and the West, and influenced <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christian culture in Chinese society</a> today. </p><p>The first attempt by the Jesuits to reach China was made in 1552 by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">St. Francis Xavier</a>, Navarrese priest and missionary and founding member of the Society of Jesus. Xavier never reached the mainland, dying after only a year on the Chinese island of <a href="/wiki/Shangchuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangchuan">Shangchuan</a>. Three decades later, in 1582, Jesuits once again initiated <a href="/wiki/Mission_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission (Christian)">mission</a> work in China, led by several figures including the Italian <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a>, introducing Western science, mathematics, astronomy, and visual arts to the Chinese imperial court, and carrying on significant inter-cultural and philosophical dialogue with Chinese scholars, particularly with representatives of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>. At the time of their peak influence, members of the Jesuit delegation were considered some of the emperor's most valued and trusted advisors, holding prestigious posts in the imperial government.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Many Chinese, including former Confucian scholars, adopted Christianity and became priests and members of the Society of Jesus.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>According to research by <a href="/wiki/David_E._Mungello" class="mw-redirect" title="David E. Mungello">David E. Mungello</a>, from 1552 (i.e., the death of St. Francis Xavier) to 1800, a total of 920 Jesuits participated in the China mission, of whom 314 were Portuguese, and 130 were French.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1844 China may have had 240,000 Roman Catholics, but this number grew rapidly, and in 1901 the figure reached 720,490.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Jesuit priests, both Western-born and Chinese, are buried in the cemetery located in what is now the School of the Beijing Municipal Committee.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jesuits_in_China">Jesuits in China</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Jesuits in China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_arrival_of_Jesuits">The arrival of Jesuits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The arrival of Jesuits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NicolasTrigaultInChineseCostume.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/NicolasTrigaultInChineseCostume.jpg/170px-NicolasTrigaultInChineseCostume.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/NicolasTrigaultInChineseCostume.jpg/255px-NicolasTrigaultInChineseCostume.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/NicolasTrigaultInChineseCostume.jpg/340px-NicolasTrigaultInChineseCostume.jpg 2x" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="830" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Trigault" title="Nicolas Trigault">Nicolas Trigault</a> (1577–1629) in Chinese attire, by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ricci_Guangqi_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ricci_Guangqi_2.jpg/170px-Ricci_Guangqi_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ricci_Guangqi_2.jpg/255px-Ricci_Guangqi_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ricci_Guangqi_2.jpg/340px-Ricci_Guangqi_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3338" data-file-height="4988" /></a><figcaption>Matteo Ricci (left) and <a href="/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi">Xu Guangqi</a> (right) in the Chinese edition of <i><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements">Euclid's Elements</a></i> published in 1607</figcaption></figure> <p>Contacts between Europe and the East already dated back hundreds of years, especially between the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">Papacy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> in the 13th century. Numerous traders – most famously <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> – had traveled between eastern and western Eurasia. Christianity was not new to the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, as many had practiced <a href="/wiki/Christianity_of_the_Church_of_the_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity of the Church of the East">Christianity of the Church of the East</a> since the 7th century (see <a href="/wiki/Christianity_among_the_Mongols" title="Christianity among the Mongols">Christianity among the Mongols</a>). However, the overthrow of the Mongol-led <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> in 1368 resulted in a strong <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilatory</a> pressure on China's Muslim, Jewish, and Christian communities, and non-<a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> influences were forced out of China. By the 16th century, there is no reliable information about any practicing Christians remaining in China. </p><p>Fairly soon after the establishment of the direct European maritime contact with China (1513) and the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a> (1540), at least some Chinese became involved with the Jesuit effort. As early as 1546, two Chinese boys enrolled in the Jesuits' <a href="/wiki/Saint_Paul%27s_College,_Goa" title="Saint Paul's College, Goa">St. Paul's College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a>, the capital of Portuguese India. One of these two Christian Chinese, known as Antonio, accompanied <a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">St. Francis Xavier</a>, a co-founder of the Society of Jesus, when he decided to start missionary work in China. However, Xavier failed to find a way to enter the Chinese mainland, and died in 1552 on <a href="/wiki/Shangchuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangchuan">Shangchuan</a> island off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the only place in China where Europeans were allowed to stay at the time, albeit only for seasonal trade. </p><p>A few years after Xavier's death, the Portuguese were allowed to establish <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>, a semi-permanent settlement on the mainland which was about 100 km closer to the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_River_Delta" title="Pearl River Delta">Pearl River Delta</a> than Shangchuan Island. A number of Jesuits visited the place (as well as the main Chinese port in the region, <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>) on occasion, and in 1563 the Order permanently established its settlement in the small Portuguese colony. However, the early Macau Jesuits did not learn Chinese, and their missionary work could reach only the very small number of Chinese people in Macau who spoke Portuguese.<sup id="cite_ref-witek153_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witek153-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A new regional manager ("Visitor") of the order, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Valignano" title="Alessandro Valignano">Alessandro Valignano</a>, on his visit to Macau in 1578–1579 realized that Jesuits would not get far in China without a sound grounding in the language and culture of the country. He founded <a href="/wiki/St._Paul_Jesuit_College_(Macau)" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Paul Jesuit College (Macau)">St. Paul Jesuit College (Macau)</a> and requested the Order's superiors in Goa to send a suitably talented person to Macau to start the study of Chinese. Accordingly, in 1579 the Italian <a href="/wiki/Michele_Ruggieri" title="Michele Ruggieri">Michele Ruggieri</a> (1543–1607) was sent to Macau, and in 1582 he was joined at his task by another Italian, <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> (1552–1610).<sup id="cite_ref-witek153_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witek153-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early efforts were aided by donations made by elites, and especially wealthy widows from Europe as well Asia. Women such as <a href="/wiki/Isabel_Reigota" title="Isabel Reigota">Isabel Reigota</a> in Macau, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mercia_Roiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mercia Roiz (page does not exist)">Mercia Roiz</a> in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and <a href="/wiki/Candida_Xu" title="Candida Xu">Candida Xu</a> in China, all donated significant amounts towards establishing missions in China as well as to other Asian states from China.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ricci's_policy_of_accommodation"><span id="Ricci.27s_policy_of_accommodation"></span>Ricci's policy of accommodation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ricci's policy of accommodation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both Ricci and Ruggieri were determined to adapt to the religious qualities of the Chinese: Ruggieri to the common people, in whom <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist">Taoist</a> elements predominated, and Ricci to the educated classes, where <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> prevailed. Ricci, who arrived at the age of 30 and spent the rest of his life in China, wrote to the Jesuit houses in Europe and called for priests – men who would not only be "<i>good</i>", but also "<i>men of talent, since we are dealing here with a people both intelligent and learned.</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spaniard Diego de Pantoja and the Italian Sabatino de Ursis were some of these talented men who joined Ricci in his venture. </p><p>The Jesuits saw China as equally sophisticated and generally treated China as equals with Europeans in both theory and practice.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This Jesuit perspective influenced <a href="/wiki/Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Leibniz">Leibniz</a> in his cosmopolitan view of China as an equal civilisation with whom scientific exchanges was desirable.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_Far_East_1602_Larger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Matteo_Ricci_Far_East_1602_Larger.jpg/220px-Matteo_Ricci_Far_East_1602_Larger.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Matteo_Ricci_Far_East_1602_Larger.jpg/330px-Matteo_Ricci_Far_East_1602_Larger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Matteo_Ricci_Far_East_1602_Larger.jpg/440px-Matteo_Ricci_Far_East_1602_Larger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1925" data-file-height="2463" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Far East in 1602, by Jesuit missionary <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> (1552–1610)</figcaption></figure> <p>Just as Ricci spent his life in China, others of his followers did the same. This level of commitment was necessitated by logistical reasons: Travel from Europe to China took many months, sometimes years; and learning the country's language and culture was even more time-consuming. When a Jesuit from China did travel back to Europe, he typically did it as a representative ("procurator") of the China Mission, entrusted with the task of recruiting more Jesuit priests to come to China, ensuring continued support for the Mission from the Church's central authorities, and creating favorable publicity for the Mission and its policies by publishing both scholarly and popular literature about China and Jesuits.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMungello198949_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungello198949-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One time the <a href="/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen Emperor</a> was nearly converted to Christianity and broke his idols.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dynastic_change">Dynastic change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dynastic change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The fall of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> and the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> brought some difficult years for the Jesuits in China. While some Jesuit fathers managed to impress Qing commanders with a display of western science or ecclesiastical finery and to be politely invited to join the new order (as did <a href="/wiki/Johann_Adam_Schall_von_Bell" title="Johann Adam Schall von Bell">Johann Adam Schall von Bell</a> in Beijing in 1644, or <a href="/wiki/Martino_Martini" title="Martino Martini">Martino Martini</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a> ca. 1645–46),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMungello1989106–107_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungello1989106–107-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others endured imprisonment and privations, as did <a href="/wiki/Lodovico_Buglio" title="Lodovico Buglio">Lodovico Buglio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_de_Magalh%C3%A3es" title="Gabriel de Magalhães">Gabriel de Magalhães</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> in 1647–48<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMungello198991_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungello198991-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Sichuan" title="Catholic Church in Sichuan">Catholic Church in Sichuan</a>), or <a href="/wiki/Alvaro_Semedo" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvaro Semedo">Alvaro Semedo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Canton</a> in 1649. Later, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Grueber" title="Johann Grueber">Johann Grueber</a> was in Beijing between 1656 and 1661. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shen_Fo-tsung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Shen_Fo-tsung.jpg/170px-Shen_Fo-tsung.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Shen_Fo-tsung.jpg/255px-Shen_Fo-tsung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Shen_Fo-tsung.jpg/340px-Shen_Fo-tsung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>The Chinese Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Michael_Alphonsius_Shen_Fu-Tsung" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Alphonsius Shen Fu-Tsung">Michael Alphonsius Shen Fu-Tsung</a> visited France and Britain in 1684–1685. "The Chinese Convert" by Sir <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Kneller" title="Godfrey Kneller">Godfrey Kneller</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the several years of war between the Qing and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a> dynasties, it was not uncommon for some Jesuits to find themselves on different sides of the front lines: while Adam Schall was an important counselor of the Qing <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> in Beijing, <a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Boym" title="Michał Boym">Michał Boym</a> travelled from the jungles of south-western China to Rome, carrying the plea of help from the court of the <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Youlang" title="Zhu Youlang">Yongli Emperor</a> of the Southern Ming, and returned with the Pope's response that promised prayer, after some military assistance from Macau.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMungello1989139_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungello1989139-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were many Christians in the court of the <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamist</a> emperor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Jesuits">French Jesuits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: French Jesuits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg/200px-Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg/300px-Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg/400px-Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2670" data-file-height="3782" /></a><figcaption>A map of the 200-odd Jesuit churches and missions established across China <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1687</span></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1685, the French king <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> sent a mission of five Jesuit "mathematicians" to China in an attempt to break the Portuguese predominance: <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Fontaney" title="Jean de Fontaney">Jean de Fontaney</a> (1643–1710), <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Bouvet" title="Joachim Bouvet">Joachim Bouvet</a> (1656–1730), <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Gerbillon" title="Jean-François Gerbillon">Jean-François Gerbillon</a> (1654–1707), <a href="/wiki/Louis_Le_Comte" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Le Comte">Louis Le Comte</a> (1655–1728) and <a href="/wiki/Claude_de_Visdelou" title="Claude de Visdelou">Claude de Visdelou</a> (1656–1737).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French Jesuits played a crucial role in disseminating accurate information about China in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A part of the French Jesuit mission in China lingered on for several years after the <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">suppression of the Society of Jesus</a> until it was taken over by a group of <a href="/wiki/Congregation_of_the_Mission" title="Congregation of the Mission">Lazarists</a> in 1785.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Travel_of_Chinese_Christians_to_Europe">Travel of Chinese Christians to Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Travel of Chinese Christians to Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rabban_bar_Sauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabban bar Sauma">Rabban bar Sauma</a></div> <p>Prior to the Jesuits, there had already been Chinese pilgrims who had made the journey westward, with two notable examples being <a href="/wiki/Rabban_bar_Sauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabban bar Sauma">Rabban bar Sauma</a> and his younger companion, who became Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Mar_Yaballaha_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Mar Yaballaha III">Mar Yaballaha III</a>, in the 13th century. </p><p>While few 17th-century Jesuits returned from China to Europe, it was not uncommon for those who did to be accompanied by young Chinese Christians. <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Rhodes" title="Alexandre de Rhodes">Alexandre de Rhodes</a> brought <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Zheng_Manuo" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmanuel Zheng Manuo">Emmanuel Zheng Manuo</a> to Rome in 1651. Emmanuel studied in Europe and later became the first Chinese Jesuit priest.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Zheng&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andreas Zheng (page does not exist)">Andreas Zheng</a> (郑安德勒; <a href="/wiki/Wade-Giles" class="mw-redirect" title="Wade-Giles">Wade-Giles</a>: Cheng An-te-lo) was sent to Rome by the <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Youlang" title="Zhu Youlang">Yongli</a> court along with <a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Boym" title="Michał Boym">Michał Boym</a> in the late 1650s. Zheng and Boym stayed in <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> in 1652–55. Zheng worked with Boym on the transcription and translation of the <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Stele" title="Xi'an Stele">Xi'an Stele</a>, and returned to Asia with Boym, whom he buried when the Jesuit died near the Vietnam-China border.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMungello1989139–140,_167_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungello1989139–140,_167-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few years later, another Chinese traveller who was called Matthaeus Sina in Latin (not positively identified, but possibly the person who traveled from China to Europe overland with <a href="/wiki/Johann_Grueber" title="Johann Grueber">Johann Grueber</a>) also worked on the same Church of the East inscription. The result of their work was published by <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a> in 1667 in the <i><a href="/wiki/China_Illustrata" title="China Illustrata">China Illustrata</a></i>, and was the first significant Chinese text ever published in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMungello1989167_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungello1989167-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Better known is the European trip of <a href="/wiki/Shen_Fo-tsung" class="mw-redirect" title="Shen Fo-tsung">Shen Fo-tsung</a> in 1684–1685, who was presented to king <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> on September 15, 1684, and also met with king <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeevak2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyJvQ2dxKGOECpgPA38_38]_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeevak2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyJvQ2dxKGOECpgPA38_38]-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> becoming the first recorded instance of a Chinese man visiting Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc.co.uk_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc.co.uk-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The king was so delighted by this visit that he had his portrait made hung in his own bedroom.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc.co.uk_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc.co.uk-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, another Chinese Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Arcadio_Huang" title="Arcadio Huang">Arcadio Huang</a> would also visit France, and was an early pioneer in the teaching of the Chinese language in France, in 1715. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_exchange">Scientific exchange</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Scientific exchange"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">History of science and technology in China</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SteamMachineOfVerbiestIn1678.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/SteamMachineOfVerbiestIn1678.jpg/220px-SteamMachineOfVerbiestIn1678.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/SteamMachineOfVerbiestIn1678.jpg/330px-SteamMachineOfVerbiestIn1678.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/SteamMachineOfVerbiestIn1678.jpg/440px-SteamMachineOfVerbiestIn1678.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="573" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> manufactured by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Verbiest" title="Ferdinand Verbiest">Ferdinand Verbiest</a> at the Qing Court in 1672</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telling_China_about_Europe">Telling China about Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Telling China about Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Jesuits introduced to China Western science and mathematics which was undergoing its own revolution. "Jesuits were accepted in late Ming court circles as foreign literati, regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1996212_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1996212-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1627, the Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Johann_Schreck" title="Johann Schreck">Johann Schreck</a> produced the first book to present Western mechanical knowledge to a Chinese audience, <i><a href="/wiki/Diagrams_and_explanations_of_the_wonderful_machines_of_the_Far_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagrams and explanations of the wonderful machines of the Far West">Diagrams and explanations of the wonderful machines of the Far West</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This influence worked in both directions: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Udias_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Udias-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Jan_Miko%C5%82aj_Smogulecki" title="Jan Mikołaj Smogulecki">Jan Mikołaj Smogulecki</a> (1610–1656) is credited with introducing logarithms to China, while <a href="/wiki/Sabatino_de_Ursis" title="Sabatino de Ursis">Sabatino de Ursis</a> (1575–1620) worked with <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> on the Chinese translation of <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements">Elements</a></i>, published books in Chinese on Western hydraulics, and by predicting an eclipse which Chinese astronomers had not anticipated, opened the door to the reworking of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar">Chinese calendar</a> using Western calculation techniques. </p><p>This influence spread to <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Korea</a> as well, with <a href="/wiki/Joao_Rodrigues_Tcuzu" class="mw-redirect" title="Joao Rodrigues Tcuzu">João Rodrigues</a> providing the <a href="/wiki/Yangban" title="Yangban">Korean mandarin</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeong_Duwon" title="Jeong Duwon">Jeong Duwon</a> astronomical, mathematical, and religious works in the early 1630s, which he carried back to <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a> from <a href="/wiki/Dengzhou,_Shandong" class="mw-redirect" title="Dengzhou, Shandong">Dengzhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, prompting local controversy and discussion decades before the first foreign scholars were permitted to enter the country. Like the Chinese, the Koreans were most interested in practical technology with martial applications (such as Rodrigues's <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>) and the possibility of improving the <a href="/wiki/Korean_calendar" title="Korean calendar">calendar</a>, with its associated <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">religious festivals</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Schall.jpg/220px-Schall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="347" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Schall.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="281" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Adam_Schall_von_Bell" title="Johann Adam Schall von Bell">Johann Adam Schall</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Johann_Adam_Schall_von_Bell" title="Johann Adam Schall von Bell">Johann Adam Schall</a> (1591–1666), a <a href="/wiki/German_people" class="mw-redirect" title="German people">German</a> Jesuit missionary to China, organized successful missionary work and became the trusted counselor of the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a>. He was created a <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(bureaucrat)" title="Mandarin (bureaucrat)">mandarin</a> and held an important post in connection with the mathematical school, contributing to astronomical studies and the development of the Chinese calendar. Thanks to Schall, the motions of both the sun and moon began to be calculated with <a href="/wiki/Trigonometric_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigonometric function">sinusoids</a> in the 1645 Shíxiàn calendar (時憲書, Book of the Conformity of Time). His position enabled him to procure from the emperor permission for the Jesuits to build churches and to preach throughout the country. The Shunzhi Emperor, however, died in 1661, and Schall's circumstances at once changed. He was imprisoned and condemned to death by <a href="/wiki/Slow_slicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Slow slicing">slow slicing</a>. After an earthquake and the dowager's objection, the sentence was not carried out, but he died after his release owing to the privations he had endured. A collection of his manuscripts remains and was deposited in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Library" title="Vatican Library">Vatican Library</a>. After he and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Verbiest" title="Ferdinand Verbiest">Ferdinand Verbiest</a> won the tests against Chinese and Islamic calendar scholars, the court adapted the western calendar only.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xishiku_church01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Xishiku_church01.jpg/220px-Xishiku_church01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Xishiku_church01.jpg/330px-Xishiku_church01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Xishiku_church01.jpg/440px-Xishiku_church01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Beitang_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Beitang Church">Beitang Church</a> was established in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> by the Jesuits in 1703.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChineseartAmiot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/ChineseartAmiot.jpg/170px-ChineseartAmiot.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/ChineseartAmiot.jpg/255px-ChineseartAmiot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/ChineseartAmiot.jpg/340px-ChineseartAmiot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="668" /></a><figcaption>A page from <i>Mémoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences et les arts des Chinois</i>, 1780</figcaption></figure> <p>The Jesuits also endeavoured to build churches and demonstrate Western architectural styles. In 1605, they established the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_in_Beijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception in Beijing">Nantang</a> (Southern) Church and in 1655 the <a href="/wiki/Wangfujing_Cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Wangfujing Cathedral">Dongtang</a> (Eastern) Church. In 1703 they established the <a href="/wiki/Beitang_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Beitang Church">Beitang</a> (Northern) Church near <a href="/wiki/Zhongnanhai" title="Zhongnanhai">Zhongnanhai</a> (opposite the former Beijing Library), on land given to the Jesuits by the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a> in 1694, following his recovery from illness thanks to medical expertise of Fathers <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Gerbillon" title="Jean-François Gerbillon">Jean-François Gerbillon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Bouvet" title="Joachim Bouvet">Joachim Bouvet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2001235_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2001235-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> spoken by the Jesuits was used to mediate between the Qing and Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-Perdue2009_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perdue2009-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Treaty of Nerchinsk">Latin copy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a> was written by Jesuits. Latin was one of the things which were taught by the Jesuits.<sup id="cite_ref-Naquin2000_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naquin2000-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HungWakabayashi2014_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HungWakabayashi2014-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A school was established by them for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-Kraushaar2010_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kraushaar2010-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Widmer1976_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Widmer1976-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A diplomatic delegation found a local who composed a letter in fluent Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-Timkovskii1827_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timkovskii1827-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TimkovskiĭLloyd1827_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TimkovskiĭLloyd1827-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telling_Europe_about_China">Telling Europe about China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Telling Europe about China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg/200px-LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg/300px-LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg/400px-LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption><i>Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese, or, Chinese Knowledge Explained in Latin</i>, an introduction to Chinese history and philosophy published at Paris in 1687 by a team of Jesuits working under <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Couplet" title="Philippe Couplet">Philippe Couplet</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Jesuits were also very active in transmitting Chinese knowledge to Europe, such as translating <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>'s works into European languages. Several historians have highlighted the impact that Jesuit accounts of Chinese knowledge had on European scholarly debates in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ricci in his <i><a href="/wiki/De_Christiana_expeditione_apud_Sinas" title="De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas">De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas</a></i> had already started to report on the thoughts of Confucius; he (and, earlier, <a href="/wiki/Michele_Ruggieri" title="Michele Ruggieri">Michele Ruggieri</a>) made attempts at translating the <a href="/wiki/Four_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Books">Four Books</a>, the standard introduction into the Confucian canon. The work on the Confucian classics by several generations of Jesuits culminated with Fathers <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Couplet" title="Philippe Couplet">Philippe Couplet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prospero_Intorcetta" title="Prospero Intorcetta">Prospero Intorcetta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Herdtrich" title="Christian Herdtrich">Christian Herdtrich</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Rougemont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="François de Rougemont (page does not exist)">François de Rougemont</a> publishing <i>Confucius Sinarum Philosophus</i> ("Confucius, the Philosopher of the Chinese") in Paris in 1687. The book contained an annotated <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> translation of three of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Books">Four Books</a> and a biography of Confucius.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly those who were interested in the integration of the Confucian system of morality into <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the mid-17th century, detailed Jesuit accounts of the <a href="/wiki/Ba_gua" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba gua">Eight trigrams</a> and the Yin/Yang principles<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> appeared in Europe, quickly drawing the attention of European philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_la_plus_generale_et_qui_comprend_la_Chine,_la_Tartarie_Chinoise,_et_le_Thibet_(1734).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Carte_la_plus_generale_et_qui_comprend_la_Chine%2C_la_Tartarie_Chinoise%2C_et_le_Thibet_%281734%29.jpg/220px-Carte_la_plus_generale_et_qui_comprend_la_Chine%2C_la_Tartarie_Chinoise%2C_et_le_Thibet_%281734%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Carte_la_plus_generale_et_qui_comprend_la_Chine%2C_la_Tartarie_Chinoise%2C_et_le_Thibet_%281734%29.jpg/330px-Carte_la_plus_generale_et_qui_comprend_la_Chine%2C_la_Tartarie_Chinoise%2C_et_le_Thibet_%281734%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Carte_la_plus_generale_et_qui_comprend_la_Chine%2C_la_Tartarie_Chinoise%2C_et_le_Thibet_%281734%29.jpg/440px-Carte_la_plus_generale_et_qui_comprend_la_Chine%2C_la_Tartarie_Chinoise%2C_et_le_Thibet_%281734%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2106" /></a><figcaption>The 1734 map compiled by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Bourguignon_d%27Anville" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville">d'Anville</a> based on the Jesuits' geographic research during the early 1700s</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JosephMarieAmiot.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/JosephMarieAmiot.JPG/170px-JosephMarieAmiot.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/JosephMarieAmiot.JPG/255px-JosephMarieAmiot.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/JosephMarieAmiot.JPG/340px-JosephMarieAmiot.JPG 2x" data-file-width="948" data-file-height="1219" /></a><figcaption>The French <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Marie_Amiot" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph-Marie Amiot">Joseph-Marie Amiot</a> (1718–1793) was official translator of Western languages for the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Chinese linguistics, sciences, and technologies were also reported to the West by Jesuits. Polish <a href="/wiki/Michal_Boym" class="mw-redirect" title="Michal Boym">Michal Boym</a> authored the first published Chinese dictionaries for European languages, both of which were published posthumously: the first, a Chinese–Latin dictionary, was published in 1667, and the second, a Chinese–French dictionary, was published in 1670. The Portuguese Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Rodrigues_T%C3%A7uzu" title="João Rodrigues Tçuzu">João Rodrigues</a>, previously the personal translator of the Japanese leaders <a href="/wiki/Hideyoshi_Toyotomi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hideyoshi Toyotomi">Hideyoshi Toyotomi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu" title="Tokugawa Ieyasu">Tokugawa Ieyasu</a>, published a terser and clearer edition of his <a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_the_Japanese_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="The Art of the Japanese Language">Japanese grammar</a> from Macao in 1620. The French Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Marie_Amiot" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph-Marie Amiot">Joseph-Marie Amiot</a> wrote a <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> dictionary <i>Dictionnaire tatare-mantchou-français</i> (Paris, 1789), a work of great value, the language having been previously quite unknown in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. He also wrote a 15-volume <i>Memoirs regarding the history, sciences, and art of the Chinese</i>, published in Paris in 1776–1791 (<i>Mémoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences et les arts des Chinois</i>, 15 volumes, Paris, 1776–1791). His <i>Vie de <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></i>, the twelfth volume of that collection, was more complete and accurate than any predecessors. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Joao_Rodrigues_Tcuzu" class="mw-redirect" title="Joao Rodrigues Tcuzu">Rodrigues</a> and other Jesuits also began compiling geographical information about the Chinese Empire. In the early years of the 18th century, Jesuit cartographers travelled throughout the country, performing astronomical observations to verify or determine the latitude and longitude relative to Beijing of various locations, then drew maps based on their findings. Their work was summarized in a four-volume <i>Description géographique, historique, chronologique, politique et physique de l'empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie chinoise</i> published by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Du_Halde" title="Jean-Baptiste Du Halde">Jean-Baptiste Du Halde</a> in Paris in 1735, and on a map compiled by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Bourguignon_d%27Anville" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville">Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville</a> (published 1734).<sup id="cite_ref-halde_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-halde-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To disseminate information about devotional, educational and scientific subjects, several missions in China established printing presses: for example, the <a href="/wiki/Imprimerie_de_la_Mission_Catholique_(Sienhsien)" title="Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique (Sienhsien)">Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique (Sienhsien)</a>, established in 1874. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chinese_Rites_controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chinese Rites controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperor_Qianlong_by_Charles_Eloi_Asselin_1743_1805_after_Giuseppe_Panzi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Emperor_Qianlong_by_Charles_Eloi_Asselin_1743_1805_after_Giuseppe_Panzi.jpg/170px-Emperor_Qianlong_by_Charles_Eloi_Asselin_1743_1805_after_Giuseppe_Panzi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Emperor_Qianlong_by_Charles_Eloi_Asselin_1743_1805_after_Giuseppe_Panzi.jpg/255px-Emperor_Qianlong_by_Charles_Eloi_Asselin_1743_1805_after_Giuseppe_Panzi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Emperor_Qianlong_by_Charles_Eloi_Asselin_1743_1805_after_Giuseppe_Panzi.jpg/340px-Emperor_Qianlong_by_Charles_Eloi_Asselin_1743_1805_after_Giuseppe_Panzi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2058" data-file-height="2833" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>, by Charles-Eloi Asselin (1743–1805) after Giuseppe Panzi. <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early 18th century, a dispute within the Catholic Church arose over whether Chinese folk religion rituals and offerings to the emperor constituted <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">paganism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">idolatry</a>. This tension led to what became known as the "Rites Controversy," a bitter struggle that broke out after Ricci's death and lasted for over a hundred years. </p><p>At first the focal point of dissension was the Jesuit contention that the ceremonial rites of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">ancestor veneration</a> were primarily social and political in nature and could be practiced by converts. Spanish Dominicans and Franciscans, however, charged that the practices were idolatrous, meaning that all acts of respect to the sage and one's ancestors were nothing less than the worship of demons. Eventually they persuaded <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_XI" title="Pope Clement XI">Pope Clement XI</a> that the Jesuits were making dangerous accommodations to Chinese sensibilities. In 1704 Rome decided against the ancient use of the words <i>Shang Di</i> (supreme emperor) and <i>Tian</i> (heaven) for God, and forbade the practice of sacrifices to Confucius and ancestors. Rome's decision was taken by the papal legate to the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a>, who rejected the decision and required missionaries to declare their adherence to "the rules of Matteo Ricci". In 1724, the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a> expelled all missionaries who failed to support the Jesuit position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETiedemann2006463–464_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiedemann2006463–464-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the last Jesuits to work at the Chinese court were <a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine_de_Poirot" title="Louis Antoine de Poirot">Louis Antoine de Poirot</a> (1735–1813) and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Panzi" title="Giuseppe Panzi">Giuseppe Panzi</a> (1734-before 1812) who worked for the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> as painters and translators.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwertsDe_Ridder200218_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwertsDe_Ridder200218-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (November 2011)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBataldenCannDean2004151_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBataldenCannDean2004151-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 19th century, the role of the Jesuits in China was largely taken over by the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Foreign_Missions_Society" title="Paris Foreign Missions Society">Paris Foreign Missions Society</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:333px;max-width:333px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:168px;max-width:168px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ramelli_windlass_well.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ramelli_windlass_well.jpg/166px-Ramelli_windlass_well.jpg" decoding="async" width="166" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ramelli_windlass_well.jpg/249px-Ramelli_windlass_well.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ramelli_windlass_well.jpg/332px-Ramelli_windlass_well.jpg 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:161px;max-width:161px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagrams_and_explanations_image.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Diagrams_and_explanations_image.jpg/159px-Diagrams_and_explanations_image.jpg" decoding="async" width="159" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Diagrams_and_explanations_image.jpg/239px-Diagrams_and_explanations_image.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Diagrams_and_explanations_image.jpg/318px-Diagrams_and_explanations_image.jpg 2x" data-file-width="371" data-file-height="546" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">The Jesuits, such as <a href="/wiki/Johann_Schreck" title="Johann Schreck">Johann Schreck</a>, translated European technical books into Chinese.<br /><b>Left image</b>: a description of a windlass well, in <a href="/wiki/Agostino_Ramelli" title="Agostino Ramelli">Agostino Ramelli</a>, 1588.<br /> <b>Right image</b>: Description of a windlass well, in <i><a href="/wiki/Diagrams_and_explanations_of_the_wonderful_machines_of_the_Far_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagrams and explanations of the wonderful machines of the Far West">Diagrams and explanations of the wonderful machines of the Far West</a></i>, 1627.</div></div></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_missions_in_China" title="Protestant missions in China">Protestant missions in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruins_of_Saint_Paul%27s" title="Ruins of Saint Paul's">Ruins of Saint Paul's</a>, Macau</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_(Hangzhou)" title="Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Hangzhou)">Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Hangzhou)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/China_and_the_Christian_Impact" title="China and the Christian Impact">China and the Christian Impact</a></i>, translation of <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Gernet" title="Jacques Gernet">Jacques Gernet</a>'s <i>Chine et christianisme</i> of 1982</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Wessels" title="Cornelius Wessels">Cornelius Wessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurism" title="Figurism">Figurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93France_relations" title="China–France relations">China–France relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">History of the Jews in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_missionaries_to_China" title="List of Catholic missionaries to China">List of Catholic missionaries to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_missions_in_China" title="Medical missions in China">Medical missions in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_theological_seminaries_in_China" title="List of Protestant theological seminaries in China">List of Protestant theological seminaries in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Pillars_of_Chinese_Catholicism" title="Three Pillars of Chinese Catholicism">Three Pillars of Chinese Catholicism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWigal2000202-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWigal2000202_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWigal2000">Wigal (2000)</a>, p. 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMungello2005">Mungello (2005)</a>, p. 37. Since Italians, Spaniards, Germans, Belgians, and Poles participated in missions too, the total of 920 probably only counts European Jesuits, and does not include Chinese members of the Society of Jesus.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth Scott, <i>Christian Missions in China</i>, p.83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gluckman.com/Graves.html">Article on the Jesuit cemetery in Beijing by journalist Ron Gluckman</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuggieriRicci2001">Ruggieri & Ricci (2001)</a>, p. 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-witek153-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-witek153_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witek153_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuggieriRicci2001">Ruggieri & Ricci (2001)</a>, p. 153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZupanov2019" class="citation book cs1">Zupanov, Ines G. (2019-05-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dguXDwAAQBAJ&dq=Isabel+Reigota&pg=PA137"><i>The Oxford Handbook of the Jesuits</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-092498-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-092498-0"><bdi>978-0-19-092498-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+Jesuits&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019-05-15&rft.isbn=978-0-19-092498-0&rft.aulast=Zupanov&rft.aufirst=Ines+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdguXDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DIsabel%2BReigota%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George H. Dunne, <i>Generation of Giants</i>, p.28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorg_Wiessala2014" class="citation book cs1">Georg Wiessala (2014). <i>European Studies in Asia: Contours of a Discipline</i>. Routledge. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136171611" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136171611"><bdi>978-1136171611</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Studies+in+Asia%3A+Contours+of+a+Discipline&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1136171611&rft.au=Georg+Wiessala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichel_Delon2013" class="citation book cs1">Michel Delon (2013). <i>Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment</i>. Routledge. p. 331. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135959982" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135959982"><bdi>978-1135959982</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Enlightenment&rft.pages=331&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1135959982&rft.au=Michel+Delon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungello198949-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMungello198949_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMungello1989">Mungello (1989)</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716190104/http://www.taishantour.com/html/62/n-962.html">"泰山"九莲菩萨"和"智上菩萨"考"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%B3%B0%E5%B1%B1%22%E4%B9%9D%E8%8E%B2%E8%8F%A9%E8%90%A8%22%E5%92%8C%22%E6%99%BA%E4%B8%8A%E8%8F%A9%E8%90%A8%22%E8%80%83&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.taishantour.com%2Fhtml%2F62%2Fn-962.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungello1989106–107-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMungello1989106–107_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMungello1989">Mungello (1989)</a>, pp. 106–107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://222.87.106.4:90/~kjqk/sjzjyj/sjzj2002/0201pdf/020108.pdf">清代中叶四川天主教传播方式之认识</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2020">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungello198991-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMungello198991_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMungello1989">Mungello (1989)</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hss.nthu.edu.tw/~ylh/uploadfiles/course31_34_1.pdf">南明永曆朝廷與天主教</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407093323/http://www.icis.kansai-u.ac.jp/data/journal04-v2/02_zhang.pdf">"中西文化交流与西方早期汉学的兴起"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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(1 January 1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/1299711614">"The First Chinese Priest of the Society of Jesus: Emmanuel de Siqueira, 1633-1673, Cheng-ma-no Wei-hsin 鄭瑪諾維信"</a>. <i>Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu</i>. <b>28</b>: 3–50. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/1299711614">1299711614</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archivum+Historicum+Societatis+Iesu&rft.atitle=The+First+Chinese+Priest+of+the+Society+of+Jesus%3A+Emmanuel+de+Siqueira%2C+1633-1673%2C+Cheng-ma-no+Wei-hsin+%E9%84%AD%E7%91%AA%E8%AB%BE%E7%B6%AD%E4%BF%A1&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=3-50&rft.date=1959-01-01&rft.aulast=Rouleau&rft.aufirst=Francis+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F1299711614&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungello1989139–140,_167-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMungello1989139–140,_167_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMungello1989">Mungello (1989)</a>, pp. 139–140, 167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungello1989167-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMungello1989167_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMungello1989">Mungello (1989)</a>, p. 167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeevak2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyJvQ2dxKGOECpgPA38_38]-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeevak2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyJvQ2dxKGOECpgPA38_38]_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeevak2004">Keevak (2004)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yJvQ2dxKGOEC&pg=PA38">38</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbc.co.uk-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bbc.co.uk_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bbc.co.uk_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/factual/chinese_in_britain1.shtml">"BBC - Radio 4 - Chinese in Britain"</a>. <i>www.bbc.co.uk</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=BBC+-+Radio+4+-+Chinese+in+Britain&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fradio4%2Ffactual%2Fchinese_in_britain1.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1996212-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1996212_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1996">Ebrey (1996)</a>, p. 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ricci.rt.usfca.edu/bibliography/view.aspx?bibliographyID=1839">Ricci roundtable</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110615172744/http://ricci.rt.usfca.edu/bibliography/view.aspx?bibliographyID=1839">Archived</a> 2011-06-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Udias-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Udias_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUdías2003">Udías (2003)</a>, p. 53; quoted by <a href="#CITEREFWoods2005">Woods (2005)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cclw.net/book/zgjdjhsg/htm/chapter09.html">第八章第二次教难前后</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.angelibrary.com/oldies/qsg/045.htm">志二十</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2001235-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2001235_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2001">Li (2001)</a>, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perdue2009-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Perdue2009_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_C_Perdue2009" class="citation book cs1">Peter C Perdue (30 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&pg=PA167"><i>China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 167–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04202-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04202-5"><bdi>978-0-674-04202-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Marches+West%3A+The+Qing+Conquest+of+Central+Eurasia&rft.pages=167-&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009-06-30&rft.isbn=978-0-674-04202-5&rft.au=Peter+C+Perdue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ4L-_cjmSqoC%26pg%3DPA167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Naquin2000-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Naquin2000_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_Naquin2000" class="citation book cs1">Susan Naquin (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hKElDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA577"><i>Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400-1900</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 577–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21991-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21991-5"><bdi>978-0-520-21991-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peking%3A+Temples+and+City+Life%2C+1400-1900&rft.pages=577-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21991-5&rft.au=Susan+Naquin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhKElDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA577&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HungWakabayashi2014-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HungWakabayashi2014_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEva_Tsoi_Hung_HungJudy_Wakabayashi2014" class="citation book cs1">Eva Tsoi Hung Hung; Judy Wakabayashi (16 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w_0JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76"><i>Asian Translation Traditions</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 76–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-64048-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-64048-6"><bdi>978-1-317-64048-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asian+Translation+Traditions&rft.pages=76-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-07-16&rft.isbn=978-1-317-64048-6&rft.au=Eva+Tsoi+Hung+Hung&rft.au=Judy+Wakabayashi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw_0JBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kraushaar2010-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kraushaar2010_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_Kraushaar2010" class="citation book cs1">Frank Kraushaar (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_yxcEXzLXf0C&pg=PA96"><i>Eastwards: Western Views on East Asian Culture</i></a>. Peter Lang. pp. 96–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-0343-0040-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-0343-0040-7"><bdi>978-3-0343-0040-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastwards%3A+Western+Views+on+East+Asian+Culture&rft.pages=96-&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-0343-0040-7&rft.au=Frank+Kraushaar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_yxcEXzLXf0C%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Widmer1976-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Widmer1976_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEric_Widmer1976" class="citation book cs1">Eric Widmer (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZjnRS1g6zkC&pg=PA110"><i>The Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Peking During the Eighteenth Century</i></a>. Harvard Univ Asia Center. pp. 110–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-78129-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-78129-0"><bdi>978-0-674-78129-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Ecclesiastical+Mission+in+Peking+During+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.pages=110-&rft.pub=Harvard+Univ+Asia+Center&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-78129-0&rft.au=Eric+Widmer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3ZjnRS1g6zkC%26pg%3DPA110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Timkovskii1827-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Timkovskii1827_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgor_Fedorovich_Timkovskii1827" class="citation book cs1">Egor Fedorovich Timkovskii (1827). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PhKIykeMI-wC&pg=PA29"><i>Travels of the Russian mission through Mongolia to China, with corrections and notes by J. von Klaproth [tr. by H.E. Lloyd]</i></a>. pp. 29–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travels+of+the+Russian+mission+through+Mongolia+to+China%2C+with+corrections+and+notes+by+J.+von+Klaproth+%26%2391%3Btr.+by+H.E.+Lloyd%26%2393%3B.&rft.pages=29-&rft.date=1827&rft.au=Egor+Fedorovich+Timkovskii&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPhKIykeMI-wC%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TimkovskiĭLloyd1827-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TimkovskiĭLloyd1827_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgor_Fedorovich_TimkovskiĭHannibal_Evans_LloydJulius_Heinrich_KlaprothJulius_von_Klaproth1827" class="citation book cs1">Egor Fedorovich Timkovskiĭ; Hannibal Evans Lloyd; Julius Heinrich Klaproth; Julius von Klaproth (1827). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a30_AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA29"><i>Travels of the Russian mission through Mongolia to China: and residence in Pekin, in the years 1820-1821</i></a>. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. pp. 29–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travels+of+the+Russian+mission+through+Mongolia+to+China%3A+and+residence+in+Pekin%2C+in+the+years+1820-1821&rft.pages=29-&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Rees%2C+Orme%2C+Brown%2C+and+Green&rft.date=1827&rft.au=Egor+Fedorovich+Timkovski%C4%AD&rft.au=Hannibal+Evans+Lloyd&rft.au=Julius+Heinrich+Klaproth&rft.au=Julius+von+Klaproth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da30_AAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatman2019" class="citation journal cs1">Statman, Alexander (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353/jwh.2019.0061">"The First Global Turn: Chinese Contributions to Enlightenment World History"</a>. <i>Journal of World History</i>. <b>30</b> (3): 363–392. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.2019.0061">10.1353/jwh.2019.0061</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208811659">208811659</a> – via Project MUSE.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=The+First+Global+Turn%3A+Chinese+Contributions+to+Enlightenment+World+History&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=363-392&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.2019.0061&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A208811659%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Statman&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.2019.0061&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2017" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, Huiyi (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/90020957">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'The Observations We Made in the Indies and in China': The Shaping of the Jesuits' Knowledge of China by Other Parts of the Non-Western World"</a>. <i>East Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine</i> (46): 47–88. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/90020957">90020957</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East+Asian+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine&rft.atitle=%27The+Observations+We+Made+in+the+Indies+and+in+China%27%3A+The+Shaping+of+the+Jesuits%27+Knowledge+of+China+by+Other+Parts+of+the+Non-Western+World&rft.issue=46&rft.pages=47-88&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F90020957%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Huiyi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F90020957&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinot1932" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pinot, Virgile (1932). <i>La Chine et la formation de l'esprit philosophique en France (1640-1740)</i> (in French). Paris: Paul Geuthner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780244506667" title="Special:BookSources/9780244506667"><bdi>9780244506667</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Chine+et+la+formation+de+l%27esprit+philosophique+en+France+%281640-1740%29&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Paul+Geuthner&rft.date=1932&rft.isbn=9780244506667&rft.aulast=Pinot&rft.aufirst=Virgile&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiovannetti-Singh2022" class="citation journal cs1">Giovannetti-Singh, Gianamar (March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1479244320000426">"Rethinking the Rites Controversy: Kilian Stumpf's Acta Pekinensia and the Historical Dimensions of a Religious Quarrel"</a>. <i>Modern Intellectual History</i>. <b>19</b> (1): 29–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1479244320000426">10.1017/S1479244320000426</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1479-2443">1479-2443</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228824560">228824560</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Intellectual+History&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+Rites+Controversy%3A+Kilian+Stumpf%27s+Acta+Pekinensia+and+the+Historical+Dimensions+of+a+Religious+Quarrel&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-53&rft.date=2022-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A228824560%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1479-2443&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1479244320000426&rft.aulast=Giovannetti-Singh&rft.aufirst=Gianamar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1479244320000426&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCams2017" class="citation journal cs1">Cams, Mario (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/90020956">"Blurring the Boundaries: Integrating Techniques of Land Surveying on the Qing's Mongolian Frontier"</a>. <i>East Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine</i>. <b>46</b> (46): 25–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F26669323-04601005">10.1163/26669323-04601005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1562-918X">1562-918X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/90020956">90020956</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134980355">134980355</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East+Asian+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine&rft.atitle=Blurring+the+Boundaries%3A+Integrating+Techniques+of+Land+Surveying+on+the+Qing%27s+Mongolian+Frontier&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=46&rft.pages=25-46&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=1562-918X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A134980355%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F90020956%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F26669323-04601005&rft.aulast=Cams&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F90020956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parker-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Parker_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parker_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1978" class="citation book cs1">Parker, John (1978). <i>Windows into China: the Jesuits and their books, 1580–1730</i>. Boston: Trustees of the Public Library of the City of Boston. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89073-050-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89073-050-4"><bdi>0-89073-050-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Windows+into+China%3A+the+Jesuits+and+their+books%2C+1580%E2%80%931730&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Trustees+of+the+Public+Library+of+the+City+of+Boston&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-89073-050-4&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobson2013" class="citation book cs1">Hobson, John M. (2013). <i>The Eastern origins of Western civilisation</i> (10. print ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 194–195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54724-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54724-6"><bdi>978-0-521-54724-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eastern+origins+of+Western+civilisation&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=194-195&rft.edition=10.+print&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-521-54724-6&rft.aulast=Hobson&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See e.g. <a href="/wiki/Martino_Martini" title="Martino Martini">Martino Martini</a>'s detailed account in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView/ECHOzogiLib?url=/mpiwg/online/permanent/library/6R9MRSH6/pageimg&start=11&pn=19&mode=imagepath"><i>Martini Martinii Sinicae historiae decas prima : res a gentis origine ad Christum natum in extrema Asia, sive magno Sinarum imperio gestas complexa,</i> 1659</a>, p. 15 sq.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-halde-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-halde_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Halde1735" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Du_Halde" title="Jean-Baptiste Du Halde">Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste</a> (1735). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/cote?00992x04"><i>Description géographique, historique, chronologique, politique et physique de l'empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie chinoise</i></a>. Vol. IV. Paris: P.G. Lemercier.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Description+g%C3%A9ographique%2C+historique%2C+chronologique%2C+politique+et+physique+de+l%27empire+de+la+Chine+et+de+la+Tartarie+chinoise&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=P.G.+Lemercier&rft.date=1735&rft.aulast=Du+Halde&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bium.univ-paris5.fr%2Fhistmed%2Fmedica%2Fcote%3F00992x04&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span> There are numerous later editions as well, in French and English</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETiedemann2006463–464-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETiedemann2006463–464_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTiedemann2006">Tiedemann 2006</a>, pp. 463–464.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwertsDe_Ridder200218-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwertsDe_Ridder200218_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSwertsDe_Ridder2002">Swerts & De Ridder (2002)</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBataldenCannDean2004151-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBataldenCannDean2004151_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBataldenCannDean2004">Batalden, Cann & Dean (2004)</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jesuit_China_missions" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Jesuit China missions">Jesuit China missions</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBataldenCannDean2004" class="citation book cs1">Batalden, Stephen K.; Cann, Kathleen; Dean, John (2004). <i>Sowing the word: the cultural impact of the British and foreign Bible society 1804-2004</i>. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781905048083" title="Special:BookSources/9781905048083"><bdi>9781905048083</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sowing+the+word%3A+the+cultural+impact+of+the+British+and+foreign+Bible+society+1804-2004&rft.place=Sheffield&rft.pub=Sheffield+Phoenix+press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781905048083&rft.aulast=Batalden&rft.aufirst=Stephen+K.&rft.au=Cann%2C+Kathleen&rft.au=Dean%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbrey1996" class="citation book cs1">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1996). <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge, New York and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43519-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-43519-6"><bdi>0-521-43519-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+China&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York+and+Melbourne&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-521-43519-6&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeevak2004" class="citation book cs1">Keevak, Michael (2004). <i>The pretended Asian: George Psalmanazar's eighteenth-century Formosan hoax</i>. Detroit, Mich: Wayne State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814331989" title="Special:BookSources/9780814331989"><bdi>9780814331989</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+pretended+Asian%3A+George+Psalmanazar%27s+eighteenth-century+Formosan+hoax&rft.place=Detroit%2C+Mich&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780814331989&rft.aulast=Keevak&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2001" class="citation book cs1">Li, Shenwen (2001). <i>Stratégies missionnaires des jésuites français en Nouvelle-France et en Chine au XVIIe siècle</i>. Saint-Nicolas (Québec) Paris: les Presses de l'Université Laval l'Harmattan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7475-1123-5" title="Special:BookSources/2-7475-1123-5"><bdi>2-7475-1123-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strat%C3%A9gies+missionnaires+des+j%C3%A9suites+fran%C3%A7ais+en+Nouvelle-France+et+en+Chine+au+XVIIe+si%C3%A8cle&rft.place=Saint-Nicolas+%28Qu%C3%A9bec%29+Paris&rft.pub=les+Presses+de+l%27Universit%C3%A9+Laval+l%27Harmattan&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=2-7475-1123-5&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Shenwen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMungello1989" class="citation book cs1">Mungello, David E. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wb4yPw4ZgZQC"><i>Curious Land: Jesuit Accommodation and the Origins of Sinology</i></a>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1219-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1219-0"><bdi>0-8248-1219-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Curious+Land%3A+Jesuit+Accommodation+and+the+Origins+of+Sinology&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-8248-1219-0&rft.aulast=Mungello&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwb4yPw4ZgZQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMungello2005" class="citation book cs1">Mungello, David E. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9x3vE0UMPkMC"><i>The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500–1800</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-3815-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-3815-X"><bdi>0-7425-3815-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Encounter+of+China+and+the+West%2C+1500%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7425-3815-X&rft.aulast=Mungello&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9x3vE0UMPkMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuggieriRicci2001" class="citation cs2">Ruggieri, Matteo; Ricci, Michele (2001), Witek, John W. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A7h5YbM5M60C&pg=PA151"><i>Dicionário Português-Chinês : 葡漢詞典 (Pu-Han Cidian) : Portuguese-Chinese dictionary</i></a>, Biblioteca Nacional, pp. 151–157, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/972-565-298-3" title="Special:BookSources/972-565-298-3"><bdi>972-565-298-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dicion%C3%A1rio+Portugu%C3%AAs-Chin%C3%AAs+%3A+%E8%91%A1%E6%BC%A2%E8%A9%9E%E5%85%B8+%28Pu-Han+Cidian%29+%3A+Portuguese-Chinese+dictionary&rft.pages=151-157&rft.pub=Biblioteca+Nacional&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=972-565-298-3&rft.aulast=Ruggieri&rft.aufirst=Matteo&rft.au=Ricci%2C+Michele&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA7h5YbM5M60C%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span> (Detailed account of the early years of the mission).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwertsDe_Ridder2002" class="citation book cs1">Swerts, Lorry; De Ridder, Koen (2002). <i>Mon Van Genechten 1903 - 1974, Flemish missionary and Chinese painter: inculturation of Chinese Christian art</i>. Leuven: Leuven University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789058672223" title="Special:BookSources/9789058672223"><bdi>9789058672223</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mon+Van+Genechten+1903+-+1974%2C+Flemish+missionary+and+Chinese+painter%3A+inculturation+of+Chinese+Christian+art&rft.place=Leuven&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9789058672223&rft.aulast=Swerts&rft.aufirst=Lorry&rft.au=De+Ridder%2C+Koen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiedemann2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._G._Tiedemann" title="R. G. Tiedemann">Tiedemann, R. G.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VLG0mqIZ55IC&pg=PA463">"Christianity in East Asia"</a>. In Brown, Stewart J.; Tackett, Timothy (eds.). <i>Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 7, Enlightenment, Reawakening and Revolution 1660-1815</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 451–474. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81605-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81605-2"><bdi>978-0-521-81605-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christianity+in+East+Asia&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Christianity%3A+Volume+7%2C+Enlightenment%2C+Reawakening+and+Revolution+1660-1815&rft.pages=451-474&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81605-2&rft.aulast=Tiedemann&rft.aufirst=R.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVLG0mqIZ55IC%26pg%3DPA463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUdías2003" class="citation book cs1">Udías, Agustín (2003). <i>Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories</i>. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402011894" title="Special:BookSources/9781402011894"><bdi>9781402011894</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Searching+the+Heavens+and+the+Earth%3A+The+History+of+Jesuit+Observatories&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781402011894&rft.aulast=Ud%C3%ADas&rft.aufirst=Agust%C3%ADn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWigal2000" class="citation book cs1">Wigal, Donald (2000). <i>Historic Maritime Maps</i>. New York: Parkstone Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85995-750-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85995-750-1"><bdi>1-85995-750-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historic+Maritime+Maps&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Parkstone+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-85995-750-1&rft.aulast=Wigal&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Woods" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Woods">Woods, Thomas</a> (2005). <i>How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization</i>. Washington, DC: Regenery. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89526-038-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-89526-038-7"><bdi>0-89526-038-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Catholic+Church+Built+Western+Civilization&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Regenery&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-89526-038-7&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJesuit+missions+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_in_China" title="Template:Christianity in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_in_China" title="Template talk:Christianity in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity_in_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity in China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline of Chinese history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Sichuan" title="Catholic Church in Sichuan">Catholic Church in Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Shaanxi" title="Catholic Church in Shaanxi">Catholic Church in Shaanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Tibet" title="Catholic Church in Tibet">Catholic Church in Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestantism in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_Sichuan" title="Protestantism in Sichuan">Protestantism in Sichuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Orthodox_Church" title="Chinese Orthodox Church">Chinese Orthodox Church</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_names_for_the_God_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Chinese names for the God of Abrahamic religions">Terms for God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tianzhu_(Chinese_name_of_God)" title="Tianzhu (Chinese name of God)">Tianzhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shangdi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Chinese" title="Bible translations into Chinese">Bible translations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delegates%27_Version" title="Delegates' Version">Delegates' Version</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Union_Version" title="Chinese Union Version">Chinese Union Version</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Studium_Biblicum_Version" title="Studium Biblicum Version">Studium Biblicum Version</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Version" title="Chinese New Version">Chinese New Version</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Today%27s_Chinese_Version" title="Today's Chinese Version">Today's Chinese Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_hymn_books" title="List of Chinese hymn books">Hymns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hymns_of_Universal_Praise" title="Hymns of Universal Praise">Hymns of Universal Praise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Hymnal" title="Chinese New Hymnal">Chinese New Hymnal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaan_Hymns" title="Canaan Hymns">Canaan Hymns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China" title="Church of the East in China">Church of the East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Stele" title="Xi'an Stele">Xi'an Stele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingjiao_Documents" title="Jingjiao Documents">Jingjiao Documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Christian_painting" title="Mogao Christian painting">Mogao Christian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murals_from_the_Christian_temple_at_Qocho" title="Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho">Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alopen" title="Alopen">Alopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_(monk)" title="Adam (monk)">Adam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Catholic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_missions_to_Mongol_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic missions to Mongol China">Franciscan missions (Yuan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuit missions (Ming)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Foreign_Missions_Society" title="Paris Foreign Missions Society">Foreign Missions Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Montecorvino" title="John of Montecorvino">John of Montecorvino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odoric_of_Pordenone" title="Odoric of Pordenone">Odoric of Pordenone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_de%27_Marignolli" title="Giovanni de' Marignolli">Giovanni de' Marignolli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Bouvet" title="Joachim Bouvet">Joachim Bouvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angelo_Zottoli" title="Angelo Zottoli">Angelo Zottoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-Vincent_Lebbe" title="Frédéric-Vincent Lebbe">Frédéric-Vincent Lebbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyr_Saints_of_China" title="Martyr Saints of China">Martyr Saints of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Paul%27s_College,_Macau" title="St. Paul's College, Macau">St. Paul's College, Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protestant_missions_in_China" title="Protestant missions in China">Protestant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_missionary_societies_in_China_(1807%E2%80%931953)" title="List of Protestant missionary societies in China (1807–1953)">Agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_missions_in_China" title="Medical missions in China">Medical missions in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morrison_(missionary)" title="Robert Morrison (missionary)">Robert Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_G%C3%BCtzlaff" title="Karl Gützlaff">Karl Gützlaff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divie_Bethune_McCartee" title="Divie Bethune McCartee">Divie Bethune McCartee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_Taylor" title="Hudson Taylor">Hudson Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lottie_Moon" title="Lottie Moon">Lottie Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Richard" title="Timothy Richard">Timothy Richard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Goforth" title="Jonathan Goforth">Jonathan Goforth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Seven" title="Cambridge Seven">Cambridge Seven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Liddell" title="Eric Liddell">Eric Liddell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladys_Aylward" title="Gladys Aylward">Gladys Aylward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_missionaries_in_China" title="List of Protestant missionaries in China"><i>(more...)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By province<br />and region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Anhui" title="Christianity in Anhui">Christianity in Anhui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Fujian" title="Christianity in Fujian">Christianity in Fujian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jiangsu" title="Christianity in Jiangsu">Christianity in Jiangsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jiangxi" title="Christianity in Jiangxi">Christianity in Jiangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Shandong" title="Christianity in Shandong">Christianity in Shandong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Shanghai" title="Christianity in Shanghai">Christianity in Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Zhejiang" title="Christianity in Zhejiang">Christianity in Zhejiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">West</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sichuan" title="Christianity in Sichuan">Christianity in Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Gansu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Gansu (page does not exist)">Christianity in Gansu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Guizhou" title="Christianity in Guizhou">Christianity in Guizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Ningxia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Ningxia (page does not exist)">Christianity in Ningxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Qinghai" title="Christianity in Qinghai">Christianity in Qinghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Shaanxi" title="Catholic Church in Shaanxi">Christianity in Shaanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sichuan" title="Christianity in Sichuan">Christianity in Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tibet#Christianity" title="Religion in Tibet">Christianity in Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Xinjiang" title="Christianity in Xinjiang">Christianity in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Yunnan" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Yunnan">Christianity in Yunnan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_China" title="Central China">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Henan" title="Christianity in Henan">Christianity in Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Hubei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Hubei (page does not exist)">Christianity in Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hunan" title="Christianity in Hunan">Christianity in Hunan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Beijing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Beijing (page does not exist)">Christianity in Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hebei" title="Christianity in Hebei">Christianity in Hebei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Heilongjiang" title="Christianity in Heilongjiang">Christianity in Heilongjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Christianity in Inner Mongolia">Christianity in Inner Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jilin" title="Christianity in Jilin">Christianity in Jilin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Liaoning" title="Christianity in Liaoning">Christianity in Liaoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Shanxi" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Shanxi">Christianity in Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Tianjin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Tianjin (page does not exist)">Christianity in Tianjin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Guangdong" title="Christianity in Guangdong">Christianity in Guangdong</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Guangxi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Guangxi (page does not exist)">Christianity in Guangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Hainan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Hainan (page does not exist)">Christianity in Hainan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hong_Kong" title="Christianity in Hong Kong">Christianity in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau#Christianity" title="Religion in Macau">Christianity in Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chinese Christians <br /><small>(by period of <br />prominence)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candida_Xu" title="Candida Xu">Candida Xu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi">Xu Guangqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Tingyun" class="mw-redirect" title="Yang Tingyun">Yang Tingyun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Xiuquan" title="Hong Xiuquan">Hong Xiuchuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Fa" title="Liang Fa">Liang Fa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_Shengmo" title="Xi Shengmo">Xi Shengmo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/T._C._Chao" title="T. C. Chao">T. C. Chao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Jingyi" title="Cheng Jingyi">Cheng Jingyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Yuzhi" title="Deng Yuzhi"> Deng Yuzhi (Cora Deng)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hsu" title="Francis Hsu">Francis Hsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Yuming" title="Jia Yuming">Jia Yuming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Zhengxiang" title="Lu Zhengxiang">Lu Zhengxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Xiangbo" title="Ma Xiangbo">Ma Xiangbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchman_Nee" title="Watchman Nee">Watchman Nee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Stone_(doctor)" title="Mary Stone (doctor)">Mary Stone (Shi Meiyu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sung" title="John Sung">John Sung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yatsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeng_Baosun" title="Zeng Baosun">Tseng Pao-sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ming-Dao" title="Wang Ming-Dao">Wang Ming-Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_C._M._Wei" title="Francis C. M. Wei">Francis C. M. Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Wei" title="Paul Wei">Paul Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ching_Hsiung_Wu" title="John Ching Hsiung Wu">John Ching Hsiung Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Leichuan" title="Wu Leichuan">Wu Leichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Yi-fang" title="Wu Yi-fang">Wu Yi-fang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y._C._James_Yen" title="Y. C. James Yen">Y. C. James Yen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ying_Lianzhi" title="Ying Lianzhi">Ying Lianzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dora_Yu" title="Dora Yu">Dora Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Yu_Pin" title="Paul Yu Pin">Paul Yu Pin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Z._T._Yui" title="David Z. T. Yui">David Z. T. Yui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's<br />Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gu" title="Joseph Gu">Joseph Gu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Guanghu" title="He Guanghu">He Guanghu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Jin_Luxian" title="Aloysius Jin Luxian">Aloysius Jin Luxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_Kung_Pin-Mei" title="Ignatius Kung Pin-Mei">Ignatius Kung Pin-Mei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Lamb" title="Samuel Lamb">Samuel Lamb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shengben" title="Lin Shengben">Lin Shengben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiaofeng_(academic)" title="Liu Xiaofeng (academic)">Liu Xiaofeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xiaomin" title="Lu Xiaomin">Lü Xiaomin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Lu" title="Matthias Lu">Matthias Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._H._Ting" title="K. H. Ting">K. H. Ting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Weifan" title="Wang Weifan">Wang Weifan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yi_(pastor)" title="Wang Yi (pastor)">Wang Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y._T._Wu" title="Y. T. Wu">Y. T. Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allen_Yuan" title="Allen Yuan">Allen Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Fusan" title="Zhao Fusan">Zhao Fusan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Church-state relations<br />in People's Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Patriotic_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Patriotic Association">Catholic Patriotic Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_church" title="Underground church">Underground church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Manifesto" title="The Christian Manifesto">The Christian Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lianghui_(Protestantism)" title="Lianghui (Protestantism)">Protestant Lianghui</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-Self_Patriotic_Movement" title="Three-Self Patriotic Movement">Three-Self Patriotic Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Christian_Council" title="China Christian Council">China Christian Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_theological_seminaries_in_China" title="List of Protestant theological seminaries in China">Seminaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_church_(China)" title="House church (China)">House church</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_rites_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese rites controversy">Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangzhou_riot" title="Yangzhou riot">Yangzhou riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_Movement_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Christian Movement (China)">Anti-Christian Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanjing incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impact</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China#Jesuit_activity_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion#China" title="Sex-selective abortion">Anti-sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foot_binding#History" title="Foot binding">Anti-footbinding campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium#Prohibition_and_conflict_in_China" title="Opium">Anti-opium campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese#Missionary_systems" title="Romanization of Chinese">Chinese Roman Type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese#Romanization" title="Cantonese">Cantonese Roman Type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_colleges_in_China" title="List of Christian colleges in China">Chinese Christian Colleges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_revival" title="Manchurian revival">Manchurian revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Christian_theology" title="Sino-Christian theology">Sino-Christian theology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdenominational<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Christian_Council" title="China Christian Council">China Christian Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Christian_Council_of_China" title="National Christian Council of China">National Christian Council of China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_missions_of_the_Catholic_Church_in_the_Americas" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Template:Spanish missions in the Americas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Template talk:Spanish missions in the Americas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish missions in the Americas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spanish_missions_of_the_Catholic_Church_in_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">Spanish missions of the Catholic Church in the Americas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_Mexico" title="Spanish missions in Mexico">Mexico</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_Baja_California" title="Spanish missions in Baja California">Baja California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciscan_Missions_in_the_Sierra_Gorda_of_Quer%C3%A9taro" title="Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro">Sierra Gorda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Sonoran_Desert" title="Spanish missions in the Sonoran Desert">Sonoran Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciscan_missions_to_the_Maya" title="Franciscan missions to the Maya">Yucatan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_Trinidad" title="Spanish missions in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li>United States <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajac%C3%A1n_Mission" title="Ajacán Mission">Ajacán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_Arizona" title="Spanish missions in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California" title="Spanish missions in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missions_in_Spanish_Florida" title="Missions in Spanish Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missions_in_Spanish_Florida" title="List of missions in Spanish Florida">List of missions in Spanish Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_Georgia" title="Spanish missions in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Carolinas" title="Spanish missions in the Carolinas">Carolinas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_Louisiana" title="Spanish missions in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_New_Mexico" title="Spanish missions in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_Texas" title="Spanish missions in Texas">Texas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_South_America" title="Spanish missions in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit reduction">Jesuit reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_Missions_of_Chiquitos" title="Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos">Chiquitos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_Mission" title="Circular Mission">Circular Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_Block_and_Estancias_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Jesuit Block and Estancias of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_Missions_of_La_Sant%C3%ADsima_Trinidad_de_Paran%C3%A1_and_Jes%C3%BAs_de_Tavarangue" title="Jesuit Missions of La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná and Jesús de Tavarangue">Itapúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_Missions_of_Moxos" title="Jesuit Missions of Moxos">Moxos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_of_Nahuel_Huapi" title="Mission of Nahuel Huapi">Nahuel Huapi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_of_R%C3%ADo_Bueno" title="Mission of Río Bueno">Río Bueno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_system" title="Cargo system">Cargo system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Indians" title="Mission Indians">Mission Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductions" title="Reductions">Reductions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reductions_in_the_Andes" title="Indian reductions in the Andes">Andes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit reduction">Jesuit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jesuits" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jesuits" title="Template:Jesuits"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jesuits" title="Template talk:Jesuits"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jesuits" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jesuits"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jesuits" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Exercises" title="Spiritual Exercises">Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_maiorem_Dei_gloriam" title="Ad maiorem Dei gloriam">Ad maiorem Dei gloriam</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Magis" title="Magis">Magis</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Regimini_militantis_Ecclesiae" title="Regimini militantis Ecclesiae">Regimini militantis Ecclesiae</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Exposcit_debitum" title="Exposcit debitum">Exposcit debitum</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Ratio_Studiorum" title="Ratio Studiorum">Ratio Studiorum</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">Suppression of the Society of Jesus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jesuits" title="List of Jesuits">List of Jesuits</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px;padding:0.8em 0.9em 3em;"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ihs-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="IHS"><img alt="IHS" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ihs-logo.svg/50px-Ihs-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ihs-logo.svg/75px-Ihs-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ihs-logo.svg/100px-Ihs-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="567" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_saints_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="List of saints of the Society of Jesus">Saints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_of_Anchieta" title="Joseph of Anchieta">José de Anchieta</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martyr_Saints_of_China" title="Martyr Saints of China">Modeste Andlauer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Arrowsmith" title="Edmund Arrowsmith">Edmund Arrowsmith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Robert Bellarmine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Berchmans" title="John Berchmans">John Berchmans</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Berthieu" title="Jacques Berthieu">Jacques Berthieu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bobola" title="Andrew Bobola">Andrew Bobola</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Borgia" title="Francis Borgia">Francis Borgia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Br%C3%A9beuf" title="Jean de Brébeuf">Jean de Brébeuf</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Briant" title="Alexander Briant">Alexander Briant</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_de_Britto" title="John de Britto">John de Britto</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Campion" title="Edmund Campion">Edmund Campion</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Canisius" title="Peter Canisius">Peter Canisius</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Castillo_(Jesuit)" title="Juan de Castillo (Jesuit)">Juan del Castillo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Chabanel" title="Noël Chabanel">Noël Chabanel</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Claver" title="Peter Claver">Peter Claver</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Claude_La_Colombi%C3%A8re" title="Claude La Colombière">Claude de la Colombière</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Daniel" title="Antoine Daniel">Antoine Daniel</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martyr_Saints_of_China" title="Martyr Saints of China">Paul Denn</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Evans_and_John_Lloyd" title="Philip Evans and John Lloyd">Philip Evans</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Faber" title="Peter Faber">Peter Faber</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Garnet" title="Thomas Garnet">Thomas Garnet</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Garnier_(missionary)" title="Charles Garnier (missionary)">Charles Garnier</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Gonzaga" title="Aloysius Gonzaga">Aloysius Gonzaga</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Roque_Gonz%C3%A1lez_y_de_Santa_Cruz" title="Roque González y de Santa Cruz">Roque González de Santa Cruz</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/26_Martyrs_of_Japan" title="26 Martyrs of Japan">John Soan de Goto</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Goupil" title="René Goupil">René Goupil</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Melchior_Grodziecki" title="Melchior Grodziecki">Melchior Grodziecki</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Hurtado" title="Alberto Hurtado">Alberto Hurtado</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9my_Isor%C3%A9" title="Rémy Isoré">Rémy Isoré</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Francis_de_Geronimo" title="Francis de Geronimo">Francis de Geronimo</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Jogues" title="Isaac Jogues">Isaac Jogues</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Kisai" title="James Kisai">James Kisai</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stanislaus_Kostka" title="Stanislaus Kostka">Stanislaus Kostka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Lalande" title="Jean de Lalande">Jean de Lalande</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Lalemant" title="Gabriel Lalemant">Gabriel Lalemant</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(Jesuit_priest)" title="David Lewis (Jesuit priest)">David Lewis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martyr_Saints_of_China" title="Martyr Saints of China">Lèon-Ignance Mangin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Miki" title="Paul Miki">Paul Miki</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morse" title="Henry Morse">Henry Morse</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Ogilvie_(saint)" title="John Ogilvie (saint)">John Ogilvie</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Owen_(Jesuit)" title="Nicholas Owen (Jesuit)">Nicholas Owen</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pignatelli" title="Joseph Pignatelli">Joseph Pignatelli</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pongracz" title="Stephen Pongracz">Stephen Pongracz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bernardino_Realino" title="Bernardino Realino">Bernardino Realino</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Francis_Regis" title="John Francis Regis">John Francis Regis</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alphonsus_Rodriguez" title="Alphonsus Rodriguez">Alphonsus Rodriguez</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Rubio" title="José María Rubio">José María Rubio</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Southwell_(priest)" title="Robert Southwell (priest)">Robert Southwell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_de_Soveral" title="André de Soveral">André de Soveral</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Walpole" title="Henry Walpole">Henry Walpole</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Rodr%C3%ADguez_Olmedo" title="Alfonso Rodríguez Olmedo">Alfonso Rodríguez Olmedo</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Popes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Francis</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jesuit_theologians" title="List of Jesuit theologians">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Diego_Laynez" title="Diego Laynez">Diego Laynez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Molina" title="Luis de Molina">Luis de Molina</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Dani%C3%A9lou" title="Jean Daniélou">Jean Daniélou</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Rahner" title="Karl Rahner">Karl Rahner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin" title="Pierre Teilhard de Chardin">Pierre Teilhard de Chardin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Lubac" title="Henri de Lubac">Henri de Lubac</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Courtney_Murray" title="John Courtney Murray">John Courtney Murray</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fitzmyer" title="Joseph Fitzmyer">Joseph Fitzmyer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alonso_Rodriguez" title="Alonso Rodriguez">Alonso Rodriguez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jesuit_theologians" title="List of Jesuit theologians">List of Jesuit theologians</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bollandist" title="Bollandist">Bollandist</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/La_Civilt%C3%A0_Cattolica" title="La Civiltà Cattolica">La Civiltà Cattolica</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/General_Congregation" title="General Congregation">General Congregation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Superior_General_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior General of the Society of Jesus">Superior General of the Society of Jesus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Gregorian_University" title="Pontifical Gregorian University">Pontifical Gregorian University</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Biblical_Institute" title="Pontifical Biblical Institute">Pontifical Biblical Institute</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Oriental_Institute" title="Pontifical Oriental Institute">Pontifical Oriental Institute</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jesuit China missions</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_missions_in_North_America" title="Jesuit missions in North America">Jesuit missions in North America</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jesuit_educational_institutions" title="List of Jesuit educational institutions">List of Jesuit educational institutions</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Jesuit_Universities" title="International Association of Jesuit Universities">International Association of Jesuit Universities</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ignatian_Pedagogical_Paradigm" title="Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm">Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Ges%C3%B9" title="Church of the Gesù">Church of the Gesù</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Madonna_Della_Strada" title="Madonna Della Strada">Madonna Della Strada</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Saint-Pierre_de_Montmartre" title="Saint-Pierre de Montmartre">Saint-Pierre de Montmartre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Claudio_Acquaviva" title="Claudio Acquaviva">Claudio Acquaviva</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:gold"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Jesus" title="Category:Society of Jesus">Category</a></b></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/24px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Catholicism">Catholicism portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spanish_Empire" title="Template:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spanish_Empire" title="Template talk:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spanish_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Timeline–immersed" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline–immersed</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Conquest of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Asia and the Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cognac" title="War of the League of Cognac">War of the League of Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomiendas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws in favour of the indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Bruneian–Spanish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Piracy in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Restoration War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Bourbons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_(13_January_1750)" title="Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750)">Treaty of Madrid (1750)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootka_Convention" title="Nootka Convention">Nootka Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Napoleonic invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Third Treaty of San Ildefonso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Independence of Spanish continental Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Liberal constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlist_Wars" title="Carlist Wars">Carlist Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Spanish_Treaty_(1899)" title="German–Spanish Treaty (1899)">German–Spanish Treaty (1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco#Independent_Morocco_(since_1956)" title="History of Morocco">Independence of Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Independence of Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castille" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Castille">Crown of Castille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Union with Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southern Italy (Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples#Aragonese_dynasty" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily#The_insular_kingdom_of_Sicily_under_the_Crown_of_Aragon_and_Spain" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia#Aragonese_period" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Union with Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Catalonia" title="Northern Catalonia">Pyrénées-Orientales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Coastal Alaska</a>, Central United States (<a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish Louisiana</a>), Western United States (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="extiw" title="es:Reino de México">es</a>]</span>, Central America (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy General of Yucatan">Captaincy General of Yucatan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish Caribbean</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Central_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Central America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Captaincy General of Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago#Spanish_period" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti#Spanish_history_(1492–1625)" title="History of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruba#History" title="Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao#History" title="Curaçao">Curazao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaire#History" title="Bonaire">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belize_(1506%E2%80%931862)" title="History of Belize (1506–1862)">Belize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela, part of Guyana</a>, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a> (Peru, <a href="/wiki/Acre_(state)" title="Acre (state)">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a> (Bolivia), <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> (Uruguay), <a href="/wiki/Misiones_Orientales" title="Misiones Orientales">Misiones Orientales</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="History of the Falkland Islands">Malvinas</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia_and_Oceania_(Spanish_East_Indies)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia and Oceania (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Captaincy General of the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Mariana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Northern Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li>Northern Africa (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="Spanish protectorate in Morocco">Spanish Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Tripoli" title="Spanish Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunis#Spanish_occupation_and_Ottoman_control" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers" title="Peñón of Algiers">Peñón of Algiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oran#Spanish_period_(1509–1708,_1732–1792)" title="Oran">Oran</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa#Muslim_and_feudal_rulers" title="Béjaïa">Béjaïa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ifni" title="Ifni">Ifni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Juby" title="Cape Juby">Cape Juby</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra Australis, Spain">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayuntamiento" title="Ayuntamiento">Ayuntamiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">Cabildo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_(guild)" title="Germania (guild)">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Hermandad" title="Santa Hermandad">Santa Hermandad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exequatur" title="Exequatur">Exequatur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_the_Indies" title="Laws of the Indies">Laws of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Decree_of_Graces_of_1815" title="Royal Decree of Graces of 1815">Royal Decree of Graces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_residence" title="Trial of residence">Trial of residence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Titles and positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcalde" title="Alcalde">Alcalde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corregidor_(position)" title="Corregidor (position)">Corregidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_president" title="Municipal president">Municipal president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regidor" title="Regidor">Regidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndic" title="Syndic">Syndic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vecino" title="Vecino">Vecino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administrative_subdivisions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administrative subdivisions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Viceroy#In_the_Americas" title="Viceroy">Viceroyalties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Viceroyalty" title="Columbian Viceroyalty">Columbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Perú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Captaincies_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Captaincies of the Spanish Empire">Captaincies General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincias_Internas" title="Provincias Internas">Provincias Internas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Captaincy General of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Governorates of the Spanish Empire">Governorates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castilla_de_Oro" title="Castilla de Oro">Castilla de Oro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Cuba" title="Governorate of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">La Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">La Luisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia_(1501%E2%80%931513)" title="Governorate of New Andalusia (1501–1513)">New Andalusia (1501–1513)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia" title="Governorate of New Andalusia">New Andalusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Castile" title="Governorate of New Castile">New Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Navarre" title="New Navarre">New Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Toledo" title="Governorate of New Toledo">New Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia" title="Real Audiencia">Audiencias</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Bogotá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Buenos_Aires" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Concepci%C3%B3n" title="Real Audiencia of Concepción">Concepción</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Cusco" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Audiencia of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Guadalajara" title="Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Guatemala" title="Real Audiencia of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Lima" title="Real Audiencia of Lima">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Manila" title="Real Audiencia of Manila">Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panamá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Quito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santiago" title="Real Audiencia of Santiago">Santiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Currency_of_Spanish_America" title="Currency of Spanish America">Currencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Dollar (Peso)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD" title="Maravedí">Maravedí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_escudo" title="Spanish escudo">Escudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columnarios" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnarios">Columnario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">Doubloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guipuzcoan_Company_of_Caracas" title="Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas">Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_Trading_Company" title="Barcelona Trading Company">Barcelona Trading Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_of_the_Sea" title="Consulate of the Sea">Consulate of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camino_Real_de_Tierra_Adentro" title="Camino Real de Tierra Adentro">Camino Real de Tierra Adentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Consulate_of_Buenos_Aires" title="Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires">Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Company_of_Volunteers_of_Catalonia" title="Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia">Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">Indian auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_line_of_Spain" title="List of ships of the line of Spain">Ships of the line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_independence)" title="Royalist (Spanish American independence)">Royalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Legion" title="Spanish Legion">Legión</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(Spain)" title="Army of Africa (Spain)">Army of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Strategists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Duke of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Leyva,_Duke_of_Terranova" title="Antonio de Leyva, Duke of Terranova">Antonio de Leyva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Goiti" title="Martín de Goiti">Martín de Goiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_d%27Avalos" title="Alfonso d'Avalos">Alfonso d'Avalos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Toledo_Osorio,_4th_Marquis_of_Villafranca" class="mw-redirect" title="García de Toledo Osorio, 4th Marquis of Villafranca">García de Toledo Osorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Philibert,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy">Duke of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n_the_Elder" title="Álvaro de Bazán the Elder">Álvaro de Bazán the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">John of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonaventure_de_Longueval,_Count_of_Bucquoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy">Charles Bonaventure de Longueval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Zubiaur" title="Pedro de Zubiaur">Pedro de Zubiaur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola,_1st_Marquis_of_the_Balbases" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases">Ambrosio Spinola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blas_de_Lezo" title="Blas de Lezo">Blas de Lezo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_de_G%C3%A1lvez" title="Bernardo de Gálvez">Bernardo de Gálvez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Mariners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinz%C3%B3n_brothers" title="Pinzón brothers">Pinzón brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa" title="Juan de la Cosa">Juan de la Cosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_Ocampo" title="Sebastián de Ocampo">Sebastián de Ocampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvar_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_Cabeza_de_Vaca" title="Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca">Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda" title="Alonso de Ojeda">Alonso de Ojeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Salazar" title="Alonso de Salazar">Alonso de Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Ulloa" title="Antonio de Ulloa">Antonio de Ulloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos" title="Ruy López de Villalobos">Ruy López de Villalobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Columbus" title="Diego Columbus">Diego Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ercilla" title="Alonso de Ercilla">Alonso de Ercilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_de_Ovando" title="Nicolás de Ovando">Nicolás de Ovando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Ayala" title="Juan de Ayala">Juan de Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_Vizca%C3%ADno" title="Sebastián Vizcaíno">Sebastián Vizcaíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_(explorer)" title="Juan Fernández (explorer)">Juan Fernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_y_Ru%C3%ADz_de_Avenda%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Fajardo y Ruíz de Avendaño">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Ahedo" title="Felipe González de Ahedo">Felipe González de Ahedo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">Conquistadors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Coronado" title="Francisco Vázquez de Coronado">Francisco Vázquez de Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portol%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaspar de Portolà">Gaspar de Portolà</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_Fages_i_Beleta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere Fages i Beleta">Pere Fages i Beleta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Orp%C3%AD" title="Joan Orpí">Joan Orpí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Urs%C3%BAa" title="Martín de Ursúa">Martín de Ursúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Almagro" title="Diego de Almagro">Diego de Almagro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Mazariegos" title="Diego de Mazariegos">Diego de Mazariegos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Luis_de_Cabrera" title="Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera">Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_d%27Albern%C3%AD_i_Teixidor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor">Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez_de_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="García López de Cárdenas">García López de Cárdenas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Notable battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros" title="Revolt of the Comuneros">Comuneros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bicocca" title="Battle of Bicocca">Bicocca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">Rome (1527)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Landriano" title="Battle of Landriano">Landriano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Pavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%BChlberg" title="Battle of Mühlberg">Mühlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1557)">St. Quentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)" title="Battle of Gravelines (1558)">Gravelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Lepanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Antwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponta_Delgada" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ponta Delgada">Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mons_(1572)" title="Siege of Mons (1572)">Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1578)">Gembloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">Ostend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Armada" title="English Armada">English Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Celidonia" title="Battle of Cape Celidonia">Cape Celidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">White Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Nördlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valenciennes_(1656)" title="Battle of Valenciennes (1656)">Valenciennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Ceuta_(1694%E2%80%931727)" title="Sieges of Ceuta (1694–1727)">Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bitonto" title="Battle of Bitonto">Bitonto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bail%C3%A9n" title="Battle of Bailén">Bailén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria" title="Battle of Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_T%C3%A9touan" title="Battle of Tétouan">Tetouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_landing" title="Alhucemas landing">Alhucemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capo_d%27Orso" title="Battle of Capo d'Orso">Capo d'Orso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">Vienna (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Preveza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Castelnuovo" title="Siege of Castelnuovo">Siege of Castelnuovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ceresole" title="Battle of Ceresole">Ceresole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_the_Balearic_Islands_(1558)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands (1558)">Balearic Islands (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Djerba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Leiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montes_Claros" title="Battle of Montes Claros">Montes Claros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Passaro" title="Battle of Cape Passaro">Passaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Trafalgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra">Somosierra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">Annual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan" title="Battle of Mactan">Mactan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">Cajamarca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cusco" title="Siege of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Bogotá savanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penco" title="Battle of Penco">Penco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mataquito" title="Battle of Mataquito">Mataquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalupe_Island_(1595)" title="Battle of Guadalupe Island (1595)">Guadalupe Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Recife_(1595)" title="Capture of Recife (1595)">Recife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">San Juan (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Bahia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Siege of Colonia del Sacramento">Colonia del Sacramento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(Paraguay)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)">Comuneros (Paraguay)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuerno_Verde" title="Cuerno Verde">Cuerno Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Túpac Amaru II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Katari" title="Túpac Katari">Túpac Katari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pensacola" title="Siege of Pensacola">Pensacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_expedition" title="Newfoundland expedition">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1797)" title="Battle of San Juan (1797)">San Juan (1797)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War">Iguape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tucapel" title="Battle of Tucapel">Tucapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raleigh%27s_El_Dorado_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Raleigh's El Dorado Expedition">Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Curalaba" title="Battle of Curalaba">Curalaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">Comuneros (New Granada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Trinidad_(1797)" title="Invasion of Trinidad (1797)">Trinidad (1797)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chacabuco" title="Battle of Chacabuco">Chacabuco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1" title="Battle of Boyacá">Boyacá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Carabobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Pichincha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Ayacucho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santiago_de_Cuba" title="Battle of Santiago de Cuba">Santiago de Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Campaign#Battle_of_Asomante" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Campaign">Asomante</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Spanish_conquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Spanish conquests</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">The Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Maya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Nicaragua" title="Spanish conquest of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Chibchan_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations">Chibchan Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1521%E2%80%931898)#Spanish_expeditions_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (1521–1898)">Philippines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Other_civil_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other civil topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">Spanish missions in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Codices" title="Mesoamerican Codices">Mesoamerican Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cusco_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusco School">Cusco painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indochristian_art" title="Indochristian art">Indochristian painting in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quito_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Quito School">Quito painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapada_lime%C3%B1a" title="Tapada limeña">Tapada limeña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academia_Ant%C3%A1rtica" title="Academia Antártica">Academia Antártica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_universities_in_Hispanic_America" title="List of colonial universities in Hispanic America">Colonial universities in Hispanic America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_oldest_schools_in_the_Philippines" title="List of the oldest schools in the Philippines">Colonial universities in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Archive_of_the_Indies" title="General Archive of the Indies">General Archive of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Spanish_Horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Spanish Horse">Colonial Spanish Horse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mustang" title="Mustang">Mustang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Castas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people#Spanish_colonial_caste_system" title="Criollo people">Criollos in the colonial society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Old inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Slavery in Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiento" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiento">Asiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans#Colonial_era" title="African Americans">Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Potos%C3%AD_Mint_Fraud_of_1649" title="Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649">Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&oldid=1250256661">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jesuit_missions_in_China&oldid=1250256661</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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