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Human skin color - Wikipedia
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<span>Evolution of skin color</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution_of_skin_color-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution of skin color subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_skin_color-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Time_scale_of_skin_color_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time_scale_of_skin_color_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Time scale of skin color evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time_scale_of_skin_color_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functional_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Functional considerations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genetics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dark_skin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dark_skin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Dark skin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dark_skin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-MC1R" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#MC1R"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>MC1R</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-MC1R-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Light_skin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light_skin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Light skin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Light_skin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-KITLG" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#KITLG"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>KITLG</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-KITLG-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ASIP" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ASIP"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>ASIP</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ASIP-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-SLC24A5" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#SLC24A5"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3.1</span> <span>SLC24A5</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-SLC24A5-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-SLC45A2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#SLC45A2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3.2</span> <span>SLC45A2</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-SLC45A2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-TYR" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#TYR"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3.3</span> <span>TYR</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-TYR-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>East Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-OCA2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#OCA2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4.1</span> <span>OCA2</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-OCA2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Candidate_genes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Candidate_genes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4.2</span> <span>Candidate genes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Candidate_genes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tanning_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tanning_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Tanning response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tanning_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Albinism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albinism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Albinism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albinism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_dimorphism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_dimorphism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Sexual dimorphism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_dimorphism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disorders_of_pigmentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disorders_of_pigmentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Disorders of pigmentation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Disorders_of_pigmentation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Disorders of pigmentation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Disorders_of_pigmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Depigmentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Depigmentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Depigmentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Depigmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Albinism_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albinism_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Albinism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albinism_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vitiligo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vitiligo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Vitiligo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vitiligo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hyperpigmentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyperpigmentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Hyperpigmentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hyperpigmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exposure_to_the_sun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exposure_to_the_sun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Exposure to the sun</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Exposure_to_the_sun-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Exposure to the sun subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Exposure_to_the_sun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fitzpatrick_scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fitzpatrick_scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Fitzpatrick scale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fitzpatrick_scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_variation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_variation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Geographic variation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_status,_colorism_and_racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_status,_colorism_and_racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Social status, colorism and racism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_status,_colorism_and_racism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Social status, colorism and racism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Social_status,_colorism_and_racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Skin_whitening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skin_whitening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Skin whitening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skin_whitening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Human skin color</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="لون جلد الإنسان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لون جلد الإنسان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boja_ko%C5%BEe" title="Boja kože – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Boja kože" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liv_ar_c%27hroc%27hen_den" title="Liv ar c'hroc'hen den – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Liv ar c'hroc'hen den" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hautfarbe" title="Hautfarbe – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hautfarbe" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CF%81%CF%8E%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CE%B4%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Χρώμα δέρματος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χρώμα δέρματος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_de_la_piel_humana" title="Color de la piel humana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Color de la piel humana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AF_%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="رنگ پوست انسان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رنگ پوست انسان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Couleur_de_la_peau_humaine" title="Couleur de la peau humaine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Couleur de la peau humaine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dath_a%27_chraicinn_daonna" title="Dath a' chraicinn daonna – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Dath a' chraicinn daonna" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cor_da_pel" title="Cor da pel – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cor da pel" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%BC%EB%B6%80%EC%83%89" title="피부색 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="피부색" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="मानव त्वचा का रंग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मानव त्वचा का रंग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warna_kulit_manusia" title="Warna kulit manusia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Warna kulit manusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colore_della_pelle_umana" title="Colore della pelle umana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Colore della pelle umana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%A2_%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A8" title="צבע עור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="צבע עור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="კანის ფერი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კანის ფერი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilv%C4%93ka_%C4%81das_kr%C4%81sa" title="Cilvēka ādas krāsa – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Cilvēka ādas krāsa" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Боја на човечка кожа – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Боја на човечка кожа" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huidskleur" title="Huidskleur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Huidskleur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%92%E3%83%88%E3%81%AE%E8%82%8C%E3%81%AE%E8%89%B2" title="ヒトの肌の色 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヒトの肌の色" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudfarge" title="Hudfarge – 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class="cdx-dialog__header__title-group"><h2 class="cdx-dialog__header__title">Page version status</h2><p class="cdx-dialog__header__subtitle">This is an accepted version of this page</p></div><button class="cdx-button cdx-button--action-default cdx-button--weight-quiet 							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"><span class="cdx-icon cdx-icon--medium 							cdx-fr-css-icon--close"></span></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Human_skin_color">reviewed</a> on <i>8 November 2024</i>.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Skin pigmentation" redirects here. For animal skin pigmentation, see <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">Biological pigment</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coloured-family.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Coloured-family.jpg/200px-Coloured-family.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Coloured-family.jpg/300px-Coloured-family.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Coloured-family.jpg/400px-Coloured-family.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption>Extended <a href="/wiki/Coloured" class="mw-redirect" title="Coloured">Coloured</a> (<a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrikaans language">Afrikaans</a>: <i lang="af">Kleurlinge</i> or <span title="Afrikaans-language text"><i lang="af">Bruinmense</i></span>) family from <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> showing some spectrum of human skin coloration</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Human skin color</b> ranges from the <a href="/wiki/Dark_skin" title="Dark skin">darkest brown</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Light_skin" title="Light skin">lightest</a> hues. Differences in <a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">skin</a> color among individuals is caused by variation in <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigmentation</a>, which is the result of <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> (inherited from one's <a href="/wiki/Biological_parent" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological parent">biological parents</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sun_tanning" title="Sun tanning">exposure to the sun</a>, disorders, or some combination thereof. Differences across <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">populations</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a> through <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>, because of social norms and differences in environment, as well as regulations of the biochemical effects of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">radiation</a> penetrating the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-jabl1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jabl1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The actual skin color of different humans is affected by many substances, although the single most important substance is the pigment <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a>. Melanin is produced within the skin in cells called <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a> and it is the main determinant of the skin color of darker-skin humans. The skin color of people with light skin is determined mainly by the bluish-white connective tissue under the <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">dermis</a> and by the <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a> circulating in the veins of the dermis. The red color underlying the skin becomes more visible, especially in the face, when, as consequence of <a href="/wiki/Physical_exercise" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical exercise">physical exercise</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">sexual arousal</a>, or the stimulation of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">anger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embarrassment" title="Embarrassment">embarrassment</a>), <a href="/wiki/Arteriole" title="Arteriole">arterioles</a> dilate.<sup id="cite_ref-Jabl06_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jabl06-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Color is not entirely uniform across an individual's skin; for example, the skin of the palm and the <a href="/wiki/Sole_(foot)" title="Sole (foot)">sole</a> is lighter than most other skin, and this is especially noticeable in darker-skinned people.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is a direct correlation between the geographic distribution of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and the distribution of indigenous skin pigmentation around the world. Areas that receive higher amounts of UVR, generally located closer to the equator, tend to have darker-skinned populations. Areas that are far from the tropics and closer to the poles have lower intensity of UVR, which is reflected in lighter-skinned populations.<sup id="cite_ref-webb06_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-webb06-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time modern <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> evolved, all humans were dark-skinned.<sup id="cite_ref-jabl12_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jabl12-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jablonski2017_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jablonski2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some researchers suggest that human populations over the past 50,000 years have changed from dark-skinned to light-skinned and vice versa as they migrated to different UV zones,<sup id="cite_ref-Jablonski2011AN_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jablonski2011AN-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that such major changes in pigmentation may have happened in as little as 100 generations (≈2,500 years) through <a href="/wiki/Selective_sweep" title="Selective sweep">selective sweeps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jablonski2011AN_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jablonski2011AN-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Natgeo_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Natgeo-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural skin color can also darken as a result of <a href="/wiki/Sun_tanning" title="Sun tanning">tanning</a> due to exposure to <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a>. The leading theory is that skin color adapts to intense sunlight irradiation to provide partial protection against the ultraviolet fraction that produces damage and thus mutations in the <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> of the skin cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Jablonski2017_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jablonski2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid20445093_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20445093-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some populations, <a href="/wiki/Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Women">women</a> are significantly lighter-skinned than <a href="/wiki/Men" class="mw-redirect" title="Men">men</a>. However, in other populations, notably those of <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Europe" title="Demographics of Europe">European</a> descent, men are significantly lighter-skinned than women.<sup id="cite_ref-Frost_2007_pp._779–780_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frost_2007_pp._779–780-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> European women may have darker skin than European men due to the female sex hormone <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a>, which darkens light skin.<sup id="cite_ref-scie_Rese_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scie_Rese-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women from darker-skinned populations may have evolved to lighter skin than men so their bodies could absorb more vitamin D during pregnancy, which improves calcium absorption.<sup id="cite_ref-jablonski2000_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jablonski2000-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The social significance of differences in skin color has varied across cultures and over time, as demonstrated with regard to <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Melanin_and_genes">Melanin and genes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Melanin and genes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">Melanin</a></div> <p>Melanin is produced by cells called <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a> in a process called <a href="/wiki/Melanogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanogenesis">melanogenesis</a>. Melanin is made within small membrane–bound packages called <a href="/wiki/Melanosome" title="Melanosome">melanosomes</a>. As they become full of melanin, they move into the slender arms of melanocytes, from where they are transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Keratinocyte" title="Keratinocyte">keratinocytes</a>. Under normal conditions, melanosomes cover the upper part of the keratinocytes and protect them from genetic damage. One melanocyte supplies melanin to thirty-six keratinocytes according to signals from the keratinocytes. They also regulate melanin production and replication of melanocytes.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People have different skin colors mainly because their melanocytes produce different amount and kinds of melanin. </p><p>The genetic mechanism behind human skin color is mainly regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> <a href="/wiki/Tyrosinase" title="Tyrosinase">tyrosinase</a>, which creates the color of the skin, eyes, and hair shades.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Differences in skin color are also attributed to differences in size and distribution of melanosomes in the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melanocytes produce two types of melanin. The most common form of <a href="/wiki/Biological_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological tissue">biological</a> melanin is <a href="/wiki/Eumelanin" class="mw-redirect" title="Eumelanin">eumelanin</a>, a brown-black <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> of <a href="/wiki/Indole" title="Indole">dihydroxyindole</a> <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acids</a>, and their reduced forms. Most are derived from the amino acid <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a>. Eumelanin is found in hair, <a href="/wiki/Areola" title="Areola">areola</a>, and skin, and the hair colors gray, black, blond, and brown. In humans, it is more abundant in people with dark skin. <a href="/wiki/Pheomelanin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pheomelanin">Pheomelanin</a>, a pink to red hue is found in particularly large quantities in <a href="/wiki/Red_hair" title="Red hair">red hair</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the lips, nipples, glans of the penis, and vagina.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both the amount and type of melanin produced is controlled by a number of <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> that operate under <a href="/wiki/Incomplete_dominance" class="mw-redirect" title="Incomplete dominance">incomplete dominance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One copy of each of the various genes is inherited from each parent. Each gene can come in several <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a>, resulting in the great variety of human skin tones. Melanin controls the amount of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> (UV) radiation from the sun that penetrates the skin by absorption. While UV radiation can assist in the production of vitamin D, excessive exposure to UV can damage health. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_of_skin_color">Evolution of skin color</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evolution of skin color"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_1_receptor" title="Melanocortin 1 receptor">Melanocortin 1 receptor</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time_scale_of_skin_color_evolution">Time scale of skin color evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Time scale of skin color evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Androgenic_hair#Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Androgenic hair">Loss of body hair</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i> links to the <a href="/wiki/Thermoregulation_in_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoregulation in humans">thermoregulation</a> through <a href="/wiki/Perspiration" title="Perspiration">perspiration</a> heat dissipation required for activity in hot open environments<sup id="cite_ref-Ruxton_Wilkinson_2011_pp._20965–20969_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruxton_Wilkinson_2011_pp._20965–20969-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">endurance running</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruxton_Wilkinson_2011_pp._169–175_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruxton_Wilkinson_2011_pp._169–175-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humans as primates have a particular need for this thermoregulation since unlike other mammals they lack a <a href="/wiki/Carotid_rete" class="mw-redirect" title="Carotid rete">carotid rete</a> that allows precooling of blood to the brain, an organ extremely sensitive to changes in body temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-Bruner_Mantini_Musso_De_La_Cuétara_2010_pp._35–43_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bruner_Mantini_Musso_De_La_Cuétara_2010_pp._35–43-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given endurance running and its needs for thermoregulation arose with <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">H. erectus</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Bramble_Lieberman_2004_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bramble_Lieberman_2004-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this links hairlessness with the origin of <i>H. erectus</i><sup id="cite_ref-Ruxton_Wilkinson_2011_pp._169–175_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruxton_Wilkinson_2011_pp._169–175-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about 2 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Branda_Eaton_1978_pp._625–626_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Branda_Eaton_1978_pp._625–626-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herries_Martin_Leece_Adams_2020_p._24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herries_Martin_Leece_Adams_2020_p.-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As <a href="/wiki/Hominid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominid">hominids</a> gradually lost their <a href="/wiki/Fur" title="Fur">fur</a> between 1.2 and 4 million years ago, to allow for better cooling through sweating, their naked skin was exposed to sunlight. In the tropics, natural selection favoured dark-skinned human populations as high levels of skin pigmentation protected against the harmful effects of sunlight. Indigenous populations' <a href="/wiki/Skin_reflectance" title="Skin reflectance">skin reflectance</a> (the amount of sunlight the skin reflects) and the actual UV radiation in a particular geographic area is highly correlated, which supports this idea. Genetic evidence also supports this notion, demonstrating that around 1.2 million years ago there was a strong evolutionary pressure which acted on the development of dark skin pigmentation in early members of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-jabl04b_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jabl04b-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hairlessness exposes <a href="/wiki/Folate" title="Folate">folate</a> circulating <a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">subcutaneously</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">dermis</a> to degradation from <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">UV-radiation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rocha_2019_pp._77–87_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rocha_2019_pp._77–87-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effect of sunlight on folic acid levels has been crucial in the development of dark skin and favored the emergence of skin pigmentation in order to protect from <a href="/wiki/Folic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Folic acid">folate</a> <a href="/wiki/Folate_deficiency" title="Folate deficiency">depletion</a> due to the increased exposure to sunlight.<sup id="cite_ref-Jablonski2017_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jablonski2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid20445093_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20445093-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jabl13_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jabl13-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pbs_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbs-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2017, a study showed that both dark and light pigmentation alleles arose before the origin of modern humans,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the older version of the variants in many cases being associated with lighter skin.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest primate ancestors of humans most likely had pale non-pigmented skin covered with dark black hair, like the <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a> and other great apes.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the evolution of hairless skin, abundant sweat glands, and skin rich in melanin, early humans could walk, run, and forage for food for long periods of time under the hot sun without brain damage due to overheating, giving them an evolutionary advantage over other species.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research on the <a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_1_receptor" title="Melanocortin 1 receptor">MC1R</a> alleles using assumptions about past population size and an absence of population bottlenecks suggests the allele for dark skin present in modern Africans arose at least by 1.2 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-rogers2004b_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogers2004b-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This was the genotype inherited by <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">anatomically modern humans</a>, but retained only by part of the extant populations, thus forming an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_variation" title="Human genetic variation">human genetic variation</a>. About 100,000–70,000 years ago, some anatomically modern humans (<i>Homo sapiens</i>) began to <a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">migrate</a> away from the tropics to the north where they were exposed to less intense sunlight. This was possibly in part due to the need for greater use of clothing to protect against the colder climate. Under these conditions there was less photodestruction of folate and so the evolutionary pressure working against the survival of lighter-skinned gene variants was reduced. In addition, lighter skin is able to generate more <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a> (cholecalciferol) than darker skin, so it would have represented a health benefit in reduced sunlight if there were limited sources of vitamin D.<sup id="cite_ref-jablonski2000_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jablonski2000-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence the leading hypothesis for the evolution of human skin color proposes that: </p> <ol><li>From the origin of hairlessness and exposure to UV-radiation to less than 100,000 years ago, <a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" title="Archaic humans">archaic humans</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" title="Archaic humans">archaic <i>Homo sapiens</i></a>, were dark-skinned.</li> <li>As some <i>Homo sapiens</i> populations began to migrate, the evolutionary constraint keeping skin dark decreased proportionally to the distance north a population migrated, resulting in a range of skin tones within northern populations, although the bulk of humans remained dark-skinned.</li> <li>At some point, some northern populations experienced positive selection for lighter skin due to the increased production of vitamin D from sunlight and the genes for darker skin disappeared from these populations.</li> <li>Subsequent migrations into different UV environments and admixture between populations have resulted in the varied range of skin pigmentations we see today.</li></ol> <p>The genetic mutations leading to light skin, though partially different among <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europeans</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Norton2006_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton2006-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggest the two groups experienced a similar selective pressure after settlement in northern latitudes.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19481954_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19481954-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theory is partially supported by a study into the <a href="/wiki/SLC24A5" class="mw-redirect" title="SLC24A5">SLC24A5</a> gene which found that the allele associated with light skin in Europe "determined […] that 18,000 years had passed since the light-skin allele was fixed in Europeans" but may have originated as recently as 12,000–6,000 years ago "given the imprecision of method" ,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17446367_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17446367-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is in line with the earliest evidence of farming.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paleolithic <a href="/wiki/Cro-Magnon" title="Cro-Magnon">Cro-Magnon</a> groups, as well as Early Holocene Western and central European hunter-gatherers (<a href="/wiki/Western_hunter-gatherer" title="Western hunter-gatherer">Western Hunter Gatherers</a>) have been suggested to have been dark skinned based on DNA analysis,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brace_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brace-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a number of the most prominent light-skin tone gene variants found in modern Europeans being introduced by <a href="/wiki/Early_European_Farmers" title="Early European Farmers">Anatolian Neolithic Farmers</a> that migrated into Europe beginning around 9,000 years ago,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/Selection_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection pressure">selection pressure</a> for lighter skin intensifying from the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Research by <a href="/wiki/Nina_Jablonski" title="Nina Jablonski">Nina Jablonski</a> suggests that an estimated time of about 10,000 to 20,000 years is enough for human populations to achieve optimal skin pigmentation in a particular geographic area but that development of ideal skin coloration may happen faster if the evolutionary pressure is stronger, even in as little as 100 generations.<sup id="cite_ref-Jablonski2011AN_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jablonski2011AN-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The length of time is also affected by cultural practices such as food intake, clothing, body coverings, and shelter usage which can alter the ways in which the environment affects populations.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolutionary_model_of_human_pigmentation_in_three_continental_populations.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Evolutionary_model_of_human_pigmentation_in_three_continental_populations.png/150px-Evolutionary_model_of_human_pigmentation_in_three_continental_populations.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Evolutionary_model_of_human_pigmentation_in_three_continental_populations.png/225px-Evolutionary_model_of_human_pigmentation_in_three_continental_populations.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Evolutionary_model_of_human_pigmentation_in_three_continental_populations.png/300px-Evolutionary_model_of_human_pigmentation_in_three_continental_populations.png 2x" data-file-width="1055" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption>Evolutionary model of human pigmentation in three continental populations. The colors of the branches roughly indicate the generalized skin pigmentation level of these populations.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Population and admixture studies suggest a three-way model for the evolution of human skin color, with dark skin evolving in early <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human"><i>Homo sapiens</i></a> in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and light skin evolving only recently after modern humans had expanded <a href="/wiki/Out_of_Africa_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Out of Africa theory">out of Africa</a>. For the most part, the evolution of light skin has followed different genetic paths in Western and Eastern Eurasian populations; however, some mutations associated with lighter skin have estimated origin dates after humans spread out of Africa but before the divergence of the two lineages.<sup id="cite_ref-Belezal2012_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belezal2012-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Crawford et al. (2017), most of the genetic variants associated with light and dark pigmentation in African populations appear to have originated more than 300,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> African, South Asian and Australo-Melanesian populations also carry derived alleles for dark skin pigmentation that are not found in Europeans or East Asians.<sup id="cite_ref-science-skin_pigmentation_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science-skin_pigmentation-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Huang et al. 2021 found the existence of "selective pressure on light pigmentation in the ancestral population of Europeans and East Asians", prior to their divergence from each other. Skin pigmentation was also found to be affected by directional selection towards darker skin among Africans, as well as lighter skin among Eurasians.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crawford et al. (2017) similarly found evidence for selection towards light pigmentation prior to the divergence of West Eurasians and East Asians.<sup id="cite_ref-science-skin_pigmentation_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science-skin_pigmentation-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_considerations">Functional considerations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Functional considerations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Elias et. al. in 2010 showed a superior barrier function in darkly pigmented skin. Most protective functions of the skin, including the permeability barrier and the antimicrobial barrier, reside in the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">stratum corneum</a> and the researchers surmise that the stratum corneum has undergone the most genetic change since the loss of human body hair. <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a> would have favored mutations that protect this essential barrier; one such protective adaptation is the pigmentation of <a href="/wiki/Hair_follicle" title="Hair follicle">interfollicular</a> <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermis (skin)">epidermis</a>, because it improves barrier function as compared to non-pigmented skin.<sup id="cite_ref-Elias2010_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elias2010-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The authors argue that lack of significant differences between modern light-skinned and dark-skinned populations in vitamin D deficiency, early death from UV-induced cancers and birth defects — as well as instances of light and dark populations living side-by-side in areas with similar UV — suggest the standard model is insufficient to explain the strong selection drive for pigmented skin.<sup id="cite_ref-Elias2010_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elias2010-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jablonski rejects this theory on the grounds that the human <a href="/wiki/Sun_tanning" title="Sun tanning">tanning response</a> is driven by UV-B exposure, not xeric stress, and that the positive selection for vitamin D production is "well-established".<sup id="cite_ref-Jablonski2017_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jablonski2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_variation" title="Human genetic variation">Human genetic variation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Race_and_genetics" title="Race and genetics">Race and genetics</a></div> <p>To some extent, skin color is determined independently of eye and hair color, as can be seen from variation in skin coloration in human populations. For the evolution of human skin color, see section above.<sup id="cite_ref-Norton2006_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton2006-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McEvoy2006_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McEvoy2006-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sturm2009_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sturm2009-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Belezal2012_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belezal2012-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Edwards2010_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards2010-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Loa2007_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loa2007-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For skin color, <a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritability</a> is very high, even though it can be modified by exposure to sunlight. </p><p>A recent systematic study found 169 genes involved in human skin coloration. Most of the genes were involved in <a href="/wiki/Melanosome" title="Melanosome">melanosome</a> biogenesis, <a href="/wiki/Endosome" title="Endosome">endosomal</a> transport, and <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">gene regulation</a>. Notably, the function of these genes was verified in <a href="/wiki/Tissue_culture" title="Tissue culture">tissue culture</a> experiments using <a href="/wiki/Cas9" title="Cas9">CRISPR-Cas9</a> knockouts, showing that these genes are indeed involved in <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a> production.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dark_skin">Dark skin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dark skin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dark_skin" title="Dark skin">Dark skin</a></div> <p>All modern humans share a <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_Eve" title="Mitochondrial Eve">common ancestor</a> who lived around 200,000 years ago in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Soares_P,_Ermini_L,_Thomson_N,_et_al._2009_740–59_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soares_P,_Ermini_L,_Thomson_N,_et_al._2009_740–59-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comparisons between known skin pigmentation genes in <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> and modern Africans show that dark skin evolved along with the loss of body hair about 1.2 million years ago and that this common ancestor had dark skin.<sup id="cite_ref-Rogers2004b_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers2004b-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Investigations into dark-skinned populations in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a> indicate that skin pigmentation in these populations is due to the preservation of this ancestral state and not due to new variations on a previously lightened population.<sup id="cite_ref-jablonski2000_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jablonski2000-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Harding2000_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harding2000-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="MC1R">MC1R</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: MC1R"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MC1R_(rs885479).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MC1R_%28rs885479%29.png/220px-MC1R_%28rs885479%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MC1R_%28rs885479%29.png/330px-MC1R_%28rs885479%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MC1R_%28rs885479%29.png/440px-MC1R_%28rs885479%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1054" data-file-height="741" /></a><figcaption>MC1R (rs885479)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_1_receptor" title="Melanocortin 1 receptor">melanocortin 1 receptor</a> (MC1R) gene is primarily responsible for determining whether pheomelanin and eumelanin are produced in the human body. Research shows at least 10 differences in MC1R between African and chimpanzee samples and that the gene has probably undergone a strong <a href="/wiki/Directional_selection" title="Directional selection">positive selection</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Selective_sweep" title="Selective sweep">selective sweep</a>) in early Hominins around 1.2 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is consistent with positive selection for the high-eumelanin <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> seen in Africa and other environments with high UV exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-Rogers2004b_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers2004b-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Harding2000_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harding2000-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Light_skin">Light skin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Light skin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Light_skin" title="Light skin">Light skin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeogenetic_analysis_of_human_skin_pigmentation_in_Europe_(with_Asia_geographic_extension).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Archaeogenetic_analysis_of_human_skin_pigmentation_in_Europe_%28with_Asia_geographic_extension%29.png/220px-Archaeogenetic_analysis_of_human_skin_pigmentation_in_Europe_%28with_Asia_geographic_extension%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Archaeogenetic_analysis_of_human_skin_pigmentation_in_Europe_%28with_Asia_geographic_extension%29.png/330px-Archaeogenetic_analysis_of_human_skin_pigmentation_in_Europe_%28with_Asia_geographic_extension%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Archaeogenetic_analysis_of_human_skin_pigmentation_in_Europe_%28with_Asia_geographic_extension%29.png/440px-Archaeogenetic_analysis_of_human_skin_pigmentation_in_Europe_%28with_Asia_geographic_extension%29.png 2x" data-file-width="4551" data-file-height="1395" /></a><figcaption>History of human skin pigmentation in <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> based on genetics</figcaption></figure> <p>For the most part, the evolution of light skin has followed different genetic paths in European and East Asian populations. Two genes, however, <a href="/wiki/KITLG" class="mw-redirect" title="KITLG">KITLG</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agouti_signalling_peptide" class="mw-redirect" title="Agouti signalling peptide">ASIP</a>, have mutations associated with lighter skin that have high frequencies in both European and East Asian populations. They are thought to have originated after humans spread out of Africa but before the divergence of the European and Asian lineages around 30,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Belezal2012_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belezal2012-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two subsequent <a href="/wiki/Genome-wide_association_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome-wide association studies">genome-wide association studies</a> found no significant correlation between these genes and skin color, and suggest that the earlier findings may have been the result of incorrect correction methods and small panel sizes, or that the genes have an effect too small to be detected by the larger studies.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="KITLG">KITLG</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: KITLG"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KITLG_(rs1881227).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/KITLG_%28rs1881227%29.png/220px-KITLG_%28rs1881227%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/KITLG_%28rs1881227%29.png/330px-KITLG_%28rs1881227%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/KITLG_%28rs1881227%29.png/440px-KITLG_%28rs1881227%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1070" data-file-height="751" /></a><figcaption>KITLG (rs1881227)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/KIT_ligand" class="mw-redirect" title="KIT ligand">KIT ligand</a> (KITLG) gene is involved in the permanent survival, proliferation and migration of melanocytes.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12753403_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12753403-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A mutation in this gene, <i>A326G</i> (rs642742<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), has been positively associated with variations of skin color in African-Americans of mixed West African and European descent and is estimated to account for 15–20% of the melanin difference between African and European populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller2007_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller2007-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allele shows signs of strong positive selection outside Africa<sup id="cite_ref-Loa2007_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loa2007-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pickrell2009_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pickrell2009-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and occurs in over 80% of European and Asian samples, compared with less than 10% in African samples.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller2007_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller2007-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ASIP">ASIP</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: ASIP"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Agouti_signalling_peptide" class="mw-redirect" title="Agouti signalling peptide">Agouti signalling peptide</a> (ASIP) acts as an <a href="/wiki/Inverse_agonist" title="Inverse agonist">inverse agonist</a>, binding in place of <a href="/wiki/Alpha-MSH" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-MSH">alpha-MSH</a> and thus inhibiting eumelanin production. Studies have found two alleles in the vicinity of ASIP are associated with skin color variation in humans. One, rs2424984,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has been identified as an indicator of skin reflectance in a forensics analysis of human phenotypes across Caucasian, African-American, South Asian, East Asian, Hispanic and Native American populations<sup id="cite_ref-Valenzuela_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valenzuela-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is about three times more common in non-African populations than in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other allele, <i>8188G</i> (rs6058017<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is significantly associated with skin color variation in African-Americans and the ancestral version occurs in only 12% of European and 28% of East Asian samples compared with 80% of West African samples.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonilla2005_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonilla2005-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe">Europe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of genes have been positively associated with the skin pigmentation difference between European and non-European populations. Mutations in SLC24A5 and SLC45A2 are believed to account for the bulk of this variation and show very strong signs of selection. A variation in TYR has also been identified as a contributor. </p><p>Research indicates the selection for the light-skin alleles of these genes in Europeans is comparatively recent, having occurred later than 20,000 years ago and perhaps as recently as 12,000 to 6,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Belezal2012_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belezal2012-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Luca_Cavalli-Sforza" class="mw-redirect" title="Luca Cavalli-Sforza">Luca Cavalli-Sforza</a> suggested that the selective sweep that rendered light skin ubiquitous in Europe might be correlated with the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">advent of farming</a> and thus have taken place only around 6,000 years ago;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17446367_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17446367-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This scenario found support in a 2014 analysis of mesolithic (7,000 years old) <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> DNA from <a href="/wiki/La_Bra%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="La Braña">La Braña</a>, Spain, which showed a version of these genes not corresponding with light skin color.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015, researchers analysed for light skin genes in the DNA of 94 ancient skeletons ranging from 8,000 to 3,000 years old from Europe and Russia. They found c. 8,000-year-old hunter-gatherers in Spain, Luxembourg, and Hungary were dark skinned while similarly aged hunter gatherers in Sweden were light skinned (having predominately derived alleles of SLC24A5, SLC45A2 and also HERC2/OCA2). <a href="/wiki/Early_European_Farmers" title="Early European Farmers">Neolithic farmers</a> entering Europe at around the same time were intermediate, being nearly fixed for the derived SLC24A5 variant but only having the derived SLC45A2 allele in low frequencies. The SLC24A5 variant spread very rapidly throughout central and southern Europe from about 8,000 years ago, whereas the light skin variant of SLC45A2 spread throughout Europe after 5,800 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Some authors have expressed caution regarding the skin pigmentation predictions. According to Ju et al. (2021), in a study addressing 40,000 years of modern human history, stated:</p><blockquote><p>"Relatively dark skin pigmentation in Early Upper Paleolithic Europe would be consistent with those populations being relatively poorly adapted to high-latitude conditions as a result of having recently migrated from lower latitudes. On the other hand, although we have shown that these populations carried few of the light pigmentation alleles that are segregating in present-day Europe, they may have carried different alleles that we cannot now detect."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="SLC24A5">SLC24A5</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: SLC24A5"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/SLC24A5" class="mw-redirect" title="SLC24A5">Solute carrier family 24 member 5</a> (SLC24A5) regulates calcium in melanocytes and is important in the process of <a href="/wiki/Melanogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanogenesis">melanogenesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18166528_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18166528-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The SLC24A5 gene's derived <i>Ala111Thr</i> allele (rs1426654<sup id="cite_ref-ncbi_rs14_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncbi_rs14-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) has been shown to be a major factor in light skin pigmentation and is common in Western <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Valenzuela_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valenzuela-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent studies have found that the variant represents as much as 25–40% of the average skin tone difference between Europeans and West Africans.<sup id="cite_ref-Norton2006_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton2006-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid16357253_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16357253-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This derived allele is a reliable predictor of phenotype across a range of populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Lopez_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lopez-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stokowski2007_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stokowski2007-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been the subject of recent selection in Western Eurasia, and is fixed in European populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Belezal2012_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belezal2012-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soejima2006_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soejima2006-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Khai2012_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khai2012-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="SLC45A2">SLC45A2</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: SLC45A2"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/SLC45A2" class="mw-redirect" title="SLC45A2">Solute carrier family 45 member 2</a> (SLC45A2 or MATP) aids in the transport and processing of tyrosine, a precursor to melanin. It has also been shown to be one of the significant components of the skin color of modern Europeans through its <i>Phe374Leu</i> (<a href="/wiki/Rs16891982" title="Rs16891982">rs16891982</a><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) allele that has been directly correlated with skin color variation across a range of populations.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lopez_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lopez-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Valenzuela_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valenzuela-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stokowski2007_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stokowski2007-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This variation is ubiquitous in European populations but extremely rare elsewhere and shows strong signs of selection.<sup id="cite_ref-Soejima2006_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soejima2006-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Khai2012_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khai2012-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="TYR">TYR</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: TYR"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/TYR_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="TYR gene">TYR gene</a> encodes the enzyme tyrosinase, which is involved in the production of melanin from tyrosine. It has an allele, <i>Ser192Tyr</i> (rs1042602<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), found solely in 40–50% of Europeans<sup id="cite_ref-Norton2006_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton2006-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Belezal2012_47-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belezal2012-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and linked to light-colored skin in studies of South Asian<sup id="cite_ref-Stokowski2007_81-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stokowski2007-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and African-American<sup id="cite_ref-Shriver2003_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shriver2003-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> populations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of genes known to affect skin color have alleles that show signs of positive selection in East Asian populations. Of these, only OCA2 has been directly related to skin color measurements, while DCT, MC1R and ATRN are marked as <a href="/wiki/Candidate_gene" title="Candidate gene">candidate genes</a> for future study. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="OCA2">OCA2</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: OCA2"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OCA2_(rs12913832).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/OCA2_%28rs12913832%29.png/220px-OCA2_%28rs12913832%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/OCA2_%28rs12913832%29.png/330px-OCA2_%28rs12913832%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/OCA2_%28rs12913832%29.png/440px-OCA2_%28rs12913832%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1060" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>OCA2 (rs12913832)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/OCA2" class="mw-redirect" title="OCA2">Oculocutaneous albinism II</a> (OCA2) assists in the regulation of <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> in melanocytes. The OCA2 gene's derived <i>His615Arg</i> (rs1800414<sup id="cite_ref-ncbi_rs18_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncbi_rs18-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) allele has been shown to account for about 8% of the skin tone difference between African and East Asian populations in studies of an East Asian population living in Toronto and a Chinese <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> population. This variant is essentially restricted to East Asia, with highest frequencies in Eastern East Asia (49–63%), midrange frequencies in Southeast Asia, and the lowest frequencies in Western China and some Eastern European populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards2010_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards2010-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Candidate_genes">Candidate genes</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Candidate genes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of studies have found genes linked to human skin pigmentation that have alleles with statistically significant frequencies in Chinese and East Asian populations. While not linked to measurements of skin tone variation directly, <a href="/wiki/Dopachrome_tautomerase" title="Dopachrome tautomerase">dopachrome tautomerase</a> (DCT or TYRP2 rs2031526<sup id="cite_ref-ncbi_rs20_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncbi_rs20-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), <a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_1_receptor" title="Melanocortin 1 receptor">melanocortin 1 receptor</a> (MC1R) <i>Arg163Gln</i> (rs885479<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and <a href="/wiki/ATRN" class="mw-redirect" title="ATRN">attractin</a> (ATRN<sup id="cite_ref-Norton2006_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton2006-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) have been indicated as potential contributors to the evolution of light skin in East Asian populations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tanning_response">Tanning response</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Tanning response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tanning response in humans is controlled by a variety of genes. <i>MC1R</i> variants <i>Arg151Sys</i> (rs1805007<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), <i>Arg160Trp</i> (rs1805008<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), <i>Asp294Sys</i> (rs1805009<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), <i>Val60Leu</i> (rs1805005<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and <i>Val92Met</i> (rs2228479<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) have been associated with reduced tanning response in European and/or East Asian populations. These alleles show no signs of positive selection and only occur in relatively small numbers, reaching a peak in Europe with around 28% of the population having at least one allele of one of the variations.<sup id="cite_ref-Harding2000_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harding2000-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study of self-reported tanning ability and skin type in American non-<a href="/wiki/Hispanic" title="Hispanic">Hispanic</a> <a href="/wiki/White_American" class="mw-redirect" title="White American">Caucasians</a> found that <i>SLC24A5 Phe374Leu</i> is significantly associated with reduced tanning ability and also associated <i>TYR Arg402Gln</i> (rs1126809<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), <i>OCA2 Arg305Trp</i> (rs1800401<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and a 2-<a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphism">SNP</a> <a href="/wiki/Haplotype" title="Haplotype">haplotype</a> in <i>ASIP</i> (rs4911414<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and rs1015362<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) to skin type variation within a "fair/medium/olive" context.<sup id="cite_ref-Nan2009_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nan2009-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Albinism">Albinism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Albinism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Albinism_in_humans" title="Albinism in humans">Albinism in humans</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Oculocutaneous_albinism" title="Oculocutaneous albinism">Oculocutaneous albinism</a> (OCA) is a lack of pigment in the eyes, skin and sometimes hair that occurs in a very small fraction of the population. The four known types of <i>OCA</i> are caused by mutations in the <i>TYR</i>, <i>OCA2</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/TYRP1" title="TYRP1">TYRP1</a></i>, and <i>SLC45A2</i> genes.<sup id="cite_ref-ncbi.nlm.nih.gov_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncbi.nlm.nih.gov-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Age">Age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Hominid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominid">hominids</a>, the parts of the body not covered with hair, like the face and the back of the hands, start out pale in infants and turn darker as the skin is exposed to more sun. All human babies are born pale, regardless of what their adult color will be. In humans, <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a> production does not peak until after puberty.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The skin of children becomes darker as they go through <a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">puberty</a> and experience the effects of sex hormones.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This darkening is especially noticeable in the skin of the <a href="/wiki/Nipple" title="Nipple">nipples</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Areola" title="Areola">areola</a> of the nipples, the <a href="/wiki/Labia_majora" title="Labia majora">labia majora</a> in females, and the <a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">scrotum</a> in males. In some people, the <a href="/wiki/Armpits" class="mw-redirect" title="Armpits">armpits</a> become slightly darker during puberty. The interaction of genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors on skin coloration with age is still not adequately understood, but it is known that men are at their darkest baseline skin color around the age of 30, without considering the effects of tanning. Around the same age, women experience darkening of some areas of their skin.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Human skin color fades with age. Humans over the age of thirty experience a decrease in melanin-producing cells by about 10% to 20% per decade as melanocyte stem cells gradually die.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The skin of face and hands has about twice the amount of pigment cells as unexposed areas of the body, as chronic exposure to the sun continues to stimulate melanocytes. The blotchy appearance of skin color in the face and hands of older people is due to the uneven distribution of pigment cells and to changes in the interaction between <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Keratinocyte" title="Keratinocyte">keratinocytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual_dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sexual dimorphism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has been observed that <a href="/wiki/Woman" title="Woman">females</a> are found to have lighter skin pigmentation than <a href="/wiki/Man" title="Man">males</a> in some studied populations.<sup id="cite_ref-jablonski2000_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jablonski2000-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in light skinned populations, namely those of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> descent, women have darker skin than men.<sup id="cite_ref-Frost_2007_pp._779–780_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frost_2007_pp._779–780-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Candille_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Candille-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is unknown why skin color is sexually dimorphic in some populations. White women may have darker skin than white men because the female sex hormone <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a> is known to increase skin pigmentation in lighter-skinned populations.<sup id="cite_ref-scie_Rese_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scie_Rese-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White women's skin is significantly darker than White men's, to the extent that White women have a much lower rate of skin cancer than White men.<sup id="cite_ref-scie_Rese_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scie_Rese-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In populations where women have lighter skin than men, it has been hypothesized that the requirement for high amounts of calcium during <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a> may be related to the dimorphism. Breastfeeding newborns, whose skeletons are growing, require high amounts of calcium intake from the mother's milk (about 4 times more than during prenatal development),<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> part of which comes from reserves in the mother's skeleton.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adequate vitamin D resources are needed to absorb calcium from the diet, and it has been shown that deficiencies of vitamin D and calcium increase the likelihood of various birth defects such as <a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">spina bifida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rickets" title="Rickets">rickets</a>. Natural selection may have led to females with lighter skin than males in some indigenous populations because women must get enough vitamin D and calcium to support the development of fetus and nursing infants and to maintain their own health.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some authors have cast doubt on the theory that vitamin D synthesis is related to the sexual dimorphism of human skin color in these populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Madrigal_Kelly_2007_pp._470–482_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Madrigal_Kelly_2007_pp._470–482-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sexes also differ in how they change their skin color with age.<sup id="cite_ref-Frost_2007_pp._779–780_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frost_2007_pp._779–780-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women can change pigmentation in certain parts of their body, such as the <a href="/wiki/Areola" title="Areola">areola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nipples" class="mw-redirect" title="Nipples">nipples</a> during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. Between 50 and 70% of pregnant women will develop the "<a href="/wiki/Mask_of_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mask of pregnancy">mask of pregnancy</a>", which refers to the browning and yellowing of the cheeks, upper lips, and forehead that occurs during pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is caused by increases in the female sex hormone <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a>, and it can develop in women who take birth control pills or participate in hormone replacement therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disorders_of_pigmentation">Disorders of pigmentation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Disorders of pigmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Uneven pigmentation of some sort affects most people, regardless of bioethnic background or skin color. Skin may either appear lighter, or darker than normal, or lack pigmentation at all; there may be blotchy, uneven areas, patches of brown to gray discoloration or freckling. Apart from blood-related conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">jaundice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carotenosis" title="Carotenosis">carotenosis</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Argyria" title="Argyria">argyria</a>, skin pigmentation disorders generally occur because the body produces either too much or too little melanin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Depigmentation">Depigmentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Depigmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Depigmentation" title="Depigmentation">Depigmentation</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Albinism_2">Albinism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Albinism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some types of <a href="/wiki/Albinism_in_humans" title="Albinism in humans">albinism</a> affect only the skin and hair, while other types affect the skin, hair and eyes, and in rare cases only the eyes. All of them are caused by different genetic mutations. Albinism is a recessively inherited trait in humans where both pigmented parents may be carriers of the gene and pass it down to their children. Each child has a 25% chance of being albino and a 75% chance of having normally pigmented skin.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One common type of albinism is <a href="/wiki/Oculocutaneous_albinism" title="Oculocutaneous albinism">oculocutaneous albinism</a> or OCA, which has many subtypes caused by different genetic mutations. Albinism is a serious problem in areas of high sunlight intensity, leading to extreme sun sensitivity, <a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancer</a>, and eye damage.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Albinism is more common in some parts of the world than in others, but it is estimated that 1 in 70 humans carry the gene for OCA. The most severe type of albinism is OCA1A, which is characterized by complete, lifelong loss of melanin production, other forms of OCA1B, OCA2, OCA3, OCA4, show some form of melanin accumulation and are less severe.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The four known types of <i>OCA</i> are caused by mutations in the <i>TYR</i>, <i>OCA2</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/TYRP1" title="TYRP1">TYRP1</a></i>, and <i>SLC45A2</i> genes.<sup id="cite_ref-ncbi.nlm.nih.gov_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncbi.nlm.nih.gov-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Albinos often face social and cultural challenges (even threats), as the condition is often a source of ridicule, racism, fear, and violence. Many cultures around the world have developed beliefs regarding people with albinism. <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Albinos are persecuted</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> by <a href="/wiki/Witchdoctor" class="mw-redirect" title="Witchdoctor">witchdoctors</a>, who use the body parts of albinos as ingredients in rituals and potions, as they are thought to possess magical power.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vitiligo">Vitiligo</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Vitiligo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P._Sathasivam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/P._Sathasivam.jpg/200px-P._Sathasivam.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/P._Sathasivam.jpg/300px-P._Sathasivam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/P._Sathasivam.jpg/400px-P._Sathasivam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="882" data-file-height="1138" /></a><figcaption>Former <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice of India</a>, <a href="/wiki/P._Sathasivam" title="P. Sathasivam">P. Sathasivam</a>, has vitiligo</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Vitiligo" title="Vitiligo">Vitiligo</a> is a condition that causes depigmentation of sections of skin. It occurs when melanocytes die or are unable to function. The cause of vitiligo is unknown, but research suggests that it may arise from <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune">autoimmune</a>, genetic, <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a>, neural, or viral causes.<sup id="cite_ref-halder_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-halder-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The incidence worldwide is less than 1%.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7977362_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7977362-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals affected by vitiligo sometimes suffer psychological discomfort because of their appearance.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hyperpigmentation">Hyperpigmentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Hyperpigmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Increased melanin production, also known as <a href="/wiki/Hyperpigmentation" title="Hyperpigmentation">hyperpigmentation</a>, can be a few different phenomena: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melasma" title="Melasma">Melasma</a> describes the darkening of the skin.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloasma" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloasma">Chloasma</a> describes skin discolorations caused by hormones. These hormonal changes are usually the result of pregnancy, birth control pills or estrogen replacement therapy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_lentigo" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar lentigo">Solar lentigo</a>, also known as "liver spots" or "senile freckles", refers to darkened spots on the skin caused by aging and the sun. These spots are quite common in adults with a long history of unprotected sun exposure.</li></ul> <p>Aside from sun exposure and hormones, hyperpigmentation can be caused by skin damage, such as remnants of blemishes, wounds or rashes.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is especially true for those with darker skin tones. </p><p>The most typical cause of darkened areas of skin, brown spots or areas of discoloration is unprotected sun exposure. Once incorrectly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Liver_spot" title="Liver spot">liver spots</a>, these pigment problems are not connected with the liver. </p><p>On lighter to medium skin tones, solar lentigenes emerge as small- to medium-sized brown patches of freckling that can grow and accumulate over time on areas of the body that receive the most unprotected sun exposure, such as the back of the hands, forearms, chest, and face. For those with darker skin colors, these discolorations can appear as patches or areas of ashen-gray skin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exposure_to_the_sun">Exposure to the sun</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Exposure to the sun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sun_tanning" title="Sun tanning">Sun tanning</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skin_tanning.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Skin_tanning.JPG/300px-Skin_tanning.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Skin_tanning.JPG/450px-Skin_tanning.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Skin_tanning.JPG/600px-Skin_tanning.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2665" data-file-height="1327" /></a><figcaption>A suntanned arm showing darker skin where it has been exposed. This pattern of tanning is often called a <a href="/wiki/Farmer%27s_tan#Farmer's_tan" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmer's tan">farmer's tan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">Melanin</a> in the skin protects the body by absorbing solar radiation. In general, the more melanin there is in the skin the more solar radiation can be absorbed. Excessive solar radiation causes <a href="/wiki/Direct_DNA_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct DNA damage">direct</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indirect_DNA_damage" title="Indirect DNA damage">indirect DNA damage</a> to the skin and the body naturally combats and seeks to repair the damage and protect the skin by creating and releasing further melanin into the skin's cells. With the production of the melanin, the skin color darkens, but can also cause sunburn. The tanning process can also be created by artificial UV radiation. </p><p>There are two different mechanisms involved. Firstly, the UVA-radiation creates oxidative stress, which in turn oxidizes existing melanin and leads to rapid darkening of the melanin, also known as IPD (immediate pigment darkening). Secondly, there is an increase in production of melanin known as <a href="/wiki/Melanogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanogenesis">melanogenesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Agar2005_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agar2005-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melanogenesis leads to delayed tanning and first becomes visible about 72 hours after exposure. The tan that is created by an increased melanogenesis lasts much longer than the one that is caused by oxidation of existing melanin. Tanning involves not just the increased melanin production in response to UV radiation but the thickening of the top layer of the epidermis, the stratum corneum.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A person's natural skin color affects their reaction to exposure to the sun. Generally, those who start out with darker skin color and more melanin have better abilities to tan. Individuals with very light skin and albinos have no ability to tan.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biggest differences resulting from sun exposure are visible in individuals who start out with moderately pigmented brown skin: the change is dramatically visible as tan lines, where parts of the skin which tanned are delineated from unexposed skin.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern lifestyles and mobility have created mismatch between skin color and environment for many individuals. Vitamin D deficiencies and UVR overexposure are concerns for many. It is important for these people individually to adjust their diet and lifestyle according to their skin color, the environment they live in, and the time of year.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For practical purposes, such as exposure time for sun tanning, six skin types are distinguished following Fitzpatrick (1975), listed in order of decreasing lightness: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fitzpatrick_scale">Fitzpatrick scale</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Fitzpatrick scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fitzpatrick_scale" title="Fitzpatrick scale">Fitzpatrick scale</a></div> <p>The following list shows the six categories of the Fitzpatrick scale in relation to the 36 categories of the older <a href="/wiki/Von_Luschan%27s_chromatic_scale" title="Von Luschan's chromatic scale">von Luschan scale</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type</th> <th>Also called</th> <th>Sunburning</th> <th>Tanning behavior</th> <th>Von Luschan's chromatic scale </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>I</b></td> <td>Light, pale white</td> <td>Always</td> <td>Never</td> <td>0–6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>II</b></td> <td>White, fair</td> <td>Usually</td> <td>Minimally</td> <td>7–13 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>III</b></td> <td>Medium white to light brown</td> <td>Sometimes</td> <td>Uniformly</td> <td>14–20 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>IV</b></td> <td>Olive, moderate brown</td> <td>Rarely</td> <td>Easily</td> <td>21–27 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>V</b></td> <td>Brown, dark brown</td> <td>Very rarely</td> <td>Very easily</td> <td>28–34 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>VI</b></td> <td>Very dark brown to black</td> <td>Never</td> <td>Rarely</td> <td>35–36 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Dark skin with large concentrations of melanin protects against ultraviolet light and skin cancers; light-skinned people have about a tenfold greater risk of dying from skin cancer, compared with dark-skinned persons, under equal sunlight exposure. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Black_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Black light">UV-A</a> rays from sunlight are believed to interact with folic acid in ways that may damage health.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a number of traditional societies the sun was avoided as much as possible, especially around noon when the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight is at its most intense. Midday was a time when people stayed in the shade and had the main meal followed by a nap, a practice similar to the modern <a href="/wiki/Siesta" title="Siesta">siesta</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_variation">Geographic variation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Geographic variation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Approximately 10% of the variance in skin color occurs within regions, and approximately 90% occurs between regions.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because skin color has been under strong selective pressure, similar skin colors can result from convergent adaptation rather than from genetic relatedness; populations with similar pigmentation may be genetically no more similar than other widely separated groups. Furthermore, in some parts of the world where people from different regions have mixed extensively, the connection between skin color and ancestry has substantially weakened.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Brazil, for example, skin color is not closely associated with the percentage of recent African ancestors a person has, as estimated from an analysis of genetic variants differing in frequency among continent groups.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In general, people living close to the equator are highly darkly pigmented, and those living near the poles are generally very lightly pigmented. The rest of humanity shows a high degree of skin color variation between these two extremes, generally correlating with UV exposure. The main exception to this rule is in the New World, where people have only lived for about 10,000 to 15,000 years and show a less pronounced degree of skin pigmentation.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recent times, humans have become increasingly mobile as a consequence of improved technology, domestication, environmental change, strong curiosity, and risk-taking. Migrations over the last 4000 years, and especially the last 400 years, have been the fastest in human history and have led to many people settling in places far away from their ancestral homelands. This means that skin colors today are not as confined to geographical location as they were previously.<sup id="cite_ref-LivCol_9-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LivCol-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_status,_colorism_and_racism"><span id="Social_status.2C_colorism_and_racism"></span>Social status, colorism and racism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Social status, colorism and racism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination based on skin color">Discrimination based on skin color</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Felix_von_Luschan_Skin_Color_chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Felix_von_Luschan_Skin_Color_chart.svg/200px-Felix_von_Luschan_Skin_Color_chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Felix_von_Luschan_Skin_Color_chart.svg/300px-Felix_von_Luschan_Skin_Color_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Felix_von_Luschan_Skin_Color_chart.svg/400px-Felix_von_Luschan_Skin_Color_chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="346" /></a><figcaption>Skin colors according to <a href="/wiki/Von_Luschan%27s_chromatic_scale" title="Von Luschan's chromatic scale">von Luschan's chromatic scale</a></figcaption></figure> <p>According to classical scholar Frank Snowden, skin color did not determine <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a> in ancient <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. These ancient civilizations viewed relations between the major power and the subordinate state as more significant in a person's status than their skin colors.<sup id="cite_ref-Snowden1970_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snowden1970-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, some social groups favor specific skin coloring. The preferred skin tone varies by culture and has varied over time. A number of indigenous African groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Maasai_people" title="Maasai people">Maasai</a>, associated pale skin with being cursed or caused by evil spirits associated with witchcraft. They would abandon their children born with conditions such as albinism and showed a sexual preference for darker skin.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many cultures have historically favored lighter skin for women. Before the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, inhabitants of the continent of Europe preferred pale skin, which they interpreted as a sign of high social status. The poorer classes worked outdoors and got darker skin from exposure to the sun, while the upper class stayed indoors and had light skin. Hence light skin became associated with wealth and high position.<sup id="cite_ref-DrKarl_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DrKarl-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women would put lead-based cosmetics on their skin to whiten their skin tone artificially.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, when not strictly monitored, these cosmetics caused <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">lead poisoning</a>. Other methods also aimed at achieving a light-skinned appearance, including the use of <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> to whiten skin, and powders. Women would wear full-length clothes when outdoors, and would use gloves and parasols to provide shade from the sun. </p><p>Colonization and enslavement as carried out by European countries became involved with <a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination based on skin color">colorism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>, associated with the belief that people with dark skin were uncivilized, inferior, and should be subordinate to lighter-skinned invaders. This belief exists to an extent in modern times as well.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Institutionalized <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> in North America led people to perceive lighter-skinned African-Americans as more intelligent, cooperative, and beautiful.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such lighter-skinned individuals had a greater likelihood of working as <a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">house slaves</a> and of receiving preferential treatment from plantation owners and from overseers. For example, they had a chance to get an education.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The preference for fair skin remained prominent until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">racial stereotypes</a> about worth and beauty persisted in the last half of the 20th century and continue in the present day. African-American journalist <a href="/wiki/Jill_Nelson" title="Jill Nelson">Jill Nelson</a> wrote that, "To be both prettiest and black was impossible,"<sup id="cite_ref-tws6nov14_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws6nov14-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and elaborated: </p> <blockquote><p>We learn as girls that in ways both subtle and obvious, personal and political, our value as females is largely determined by how we look. ... For black women, the domination of physical aspects of beauty in women's definition and value render us invisible, partially erased, or obsessed, sometimes for a lifetime, since most of us lack the major talismans of Western beauty. Black women find themselves involved in a lifelong effort to self-define in a culture that provides them no positive reflection.<sup id="cite_ref-tws6nov14_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws6nov14-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A preference for fair or lighter skin continues in some countries, including Latin American countries where whites form a minority.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Brazil, a dark-skinned person is more likely to experience discrimination.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many actors and actresses in Latin America have European features—<a href="/wiki/Blond_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Blond hair">blond hair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blue_eyes" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue eyes">blue eyes</a>, and pale skin.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-skintone_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skintone-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A light-skinned person is more privileged and has a higher social status;<sup id="cite_ref-skintone_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skintone-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a person with light skin is considered more beautiful<sup id="cite_ref-skintone_138-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skintone-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and lighter skin suggests that the person has more wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-skintone_138-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skintone-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many languages popularly use specific words to describe distinct skin tones - from (for example) "<i>jincha</i>", Puerto Rican slang for "glass of milk" to "<i>morena</i>", literally "brown".<sup id="cite_ref-skintone_138-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skintone-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Significant exceptions to a preference for lighter skin started to appear in Western culture in the mid-20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Singer_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singer-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a 2010 study found a preference for lighter-skinned women in New Zealand and California.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though sun-tanned skin was once associated with the sun-exposed manual labor of the lower class, the associations became dramatically reversed during this time—a change usually credited to the trendsetting Frenchwoman <a href="/wiki/Coco_Chanel" title="Coco Chanel">Coco Chanel</a> (1883–1971) presenting tanned skin as fashionable, healthy, and luxurious.<sup id="cite_ref-Koskoff2007_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koskoff2007-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2017<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, though an overall preference for lighter skin remains prevalent in the United States, many within the country regard tanned skin as both more attractive and healthier than pale or very dark skin.<sup id="cite_ref-pediatrics.aappublications.org_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pediatrics.aappublications.org-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-interscience.wiley_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-interscience.wiley-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-interscience.wiley.com_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-interscience.wiley.com-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western mass media and popular culture continued<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2017)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> to reinforce negative stereotypes about dark skin,<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but in some circles pale skin has become associated with indoor office-work while tanned skin has become associated with increased leisure time, sportiness and good health that comes with wealth and higher social status.<sup id="cite_ref-DrKarl_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DrKarl-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have also emerged indicating that the degree of tanning is directly related to how attractive a young woman is.<sup id="cite_ref-Pp_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pp-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin_whitening">Skin whitening</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Skin whitening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Skin_whitening" title="Skin whitening">Skin whitening</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skin_Bleaching_is_everywhere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Skin_Bleaching_is_everywhere.jpg/180px-Skin_Bleaching_is_everywhere.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Skin_Bleaching_is_everywhere.jpg/270px-Skin_Bleaching_is_everywhere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Skin_Bleaching_is_everywhere.jpg/360px-Skin_Bleaching_is_everywhere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="1328" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Skin_whitening" title="Skin whitening">Skin lightening</a> soaps</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, society regards fair skin as more attractive and associates dark skin with lower class status. This results in a massive market for <a href="/wiki/Skin-whitening" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin-whitening">skin-whitening</a> creams.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fairer skin-tones also correlate to higher <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">caste-status</a> in the Hindu social order—although the system is not based on skin tone.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Actors and actresses in Indian cinema tend to have light skin tones, and Indian cinematographers have used graphics and intense lighting to achieve more "desirable" skin tones.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fair skin tones are advertised as an asset in Indian marketing.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2013, 77% of <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigerian</a> women, 52% of <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegalese</a> women, and 25% of <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Malian</a> women were using lightening products.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:21_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:21-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2020, <i><a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel_(website)" title="Der Spiegel (website)">Der Spiegel</a></i> reported that in Ghana, "When You Are Light-Skinned, You Earn More", and that "[s]ome pregnant women take tablets in the hopes that it will lead their child to be born with fair skin. Some apply bleaching lotion [...] to their babies, in the hopes that it will improve their child's chances."<sup id="cite_ref-BackhausOkunmwendia_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BackhausOkunmwendia-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Skin-whitening products have remained popular over time, often due to historical beliefs and perceptions about fair skin. Sales of skin-whitening products across the world grew from $40 billion to $43 billion in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-Northwestern_University_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Northwestern_University-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/South_Asian" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian">South</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a> countries, people have traditionally seen light skin as more attractive, and a preference for lighter skin remains prevalent. In ancient China and Japan, for example, pale skin can be traced back to ancient drawings depicting women and goddesses with fair skin tones.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In ancient China, Japan, and Southeast Asia, pale skin was seen as a sign of wealth. Thus skin-whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2010, four out of ten women surveyed in <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> used a skin-whitening cream, and more than 60 companies globally compete for Asia's estimated $18 billion market.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Changes in regulations in the cosmetic industry led to skin-care companies introducing harm-free skin lighteners. In <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Geisha" title="Geisha">geisha</a> have a reputation for their white-painted faces, and the appeal of the <i>bihaku</i><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">美白</span></span>)</span>, or "beautiful white", ideal leads many Japanese women to avoid any form of tanning.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are exceptions to this, with Japanese fashion trends such as <a href="/wiki/Ganguro" title="Ganguro">ganguro</a> emphasizing tanned skin. Skin whitening is also not uncommon in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and several research projects have suggested a general preference for lighter skin in the African-American community.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, one study on men of the Bikosso tribe in Cameroon found no preference for attractiveness of females based on lighter skin color, bringing into question the universality of earlier studies that had exclusively focused on skin-color preferences among non-African populations.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-textured_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-textured hair">Afro-textured hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_(heraldry)" title="Carnation (heraldry)">Carnation (heraldry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_terminology_for_race" title="Color terminology for race">Color terminology for race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_skin" title="Olive skin">Olive skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complexion" title="Complexion">Complexion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_color" title="Eye color">Eye color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_sun_exposure" class="mw-redirect" title="Health effects of sun exposure">Health effects of sun exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_hair_color" title="Human hair color">Human hair color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_physical_appearance" title="Human physical appearance">Human physical appearance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Human skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_classification)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (human classification)">Race (human classification)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-jabl1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jabl1_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 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Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25153-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25153-3"><bdi>978-0-520-25153-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Color&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Los+Angeles%2C+London&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25153-3&rft.aulast=Jablonski&rft.aufirst=Nina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid20445093-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid20445093_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid20445093_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJablonskiChaplin2010" class="citation journal cs1">Jablonski, N. G.; Chaplin, G. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3024016">"Colloquium Paper: Human skin pigmentation as an adaptation to UV radiation"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>107</b> (Suppl 2): 8962–8. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..107.8962J">2010PNAS..107.8962J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0914628107">10.1073/pnas.0914628107</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3024016">3024016</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445093">20445093</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Colloquium+Paper%3A+Human+skin+pigmentation+as+an+adaptation+to+UV+radiation&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=Suppl+2&rft.pages=8962-8&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3024016%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20445093&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0914628107&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..107.8962J&rft.aulast=Jablonski&rft.aufirst=N.+G.&rft.au=Chaplin%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3024016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frost_2007_pp._779–780-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frost_2007_pp._779–780_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frost_2007_pp._779–780_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frost_2007_pp._779–780_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost2007" class="citation journal cs1">Frost, Peter (2007). "Human skin‐color sexual dimorphism: A test of the sexual selection hypothesis". <i>American Journal of Physical Anthropology</i>. <b>133</b> (1): 779–780. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.20555">10.1002/ajpa.20555</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9483">0002-9483</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Human+skin%E2%80%90color+sexual+dimorphism%3A+A+test+of+the+sexual+selection+hypothesis&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=779-780&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.20555&rft.issn=0002-9483&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span> p.779: "It is perhaps significant that this sex difference seems to disappear or even reverse itself when skin reflectance is close to the physiological maximum, notably in Dutch and Belgian subjects (Leguebe, 1961; van Rijn-Tournel, 1966; Rigters-Aris, 1973)...Even after adolescence, age-related noise continues to muddy the data. Human skin may change more slowly during adulthood, but it does change. In particular, there is some evidence that skin color becomes less sexually dimorphic after 40, with some papers finding that women become nonsignificantly darker than men (Chamla and De´moulin, 1978; Mori and Tokuhashi, 1956; Rigters-Aris, 1973)."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scie_Rese-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scie_Rese_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scie_Rese_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scie_Rese_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/07/160721072753.htm">"Researchers discover genetic causes of higher melanoma risk in men"</a>. <i>ScienceDaily</i>. 21 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScienceDaily&rft.atitle=Researchers+discover+genetic+causes+of+higher+melanoma+risk+in+men&rft.date=2016-07-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2016%2F07%2F160721072753.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span> "Meanwhile, several studies have shown that female hormones promote the production of melanin, the pigment that protects the skin from the sun. Indeed, "estrogen could be the reason why women have a darker skin tone, even when the genotypes of both sexes are the same, meaning that their risk of skin cancer is lower. So much so that skin cancer is much more prevalent in men," explains Bárbara Hernando, fellow researcher at the Melanogen research group and coauthor of the study."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jablonski2000-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jablonski2000_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jablonski2000_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jablonski2000_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jablonski2000_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJablonskiChaplin2000" class="citation journal cs1">Jablonski, Nina; Chaplin, George (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150105164235/http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/chem/faculty/leontis/chem447/PDF_files/Jablonski_skin_color_2000.pdf">"The evolution of human skin coloration"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Human Evolution</i>. <b>39</b> (1): 57–106. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjhev.2000.0403">10.1006/jhev.2000.0403</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10896812">10896812</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/chem/faculty/leontis/chem447/PDF_files/Jablonski_skin_color_2000.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on January 5, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Human+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+human+skin+coloration&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=57-106&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fjhev.2000.0403&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10896812&rft.aulast=Jablonski&rft.aufirst=Nina&rft.au=Chaplin%2C+George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bgsu.edu%2Fdepartments%2Fchem%2Ffaculty%2Fleontis%2Fchem447%2FPDF_files%2FJablonski_skin_color_2000.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturm2006" class="citation journal cs1">Sturm, R. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galsatia.files.wordpress.com/2007/04/blanche_paleur.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2010-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-01-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=European+Skin+Turned+Pale+Only+Recently%2C+Gene+Suggests&rft.volume=316&rft.issue=5823&rft.pages=364a&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43290419%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17446367&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.316.5823.364a&rft.aulast=Gibbons&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalsatia.files.wordpress.com%2F2007%2F04%2Fblanche_paleur.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span> "a suggestion made 30 years ago by Stanford University geneticist L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza … that the early immigrants to Europe … survived on ready-made sources of vitamin D in their diet. But when farming spread in the past 6,000 years, he argued, Europeans had fewer sources of vitamin D in their food and needed to absorb more sunlight to produce the vitamin in their skin."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTellier2009" class="citation book cs1">Tellier, Luc-Normand (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=PA26"><i>Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective</i></a>. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7605-1588-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7605-1588-8"><bdi>978-2-7605-1588-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urban+world+history%3A+an+economic+and+geographical+perspective&rft.pages=26&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-2-7605-1588-8&rft.aulast=Tellier&rft.aufirst=Luc-Normand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcXuCjDbxC1YC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPosthYuGhalichiRougier2023" class="citation journal cs1">Posth, Cosimo; Yu, He; Ghalichi, Ayshin; Rougier, Hélène; Crevecoeur, Isabelle; Huang, Yilei; Ringbauer, Harald; Rohrlach, Adam B.; Nägele, Kathrin; Villalba-Mouco, Vanessa; Radzeviciute, Rita; Ferraz, Tiago; Stoessel, Alexander; Tukhbatova, Rezeda; Drucker, Dorothée G. (2023-03-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05726-0">"Palaeogenomics of Upper Palaeolithic to Neolithic European hunter-gatherers"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>615</b> (7950): 117–126. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-023-05726-0">10.1038/s41586-023-05726-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9977688">9977688</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36859578">36859578</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Palaeogenomics+of+Upper+Palaeolithic+to+Neolithic+European+hunter-gatherers&rft.volume=615&rft.issue=7950&rft.pages=117-126&rft.date=2023-03-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9977688%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36859578&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-023-05726-0&rft.aulast=Posth&rft.aufirst=Cosimo&rft.au=Yu%2C+He&rft.au=Ghalichi%2C+Ayshin&rft.au=Rougier%2C+H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne&rft.au=Crevecoeur%2C+Isabelle&rft.au=Huang%2C+Yilei&rft.au=Ringbauer%2C+Harald&rft.au=Rohrlach%2C+Adam+B.&rft.au=N%C3%A4gele%2C+Kathrin&rft.au=Villalba-Mouco%2C+Vanessa&rft.au=Radzeviciute%2C+Rita&rft.au=Ferraz%2C+Tiago&rft.au=Stoessel%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Tukhbatova%2C+Rezeda&rft.au=Drucker%2C+Doroth%C3%A9e+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41586-023-05726-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brace-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brace_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraceDiekmannBoothFaltyskova2019" class="citation cs2">Brace, Selina; Diekmann, Yoan; Booth, Thomas J.; Faltyskova, Zuzana; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Ferry, Matthew; Michel, Megan; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Stewardson, Kristin; Walsh, Susan; Kayser, Manfred; Schulting, Rick; Craig, Oliver E.; Sheridan, Alison; Pearson, Mike Parker; Stringer, Chris; Reich, David; Thomas, Mark G.; Barnes, Ian (2019), "Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain", <i>Nature Ecology & Evolution</i>, <b>3</b> (5): 765–771, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatEE...3..765B">2019NatEE...3..765B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41559-019-0871-9">10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6520225">6520225</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30988490">30988490</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Ancient+genomes+indicate+population+replacement+in+Early+Neolithic+Britain&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=765-771&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6520225%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30988490&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41559-019-0871-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019NatEE...3..765B&rft.aulast=Brace&rft.aufirst=Selina&rft.au=Diekmann%2C+Yoan&rft.au=Booth%2C+Thomas+J.&rft.au=Faltyskova%2C+Zuzana&rft.au=Rohland%2C+Nadin&rft.au=Mallick%2C+Swapan&rft.au=Ferry%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Michel%2C+Megan&rft.au=Oppenheimer%2C+Jonas&rft.au=Broomandkhoshbacht%2C+Nasreen&rft.au=Stewardson%2C+Kristin&rft.au=Walsh%2C+Susan&rft.au=Kayser%2C+Manfred&rft.au=Schulting%2C+Rick&rft.au=Craig%2C+Oliver+E.&rft.au=Sheridan%2C+Alison&rft.au=Pearson%2C+Mike+Parker&rft.au=Stringer%2C+Chris&rft.au=Reich%2C+David&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Mark+G.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6520225/bin/EMS82120-supplement-1.pdf">Supplementary Material</a> (p.18-19): "This individual has light or blue/green eye colour, it is not light blue, there are elements of brown/yellow in the eye to give a proposed perceived green colour. Better coverage at the low sequenced marker would clarify this but blue/hazel cannot be ruled out. It is certainly not a brown eyed or clear blue-eyed individual... Skin pigmentation [assumptions about missing information omitted] The following range for skin pigmentation prediction is possible for this individual with these parameters:... Intermediate 0.152 - 0.038 Dark-Black 0.848 - 0.962 Final prediction: Dark/Dark-to-Black skin If we omit the three missing alleles, our tool produces 0.752 and 0.248 probabilities for the intermediate and dark-black category respectively, changing the prediction ranges to 0.752- 0.038 and 0.248-0.962. However, note that this completely removes the locus from the prediction model; hence the prediction will not perform optimally (how the prediction model was made). It is therefore best to have some allele present to infer the most probable range for Cheddar Man and we derive the ranges above from the extreme allele constellations only. Explanation: The missing loci certainly impact on this prediction; however, utilizing the input of all ancestral alleles is the preferred option over the use of the derived alleles at these loci – hence 0.152 for intermediate and 0.848 for Dark-to-Black would be the most probable profile. That being said a broad range is present in both the intermediate and dark-black categories due to the missing loci. Also, this effect of skipping a skin pigmentation prediction category with regards probability values, tends to be observed more often in admixed individuals. What is important to note is the input of the dark-black prediction is significant on the intermediate category and therefore it is acceptable to propose a dark complexion individual over an intermediate/light prediction even though the intermediate range is present. It is unlikely that this individual has the darkest possible pigmentation, but it cannot be ruled out. Better sequencing coverage would clarify to what degree this individual has a dark complexion."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález-FortesJonesLightfootBonsall2017" class="citation journal cs1">González-Fortes, Gloria; Jones, Eppie R.; Lightfoot, Emma; Bonsall, Clive; Lazar, Catalin; Grandal-d’Anglade, Aurora; Garralda, María Dolores; Drak, Labib; Siska, Veronika; Simalcsik, Angela; Boroneanţ, Adina; Vidal Romaní, Juan Ramón; Vaqueiro Rodríguez, Marcos; Arias, Pablo; Pinhasi, Ron (June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982217305596">"Paleogenomic Evidence for Multi-generational Mixing between Neolithic Farmers and Mesolithic Hunter-Gatherers in the Lower Danube Basin"</a>. <i>Current Biology</i>. <b>27</b> (12): 1801–1810.e10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2017.05.023">10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.023</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5483232">5483232</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28552360">28552360</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Paleogenomic+Evidence+for+Multi-generational+Mixing+between+Neolithic+Farmers+and+Mesolithic+Hunter-Gatherers+in+the+Lower+Danube+Basin&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1801-1810.e10&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5483232%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28552360&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2017.05.023&rft.aulast=Gonz%C3%A1lez-Fortes&rft.aufirst=Gloria&rft.au=Jones%2C+Eppie+R.&rft.au=Lightfoot%2C+Emma&rft.au=Bonsall%2C+Clive&rft.au=Lazar%2C+Catalin&rft.au=Grandal-d%E2%80%99Anglade%2C+Aurora&rft.au=Garralda%2C+Mar%C3%ADa+Dolores&rft.au=Drak%2C+Labib&rft.au=Siska%2C+Veronika&rft.au=Simalcsik%2C+Angela&rft.au=Boronean%C5%A3%2C+Adina&rft.au=Vidal+Roman%C3%AD%2C+Juan+Ram%C3%B3n&rft.au=Vaqueiro+Rodr%C3%ADguez%2C+Marcos&rft.au=Arias%2C+Pablo&rft.au=Pinhasi%2C+Ron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982217305596&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuMathieson2021" class="citation journal cs1">Ju, Dan; 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-06</span></span>. <q>As a girl and young woman, hair, body, and color were society's trinity in determining female beauty and identity... We learn as girls that in ways both subtle and obvious, personal and political, our value as females is largely determined by how we look.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Straight%2C+No+Chaser%E2%80%94How+I+Became+a+Grown-Up+Black+Woman%E2%80%94+WHO%27S+THE+FAIREST+OF+THEM+ALL%3F&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Jill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcomminfo.rutgers.edu%2Fprofessional-development%2Fchildlit%2Fbooks%2FStraight.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.post-gazette.com/lifestyle/2006/12/26/Documentary-studies-renew-debate-about-skin-color-s-impact/stories/200612260092">"Documentary, Studies Renew Debate About Skin Color's Impact"</a>. <i>Pittsburgh Post-Gazette</i>. 2006-12-26. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140130034050/http://www.post-gazette.com/lifestyle/2006/12/26/Documentary-studies-renew-debate-about-skin-color-s-impact/stories/200612260092">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-01-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-03-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Miami+Herald&rft.atitle=Racism+Takes+Many+Hues&rft.date=2007-08-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.miamiherald.com%2Fmultimedia%2Fnews%2Fafrolatin%2Fpart5%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuinonez2003" class="citation news cs1">Quinonez, Ernesto (2003-06-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/id/58525?tid=relatedcl">"Y Tu Black Mama Tambien"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081027210105/http://www.newsweek.com/id/58525?tid=relatedcl">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-10-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Latinola.com. 2010-10-24. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170902161618/http://latinola.com/story.php?story=9009">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-09-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blonde%2C+Blue-Eyed+Euro-Cute+Latinos+on+Spanish+TV&rft.pub=Latinola.com&rft.date=2010-10-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flatinola.com%2Fstory.php%3Fstory%3D9009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vidadeoro.com/2010/10/latinos-not-reflected-on-spanish-tv.html">"Latinos Not Reflected on Spanish TV"</a>. 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Bellaonline.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170622150848/http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art40221.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-06-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+are+Telenovelas%3F%E2%80%94Hispanic+Culture&rft.pub=Bellaonline.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bellaonline.com%2Farticles%2Fart40221.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFletcher2000" class="citation web cs1">Fletcher, Michael A. (2000-08-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110913041543/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2000-08-06/news/0008060066_1_spanish-latino-leaders-caste">"Racial Bias Charged On Spanish-Language TV"</a>. <i>Sun-Sentinel</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2000-08-06/news/0008060066_1_spanish-latino-leaders-caste">the original</a> on 2011-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sun-Sentinel&rft.atitle=Racial+Bias+Charged+On+Spanish-Language+TV&rft.date=2000-08-06&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.sun-sentinel.com%2F2000-08-06%2Fnews%2F0008060066_1_spanish-latino-leaders-caste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackelectorate.com/articles.asp?ID=281">"Black Electorate"</a>. Black Electorate. 2 January 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170620174141/http://www.blackelectorate.com/articles.asp?ID=281">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Black+Electorate&rft.pub=Black+Electorate&rft.date=2001-01-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackelectorate.com%2Farticles.asp%3FID%3D281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-skintone-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-skintone_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skintone_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skintone_138-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skintone_138-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skintone_138-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2004" class="citation news cs1">Jones, Vanessa E. (2004-08-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/08/19/pride_or_prejudice/?page=2">"Pride or Prejudice?"</a>. <i>Boston Globe</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110512042101/http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/08/19/pride_or_prejudice/?page=2">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-05-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-03-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+Globe&rft.atitle=Pride+or+Prejudice%3F&rft.date=2004-08-19&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Vanessa+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fnews%2Fglobe%2Fliving%2Farticles%2F2004%2F08%2F19%2Fpride_or_prejudice%2F%3Fpage%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Singer-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Singer_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingerBeyer2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Merrill_Singer" title="Merrill Singer">Singer, Merrill</a>; Beyer, Hans (28 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=64xpa-rhHLgC&q=sun+tan+lower+class&pg=PA151"><i>Killer Commodities: Public Health and the Corporate Production of Harm</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/AltaMira_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="AltaMira Press">AltaMira Press</a>. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0979-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0979-7"><bdi>978-0-7591-0979-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-11</span></span>. <q>Harris investigated the history of the parasol... everywhere ordinary people were forbidden to protect themselves with such devices "pallid skin became a marker of upper-class status". At the beginning of the 20th Century, in the United States, lighter-skinned people avoided the sun... Tanned skin was considered lower class.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Killer+Commodities%3A+Public+Health+and+the+Corporate+Production+of+Harm&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2008-07-28&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-0979-7&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Merrill&rft.au=Beyer%2C+Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D64xpa-rhHLgC%26q%3Dsun%2Btan%2Blower%2Bclass%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixsonDixsonBishopParish2010" class="citation journal cs1">Dixson, Barnaby J.; Dixson, Alan F.; Bishop, Phil J.; Parish, Amy (June 2010). "Human Physique and Sexual Attractiveness in Men and Women: A New Zealand–U.S. Comparative Study". <i>Archives of Sexual Behavior</i>. <b>39</b> (3): 798–806. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10508-008-9441-y">10.1007/s10508-008-9441-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19139985">19139985</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33112678">33112678</a>. <q>men expressed preferences for lighter skinned female figures in New Zealand and California</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Sexual+Behavior&rft.atitle=Human+Physique+and+Sexual+Attractiveness+in+Men+and+Women%3A+A+New+Zealand%E2%80%93U.S.+Comparative+Study&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=798-806&rft.date=2010-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33112678%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19139985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10508-008-9441-y&rft.aulast=Dixson&rft.aufirst=Barnaby+J.&rft.au=Dixson%2C+Alan+F.&rft.au=Bishop%2C+Phil+J.&rft.au=Parish%2C+Amy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koskoff2007-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Koskoff2007_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoskoff2007" class="citation book cs1">Koskoff, Sharon (28 May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RHdeo6uvlfYC&q=%22Coco%20Chanel%22%20%22Josephine%20Baker%22%20tan&pg=PA2"><i>Art Deco of the Palm Beaches</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Arcadia_Publishing" title="Arcadia Publishing">Arcadia Publishing</a>. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-4415-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-4415-1"><bdi>978-0-7385-4415-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-11</span></span>. <q>In 1920s France, the caramel-skinned entertainer Josephine Baker became a Parisian idol. Concurrently, fashion designer Coco Chanel was "bronzed" while cruising on a yacht. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-09-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=In+India%27s+Huge+Marketplace%2C+Advertisers+Find+Fair+Skin+Sells&rft.date=2008-01-27&rft.aulast=Lakshmi&rft.aufirst=Rama&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2008%2F01%2F26%2FAR2008012601057.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:20-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:20_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFihlani2013" class="citation news cs1">Fihlani, Pumza (January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-20444798">"Africa: Where black is not really beautiful"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Africa%3A+Where+black+is+not+really+beautiful&rft.date=2013-01&rft.aulast=Fihlani&rft.aufirst=Pumza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-20444798&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:21-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:21_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsLevineAbneyDavids2016" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobs, Meagan; Levine, Susan; Abney, Kate; Davids, Lester (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5345401">"Fifty shades of African lightness: A bio-psychosocial review of the global phenomenon of skin lightening practices"</a>. <i>Journal of Public Health in Africa</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 552. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4081%2Fjphia.2016.552">10.4081/jphia.2016.552</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5345401">5345401</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28299156">28299156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Public+Health+in+Africa&rft.atitle=Fifty+shades+of+African+lightness%3A+A+bio-psychosocial+review+of+the+global+phenomenon+of+skin+lightening+practices&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=552&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5345401%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28299156&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4081%2Fjphia.2016.552&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Meagan&rft.au=Levine%2C+Susan&rft.au=Abney%2C+Kate&rft.au=Davids%2C+Lester&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5345401&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BackhausOkunmwendia-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BackhausOkunmwendia_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackhausOkunmwendia2020" class="citation web cs1">Backhaus, Anne; Okunmwendia, Ella (2020-06-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/skin-bleaching-in-ghana-when-you-are-light-skinned-you-earn-more-a-3a46c628-23b2-4d05-9d32-6cb6deeb4a5a-amp">"Skin Bleaching in Ghana: "When You Are Light-Skinned, You Earn More"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. 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Northwestern University. 2010-03-10. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/chicago/news.aspx?id=161243">the original</a> on July 20, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved 2011-02-27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMowbray2004" class="citation news cs1">Mowbray, Nicole (4 April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/japan/story/0,7369,1185335,00.html">"Japanese girls choose whiter shade of pale"</a>. <i>Guardian Unlimited</i>. London<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-03-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=The+Heavy+Cost+of+Light+Skin&rft.date=2000-04-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fafrica%2F718359.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2004/march/skinlightening.htm">"Mirror mirror on the wall, who is the FAIREST of them all?" Skin lightening</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100910013826/http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2004/march/skinlightening.htm">Archived</a> 2010-09-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Scienceinafrica.co.za. Retrieved 2011-02-27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/1G1-143164170/color-counts-it-is-evident-that-differing-color">Color Counts: "... it is evident that differing color holds considerable importance within the black community and is measurably influencing self-esteem, prestige, and marital status." |USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140330120654/http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-143164170/color-counts-it-is-evident-that-differing-color">Archived</a> 2014-03-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2012-09-25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixsonDixsonMorganAnderson2006" class="citation journal cs1">Dixson, Barnaby J.; Dixson, Alan F.; Morgan, Bethan; Anderson, Matthew J. (2006). 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(2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F80.6.1678S">"Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease"</a>. <i>The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</i>. <b>80</b> (6 Suppl): 1678S–88S. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F80.6.1678S">10.1093/ajcn/80.6.1678S</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15585788">15585788</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Clinical+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Sunlight+and+vitamin+D+for+bone+health+and+prevention+of+autoimmune+diseases%2C+cancers%2C+and+cardiovascular+disease&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=6+Suppl&rft.pages=1678S-88S&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fajcn%2F80.6.1678S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15585788&rft.aulast=Holick&rft.aufirst=Michael+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fajcn%252F80.6.1678S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJablonski2014" class="citation book cs1">Jablonski, Nina G. 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"Human skin color diversity is highest in sub-Saharan African populations". <i>Human Biology; an International Record of Research</i>. <b>72</b> (5): 773–80. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11126724">11126724</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Biology%3B+an+International+Record+of+Research&rft.atitle=Human+skin+color+diversity+is+highest+in+sub-Saharan+African+populations&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=773-80&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11126724&rft.aulast=Relethford&rft.aufirst=JH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobins1991" class="citation book cs1">Robins, AH (1991). <i>Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36514-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36514-7"><bdi>0-521-36514-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biological+Perspectives+on+Human+Pigmentation&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-521-36514-7&rft.aulast=Robins&rft.aufirst=AH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2003" class="citation news cs1">Wade, Nicholas (August 19, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/19/science/why-humans-and-their-fur-parted-ways.html">"Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Ways"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. p. F1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Why+Humans+and+Their+Fur+Parted+Ways&rft.pages=F1&rft.date=2003-08-19&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2003%2F08%2F19%2Fscience%2Fwhy-humans-and-their-fur-parted-ways.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span> Summary of clues to the saga in which humans evolved to lose their hair and had to adjust, including turning from light skin to dark skin, together with an estimation of the time when humans invented clothing.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaltersRoberts2008" class="citation book cs1">Walters, KA; Roberts, MS (2008). <i>Dermatologic, Cosmeceutic, and Cosmetic Development: Therapeutic and Novel Approaches</i>. New York: Informa Healthcare. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-7589-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-7589-7"><bdi>978-0-8493-7589-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dermatologic%2C+Cosmeceutic%2C+and+Cosmetic+Development%3A+Therapeutic+and+Novel+Approaches&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Informa+Healthcare&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-7589-7&rft.aulast=Walters&rft.aufirst=KA&rft.au=Roberts%2C+MS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeller_et_al2008" class="citation book cs1">Weller, R; Hunter, J; Savin, J; Dahl, M (2008). <i>Clinical Dermatology</i> (4th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. p. 268. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4663-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4663-0"><bdi>978-1-4051-4663-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clinical+Dermatology&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pages=268&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-4663-0&rft.aulast=Weller&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Hunter%2C+J&rft.au=Savin%2C+J&rft.au=Dahl%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin+color" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin_color&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_skin_color" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human skin color">Human skin color</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4531966.stm">"Key gene 'controls skin colour<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. SLC24A5 gene controls up to 38% of the tonal range in people with mixed European and West African ancestry</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/07/3/text_pop/l_073_04.html">"The Biology of Skin Color: Black and White"</a>—PBS</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFw8mMzH5YA">"The Biology of Skin Color — HHMI BioInteractive Video"</a>—<a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_evolution" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_evolution" title="Template talk:Human evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_evolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_taxonomy" title="Human taxonomy">Taxonomy</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominins</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">Last common ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangutan%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Orangutan–human last common ancestor">Orangutan–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gibbon–human last common ancestor">Gibbon–human</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">Australopithecines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenyanthropus" title="Kenyanthropus">Kenyanthropus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">A. kadabba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">A. ramidus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">A. afarensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">A. africanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">A. anamensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_bahrelghazali" title="Australopithecus bahrelghazali">A. bahrelghazali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_deyiremeda" title="Australopithecus deyiremeda">A. deyiremeda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">A. garhi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">A. sediba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_aethiopicus" title="Paranthropus aethiopicus">P. aethiopicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_boisei" title="Paranthropus boisei">P. boisei</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus">P. robustus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Humans and<br />proto-humans<br />(<i>Homo</i>)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Proto-humans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_gautengensis" title="Homo gautengensis">H. gautengensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_naledi" title="Homo naledi">H. naledi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Penghu_1" title="Penghu 1">H. tsaichangensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Java_Man" title="Java Man">H. e. erectus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dmanisi_hominins" title="Dmanisi hominins">H. e. georgicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lantian_Man" title="Lantian Man">H. e. lantianensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Man" title="Nanjing Man">H. e. nankinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">H. e. pekinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solo_Man" title="Solo Man">H. e. soloensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tautavel_Man" title="Tautavel Man">H. e. tautavelensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuanmou_Man" title="Yuanmou Man">H. e. yuanmouensis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" title="Archaic humans">Archaic humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">H. floresiensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_longi" title="Homo longi">H. longi</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">H. luzonensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">H. neanderthalensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rhodesiensis" title="Homo rhodesiensis">H. rhodesiensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Homo_sapiens" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_human" title="Early modern human"><i>H. s. sapiens</i> (archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herto_Man" title="Herto Man">H. s. idaltu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cro-Magnon" title="Cro-Magnon">Cro-Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manot_1" title="Manot 1">Manot people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tam_Pa_Ling_Cave" title="Tam Pa Ling Cave">Tam Pa Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Deer_Cave_people" title="Red Deer Cave people">Red Deer Cave people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> (→ <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">Homo antecessor</a></i>)<sup>?</sup> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i> → <i>archaic Homo sapiens</i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_hypothesis" title="Gathering hypothesis">Gathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">Endurance running</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-domestication#In_humans" title="Self-domestication">Self-domestication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Diet <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans#The_cooking_hypothesis" title="Control of fire by early humans">Cooking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis" title="Expensive tissue hypothesis">Expensive tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis#Diet" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Shore-based</a></li></ul></li> <li>Drugs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drunken_monkey_hypothesis" title="Drunken monkey hypothesis">Drunken monkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_models_of_human_drug_use" title="Evolutionary models of human drug use">Evolutionary models of human drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoned_ape_theory" title="Stoned ape theory">Stoned ape theory</a></li></ul></li> <li>Behavior <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killer_ape_theory" title="Killer ape theory">Killer ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_eye_hypothesis" title="Cooperative eye hypothesis">Cooperative eye</a></li></ul></li> <li>Life history <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grandmother_hypothesis" title="Grandmother hypothesis">Grandmother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarch_hypothesis" title="Patriarch hypothesis">Patriarch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bipedalism_in_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of bipedalism in humans">Bipedalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Skeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_evolution_in_humans" title="Muscular evolution in humans">Muscles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of skin color">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans" title="Cold and heat adaptations in humans">Thermoregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour#Hypotheses_for_the_evolutionary_origins_of_SDL" title="Sexual division of labour">Gender roles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of modern humans">Origin of modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">Recent African origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">Multiregional origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interbreeding_between_archaic_and_modern_humans" title="Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans">Archaic admixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">Early migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Human prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline">Human timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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[\"CITEREFBroadstockBorlandGason2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrunerMantiniMussoDe_La_Cuétara2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCandilleAbsherBelezaBauchet2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCostinHearing2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrawford2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrawfordKellyHansenBeltrame2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeng2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDengXu2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixsonDixsonBishopParish2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixsonDixsonMorganAnderson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonnellyPaschouGrigorenkoGurwitz2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwardsBighamTanLi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEliasMenonWetzelWilliams2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEliasMenonWetzelWilliams2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFihlani2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzpatrick2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFletcher2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFrost2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGellerColditzOliveriaEmmons2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbons2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbons2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGina\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGingerAskewOgborneWilson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGonzález-FortesJonesLightfootBonsall2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreaves2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalderChappell2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardingHealyRayEllis2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarding_et_al2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerriesMartinLeeceAdams2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolick2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuang2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFItoWakamatsu2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonski2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonski2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonski2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonski2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonski2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonski2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonskiChaplin2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJablonskiChaplin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonskiChaplin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonskiChaplin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacobsLevineAbneyDavids2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuMathieson2021\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJuzenieneSetlowPorojnicuSteindal2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoskoff2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKovacs2008\"] = 1,\n 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[\"CITEREFOlaldeAllentoftSánchez-QuintoSantpere2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParraAmadoLambertucciRocha2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParraKittlesShriver2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPickrellCoopNovembreKudaravalli2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPosthYuGhalichiRougier2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuinonez2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReesFlanagan1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRelethford2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRelethford2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobins1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRocha2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogersIltisWooding2004a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogersIltisWooding2004b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuxtonWilkinson2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSaxena2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchneider2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShiLuLuoXiang-Yu2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShriverParraDiosBonilla2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSidner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingerBeyer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnowden1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoaresErminiThomsonMormina2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoejimaKoda2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoejimaTachidaIshidaSano2006\"] = 1,\n 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end\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Human Evolution\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Nihongo\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-pc\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Skin colors\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 16,\n [\"When\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","340","23.9"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","280","19.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","11.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","7.0"],["type","80","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","40","2.8"],["recursiveClone 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